qtr_02 09 A quarterly publication boeing.com/commercial/ aeromagazine

Material Management: Providing Customer Solutions

777 Freighter: Greater Efficiency for Long-Haul Operators

Landing Gear Program Provides Overhaul Alternative

Exceeding Tire Speed Rating During Takeoff

Contribution of Flight Systems to Performance-Based Navigation AERO Cover photo: 777 in factory AERO Contents

03 Material Management: Providing Customer Solutions Our services are designed to help airlines operate more efficiently while reducing costs.

05 777 Freighter: Greater Efficiency for Long-Haul Operators The Boeing 777 Freighter is an efficient, long-range, high-capacity freighter offering the advanced features of the 05 777 family. 11 Landing Gear Program Provides Overhaul Alternative Boeing’s overhaul and exchange program offers operators additional options for 11 servicing landing gear.

15 Exceeding Tire Speed Rating During Takeoff Boeing offers guidance to help prevent 15 tire overspeed events during takeoff. 21 Contribution of Flight Systems to Performance-Based Navigation The evolution of flight management systems has led the way for performance- based navigation and the Next Generation 21 Air Transportation System.

01 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Issue 34_Quarter 02 | 2009 AERO

Publisher Design Cover photography Editorial Board Shannon Frew Methodologie Jeff Corwin Gary Bartz, Frank Billand, Richard Breuhaus, Darrell Hokuf, Al John, Doug Lane, Jill Langer, Mick Pegg, Wade Price, Bob Rakestraw, Editorial director Writer Printer Frank Santoni, Jerome Schmelzer, Paul Victor, Constantin Zadorojny Jill Langer Jeff Fraga ColorGraphics Technical Review Committee Editor-in-chief Distribution manager Web site design Gary Bartz, Frank Billand, Richard Breuhaus, David Carbaugh, Jim Lombardo Nanci Moultrie Methodologie Justin Hale, Darrell Hokuf, Al John, Doug Lane, Jill Langer, David Palmer, Mick Pegg, Wade Price, Jerome Schmelzer, William Tsai, Paul Victor, Constantin Zadorojny

AERO Online www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine

AERO magazine is published quarterly by Boeing Commercial Airplanes and is Information published in AERO magazine is intended to be accurate and authoritative. distributed at no cost to operators of Boeing commercial airplanes. AERO provides However, no material should be considered regulatory-approved unless specifically stated. operators with supplemental technical information to promote continuous safety Airline personnel are advised that their company’s policy may differ from or conflict with and efficiency in their daily fleet operations. information in this publication. Customer airlines may republish articles from AERO without permission if for distribution only within their own organizations. They thereby The Boeing Company supports operators during the life of each Boeing commercial assume responsibility for the current accuracy of the republished material. All others airplane. Support includes stationing Field Service representatives in more than must obtain written permission from Boeing before reprinting any AERO article. 60 countries, furnishing spare parts and engineering support, training flight crews and maintenance personnel, and providing operations and maintenance publications. Print copies of AERO are not available by subscription, but the publication may be viewed on the Web at www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine. Boeing continually communicates with operators through such vehicles as technical meetings, service letters, and service bulletins. This assists operators in addressing Please send address changes to [email protected]. Please send all other regulatory requirements and Air Transport Association specifications. communications to AERO Magazine, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, P.O. Box 3707, MC 21-72, Seattle, Washington, 98124‑2207, USA. Copyright © 2009 The Boeing Company E-mail: [email protected]

AERO is printed on Forest Stewardship Council Certified paper containing 10% post-consumer waste.

02 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Material Management: Providing Customer Solutions

those needs — are what Boeing’s Material to airworthy condition, upgrade it to reflect Management organization is all about. We the latest design changes, and return it are absolutely committed to delivering the to the exchange inventory pool. very best support. Yes, we are in business Our Landing Gear Program offers you to sell parts (500,000 different types) and a “rotable” program as a repair option. repair services, but more importantly we’re You can exchange unserviceable or time- in business to ensure that operators of expired landing gears for overhauled or Boeing airplanes get solutions from us restored product from a pool of inventory. that help them run a safe, efficient, and After being placed in the pool, your landing reliable operation. gear undergoes repair and is then placed All of our services are designed to create back in the pool for other customer solutions to help you maximize the value of exchanges. You can read more about this your fleet by operating more efficiently while program on page 11 of this issue. reducing costs to your bottom line (http:// We face many challenges every day boeing.com/commercial/spares/index. delivering the service and support that you Dae l Wilkinson html). Our Material Management Services deserve and expect — just as you face chal­ Vice President, Material Management include Integrated Materials Management, lenges doing the same for your customers. Boeing Commercial Aviation Services a next-generation supply chain service in But we never stop working an issue until which you can transition materials manage­ your airplane is back in service. We proudly ment responsibility to Boeing, who then process more than 4,000 shipments to Before joining Boeing last year as vice manages the consolidated supply chain. customers every day. Our team knows president of Material Management, This offers a better service level for parts that every box leaving one of our eight I worked in the airline business for more and more reliability to maintenance oper­ world­wide distribution centers means a than 27 years. I was directly involved in ations. You pay for parts when issued customer’s need for parts is being satisfied. purchas­ing materials and repair services for to maintenance or on a flight-by-hour Whenever you have a need for parts airplanes, engines, and components. During basis. Integrated Materials Management or services, please contact us and we that time, I experienced the very best in also provides a method to measure and will work together on a Boeing genuine customer service and product support. share benefits among airlines, suppliers, parts solution that works. We appreciate I also experienced the worst. I know first­ and Boeing. your business. Thank you for operating hand how important it is to get the right We also offer a Component Services Boeing airplanes. part at the right time and at the right price. Program in which you can receive a Understanding the specific needs of replacement part within one day of placing each individual customer — and doing an order. Boeing, or its partners Air France everything reasonably possible to meet Industries or KLM, restore your faulty unit

03 WWW.oe b ing.com/commercial/aeromagazine By providing more capacity than any other twin-engine freighter, the 777F brings new levels of efficiency to the long-haul market.

04 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 777 Freighter: Efficiency for Long-Haul Operators

The Boeing 777 Freighter (777F), which entered service earlier this year, brings efficiency to long-haul operators while offering the advanced features of the 777 family. Designed to fill the need expressed by cargo operators around the world, the 777F is an efficient, long-range, high-capacity freighter.

By Jason S. Clark, 777 Freighter Deputy Program Manager; and Kenneth D. Kirwan, 777 Freighter Deputy Chief Project Engineer

The range capability of the 777F provides This article provides an overview of world’s most powerful commercial jet significant savings for cargo operators. the 777F, including its heritage, freighter engine, the General Electric GE90-110B1. It enables them to take advantage of capabilities, range and capacity, twin- fewer stops and associated landing fees, engine design, and ability to fit into existing Unique freighter capabilities less congestion at transfer hubs, lower cargo operations. cargo handling costs, and shorter cargo The 777F has been specifically designed as delivery times. The new freighter also 777 heritage a freighter, with additional strengthening in integrates smoothly with existing cargo key structural areas, including: operations and facilitates interlining with Launched in May 2005, the 777F inherits 747 freighter fleets. n New monolithic aluminum floor beams. the same basic design and flight charac­ n Rigid cargo barrier located in the teristics of 777 passenger airplanes but is forward section of the airplane. designed specifically to transport cargo. n Strengthened fuselage, especially in the It also shares many of the 777 family’s area of the main deck cargo door. advanced features, such as a fly-by-wire design, an advanced wing design with raked wing tips, and a state-of-the-art flight deck (see fig. 1). It is powered by the

05 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Figure 1: 777F Flight deck The 777F flight deck will be familiar to crews that have flown 777 passenger airplanes.

1

2 3

5 6 7 4

1 Triple-channel autopilot with category IIIB autoland 2 Large flat-panel liquid crystal displays, including three multi‑function displays 3 Full-time triple‑channel fly-by-wire with thrust asymmetry compensation and flight envelope protection 4 Cursor control interface 5 Airline-modifiable electronic checklist containing all normal and non-normal checklists 6 Integrated communications interface with full future air navigation system functionality 7 Electronic Flight Bag (optional)

Other design enhancements include: The 777F also features a new super­ Range and capacity numerary area, which includes business- n Enhanced, lightweight cargo-handling class seats forward of the rigid cargo With a maximum takeoff weight of system with built-in test equipment that barrier, full main deck access, bunks, and 766,000 pounds (347,450 kilograms), the continually monitors the operational a galley (see fig. 3). 777F has a revenue payload capability of health of the system. The airplane’s design reflects information more than 226,000 pounds (102.8 metric n Modified environmental control system. and feedback that Boeing gained at freighter tons). It can fly 4,880 nautical miles n An advanced maneuver load alleviation working group meetings held with 20 air­ (9,038 kilometers) with a full payload at system that redistributes the aero­ lines and cargo operators. Boeing’s plan general cargo market densities (more than dynamic load on the wing during was to ensure that the 777F would operate 10 pounds per cubic foot), making it the non-normal flight conditions, reducing with procedures and handling similar to world’s longest-range twin-engine freighter the load on its outboard portion (see other 777 variants. The result is a common (see fig. 4). fig. 2). This allows the 777F to operate type rating with 777 passenger airplanes in a wide variety of flight environments and only minimal transition required and without compromising payload capability. lower training costs.

06 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 2: Changes in the 777F compared to the 777-200LR The 777F is based on the 777-200LR (Longer Range) but designed specifically to transport cargo.

Lower lobe Supernumerary area n New 2-in PDUs common with main deck n Four business-sized seats n Built-in test equipment cargo control system n Two bunks n Galley and vacuum lavatory Installed 145-in (371-cm)-wide x 124-in (315-cm)-high main deck cargo door

Strengthened horizontal stabilizer Strengthened wingbox, leading and trailing edges, aileron, and cargo floor support Passenger-related items including doors and windows removed (except doors 1L and 1R) Added maneuver load alleviation system

Modified environmental control system Strengthened body, rigid cargo barrier installed, and body fuel tank provisions removed Relocated water and waste tanks from bulk cargo compartment to forward lower lobe Main deck Maximum takeoff weight: 766,000 lb (347,450 kg)* n Aluminum cargo floor beams Maximum landing weight: 575,000 lb (260,810 kg)* n Powered cargo handling system (2-in power drive units [PDUs]) Maximum zero-fuel weight: 547,000 lb (248,110 kg)*

*Highest optional weight; loading restrictions apply above 750,000-lb (340,190-kg) maximum takeoff weight

The airplane has been engineered to feet (17.0 cubic meters) of additional bulk excellent ton-mile economics. The freighter have essentially the same landing charac­ cargo (see fig. 5). is expected to offer a 17 to 28 percent teristics as the 777-200LR (Longer Range), fuel-per-ton advantage to other freighters. despite a maximum landing weight that is The 777F has range, payload, and The unique economics of the 777F nearly 17 percent heavier (575,000 pounds; operating economics superior to any 260,810 kilograms). existing airplane freighter. The 777 family has an established history The 777F accommodates 27 standard Its fuel economy also provides of twin-engine efficiency, with lower fuel pallets (96 by 125 inches; 2.5 by 3.1 meters) environmental benefits because lower consumption, maintenance costs, and on the main deck. The industry-standard fuel consumption means lower carbon operating costs. 10-foot-high (3-meter-high) pallets are emissions. The 777F also meets The 777F extends these advantages accommodated by the large main deck London-Heathrow noise standards to cargo operators, giving them the lowest cargo door. The lower cargo hold has the (QC2) for maximum accessibility to trip cost of any large freighter, as well as capacity for 10 pallets, as well as 600 cubic noise‑sensitive airports.

07 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Figure 3: Supernumerary area The supernumerary area includes business-class seats forward of door 1.

The high commonality of 777F airplane fleets. Cargo operators can easily transfer time, its similarity to previous 777 models systems — such as flight controls, 10-foot-high pallets between the two and ability to facilitate direct-transfer hydraulics, and landing gear — with 777 models via the large main deck cargo door. shipments with 747 freighter fleets make it passenger airplane systems takes advan­ easy to integrate into an operator’s fleet. tage of existing maintenance infrastructure For more information, please contact Summary (i.e., parts, ground support equipment, task Jason Clark at [email protected] cards, training) at the airline operator. or Ken Kirwan at kenneth.d.kirwan@ The 777F is Boeing’s response to strong boeing.com. demand from cargo operators around Complements existing Boeing the world for an efficient, long-range, freighters and high-capacity freighter. By providing more capacity than any other twin-engine The 777F has been designed to integrate freighter, the 777F brings new levels of smoothly with existing cargo operations efficiency to long-haul markets. At the same and facilitate interlining with 747 freighter

08 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 4: Longest-range twin-engine freighter The 777F can fly 4,880 nautical miles (9,038 kilometers) with a full payload at general cargo market densities, opening up new nonstop markets to cargo operators.

Maximum Revenue Payload*

777 Freighter Seoul Beijing Delhi 226,700 lb (102.8 metric ton) payload Tokyo

Dubai 747-400 Freighter Moscow 249,100 lb (113 metric ton) payload Tel Aviv

Anchorage MD-11 Freighter Nairobi London 198,700 lb (90 metric ton) payload Honolulu Vancouver Casablanca 747-200 Freighter Lagos New York 244,700 lb (111 metric ton) payload Dakar Luanda

n Typical mission rules. n 85% annual winds. La Paz n Airways and traffic allowances included. Rio de Janeiro n Range capability from New York. * Does not include tare weight.

Santiago Buenos Aires

Figure 5: 777F Flexible cargo configurations The ability to accommodate 27 standard pallets on the main deck, combined with a versatile lower hold, gives the 777F a capacity never before available on a twin-engine freighter.

Bulk Main Deck 600 ft3 (17.0 m3)

27 Pallets Forward Lower Hold Aft Lower Hold 18,301 ft3 (518.2 m3) 2,490 ft3 (70.5 m3) 1,660 ft3 (47.0 m3)

09 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine The Boeing Landing Gear Overhaul and Exchange Program provides operators with a cost- effective, efficient alternative to purchasing new landing gear.

10 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Landing Gear Program Provides Overhaul Alternative

Boeing has responded to recent supply chain challenges for landing gear overhauls, new gear-sets, exchange gears, and spare parts. A landing gear overhaul and exchange program offers operators an alternative to performing the overhaul work themselves.

By Michael Lowell, Senior Manager, Service Development, Material Management

Commercial airlines are required to remove Program overview Business Jet, 757-300, 767-300ER and overhaul airplane landing gear about (Extended Range), 767-300 Freighter, every 10 years or 18,000 cycles, depend­ In 1997, the Boeing Commercial Airplanes 777, and MD-11. ing on the airplane model usage and Long Beach Division launched a program Under the Boeing Landing Gear Over­ applicable regulations. In response to that enabled operators of the MD-11 to haul and Exchange Program, Boeing works operators’ need for additional options when exchange unserviceable landing gear for with global component repair and overhaul servicing landing gear, Boeing launched an overhauled gear set (i.e., nose and suppliers to minimize costs and reduce a landing gear overhaul and exchange main), saving the operator money compared airplane downtime for customers located program in 2008 designed to meet the to the cost of a new gear and reducing the throughout the world. needs of operators that don’t want to amount of time the airplane was out of Boeing provides total support for the purchase new landing gear or perform service. In 2008, Boeing, after working with landing gear of airplanes in the program, their own landing gear overhaul. the industry and customers to enhance the including parts, scheduling, exchange, This article describes the program and landing gear program, extended it to addi­ warranty, technical assistance, and record­ how operators can make use of it. tional airplane models. It now includes the keeping. The operator pays an overhaul 717, Next-Generation 737, 737 Boeing and exchange fee plus any “over and

11 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine The program provides complete overhaul and certification of landing gear, including all labor costs; replacement of standards and bushings; and testing and recertification of all hydraulics and electronics according to Component Maintenance Manuals.

above” charges for the service. No initial Benefits to operators n Experience. The program is based on long-term capital investments are required. more than 10 years of experience in the Boeing works closely with airlines’ The Boeing program is designed to provide MD-11 Landing Gear Exchange Program. technical and maintenance departments to operators with an option that minimizes address landing gear needs and scheduling both cost and airplane downtime. Program Summary requirements. Airlines should plan their benefits include: overhaul and exchanges well ahead of the n Complete landing gear assets. Oper­ The Boeing Landing Gear Overhaul and mandatory 10-year deadline to ensure the ators receive a fully overhauled and Exchange Program provides operators availability of the appropriate landing gear. certified landing gear shipset, including with a cost-effective, efficient alternative to left and right mains and nose shock strut, purchasing new landing gear or performing How the program works sidebrace, walking beam, drag brace, their own in-house landing gear overhaul. mechanical and electrical installations, Because of the large global demand for The Boeing Landing Gear Overhaul and and installation components. landing gear, it is vital for airlines to plan Exchange Program provides operators with n Comprehensive offering. The program their overhaul and exchange management complete overhaul and exchange services provides complete overhaul and cer­ well ahead of time. designed to increase efficiency and mini­ tification of landing gear, including all For more information, please contact mize the economic implications of landing labor costs; replacement of standards Michael Lowell at michael.p.lowell@ gear maintenance. and bushings; and testing and recertifi­ boeing.com. When an airplane covered by the pro­ cation of all hydraulics and electronics gram requires landing gear replacement or according to Component Maintenance overhaul, Boeing provides an overhauled, Manuals. All in-warranty service bulletins certified, ready-to-install gear for the air­ are also included in the basic scope plane’s unserviceable landing gear. Once of work. the serviceable gear is installed by the n Warranty. Operators receive a three- operator, the operator then ships the year warranty for all parts and labor. removed unserviceable gear to one of the The program is fully backed by Boeing Boeing-designated overhaul facilities (see to ensure the highest quality and fig. 1). This process eliminates the need for timely delivery. operators to contract and schedule landing n Financial advantages. Customers can gear overhauls themselves and manage the reduce or eliminate capital expenditures landing gear overhaul supply chain, which for extra or leased gear to support their can save them labor and other costs. overhaul requirements. The program All parts in the overhauled gear set minimizes upfront costs and spreads provided to the operator meet all worldwide out expenditures over time. regulatory requirements and are covered by a Boeing three-year warranty.

12 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 1: The Boeing Landing Gear Overhaul and Exchange Program in operation The Boeing Landing Gear Overhaul and Exchange Program enables operators to exchange unserviceable landing gear for an overhauled, certified, ready-to-install gear.

1 Boeing signs a contract with the airline customer.

2 Boeing supplies a landing gear shipset to the customer.

3 The new overhauled gear is exchanged (usually in five to seven days).

4 The airline ships the removed gear to a Boeing-designated overhaul facility.

5 A Boeing-designated facility receives the old landing gear.

6 The gear is overhauled.

7 The newly overhauled gear is shipped to a customer location for the next exchange.

13 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Airplane takeoff speeds are designed to ensure the liftoff speed does not exceed the tire speed rating.

14 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Exceeding Tire Speed Rating During Takeoff

Airplane tires are designed to withstand a wide range of operating conditions, including carrying very high loads and operating at very high speeds. It is common for a jet airplane tire to carry loads as heavy as 60,000 pounds while operating at ground speeds up to 235 miles per hour. To accommodate these operational conditions, each tire has specific load and speed ratings. Tires are carefully designed and tested to withstand operation up to, but not necessarily beyond, these ratings.

By Ingrid Wakefield, Flight Operations Engineer; and Chris Dubuque, Service Engineer, Landing Gear Systems

It is uncommon to exceed the load rating Introduction heat, combined with extreme centrifugal of tires during normal airline operation forces from high rotational speeds, creates because the weight and center-of-gravity Boeing is receiving an increasing number the potential for tread loss. Ensuring that position of the airplane are well controlled of operator inquiries about tire speed limits tires are operated within their speed ratings and well understood. However, on being exceeded during takeoff. This does will help prevent possible tread losses and occasion the speed rating of tires can be not appear to be a new issue. Rather, the potential for airplane damage. inadvertently exceeded during takeoff. advanced data acquisition tools on modern This article discusses factors that can airplanes have made operators more aware Conditions That Can Lead to lead to a tire speed exceedance during of tire speed exceedance events. Exceeding the Tire Speed Rating take­off, provides guidance to help prevent In most cases, the speed exceedance During Takeoff such tire overspeed events, and points is small, only a few knots. Boeing is not out that there are no standardized industry aware of any of these overspeed events When dispatching an airplane in compliance maintenance guidelines if an overspeed resulting in thrown treads, which suggests with the certified Airplane Flight Manual, event occurs. that airplane tires in good condition can the airplane takeoff speeds are designed withstand these small speed exceedances to ensure that the liftoff speed does not without damage. However, it is important exceed the tire speed rating. While rotation to remember that at high speeds, heat is and liftoff speeds are generally expressed generated within the tire structure. This in knots indicated airspeed, the tire speed 15 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine limit is the ground speed, which is usually Recommended Takeoff Wind Accountability expressed in statute miles per hour. This Procedures for all Boeing means that a tire rated at 235 miles per Airplane Models The certified tire-speed-limit weight does hour is designed for a maximum ground not contain any margin for wind account­ Boeing publishes a recommended all- speed at liftoff of 204 knots. ability. For instance, the FAA-certified engine normal takeoff procedure in the A number of factors can lead to a tire- takeoff field-length-limit weight typically Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) for speed-limit exceedance during takeoff. contains a conservative factor for wind 727, 737 Classic, and Next-Generation Typically, this occurs when an airplane is accountability of 1.5 times the tailwind and 737, 747, 757, 767 and 777 models and in dispatched at or near the tire-speed-limit 0.5 times the headwind. In comparison, the Flight Crew Operations Manual for 717, weight and: the tire-speed-limit weight lacks any such MD, and DC models. In order to avoid tire- conservative wind factor. Because of this, n The airplane rotation rate is slower than speed-limit exceedance during takeoff, an unexpected tailwind component not the Boeing-recommended rotation rate, Boeing stresses adhering to the recom­ accounted for in the takeoff analysis, and/or mended average all-engine takeoff rotation occur­ring during a takeoff at or near n There is a late rotation, and/or rate of 2 to 3 degrees per second, which the tire-speed-limit weight, may increase the n The tailwind is higher than anticipated. provides adequate tail clearance margins true ground speed at liftoff beyond the tire with a target liftoff attitude reached after Dispatch at or near the airplane’s tire speed rating. approximately 3 to 4 seconds (see fig. 1). speed limit is most likely to occur during To avoid a tire-speed-limit exceedance, Tail clearance margins for all 7-series takeoffs from airports at high altitudes on Boeing recommends to conservatively models except the 717 are also outlined in warm days, because these conditions tend account for the tailwind component when the FCTM. Tail clearance and tail strike to drive the ground speed at liftoff of the dispatching at or near the tire-speed-limit concerns are often the reason flight crews airplane closer to the tire speed limit. How­ weight in a crosswind situation. General give for opting to use a slower rotation rate ever, tire speed limits can be encountered guidelines for crosswind takeoffs are out­ than recommended by Boeing. (More during takeoff in less severe environmental lined in the FCTM. These guidelines include information about tail strike prevention can conditions, such as when scheduling an the recommendation to use a higher thrust be found in AERO first-quarter 2007.) improved climb takeoff. setting than the minimum required in order When dispatching at or near the tire- Crosswinds can aggravate the situation to minimize airplane expo­sure to gusty speed-limit weight, which is most likely by unexpectedly shifting into a tailwind, conditions during rotation, liftoff, and to occur at hot temperatures and high which may further increase the ground initial climb. elevations, a slower rotation than the speed at liftoff. An unexpected (and there­ Boeing-recommended 2- to 3-degrees-per- fore unaccounted for) tailwind component second average may increase the actual 747-400 Case Study will directly add to the ground speed at liftoff. groundspeed at liftoff beyond the certified tire speed limit. In addition, a slow rotation A case study of the 747-400 helps illustrate or under-rotation could significantly this point. The operator sporadically increase the runway distance required to exceeded the tire speed limit even though reach the 35-foot point, which is another the takeoff analyses showed a notable important reason for adhering to the buffer between the tire-speed-limit weight Boeing-recommended rotation procedure. 16 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 1: Typical rotation, all engines 777-200 – 777-300ER The recommended rotation rate of 2 to 3 degrees per second provides adequate tail clearance margins with a target liftoff attitude reached after VR Liftoff V2 + 15 approximately 3 to 4 seconds.

14°

7–9° 35 ft

0 4 6.5

Time (Seconds)

737-300/-400/-500 717

VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10

16–18° 20° max. 35 ft 35 ft 8–10° 7–10° V2 + 10, not to 0 3 6.5 0 3–4 5–7 exceed 20° Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

737-600 – 737-900ER MD-80

VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10

20° 15–16° max. 35 ft 35 ft 7–9° 8° V2 + 10, not to 0 3 6.5 0 2.5 5–6 exceed 20° Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

747-400 MD-90

VR Liftoff V2 + 10 VR Liftoff V2 – V2 + 10

15° 20° max. 35 ft 35 ft 10° 8° V2 + 10, not to 0 4 6.5 0 2.5 5–7 exceed 20°

Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

757-200 – 767-400 MD-11

VR Liftoff V2 + 15 VR Liftoff V2 + 10

25° 15° max. 35 ft 35 ft 7–11° 7–10° V2 + 10, not to 0 4 6.5 0 3–4 5–7 exceed 25° Time (Seconds) Time (Seconds)

17 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Figure 2: 747 Case study summary Relatively large weight margins did not result in corresponding speed margins.

Takeoff I Takeoff II

Dispatch Weight: 805,000 pounds Dispatch Weight: 825,000 pounds

Tire-Speed-Limit Weight: 845,000 pounds Tire-Speed-Limit Weight: 855,000 pounds

Weight Margin: 40,000 pounds Weight Margin: 30,000 pounds

Scheduled Ground Speed at Liftoff: 196 knots Scheduled Ground Speed at Liftoff: 199 knots

Rated Tire Speed: 204 knots (235 miles per hour) Rated Tire Speed: 204 knots (235 miles per hour)

Speed Margin: 8 knots Speed Margin: 5 knots

Figure 3: Effect of slow or under-rotation on all-engine takeoff distance A 747-400 taking off with a rotation rate that is 1 degree per second slower than normal can result in a 4- to 5-knot liftoff speed increase.

VR Liftoff 35 ft

Normal rotation

VR Liftoff 35 ft

Up to 700 ft

Slow rotation (1 deg per sec slower than normal)

VR Liftoff 35 ft

Under-rotation Up to 700 ft (Rotate to 5 deg less than target)

18 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 and the actual dispatch weight. The airline instructions following a tire-speed-limit n Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Tire Care, approached Boeing for assistance. exceedance event during takeoff. and Maintenance, http://ap.bridgestone. The study was performed at two differ­ One maintenance suggestion would be co.jp/pdf/Care_and_Maintenance.pdf. ent dispatch weights: 805,000 pounds that all wheel/tire assemblies be removed n Bridgestone Aircraft Tires, Examination, and 825,000 pounds. There was a from the airplane before further flight after and Recommended Action, 40,000‑pound and a 30,000-pound margin such an event occurs. In practice, however, http://ap.bridgestone.co.jp/candm/ between sched­uled dispatch weight and replacing all of the wheel/tire assemblies recommendedaction.html. the tire-speed-limit weight. These weight on an airplane represents a major logistical n Aircraft Tire Care & Service Manual, margins, which appear relatively large, only problem and likely results in flight cancel­ Michelin, www.airmichelin.com/pdfs/ resulted in speed margins of 8 knots and lations and/or dispatch delays. It would be Care_and_Service_manual.pdf. 5 knots between the asso­ciated ground difficult to locate and ship 18 wheel/tire n General practices manual for aircraft speeds at liftoff and the tire speed rating assemblies to a 747 at a remote location tyres and tubes, Dunlop Aircraft Tyres (see fig. 2). following one of these events! Additionally, Limited, 01/08, www.dunlopaircrafttyres. This case study shows the relationship of if the overspeed was very small (say, 2 to com/tech_support/dm1172/DM1172.pdf. a tire-speed-weight margin to the associated 3 knots over the tires’ speed limit), it is speed margin for a four-engine airplane. unlikely that the tires would have suffered Summary Under similar dispatch conditions on a any damage. two-engine airplane, a similarly large weight Some operators have elected to simply Although it is uncommon to exceed the margin can be expected to result in an examine the tires after an overspeed takeoff load rating of tires during normal airline even lower speed margin, due to the higher event using the normal tire inspection criteria opera­tion, Boeing is receiving an increasing all-engine acceleration. in Chapter 32 of the Airplane Maintenance number of operator inquiries about tire The same case study showed that a Manual. If no damage is found, the air­planes speed limits being exceeded during takeoff. rotation rate that is 1 degree per second are dispatched normally and no further There is no industry consensus on the slower than normal can result in a 4- to maintenance actions are performed. Based maintenance actions that should be taken 5-knot liftoff speed increase. This is in on many years of service experience, this following tire-speed-limit exceedance addition to the increase in all-engine approach seems to have worked well during takeoff. At this time, operators, in takeoff distance associated with the because very few, if any, tire tread losses conjunction with their regulatory agency, slow takeoff rotation (see fig. 3). have been attributed to an overspeed must determine the most appropriate This illustrates how a slower-than- event. Based on this service experience, maintenance action based on the tire- normal rotation rate can easily use up Boeing has typically not objected to this speed-limit exceedance event. what may seem like a large tire-speed-limit practice even though there is no overspeed The best approach is to try to avoid margin, especially if paired with a higher takeoff capability specifically designed into overspeed takeoffs altogether. By taking tailwind component than accounted for in the tire. the following steps, flight operations the takeoff analysis used for dispatch. If an operator has any questions about personnel can reduce the possibility of tire- the integrity of the tires, the wheel/tire speed-limit exceedance during takeoff: assemblies should be replaced before Maintenance Actions after n Exceeding the Tire Speed Limit further flight. Follow the Boeing-recommended During Takeoff Additional information on tire mainte­ rotation procedure. nance procedures can be found in the n When dispatching at or near the tire- Although tire-speed-limit exceedance airplane maintenance manuals and in speed-limit weight in a crosswind events during takeoff are not a new phe­ the following documents: situation, consider conservatively, nomenon, widespread recognition of these accounting for the tailwind component. n FAA Advisory Circular 20-97B, “Aircraft overspeed events is relatively new because n When dispatching at or near the tire Tire Maintenance and Operational of advances in flight data recorder tech­ speed limit in gusty wind and strong Practices,” April 18, 2005, U.S. nology that enables easier data acquisition. crosswind conditions, use a higher thrust Department of Transportation. Airplane manufac­turers, tire suppliers, and setting than the minimum required. n “Aircraft Tire Care And Maintenance,” regulators have not yet developed an Goodyear Aviation, 10/04, www. For more information, contact Boeing industry-accepted set of maintenance goodyearaviation.com/img/pdf/ Flight Operations Engineering at flightops. aircraftmanual.pdf. [email protected]. 19 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Flight management systems have evolved to a level of sophistication that helps flight crews fly commercial airplanes more safely and efficiently.

20 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Contribution of Flight Systems to Performance-Based Navigation

Flight Management Systems (FMS) and associated airplane flight systems are the primary navigation tools on board today’s commercial airplanes. The evolution of these systems has led the way for performance-based navigation (PBN) and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration’s (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System.

By Sam Miller, Associate Technical Fellow, Flight Deck, Flight Crew Operations

PBN is a concept used to describe naviga­ concept is made possible largely by aviators to fly coast to coast across the tion performance along a route, procedure, advances in the capabilities of airplane FMS. United States. However, these early flights or airspace within the bounds of which This article helps operators better were filled with uncertainties and their use the airplane must operate. For transport understand how the FMS and other of visual flight rules soon gave way to airplanes, it typically is specified in terms airplane flight systems have evolved over reliable attitude indicators and ground- of required navigation performance (RNP). time, how they contribute to PBN opera­ based navigation aids, or navaids. Non- The PBN concept defines navigation tions, and plans for further advancement. directional radio beacons and the airplane’s performance in terms of accuracy, integrity, airborne automatic direction finder equip­ availability, continuity, and functionality. ment allowed aviators to “home in” on the Air navigation tools leading up These operations provide a basis for to the FMS beacon and navigate reliably from station to designing and implementing automated station. Non-directional radio beacons are flight paths that will facilitate airspace design, still being used today throughout the world. Early aviators relied on very basic instru­ terminal area procedure design, traffic flow In the 1940s, the introduction of a mentation to keep the airplane upright and capacity, and improved access to runways radio-magnetic indicator or dual-bearing navigating toward the desired destination. (more information about PBN can be found distance-heading indicator facilitated the Early “turn and slip” indicators and ground in AERO second-quarter 2008). The PBN use of ground-based navaids, including references such as lighted beacons enabled

21 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Figure 1: Typical VOR installation By 1952, more than 45,000 miles of airways using the VOR were in operation. A DME transmitter was usually located on the ground with VOR 15 DME stations. DME transmitters would respond to interrogation by transceiver equipment installed on airplanes and provide the pilot with a reliable 360º distance in nautical miles to the transmitter. Pilots operating in areas where VOR and DME coverage was available had both distance and course 270º 90º information readily available. 270-degree Radial

180º

VOR/DME

the very-high-frequency omni-directional on the 727, 707, and 747-100. During this While Boeing was continuing work on range (VOR) navigation system and dis­ same time, Collins produced the AINS-70, new commercial airplane navigation systems tance measuring equipment (DME). VORs an area navigation (RNAV) computer on the for the new “glass” flight decks, a debate came into wide use in the 1950s and DC-10. Each of these steps reduced the was under way among the airlines about quickly became the preferred navigation amount of interpretation by the flight crew the need for a dedicated flight engineer radio aid for flying airways and instrument by presenting more specific indications of crewmember. In July 1981, an industry task approaches (see fig. 1). VOR and DME airplane positional and situational status. force determined that two-crew operation provided the framework for a permanent Even so, the reliance on the flight crew to was no less safe than three-crew operation. network of low-altitude victor airways manually interpret and integrate flight This decision would have a profound effect (e.g., V-4) and high-altitude jet routes information still provided opportunities for on the design of all Boeing commercial (e.g., J-2), which are still in place today. operational errors. airplanes, including a short-notice imple­ Long-range navigation over remote mentation for the new 767. With one fewer and oceanic areas, where navigation radio crewmember, Boeing engineers focused on The first integrated flight transmitters did not exist, was originally management computer a flight deck design that would reduce crew accomplished by dead reckoning and workload, simplify older piloting functions, celestial navigation. The introduction of the and enhance flight deck efficiencies. When Boeing began work on the 767 inertial navigation system (INS) on airplanes The early 767 FMC provided airplane airplane program in the late 1970s, the facilitated long-range capability by providing performance predictions using stored company created a flight deck technology a continuous calculation and display of the airframe/engine data and real-time inputs group with engineers dedicated to the airplane’s position. Flight crews could enter from other onboard systems, such as the development of the flight management waypoints and the INS would calculate air data computer and inertial reference computer (FMC) and the control display heading, distance, and estimated time of system (IRS). This performance function unit (CDU) (see fig. 2). Boeing merged arrival to the respective waypoint. replaced flight crew back-of-the-envelope- previous designs of the performance At the same time, the 1970s fuel crisis type estimates with relatively precise time management computer and the navigation provided the drive to optimize navigation and fuel predictions based upon actual computer into a single FMC that integrated capabilities in commercial airplanes. As airplane performance parameters, such as many functions beyond navigation and a result, avionics manufacturers began gross weight, speed, altitude, temperature, performance operations. The company producing performance management and winds. used experience gained from Boeing’s other computers and navigation computers to Then, as now, the navigation function research projects to develop advanced help operators improve the efficiency of was based on the IRS position and used implementations of performance manage­ their airline operations. Boeing’s initial entry ground-based navaids (e.g., DMEs, VORs, ment functions and navigation into a into this arena was represented by the localizers) to refine the IRS position and single FMC. The new FMC system was implementation of the early Sperry (now correct for IRS drift. A navigation database envisioned as the heart of an airplane’s Honeywell) automatic navigation systems (NDB) was included in the FMC’s memory flight planning and navigation function.

22 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 2: 757/767 FMC CDU One of the first implementations of an FMC CDU was designed for the 757 and 767 in the early 1980s.

and contained approximately 100 kilobytes For several years following the initial of data consisting of navaids, airways, FMS certifications, minor changes were approach procedures, and airports. The made to enhance the FMS operation, NDB allowed flight crews to easily enter but no significant hardware or software flight plans from takeoff to landing and changes were made until the early 1990s. make real-time route changes in response to air traffic control (ATC) clearances. The Developing the modern FMC FMC also provided guidance to the flight plan route using the lateral navigation (LNAV) In the late 1980s and 1990s, the airline and vertical navigation (VNAV) functions. industry requested the capability of direct Initially, the FMC was equipped with LNAV routing from one location to another, only. VNAV was a new challenge and without the need to follow airways based required a significant effort on the part upon ground-based navaids. Modern of Boeing and Sperry (now Honeywell) FMS equipped with a multi-sensor navi­ engineers to make the vertical guidance gation algorithm for airplane position component operational. determi­nation using VOR, DME, localizer, After the development of the 757 and and IRS data made this possible, and 767, Boeing also worked with Smiths RNAV was transformed from concept to Aerospace (now GE Aviation) to develop operational reality. an FMC as part of a major update to the But oceanic operations and flight 737 family. The operation of the 737 FMC, over remote areas — where multi-sensor the appearance of the CDU, and the CDU updating of the FMC could not occur menu structure were designed to parallel with accuracy better than the drift of IRS those on the 757 and 767. The FMC systems — made RNAV operations difficult. became part of the design of the 737 Operations in these areas of the world were Classic family, which included the 737-300, increasing during the 1990s, and there was 737-400, and 737-500. The 737-300 was pressure on avionics suppliers, airplane the first of the family to be certified in 1984. manufacturers, and regulatory agencies Boeing offered the 737 Classic family with to find a way to support precise navigation either single or dual FMCs and with either in remote and oceanic areas. As a result, the traditional electro-mechanical attitude the concept of a future air navigation director indicator/horizontal situation system (FANS) was conceived in the early indication flight instrument suite or the 1990s (see AERO second-quarter 1998). EADI/EHSI “glass” flight deck derived Subsequently, Boeing and Honeywell from the 757/767 design. introduced the first FANS 1-capable FMC

23 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine An RNP system should contain both performance monitoring and alerting: a caution alert is initiated by the FMC and annunciated on the display system to draw flight crew attention in the event that ANP exceeds RNP.

on the 747-400. At the heart of the system to the flight crew when this containment RNP: enabler of PBN was a new, more capable FMC that might not be assured. GPS was originally implemented several new operations: a military navigation sensor that was The concept of a reliable and repeatable allowed for commercial use with some defined path with containment limits n Airline operational communications — limitations. Integrated as the primary FMC was not new. Early conceptual work was Digital communication of data (data link) position update sensor, GPS provided done at the Massachusetts Institute of such as flight plans, weather data, and exceptionally precise position accuracy Technology in the 1970s, but the modern text messaging directly from the airline compared to ground-based sensors and FMC, with its position accuracy and operations facility to the FMC. enabled the FMC’s capability for precise guidance algorithms, made reliable path n Controller-pilot data link communica­ navigation and path tracking. GPS remains maintenance practical. tions — Digital communication between the primary sensor for the current gener­ The first demonstration of the FMC’s ATC and the airplane in the form of ation FMCs. Data link provided a reliable terminal area precision came at Eagle, predefined messages. method of digital communication between Colorado, in the mid-1980s. A team com­ n Automatic dependent surveillance — the airplane and the air traffic controller. prising American Airlines, the FAA, and Information about position and intent A comprehensive list of preformatted Sperry (now Honeywell) applied RNP-like generated from an ATC request. messages was implemented­ to provide for principles to approach and departure n Global positioning system (GPS) — efficient traffic separation referred to as procedures to the terrain-challenged Incorporation of satellite navigation controller-pilot data link communications. runway. Following simulator trials, the functions in the FMS for the primary Concurrent with the FANS 1 FMC, procedures were successfully flown into means of navigation. Alaska Airlines teamed with Boeing, Smiths Eagle and subsequently approved by the n Air traffic services facilities notification — Aerospace (now GE Aviation), and the FAA. The result: reliable approach and ATC communication protocol initialization. FAA to develop procedures that would departure procedures that provide improved n RNP — A statement of the navigation provide reliable access to airports that access to Eagle. performance necessary for operation are sur­rounded by difficult terrain. By Although Eagle demonstrated the FMC’s within a defined airspace. virtue of the surrounding rough terrain, capability to execute precisely designed n Required time of arrival — Enablement of the Juneau, Alaska, airport became the terminal area procedures, in the mid-1980s, airplane performance adjustments to prime candidate for the certification effort. it would take another 10 years until RNP meet specified waypoints at set times, Because the approach to runway (RW) 26 equipment was available for airline oper­ when possible. was the most challenging air corridor to ators. The FMC’s navigation position Although each feature was individually Juneau, it was selected as the most accuracy enhanced with GPS and lateral significant, the three primary enablers for rigorous test to prove the real performance and vertical guidance algorithms, the FANS operations were RNP, GPS, and data capability of RNP (see fig. 3). development of the vertical error budget, link. RNP defined the confines of the lateral In 1995, Alaska Airlines successfully and additions to crew alerting enabled route, and the FMC provided guidance to demonstrated its ability to safely fly airplanes RNP and its future applications. reliably remain on the route centerline. The to RW 26 using RNP and soon began RNP is a statement of the navigation FMC’s RNP function also provided alerting commercial operations using RNP, which performance necessary for operation within was a first for commercial aviation.

24 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 3: Juneau, Alaska: Site of initial RNP certification efforts RNP enabled an approach to runway 26 and access to Juneau that in some weather conditions was not otherwise practical.

a defined airspace. The FMC’s navigation track error is displayed on the FMC’s reasonably robust for the initial RNAV and function ensures containment within the “PROGRESS” page or under the naviga­ RNP operations, but each of the Smiths defined airspace by continuously computing tional display’s airplane symbol when NPS (now GE) and Honeywell FMCs on Boeing the airplane’s position. The FMC’s actual is on board. The display provides flight airplanes continued to be updated with navigation performance (ANP) is the com­ crews with a precise assessment of lateral software improvements and new hardware puted navigation system accuracy, plus the deviation, particularly important in low versions with enhanced processing power associated integrity for the current FMC RNP environments. Display of cross-track and memory. Some enhancements position. It is expressed in terms of nautical error on the “PROGRESS” page was an specifically related to RNP include: miles and represents a radius of a circle original feature in the Boeing FMCs and n Vertical RNP — Introduced the capability centered on the computed FMC position, continues as a fundamental indication with which to define containment relative where the probability of the airplane of path deviation. to the computed VNAV path (see fig 5). continuously being inside the circle is Although RNP operations are increasing n Radius to fix legs — Implemented the 95 percent per flight hour. in numbers and applications and will provide ARINC 424 leg type that provided a fixed Boeing flight decks display both ANP for the future for PBN, RNAV is also being radius ground path (similar to a DME and RNP. With the advent of the navigation increasingly implemented for operations arc but without the required navaid). performance scales (NPS) and associated where consistent ground tracks are desired. n En-route fixed radius transitions — display features, RNP and ANP are RNAV approaches, standard instrument Implemented a fixed radius transition digitally displayed on the navigation display. departures (SID) and standard terminal between en-route path segments, to Additionally, and as defined in regulatory arrival (STAR) procedures are being enable the implementation of reduced guidance, an RNP system should contain produced primarily throughout the United route spacing in higher-density traffic both performance monitoring and alerting: States and in selected areas of the world. environments (currently 737 only). a caution alert is initiated by the FMC and RNAV leverages the original path manage­ n GPS availability — Refined algorithms annunciated on the display system to draw ment capability of the FMC and, unlike that enhanced the navigation perfor­ flight crew attention in the event that ANP RNP, lateral containment was not specified. mance for very low RNP procedures. exceeds RNP. That alert typically signifies From an operational point of view, RNP is n LNAV tracking — Enhanced the pre­ that the performance of an FMC position RNAV with containment. If a path is defined cision and aggressiveness of LNAV update sensor has deteriorated, and, and active in the route, the FMC is designed path tracking. subsequently, the computed navigation to maintain the centerline of the path. That n NPS — Provided data to the display system accuracy can no longer ensure basic operation has not changed since the system for lateral and vertical path containment (see fig. 4). original 767 FMC. deviation scales, deviation pointers, The FMC’s LNAV function continually and sensor performance indications. provides guidance to maintain the lateral Continued FMC modernization n RNP from the NDB — Enabled appli­ path centerline and any deviation from cation of RNP values coded in the NDB the path centerline is displayed as lateral The 737, 747-400, MD-80, and MD-11 for routes and procedures. cross-track error. In Boeing airplanes, cross- FMC functions that enabled RNP were

25 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine Figure 4: RNP in practice RNP defines the path and allowable tolerance for continuous operation (+ 1 RNP). Containment to ensure obstacle clearance is defined as + 2 x RNP. ANP less than the prescribed RNP provides position assurance for continued operation.

ANP containment radius

RNP and ANP displayed on the FMC CDU

ANP ≤1 x RNP for continued operation

Lateral boundary = 2 x RNP (airspace and obstacle)

As a result of these enhancements including enhanced safety, increased to reduce track miles, avoid noise-sensitive and additions to other FMC functions, the efficiency, reduced carbon footprint, areas, and reduce emis­sions through modern FMC is well-equipped for RNP and reduced costs. To fully realize these the use of efficient descent paths by operations that will enable future airspace benefits, operators may need to make minimizing terminal area maneuvering management concepts. changes to their airplanes and operations. (i.e., unwanted throttle move­ment) and The primary premise of a PBN system periodic altitude constraints. is to move away from restricted, sensor- The promise of PBN based operations to a performance-based Airspace modernization navigation system that incorporates PBN, which comprises both RNAV and RNP as the foundation and a system in RNP specifications, provides the basis for The current airspace system of airways which operational cost efficiencies are global standardization, which will facilitate and jet routes has not changed significantly empha­sized (see fig. 5). According to the future airspace design, traffic flow, and since the inception of non-directional International Civil Aviation Organization improved access to runways. This change beacons and VORs in the middle of the Performance-Based Navigation Manual, offers a number of operational benefits, last century. Incremental improvements, airspace procedures should be designed

26 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09 Figure 5: Benefits of PBN These actual traffic plots at a major airport demonstrate the efficiencies that can be realized when a PBN design is implemented. Track miles can be significantly reduced through reduced vectoring, saving time, fuel, and emissions. Additionally, convective weather, restricted airspace, and noise-sensitive areas can be avoided using either designed procedures or dynamic rerouting.

27 WWW.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine such as RNAV en-route waypoints, RNAV structure, procedure design, and traffic 787 and 747-8 airplanes. Although modern SIDs and STARs, FANS dynamic rerouting, control methodology will need to focus on in every respect, each of the FMCs is oper­ and Q-routes, have been implemented, but safety and efficiency if capacities are to ationally similar to the original 767 FMC the general structure of the airspace still increase at major airports and operators are of the early 1980s. To address system reflects historic ATC methods. able to maintain fuel costs within reason. complexity and enhance the operational In a direct contrast to the PBN approach, Concurrent with the airspace evolution, capability of the flight crew for the transition the increased traffic since the early 1990s the FMC will continue to require enhance­ to the Next Generation Air Transportation has necessitated more complex arrival and ments that either control or participate System, Boeing and its partners are departure procedures — procedures that with other onboard systems for new traffic investigating new flight management meth­ frequently inflict a penalty on fuel efficiency control methods. These methods include odologies that focus on flight path trajectory with an added consequence of increased time-based metering, merging and spacing, management and ease of oper­a­tion. Such potential for flight crew error. self-separation during continuous descent new systems will assist the flight crew in The PBN concept is centered on arrivals and/or during the final segment, managing the trip costs and contribute to operational efficiencies. Several successes automated dependent surveillance a safe conclusion to each flight. have already been realized. Procedure and broadcast, and cockpit display of traffic airspace designers in Canada and Australia information. New terminal procedures, such Summary have worked with operators to plan routes as a hybrid RNP procedure that terminates and terminal area procedures that reduce in an instrument landing system or a global Flight management systems have evolved track miles while addressing environmental navigation satellite system landing system to a level of sophistication that helps flight issues that are receiving increased scrutiny final and autoland, are already in the FMC’s crews fly commercial airplanes more safely by the public and government. Both repertoire. However, considerations to and efficiently, while enabling PBN through Europe and the United States are imple­ the associated flight mode annunciator application of RNP and the evolution to menting RNAV and RNP procedures. changes during the transition from FMC- future airspace management systems. based guidance to autopilot guidance on For more information, please contact short final and other crew distractions will Future Concepts Sam Miller at [email protected]. require attention. The new 787 and 747-8 Contributors to this article: John Hillier, FMCs are addressing some of these issues Advanced airspace environments include chief engineer, Flight Management Systems, and implementing enhancements that the FAA’s Next Generation Air Transpor­ Center of Excellence, Honeywell Aero­ position those models for future PBN tation System, which will transform the space; Robert Bush, software tech lead, operations. Additionally, each of the FMC current ground-based ATC system to 737 Flight Management Computer System, designs has incorporated growth options satellite-based, and Europe’s Single GE Aviation; John C. (Jack) Griffin, associate so that changes to the FMC can be made European Sky ATM Research (SESAR). technical fellow (retired), Boeing. with minimal impact to the FMC software. Migrating to these environments will Flight crews will see significant improve­ require fundamental changes to air traffic ments in speed, capability, and operation management methodology. The airspace of the 737 FMC and the new FMCs in the

28 aero quarterly qtr_02 | 09

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