Gujarat Earthquake Recovery Program
Assessment Report
PART II - ANNEXES
Contents
Sector Annexes Annex 1 Social Impact and Recovery Needs...... 1 Annex 2a Housing...... 11 Annex 2b Structural Behavior of Buildings...... 18 Annex 3 Health...... 25 Annex 4 Education...... 32 Annex 5 Water Storage and Irrigation...... 37 Annex 6 Rural Water Supply...... 41 Annex 7 Municipal and Environmental Infrastructure ...... 47 Annex 8 State Public Buildings and Historic Monuments...... 55 Annex 9 Power...... 60 Annex 10 Transport Infrastructure...... 63 Annex 11 Telecommunications...... 68 Annex 12 Agriculture and Livestock...... 70 Annex 13 Industry...... 72 Annex 14 Services...... 77 Annex 15 Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment and Proposed Environmental Management Programs ...... 82 Annex 1
Social Impact and Recovery Needs
Introduction
This annex addresses the social impact of the Gujarat earthquake and the recovery needs of the affected areas. The Assessment team included social development specialists and a communications specialist whose investigations concentrated on social aspects. In addition, other members of the team contributed observations on the social dimensions of reconstruction. The team members engaged in discussions with government officials, UN and bilateral agencies working in Gujarat, NGOs and other private entities, and affected people, beginning in Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad and fanning out through the worst affected areas of Kutch and several other affected districts. Particular effort was made to talk with local communities and grassroots NGOs. Those social dimensions that have an important bearing on reconstruction in specific sectors are included in the sectoral annexes, while this annex presents an overall analysis, differentiating the impacts and recovery strategies for various social groups (the poor, women, lower castes, and tribal people) and including an assessment of the local institutional framework for earthquake reconstruction.
Social Situation Prior to the Earthquake
The state of Gujarat has a poverty ratio of 24 percent, lower than the all-India average on account of its relatively higher levels of industrialization and urbanization, but other indicators of poverty (child malnutrition levels) show that the poor--especially women and children--may be more disadvantaged than this figure suggests. The National Family Health Survey (1998-99) found that over 45 percent of children were wasted, and over 50 percent were stunted (an indicator of chronic malnutrition). The earthquake-affected areas, particularly the worst hit district of Kutch, have high levels of rural and urban poverty. Social structures in the districts of the Saurashtra region are typical of India, with the most vulnerable groups being the Scheduled Castes, Other Backward Castes, Muslims, tribal people, women, and the landless. There are large numbers of all these groups in the earthquake areas. The status of women varies from group to group, but is generally higher in Gujarat than in northern India. Gujarat's female:male ratio is 936 compared with the all-India average of 931, and 914 in the neighboring state of Rajasthan. The land-owning Patels and related castes, the Jains (a religious minority), and other trader communities are generally regarded as being better off.
Most urban and rural settlements contain a mix of communities, with the range of socioeconomic levels and average being determined largely by the quality of natural resources (primarily land) and the degree of development of infrastructure (“remoteness”). Among the earthquake-hit areas, Kutch is more remote, more poorly endowed, and hence poorer in the aggregate, although it is also home to a sizeable, wealthy business community that has social networks in other parts of the state, in Mumbai, and indeed in many parts of the world. This social capital has proved invaluable in the aftermath of the earthquake and will continue to be important in the reconstruction period. Even among poorer communities, including some nomadic pastoralists, for example, family and clan ties are reputed to be extensive and strong. Most villages and some sections of the towns would be organized into caste or community neighborhoods. While this arrangement stems from traditional religious practice, it is also a basis of social capital. The homes of the poor scheduled castes, tribal Kolis and Rabaris, and Muslim minority, in particular, would be clustered together, as well as some of the better-off groups such as the Jains.
- 1 - Gujarat appears to have fewer village-level organizations than some other parts of India. The earthquake affected areas, and Kutch in particular, do not have many of the producer (e.g., dairy) cooperatives for which the state is renowned, and sectoral associations and committees, such as water users' associations, forest management committees and village education committees also appear to be less developed than in many other states. In addition, the Panchayati Raj structure is currently missing its most important layer, the village level Gram Panchayats. However, there are large numbers of community, religious or secular philanthropic organizations, and of service or development oriented NGOs in the state. Some of these had joined to form the Kutch Navnirman Abhiyan (literally, the Kutch Reconstruction Consortium) prior to the earthquake to assist the drought-affected people of Kutch, and have rallied to provide post-earthquake relief to the affected people. The team was impressed with the good coordination and collaboration between this NGO network and the Government in the affected area. Overall, the institutional structure suggests that, while participation in formal institutions is limited, Gujaratis have a spirit of community and of service which would serve them well in the reconstruction phase.
Social Impact of the Earthquake
The social fabric of the earthquake-hit areas has been seriously affected by the large number of human deaths (officially over 20,000) and injuries (about 167,000). In addition to the immediate suffering caused, it is likely that an equally large number of families have been torn by the death or serious disability of a member (though family-based data are not yet available). This will have long-term consequences on the well-being of other members, particularly widows (especially young women), single parent children, orphans, and the elderly. There have been more adult female than male deaths, and a large number of children were also killed. Similar differences are likely among the injured.
Further, a large number of villages have lost a number of their members, which in addition to the grief caused could have community impacts that are as yet unknown. Typically, Indian villages have only one or two persons or families providing some basic services (e.g., barbers, street cleaners, blacksmiths, millers, priests), and deaths among these could affect traditional village functions. The earthquake has spared no community--both rich and poor, upper and lower castes, land-owning and landless have been severely affected. Among the villages that the team visited were extremely poor and remote ones, mixed habitations, and new settlements built by traders living outside the region. All were destroyed or severely damaged--from the mud and thatch huts of the poorest to the multistory shop-cum-residence establishments of the well-off.
Other social impacts of the earthquake include deep insecurity among those who have lost assets, including movable and immovable property, and increased vulnerability among them to poverty. The earthquake struck in the wake of a massive cyclone in 1998 and two consecutive years of drought in 1999 and 2000. Around 400,000 houses have been destroyed and another 500,000 damaged. The livelihoods of many families have been disrupted, particularly among those resident in the worst affected towns and villages. The loss of lives, and loss of or damage to homes/workplaces, productive assets and/or industrial units has caused more severe disruption, while temporary disruption has occurred in the wake of the shock and fear caused by the earthquake, and of disruptions in financial services, markets and distribution channels. About 19,000 handicraft artisans of Kutch appear to be the most severely affected group. In addition, several thousands of salt farmers are faced with collapses of their brine wells and destruction of salt fields containing the salt of up to two years labor. Many salt refineries are also damaged, which will hamper the export of salt from the region. Kutch alone accounts for 80 percent of India's salt output, and 80 percent of its facilities are reportedly dysfunctional. Another important source of livelihood in Kutch is cattle--about 20,000 cattle deaths have been reported. Economic
- 2 - recovery has been hampered by the outflow of people, including normally migrant workers, such as laborers on the salt farms in the affected areas.
Insecurity also stems from the repeated tremors in the region and the continuing drought situation. Among those who were poor prior to the disaster, there may be a sense of helplessness and dependency (particularly on the Government), though Kutchhis are known for their strong independence and resilience in the face of natural disasters. Within two-and-a-half weeks of the earthquake, the Joint team observed that even in the worst affected villages a number of communities had established their own temporary shelters in family or village groupings, and were beginning to resume economic activity.
Another serious consequence of the earthquake is an almost complete lack of services in the worst-hit villages and urban areas, including education, health, water supply, electricity, solid waste disposal, and agricultural extension. Most Gujarati villages are usually well served by these, but both public and private services are largely at a standstill, though drinking water is being provided in many places by tankers and electricity is being restored. The Government is making a serious effort to start schools--often with the help of NGOs and in tents, but the large number of buildings destroyed and extensive household disruption mean that many children are still out of school. Markets and banks have begun to function in the less affected areas, but are still limping back to normal in the worst situations. Rapid mobilization on the part of the Government has given large numbers of people access to food grain and some cash, but others are still awaiting assistance with a sense of dependence. A large number of non-governmental organizations including philanthropic groups, development agencies and private businesses have stepped in to provide food, medical services, clothes, blankets, utensils, basic supplies, and tents.
Thus, the affected people are being served by community resources, outsiders and authorities, but the word "stoic" appears to be the most frequently used to describe their attitude towards this disaster and the future. In spite of all their problems, the Kutchhi community has refused to put orphaned children up for adoption. This demonstrates an expression of community solidarity and mutual support in a time of need, and is an indication of the will and ability of the communities to organize and get on with their lives using their own resources rather than depend on outside charity.
Recovery Strategy
Immediate and medium-term recovery and reconstruction, particula rly related to housing, education, health, drinking water, civic services and livelihoods, will require attention to a number of social issues and needs. The strategy suggested here focuses on principles of local participation and attention to the needs of the poor and vulnerable that should be integrated into every sector. Some of these could build on prevailing positive situations while others would need to address potential negative trends.
A. Relocation or Rebuilding In Situ
It is clear from numerous interviews with the affected population that the vast majority of people who have lost their homes wish to remain in the same locations, and rebuild their homes to better standards than before. They recognize that different construction methods are required, and are looking to the government and other agencies for technical and financial assistance to strengthen their homes against future cyclones or earthquakes. Many also mentioned the need for finding solutions to rainwater harvesting and other ways of dealing with the problems of drought.
- 3 - The wish to remain in their old location was particularly prevalent among rural villagers. Some of them said, “We will stay here even if the Government tells us we have to move.” Among urban dwellers, for example the people who lost their homes in the old walled city of Bhuj, the opinions were more mixed. Many said they wanted to build new residences nearby and maintain their shops in the old city. They recognized that there may be a need to reduce the density of the population, and rebuild the city in such a way that it is safer than before.
The clearly stated desire of most people to remain and rebuild their homes in the old locations reflects national and international experience. Many externally planned townships have become ghost towns, with the local population refusing to live in homes that they feel don’t meet their social, cultural and economic needs. Even when people have shifted temporarily to the new homes provided for them, they frequently return to their old location after some time. The cost of relocating is also much higher, and more of a burden on Government. From a social perspective, people prefer to stay where they have a familiar neighborhood and are surrounded by a community of relatives, members of the same sub-community, or same religious affiliation that can provide networks of support. The cost of removing rubble in rural villages is also likely to be much lower per unit than in a town setting, and reduces the need to rebuild homes elsewhere.
The available evidence shows that relocating whole communities rarely works. It should be avoided unless it is clear that (a) staying in the same place is unsafe, or (b) the villagers clearly express that they want to shift to a new location. (For instance, after the Latur earthquake in Maharashtra, some villagers wished to move because of the large number of fatalities that had occurred, and the old villages had become cremation sites and were uninhabitable for psychological or religious reasons). A clear, transparent and participatory approach is in any case required to assess the wishes of the villagers, and also take into account the natural but temporary tendency to want to flee from a disaster.
The assessment team therefore recommends that the approach to reconstruction in the rural villages should be to facilitate quick removal of rubble using local labor, and reconstruction of permanent housing in the old locations wherever possible. The principles for involving the communities in planning and implementing such reconstruction are discussed in the next sections.
B. Communication and Information Dissemination
Communication and information dissemination are important to the successful and harmonious implementation of the earthquake recovery and reconstruction program. Policy initiatives, financial assistance, and technical know-how will not be effective without a system to convey their content swiftly and equitably to the public, to hear of and assess their suitability and sustainability within communities, and to make appropriate adjustments based on community feedback. Community-driven reconstruction must be at the heart of the state’s recovery program. However, the Government has a leading role to play in collating community requirements, transferring funds and material to the affected areas, sharing knowledge and lessons learnt, setting technical and other parameters, enumerating locational, housing, financial and employment options, facilitating civil society interventions, ensuring justice and protection for the vulnerable, preventing corruption, and providing political and administrative support to the reconstruction process. It cannot perform these roles without effective communication between itself, the public, and other partners; and if it does not put in place mechanisms for consultation with, within, and among communities.
There is thus an urgent need for the Government to devise a communication strategy to support the following aspects of the recovery program:
- 4 - · dissemination of information; · community consultation and participation; · building local technical capacity; · coordination among partners; · transparency; and · addressing external stakeholders and audiences.
Dissemination of information. This is the most basic and essential communication requirement. In order to serve the principles of justice and transparency, to share technical knowledge, and to ensure informed participation, it is necessary that every single affected family be made aware of government policies and compensation packages, the housing and other options available, and individual entitlements and rights. Information dissemination is a continuous process, beginning now and running throughout the recovery and reconstruction period. A variety of media, materials and methods will need to be employed both to proactively convey information to the public, and make it accessible to those who come seeking it.
Community consultation and participation. In order to facilitate participatory and consultative processes, a two-way communication mechanism needs to be in place. It must convey information from the government and society at large to individuals, and also be able to collect and channel community views back to policy-makers. Moreover, it must give voice to poor, vulnerable, and marginalized sections. This implies both a network of rural and urban grassroots workers who dispense information and solicit views, and a mechanism to integrate their feedback into policy.
Building local technical capacity. The most gigantic challenge of the recovery program is to rebuild hundreds of thousands of individual homes, as well as a huge number of public buildings and other physical infrastructure, to affordable but exacting engineering standards. This implies educating, in a very short time and over a vast geographical area, a very large number of house-owners, laborers, builders, architects and assessors. The communication challenge includes the very basic one of demystifying concepts like ‘earthquake and cyclone resistance’, and goes on to the more substantial tasks of publicizing technical standards and explaining techniques. A logistical concern will be the suitable deployment of a limited pool of trainers and skilled masons. The communication strategy must serve these needs at a number of levels: providing teaching tools and aids to trainers, calibrated for different audiences; functioning as an information exchange to enable skilled manpower to be judiciously rotated; and becoming a force multiplier through strategic use of mass media and other methods to reach messages to remote and inaccessible populations.
External audiences. It is important that the Government also devise a communication strategy for secondary stakeholders and external audiences, such as the public elsewhere in the state, non-resident Gujaratis, the media, etc. Messages need to be consistent and clear in order to portray a correct picture of the situation on the ground, boost public morale, and generate continuous goodwill and support. For example, the criteria and procedures for business organizations and other donors to “adopt” (preferably, “partner”) villages need to be communicated clearly. A proactive external communication policy would include a clearly identified, authoritative spokesperson for the recovery program alongside strategic handling of the media, regular interaction with civil society, and creative use of the Internet.
Immediate and medium-term actions. Given the dynamic situation in the affected areas and the multiplicity of stakeholders, communication mechanisms need to be put in place as quickly as possible. The following actions are desirable in the next month:
- 5 - · determine the specific nature of communication requirements; · formulate a communication strategy accordingly; · assess capacity of Government and other key partners for such work; · identify basic messages and communication tools, and start implementing to the extent feasible; and · define process and criteria for selecting consultants.
The following steps could be undertaken in the next three months:
· identify and appoint consultants; · fine-tune messages and improve communication techniques and materials; · identify, train, and orient grassroots workers; · upgrade and extend implementation program to all worst affected areas; and · use mass media to convey basic messages to other affected areas.
Over the medium term (i.e., two years) it would be necessary to extend and intensify communication activities in all affected areas, and within the first and second year it would be advisable to evaluate whether the desired effects are occurring, and modify the strategy where necessary.
C. Community Consultation and Participation
Community participation will be a fundamental requirement in most sectors for the success of their reconstruction efforts. Local communities will need to be actively involved in the decision-making for and implementation of reconstruction activities. The team found that affected people in both rural and urban areas want to participate in and contribute to the range of efforts that will be required, including decisions about rebuilding in situ/relocation, housing, location of and types of services, and so on. While they recognize a need for external financial and technical assistance, the communities are equally clear in their desire to have a say in the utilization of resources coming into the affected areas.
Community participation would accomplish several objectives in the reconstruction phase:
· Reduce trauma. Trauma and depression are not always visible immediately after a disaster but may occur weeks or months later. Active involvement in work and participation in community affairs can reduce the psychological problems experienced by many earthquake victims. · Result in more culturally- and socially-appropriate solutions. Experience shows that plans and designs created by external agents (Government or other) in housing and other areas of reconstruction do not always correspond to people’s needs. Following the Maharashtra earthquake in 1993, it was reported that many people in the new colonies found the houses constructed inappropriate and chose to tie their cattle inside them rather than live in them. Often, relocation decisions imposed from outside break up the social fabric, to the detriment of people's community support systems. This was the case after the Kobe (Japan) earthquake in 1995, where a rehabilitation plan was hurriedly prepared by the municipal government. Inappropriate decisions resulted in suicides, out-migration, and implementation delays.
· Increase transparency and accountability. Large-scale reconstruction efforts with tenders and formal bidding processes reduce opportunities for local people to be involved in reconstruction. Many government officials, NGOs, and community members feel that large
- 6 - contracts reduce transparency and increase the risk of corruption. Local people have expressed their concern that outside commercial interests may promote costly solutions, and profiteer from the disaster. Distrust of contractors and builders is particularly strong at this time because of people's belief that some of the damage caused by the earthquake was due to poor quality of construction and cheating on materials. Informed participation of communities could contain costs and ensure reliability. By ensuring that funds are made available directly to the communities and the individuals involved, the scope for these irregularities is decreased. Thus, wherever possible, communities should undertake their own reconstruction efforts, knowing what funds and other support are available to whom. Village people should be involved in listing beneficiaries and in reviewing damage assessment reports. Material and cash transfers should be made only in public settings. Accounts and records should be publicly displayed and updated. During the relief effort, people have already taken on responsibility for restarting schools, and are expressing a desire to rebuild themselves with some material support and financial assistance from outside. They are certainly willing to participate in meeting their immediate need for temporary shelter.
· Reduce dependency. While relief and charity are important in the immediate aftermath of a natural disaster, they should be replaced as soon as possible with efforts to foster a greater sense of ownership and involvement among people. The assessment team was told by several people that relief assistance is already creating competition for handouts, community conflict, and dependency. Greater local participation and contributions to the reconstruction effort could reduce social tensions and lead to more sustainable development efforts.
· Provide opportunities for employment. Employment and income are urgent needs of the affected people. Rather than purchase materials, expertise and labor from outside, efforts to utilize local resources and employ local people in the rebuilding activities, including work schemes such as removal of debris and construction of community infrastructure, would benefit them greatly.
· Increase access to, utilization and effectiveness of services. Community participation in decisions on school and health center locations, and the type of water supply and sanitation infrastructure to be built, for example, would ensure better access to these, increase their utilization and, hence, make them more effective in meeting people's needs. Experience has shown that women's involvement in the planning of public services as well as of housing benefits families and communities a great deal. Organizations such as the Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan and the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) could assist in working with women.
· Improve equity. The ongoing relief effort has by all accounts been a tremendous cooperative achievement of the GOG, armed forces, NGOs, corporate sector, international agencies, and the people themselves. Among anecdotes of remarkable heroism and efficiency, however, one criticism heard by the team was that relief has been less effective in remote villages, and that certain disadvantaged communities (such as the tribal Kolis) have benefited less than the powerful upper castes. Participatory mechanisms have the potential to iron out such inequalities without exacerbating social tensions. Most often, decisions -- for example, on compensation--are taken by communities on the basis of actual need rather than on 'academic' criteria such as socioeconomic level. The use of such criteria in the Government's recently announced compensation packages reinforces inequities and could exacerbate them.
· Save time over the medium-term. It is often thought that participatory planning takes time, which is unaffordable in emergencies. However, a lack of consultation and participation in planning could cause more delays in subsequent implementation than participatory processes. After the 1995 Kobe (Japan) earthquake a rehabilitation plan was decided on quickly by the
- 7 - government, but implementation was delayed as time had to be spent subsequently to get the consent of the affected population: “The initial top-down approach created distrust between the government and the local people, or even among the local people, thus caused many problems in rebuilding the harmonious communities.” (Report by Toyokazu Nakata, former Chief Coordinator, NGO Coordinating Team for Hanshin Earthquake Relief, Kobe). Participatory planning can in fact speed up implementation by ensuring a priori 'buy-in' of all concerned, and participation efforts can be designed in such a way that they run simultaneously with technical and physical efforts, and strengthen these rather than delay them.
The modalities for ensuring appropriate community consultation and participation need to be developed. These will depend on the community organizations and local support structures that can be called in to assist the reconstruction effort. The paucity of organized community groups in the region, and the absence of legitimate decision-making structures such as panchayats pose a risk to any participatory strategy. Furthermore, there is limited capacity for such work among NGOs and the Government, which means that support will be required from outside the area. After the Maharashtra earthquake two nodal NGOs were brought in to assist the process of participation, and a similar approach involving several NGOs may need to be followed here. A thorough social assessment conducted by an experienced institution or group could contribute to the social mobilization and capacity building required. Such an assessment could be undertaken as an on-going process to provide the social, cultural and institutional analysis needed to ensure that support mechanisms reflect the needs of various stakeholders involved, particularly poor and vulnerable groups.
D. Partnerships between Government, NGOs, and Community Organizations
Involving communities in their own reconstruction and rehabilitation will require a well- coordinated effort between Government, NGOs, and existing community institutions, including the Panchayati Raj institutions. The team found that collaboration among these agencies was excellent during the relief phase. Several well known and credible NGOs such as SEWA are active in the area and are helping people restore livelihoods and meet other needs. The Kutch Navnirman Abhiyan has developed a plan for reconstruction based on “a fundamental belief in self-help, confidence-building and enabling local villagers to meet, organize and carry out their own needs assessment and handing over the relief operations to the hands of the beneficiaries with minimum supervision….” The Abhiyan has set up 16 local sub-centers in Kutch to coordinate information and assistance, with encouragement and formal endorsement from the Government.
The relief effort thus far is impressive. However, much of the work done by Government and NGOs has been managed by people from outside the affected area – senior, experienced government officers from the Indian Administrative Service, and skilled volunteers and workers from development organizations around the state, country and abroad. As the availability of skilled people may not continue, efforts are needed immediately to ensure that sufficient numbers of capable organizers are present among local people or trained within a short time. The United Nations' Volunteers' program support to and training of local volunteers to assist the rehabilitation effort is a worthy solution. While NGOs have a reasonably good geographical coverage in the affected areas, they are unlikely to be able to coordinate the reconstruction in all affected towns and villages. It is therefore essential to extend the partnership and coordination between Government and NGOs to local institutions by involving and building capacity among community associations, women's groups, village committees and Panchayati Raj Institutions at the local level. It will also be necessary to establish more such groups -- the social structure of the area suggests that women's groups would be particularly beneficial. Among the lessons of previous earthquakes worldwide is the finding that affected people work most effectively to
- 8 - rehabilitate themselves--more so than NGOs or governments. A clear strategy for capacity building and organizing is a high priority at this stage.
E. Coordination
There is also need for coordination among different national and international agencies involved in the reconstruction effort. The coordination undertaken by the Government of Gujarat and the United Nations' Disaster Assistance Committee (UNDAC) during the relief phase is of a high quality. The assessment team recommends that similar arrangements be maintained during the reconstruction phase. UNDAC has been succeeded by the UNDP for the rehabilitation phase.) Consultations need to be undertaken amongst the different agencies to assess capacities, identify complementarities, recognize gaps, avoid duplication, and coordinate efforts.
Communication between the Government and the numerous aid agencies, commercial organizations, NGOs and community-based organizations which have come forward to assist in this massive recovery program is of paramount importance. Not only should their physical activities be coordinated but it is important that they follow common technical and finishing standards, harmonize policies where appropriate, and do not undermine the drive and initiative of local communities. Outside partners need to ensure that local leadership as well as poor, vulnerable and marginalized sections participate, and to be mindful of communities' dignity, traditions and practices. Only a continuous two-way communication and dialogue interface between the communities, external partners, and the Government will ensure this.
F. Safeguarding against secondary displacement or other negative impacts of the reconstruction effort
As noted in this assessment report, relocation should be avoided where possible, and assistance should be given to enable people to rebuild their homes to better standards in their old location. This would also minimize the need for new land acquisition, which may cause hardships to those affected by losing land or livelihood opportunities. The assessment team recommends that if land acquisition or displacement of people to make room for new housing colonies or infrastructure is unavoidable, a social assessment process involving all stakeholders should be undertaken. Gujarat has developed an excellent framework for support to people affected by land acquisition or displacement by encroachers on public land in its State Highways project, and the mission recommends that the principles of support and entitlements adopted in the Highways project be used in case there is a need for secondary displacement for reconstruction after the earthquake.
The approach recommended would be based on the following principles:
· To the extent possible, relocation should be avoided. This corresponds with the views of many rural dwellers met by the Joint team, and also with the wishes of many people in urban areas. Decisions about relocation should be taken only after full consultation with all affected people, and full disclosure of information and entitlements.
· Where temporary relocation is unavoidable, for example, in urban areas, such shelters should be built on Government land wherever possible.
· If permanent housing is to be constructed in new areas, for instance, because of the need to reduce density in an urban area and improve housing standards and safety, the principle of self-relocation should be followed. The affected population should be given financial and
- 9 - technical support to choose locations and housing based on their own preferences. This should reduce or eliminate the need for large housing colonies.
· If acquisition of private property is unavoidable, the Government should assist in purchasing the necessary land through the principle of willing seller – willing buyer, rather than resorting to land acquisition under law.
· If none of the scenarios mentioned above are feasible, people affected by land acquisition are entitled to full compensation and assistance in regaining livelihoods, as described above. In such cases, an agency experienced in planning and implementing resettlement action plans should be contracted to ensure proper consultation, compensation, and relocation assistance to those displaced by secondary land acquisition.
G. Independent Monitoring and Grievance Redressal
The joint team recommends that effective monitoring and grievance redressal mechanism be established. The Terms of Reference of such monitoring and grievance redressal systems should be made public. In addition, quick and accessible grievance redressal mechanisms, such as lok adalats (people's courts), could be put in place, at least at the taluka level in the worst affected talukas. The public should be informed of their right to grievance redressal. Consideration should also be given to the establishment of a permanent, independent body to enforce existing and new building codes.
- 10 - Annex 2a
Housing
Introduction
Total devastation of about 400,000 and serious damage to nearly 500,000 dwelling units in rural areas and another 120,000 affected in urban areas is the single most costly damage to any of the sectors affected by the earthquake of January 26, 2001, in Gujarat. According to more recent GOG estimates, not assessed by the mission, 800,000 houses may have been partially damaged. According to the preliminary estimates of the Government of Gujarat (GOG), total damage to assets in the housing sector amount to about Rs. 5,200 crore ($1,111 million) including the estimated value of household goods. Excluding household assets, the total losses amount to Rs. 4,290 crores ($922 million). The housing stock of devastated towns and villages was transformed to endless piles of twisted steel bars, crumbled concrete, heaps of broken stone and brick walls, and collapsed roofs, killing over 20,000 people and leaving about 2 million people homeless. In addition to the financial cost, the visibility of homelessness, underscored by hundreds of thousands of people camping in the open, indicates the enormous social costs of this disaster – from physical disability and psychological trauma, to loss of productivity and future earnings. Most of the castes and members of all religious affiliations have been affected, cutting across the social and income spectrum. In addition to the cities and towns, such as Ahmedabad, Anjar, Bhuj, Bhachau, Ghandidham , Rapar, Halvad and Matur, the team that covered the housing sector and the structural performance of buildings visited the following villages: Chobari, Dhond, Dhrang, Gado, Lakadia, Manafara, Mondicheri, Morga, Nanicherai, Phadar, and Shivalakha. Information was obtained from the government administrative staff (in most cases deputized to duty in the earthquake affected taluks from other areas of the state), local and state government officials, representatives of NGOs, including the Bank of the SEWA, Friends of World Women’s Banking (FWWB), Janpath Citizens’ Initiative, Gayatri Parivar, Caritas, Bharatiya Jain Sanghatana, and Shrujan, and the many homeless people encountered in the tent camps and makeshift shelters. Pre-Earthquake Situation in Kutch Kutch, the most seriously earthquake-affected district, has a low density (28 persons per sq km) compared to Gujarat’s overall density of 240 persons per sq km. Only 905 villages out of the state’s total of 18,509 are located here, and it is less urbanized than other districts. According to the 1997 estimates, its 1.47 million inhabitants were spread over 23.3 percent of Gujarat, but represented only 2.7 percent of the total population. The most severely affected urban areas may be classified into three groups: (a) Ahmedabad is alone in its category, since it is the largest municipal corporation in Gujarat with 3.3 million people in 1999; here, the damage is concentrated in residential areas; (b) Bhuj and Gandhidham, which have populations of around 100,000 inhabitants (the former is an old city founded in 1548, and the latter is a planned city built right after independence); and (c) Anjar, Bhachau and Rapar, which are smaller urban centers with less than 50,000 inhabitants. While Morbi in Rajkot district was severely affected, many other municipalities suffered moderate to marginal damages. Jamnagar and Surat, two large municipal corporations, were also impacted. Villages in Kutch are located amidst arid fields that need to be irrigated for agricultural purposes. While there are larger and more affluent villages (such as Manafara), which resemble small towns in their layout, most of the lower income villages feature a central plaza with trees and a platform for village gatherings, with narrow streets winding to the most remote households.
- 11 - Physical environment is characterized by both pucca and kutcha houses and huts, built usually of low cost materials (as described in detail in Annex 2b) and covered with sloping roofs. Asset Losses Initial estimates suggest that more than 400,000 dwelling units collapsed, while almost 500,000 were partially damaged. Damage to housing (excluding consumable durables and other house contents) amounts to a total of Rs. 4,290 crores ($922 million). The cost of reconstruction incorporating earthquake resistant features is difficult to estimate, without adequate details. At this stage, it is assumed that this will be about Rs. 5,148 crore (about $1,100 million) or 20 percent more than the estimated replacement cost. Many urban areas of the state have also been badly affected. The government has already initiated a detailed damage assessment, having trained and dispatched about 2,000 three-people- strong teams around the impacted area. At least four towns in Kutch have seen a high proportion of its housing stock being affected. The worst affected is the town of Bhachau where a large proportion of the housing stock has either collapsed or been damaged beyond repair. Cost of damage to private residential properties is likely to be very high. Using the Government of Gujarat’s preliminary estimates of average current costs of either replacement or repairs to bring the stock to pre-earthquake situation, the value of damage is nearly Rs. 2,650 crores ($570 million) in rural areas and Rs. 1,640 crores ($352 million) in urban areas. In addition, the loss of movable assets in fully collapsed houses is considered to be equal to about a third of the replacement cost of rural properties. This may be justified while households often had cash and jewelry, and houses also served as workplaces and storage for agriculture inventories, a large part of this will be possible to retrieve. This is estimated to be about Rs. 610 crore in rural areas and about Rs. 2,700 crore for urban areas (see Table 1).
Table 1: Estimated Damage Assessment for Housing
Housing Estimated value of damage Units affected (Number) (Rs. crores) ($ million) Housing Rural -fully collapsed houses 291337 1, 830 392.6 Partially damaged houses 488350 830 177.4 Total Rural 779687 2,650 570.1
Urban - large cities 23979 140 29.0 Municipalities 95166 1,500 323.2 Total Urban 119145 1,640 352.3 TOTAL – Housing 898832 4,290 922.3
Household goods Rural 610 130.9 Urban 270 58.1 Total 880 189.0 TOTAL 5,170 1111.3
Source: Based on Government of Gujarat, 'A preliminary report on the earthquake damage in Gujarat', February, 2001; sector reports on rural housing and urban housing. For household goods, see the text.
- 12 - Separate estimates for fully collapsed and partially damaged houses are not available for urban areas. It is assumed that 50 percent of value of damage is for fully collapsed houses and value of household goods in urban areas is 33 percent of total property replacement costs
Other Impacts
Other impacts, difficult to assign financial value to without further study, include the high social costs of homelessness, underscored by psychological trauma, poor health, fear of occupying damaged houses, and loss of earnings for those individuals whose home also doubled as a place of work. Significant loss of property related documents presents also an immediate problem for the victims, as documenting proof of home-ownership for compensation and reconstruction purposes may be difficult for many. Additionally, the earthquake’s effects in Ahmedabad, where 68 buildings collapsed, precipitated, at least in the short run a sudden drop in the demand for multi-story apartment units and the prices of such properties. The housing finance sector is also likely to experience considerable losses. Loss of housing on this scale will also have some impact on local property tax revenues.
Immediate (and simultaneous) Steps With the widespread collapse of houses, and even higher numbers of damaged houses, a number of priorities are identified. These include: (a) careful and transparent damage assessment (see Annex 2b) to establish the bases for grant assistance and entitlement of different families; (b) building of temporary shelter; (c) debris removal; (d) support to community consultation for choice between relocation and in situ development to arrive at informed community choices; and (e) training of masons and other local artisans in appropriate seismic and cyclone resistant building technology. Temporary shelter. As no permanent buildings can be completed to the required safety standards before the beginning of the next monsoon by July 15, 2001, the GOG decided to assist the homeless immediately by providing temporary shelter. The Joint Team’s assessment is that Government’s decision to proceed along these lines is correct, given the harsh climate in the area of earthquake impact. A number of international private establishments involved in producing various types of usually expensive and/or inappropriate shelter/housing have already contacted the Government or some of the NGOs. The Joint Team supports the use of recyclable building materials for temporary shelter, as it will find its use in permanent reconstruction as well. The Government has already purchased 17 metric tons of corrugated iron sheets, which is intended for distribution to the rural homeless together with bamboo poles and cement (to assist in building of a raised plinth area to protect units’ interior from rain). For urban areas, the Government plans to built units out of asbestos sheets. The Government is estimating unit cost as Rs. 10,000 (about $215) for rural areas and Rs. 16,000 (about $340) for urban areas. NGOs, such as VAS Community Science Centre, assert that they can develop shelter units for only Rs. 8,000 (about $170). It must also be noted that an NGO consortium is working actively on developing other, alternative, solutions to temporary shelter (such as the “core-house” concept) through the use of local building materials. Debris removal, salvaging and recycling . For detailed assessment of issues associated with debris removal, refer to the Annex on Environment. The government has already decided that all debris removal from villages will be owner-driven, and assisted through the government relief work schemes (whereby people are compensated for their daily work) and through the provision of transport facilities for the disposal of unusable rubble. However, most of the debris
- 13 - found in the villages and suburban properties is readily recyclable, and this process has begun and is now in the swing.1 Community participation. Involving communities, and particularly women, in the planning and reconstruction of housing (and in decisions about locations of health centers, schools, new markets, and types of water supply and solid waste systems) is important in creating appropriate facilities, ensuring access and utilization, and hence the overall effectiveness of the rebuilt settlements. Immediate training needs. The Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology (CEPT) has already begun professional development courses of seven to ten days duration for approximately 500 structural engineers over the next six months in design, construction and rehabilitation of buildings for improved earthquake resistance. This initiative is crucial, as the state has an inadequate number of experts to assess the damage, advise on the temporary shelter construction, and in the medium phase, also on housing construction. Other needs. A critical need is also a technically sound and transparent damage assessment process in both rural and urban areas which will help establish entitlements in a sound and open manner. GOG has already initiated this by adding an independent person, from an NGO or a local social worker, on the damage assessment teams. Early formation of village reconstruction committees which are representative and gender balanced, and capacity building support to both local NGOs and these committees will also be critical to the success of a reconstruction strategy.
Possible Recovery and Reconstruction Needs An analysis of the Government’s current housing policy. The massive reconstruction efforts to respond to this large scale destruction of private property are expected to be guided by the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction policy announced by the GOG within three weeks from the day of the earthquake. The Government’s approach involves harnessing the capacity of the public sector, the private sector (NGOs, voluntary organizations, private industrial houses, expert consulting assistance) and, above all, the affected people themselves who are most aware of their own needs and priorities. The policy comprises four packages: (a), demand based grant assistance for relocation of 256 villages where more than 70 percent of the housing stock has been destroyed, at an estimated cost of Rs. 30 million per village, including grants for land and housing as well as public facilities; (b) in situ reconstruction or repairs of housing in villages and towns located in areas declared as the worst affected for zones 4 and 5; (c) in situ construction for destroyed or damaged housing in zone 3; and (d) a special package of grant based compensation for urban areas. A special fifth package is expected to be announced for the four towns in Kutch district (i.e., Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, and Rapar) which have been affected on a massive scale. In operationalizing
1 In this connection, USAID will finance technical assistance for three organizations that have joined together to support a community-driven rehabilitation and reconstruction process in Kutch. The Environmental Planning Collaborative (EPC) and the City Managers Association of Gujarat (CMAG) have together established an “Earthquake Technical Cell” (ETC). The ETC will work with “Kutch Navnirman Abhiyan” (KNA), an association of 16 NGOs working in coordination with the District Government, to plan, organize, and rebuild Kutch. The technical assistance from ETC and KNA will focus on an action plan for systematic rubble removal and sorting, starting in the historic cities of Kutch. Other components of USAID’s program include: establishing a comprehensive information system for reconstruction operations in Kutch to coordinate the activities of the help to multiple agencies and organizations that will be involved in Kutch’s reconstruction; and preparing strategies for the participatory planning process for the redevelopment of Kutch.
- 14 - this policy, however, some issues offer room for further analysis, and resultant improvement in policy implementation: · First as presented, the policy on relocation of 256 heavily affected villages implicitly emphasizes the relocation option. While in principle the decision on relocation has to be locally made, there are incentives for relocation given larger grant assistance for housing along with a free plot of land, and integrated provision of infrastructure, as compared to the in situ options. Decision to relocate may lead to considerable delays and may also dampen owner-driven reconstruction strategy. · The second issue relates to the implicit inequities in the nature of grant assistance offered for housing. Rather than offering an equal grant to all affected households, with a possibility of loan assistance for those with higher demands and incomes, the policy offers higher compensation and grant assistance to those with larger houses, especially in urban centers. Further, compensation in zone 3 is far lower than for those in zones 4 and 5. · The policy does not adequately define house types, or the nature of damage for different levels of compensation which may result in appropriation of benefits by more affluent sections of society. Lack of clarity in definitions on the other hand may result in undue discretion and subjectivity at the ground level. Greater clarity is also necessary in deciding whether entitlements will accrue to owners or 'occupants', issue of illegal land tenure, and in assessing legality of construction as linked to built up area of construction. GOG has initiated measures to address many of these concerns in its damage assessment exercise and ensuring transparency. These will need to be further strengthened. Other matters that may be considered in implementing the housing reconstruction and rehabilitation program are discussed below. Urban planning issues. Urban redevelopment strategies are needed to reconstruct the most affected cities. These strategies require coordination across sectors, and physical reconstruction should be linked to social and economic recovery. An urban redevelopment strategy will need to integrate these aspects within a comprehensive framework that includes hazard mitigation. Urban planning will have to be linked to hazard and vulnerability analysis and mapping, which should be linked to a state-wide disaster management plan. A building inventory is also essential since type and quality of construction play a crucial role in determining the vulnerability of a building. Finally, international experience indicates that information on hazards, preventive regulation and zoning have shown better results in terms of promoting retrofitting and application of standards when supplemented with economic incentives such as tax abatements, etc. Special efforts will be needed to reconstruct the houses and overall urban fabric of the four towns in Kutch District, namely Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau and Rapar which have seen significant devastation. While the residents would take part in the consultative process, key planning issues to be addressed include: road characteristics and widths, possible need for de- densification, provision of critical public facilities and open spaces. It is likely that the devastation in these towns is linked to the medieval city patterns with narrow streets and high densities. This will require planning at both the city and neighborhood levels. In a similar vein, the probably unnecessary loss of property and lives in Ahmedabad highlight the need for significant reforms in the regulatory framework for buildings and real estate industry as well as skill development. These include measures such as: reforms in building codes and regulation, rating system for builders, reforms in cooperative society and rent control legislation, improved monitoring systems and registration of developers. While these are all important, it will be necessary to identify a set of strategic actions, such as compulsory insurance for buildings, which will help to effectively trigger these reforms. Ultimately these issues relate
- 15 - to the need for improved governance with transparency and accountability. Participation of professional bodies and civil society at large in these processes is crucial. Geographical Information System (GIS) technology can facilitate urban planning and the integration of hazard and vulnerability factors into the urban redevelopment process. GIS databases can be developed for the geographic areas of concerned urban bodies, although it is not necessary that each small town be provided with this technology. In the latter case, however, it is necessary that local authorities know that the information is available and understand how to apply it during the planning process Social and economic needs. Housing reconstruction and economic rehabilitation are intimately linked. In many cases both rural and urban housing units are close to places of work (e.g., shops, field, market centers) or, indeed, are one and the same. For example, the large number of artisans in Kutch are home-based workers, with some requiring some special space for their work equipment (e.g., weavers’ looms). Thus, reconstructed houses should take this need into account. Proper water supply and drainage arrangements are of utmost importance whether old densities are adhered to or de-densification takes place. Solid waste disposal areas also need to be properly delineated. Most of the villages and towns visited by the assessment team were settlements with some separate caste/community neighborhoods. Though densities were high, and streets narrow and often lacking in drainage, people repeatedly expressed their desire to return to these living arrangements, with which they have familial and emotional ties. In the cases where rebuilding takes place in situ, community groupings–or mixtures–are, of course, unlikely to be disturbed. In the event of relocation, individual households and community groups should be allowed to decide whether they wish to maintain such groups. Approach to Housing Reconstruction The housing reconstruction approach adopted by the government is characterized by several features, including a home-owner driven process, disaster-resistant criteria (safeguarding against cyclones, earthquakes and floods) for all new construction and repair of damaged houses; a private-public partnership nature of the recovery; and training and education. Issues related to transparency and information dissemination are also important. These are discussed in Annex 1 on social impact and recovery needs. Owner-driven reconstruction. The process of owner-driven housing rehabilitation has already begun in the area of earthquake impact, and assessment team members had an opportunity to observe home-owners and family members not only salvaging building materials, but also planning for commencing immediate reconstruction. It is expected that following the consultation process that the Government is planning to undertake, the owner-driven rehabilitation process will come into full swing. Nevertheless, it must be pointed out that experiences from other similar operations (e.g., Maharashtra earthquake or Andhra Pradesh cyclone recovery projects), indicate that community participation must be accompanied by meaningful and continuous community outreach, through NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs). Their role will be to motivate owners to sustain the effort, to seek and utilize obtained information about the benefits and disaster-resistant construction, and take part in the economic revitalization – together with housing, one of the pre-requisites for overall recovery. Disaster resistant reconstruction. Reconstruction of lost houses should to the greatest extent possible be along lines of strengthened seismic, high wind (cyclone) and flood provisions as envisaged in the applicable building codes. Government officials indicated to the assessment team that a review of such codes, regulation and bylaws will be undertaken for Gujarat, and that quality control of the construction process will be enhanced–including the code enforcement process and adequate supervision of construction sites. This process is essential. Existing
- 16 - building stock that survived the earthquake may have to be repaired and / or also retrofitted to meet the safety standards against the two dominant hazards in the state, earthquake and cyclone. Lost rural, nonengineered buildings too should be reconstructed according to appropriate techniques, which are known, and will be disseminated to the local artisans and builders. (refer also to Annex 2b). Private-public partnership . GOG is aware that it cannot assist the numerous homeless people on its own, and that it would not be able to afford it financially, either. Importantly, it is aware of the state’s exposure to recurring hazards, and is preparing for ways to establish a local capacity to deal with these problems in the future. The owner-driven house rebuilding process, therefore, espouses, on the one hand, the regulatory and facilitating role of the Government, which is providing the initial stepping stone to the victims of the earthquake through grant assistance; and, on the other hand, home-owners (through contributing their own labor, or tapping into their savings to supplement state housing grants), their local CBOs and NGOs, capacity building support through local and other professional agencies, commercial banks and housing finance companies (through offering mortgage finance), and other members of the private sector, who will mobilize their own resources and provide management support in selected villages. Training and education. Dissemination of the know-how in prudent building techniques, while retaining the use of local construction materials, is one of the Government of Gujarat’s goals. Training courses in rural areas will be undertaken, among others, by building centers, that the Government agreed with the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) to establish in about 30 locations. Kutch Navnirman Abhiyan (KNA) has already established over 16 subcenters in the various parts of the affected region. In addition to training proper, these centers will also serve as production sites for building materials, such as concrete block, burnt brick, and roof clay tiles, thus contributing to the livelihood of the local people employed there. Additional capacity building and training efforts will also be needed for strengthening capacities of local NGOs to effectively participate and facilitate the housing reconstruction process. The requirements of urban areas are to a certain degree different, as a qualified cadre of contractors, builders and artisans, as well as government engineers to monitor the rebuilding process will be necessary. For example, in the case of Ahmedabad, USAID is considering to fund a proposal from the Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology to develop institutional reforms for mitigating earthquake vulnerability. CEPT will work with the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) to suggest modifications in the AMC by-laws and building procedures to increase seismic safety in buildings. Under the same USAID assistance to CEPT and AMC, CEPT would develop “training of trainers” in the design, construction and rehabilitation of buildings for earthquake resistance. The trainees would be engineers, architects and planners from CEPT and other technical institutes. They in turn would train engineers from urban local bodies, roads and buildings departments and private architecture and engineering consultants.
- 17 - Annex 2b
Structural Behavior of Buildings
Introduction
This Annex describes a variety of building types in the zone of earthquake impact, analyzes their performance in the earthquake, and suggests methods for prudent construction practices in the recovery phase. The process of building permits (sanctions), and construction quality control (supervision and code enforcement) are also part of this annex. In terms of ownership, the building stock reviewed includes both private and public (government) buildings, and in terms of use it comprises all types of rural and urban housing (single- and multi-story units), school, hospital and industrial buildings, as well as other public buildings. All reference to damages have been excluded from this Annex, as they are incorporated in other annexes.
Overall, the building stock in the zone of impact (and in the state in general) is typified by the use of a wide range of disparate construction materials, frequently combined in the same structure. Phased construction, consisting of the addition of new parts of buildings at different times (without structural consolidation) is very common, and includes both single- and multi- story structures.
According to the Vulnerability Atlas of India 1997 for Gujarat State , there were a total of about 10 million housing units in the State (1991 housing census). Sixty-six percent of these were in Rural and 34 percent in urban areas. The following level of exposure to major earthquake damage risk, indicates that the predominant types of building construction in the State, as nonengineered structures, offer almost no resistance to ground shaking. The component materials have low strength, and the structures do not have further resilience once the materials have cracked.
Category ‘A’ Category ‘B’ (Mud, Unburned Brick or (Burnt Brick walls) Stone walls) Level ofearthquakeDamage Risk Very High High in Zone V (> MM IX) Rural housing units (%) 52 32 Urban housing units (%) 23 73
There is little quantitative information available about the details of the ground motion or the intensity of shaking in the earthquake-affected region.
Damage Assessment According to Building Use and Structural Type
Urban/towns. There is a predominance of single, two (and some) three story units. More recent trends in the larger towns (Bhuj, Gandhidham, etc.) has been towards construction of multi-storied apartment units (typically 1+4 or higher). The construction of additional floors (“penthouses” in multistory housing buildings) with heavy additional loads (e.g., roof gardens, swimming pools) became a trend among the affluent in larger cities in recent years. The fast construction process, that accompanied increased financial capacity of the middle- and higher- income strata, contributed to the structural vulnerability.
- 18 - Ahmedabad a city of about 4 million, has about 12,000 low-rise and 450 high-rise apartment blocks, in addition to the usual one- to three-story single family units.
Traditional housing units, very common in old city areas made of sloping red clay tile or AC/GI sheet roofing on timber framing, reinforced concrete floor slabs, unreinforced load bearing masonry walls–typically stone (cut or rubble), concrete solid block or clay set in cement or lime mortar; and mostly stone rubble masonry wall foundations. Widespread mix of traditional and modern building material/construction within the same unit was most visible in the “walled towns” of Bhuj and Anjar, respectively.
Modern single family units. Up to three floors high (ground floor plus two floors) typically comprised of reinforced concrete roof and floor slabs, supported partly on load bearing masonry walls and partly on reinforced concrete beam/column frame structures. In the epicentral region (e.g., Bhachau, Ratnal, and adjoining villages) virtually all traditional housing units and nonengineered structures collapsed and turned into rubble; all two story and most single story RCC slab load bearing structures have also partially collapsed. Also, in the “walled towns” of Bhuj and Anjar, virtually all traditional houses collapsed.
Modern multistoried multifamily low-rise housing . Usually five floors high (Ground- floor plus four floors) these are by and large reinforced concrete framed structures with non- structural masonry in-fill walls (cut stone, concrete block or burnt clay brick). Several such structures collapsed or have undergone major distress, while most others have experienced varying degrees of cracking and damage. In Bhuj, approx. 100 buildings collapsed or were damaged beyond repair –out of a total stock of about 280. About 75 such buildings (including several hotels) collapsed in Gandhidham. In Ahmedabad, 68 such buildings collapsed out of a stock of about 12,000. About 54 of these had been constructed during the last ten years.
In some cases owners have indicated that buildings with relatively light structural damage, are to be demolished and rebuilt. Informed decision making is in order, since it may be practical to return some of these buildings to acceptable levels of safety, naturally with appropriate repairs and strengthening, under the guidance of competent structural engineers.
Modern multistorie d multifamily high-rise housing. Up to 10 storeys high, these are usually reinforced concrete framed structures with non-structural masonry in-fill walls (concrete block or burnt brick). Three such 10 storied structures collapsed in Ahmedabad–all three were constructed during the last five years.
Generally, the reinforced concrete framed structures that collapsed during the January 26, 2001, earthquake, were poorly designed, detailed and constructed, apparently without considering earthquake risk and related lateral loads or, in most cases, local soil conditions. Most of the collapsed buildings had an open lower level (so called soft story–created for parking. In such cases, masonry wall elements were not available to restrict lateral frame drift and provide reserve vertical load carrying capacity, when columns failed under the earthquake loads. Building collapse was largely restricted to certain specific types of structures, particularly in Ahmedabad, indicating that resonance between the frequency of ground motion and the fundamental building period may have contributed to failure. However, this can only be confirmed after an analysis of detailed ground motion data and records. In Ahmedabad, Bhuj, and Gandhidham, collapsed reinforced concrete frame buildings are concentrated in specific parts of town, highlighting the need for microzoning, and careful consideration of local geotechnical conditions while designing for seismic loads.
- 19 - The collapse of some buildings appears to have been precipitated in part, by their irregular (L or T) plan shapes and lack of separation joints between individual “legs.” In general, the building materials and overall construction quality observed in the earthquake affected areas was rather low. Quality of in situ poured reinforced concrete, and on the ground pre-cast concrete slabs for pre-fabricated construction deserves special attention. In some cases it appears to be common practice to use saline water for concrete mixing and curing–which eventually leads to severe corrosion in the reinforcing steel. If drought conditions continue, and if damage to dams prevents adequate water storage, lack of sufficient watering/curing of concrete could remain a significant problem for quality assurance in the reconstruction and rehabilitation phase.
Residential quarters for government employees. These buildings are typically Ground- floor + 1 story high, or Ground-floor + 2 story-high multi unit buildings. They typically have reinforced concrete roof and floor slabs, supported on masonry load bearing walls following standard Public Works Department (PWD) layouts and construction practices. The G+2 structures in particular, have experienced serious wall cracking in some high damage earthquake affected areas, and may need replacement.
Rural housing. Rural housing construction, almost 100 percent nonengineered, is characterized by use of low quality materials, phased construction and mixing of different materials over a long time span. Rural nonengineered building stock (including large span buildings for storage of agricultural products and machinery) are by and large masonry- constructed single story units that can broadly be classified as follows:
Pucca Housing . Clay tile or galvanized iron (GI)/asbestos cement (AC) sheet sloping roof on timber framing. Unreinforced load bearing masonry walls (burnt brick or cut stone, set in cement, mud-cement or lime mortar). Burnt brick or stone masonry strip foundation.
Kutcha housing consists of unburned brick, bamboo, thatch or mud roofing. Mud, unburned brick or rubble stone masonry load bearing wall structures and strip foundations (in mud mortar).
Building techniques recommended by the advanced and user-friendly guidelines for building nonengineered structures in the rural, seismically-prone regions of India (See relevant Indian Standards, and Manual for Earthquake Resistant Construction and Seismic Strengthening for Nonengineered Buildings in Rural Areas of Maharashtra, 1998) were not being followed. Traditional (unreinforced) masonry construction was unable to withstand large seismic loads or ground shaking in the epicentral region. Large portions of the heavy masonry walls collapsed, crushing or trapping people and leading to widespread destruction of entire villages.
There is very little use of construction wood. Where wood is used, its profiles are almost universally undersized, especially for sloped roofs, where rafters and secondary bearing elements for heavy burnt clay tiles were made either of split bamboo poles or very thin wood, which generally caved in during the earthquake. Roof tiles, which by and large are freely set on the understructure, slid from the roofs, adding to damage and personal injury. Exceptions have been observed on some houses, where rafters were made of steel profiles, with roof tiles set in cement mortar. These generally performed better.
Commercial buildings/shops. These buildings were typically constructed of reinforced concrete as (single or two storied) framed structures, not designed or detailed for seismic loading. In the epicentral region (e.g., Bhachau) most such RCC frame shopping blocks partially collapsed or swayed laterally leading to structural damage beyond repair.
- 20 - School buildings. These structures were built following the traditional PWD designs (single or G+1) and standards. Some are up to 50 years old. They consist of concrete roof and floor slabs supported on load bearing un-reinforced stone masonry walls. A number of school buildings suffered collapse or serious damage (e.g., extensive wall cracking) all over Kutch.
Some prefabricated single storied concrete primary school buildings have recently been constructed in some parts of Kutch, but no measures have been taken to ensure integrity of these structures during an earthquake through appropriate joint and connection detailing. Such structures collapsed at Kukma and Sapeda in the epicentral region.
Other public buildings. Colleges, training centers, hospitals, court buildings, are comprised in this category. They also normally follow PWD designs, and are typically up to G+1 structures –consisting of concrete roof and floor slabs supported by a mix of load bearing un- reinforced stone masonry walls and partial RCC frame structures. The load bearing portion of several two and most three storied structures in Bhuj and Anjar suffered major damage or collapse.
Elevated Water Tanks. These stand-alone structures consist of both the traditional RCC supporting frame type of tanks, as well as the more modern inverted pendulum type structures. In most cases these appear to have been designed for lateral forces and have survived without significant distress, even near the epicentral region.
Industrial buildings/ structures. These buildings typically consisted of a mix of reinforced concrete and structural steel framing, GI or AC sheet roofing and masonry load bearing walls. Several industrial buildings, storage sheds and compound walls suffered significant damage/partial collapse in the Bhuj industrial area and along the Gandhidham to Bhachau road - on account of lack of lateral bracing of roof framing members/masonry walls, the lack of reinforced concrete columns/bracing beams to support the high masonry walls.
Current building codes. India introduced its first Earthquake Code in 1967. The Bureau of Indian Standards currently has a set of standards, guidelines, and codes of practice for earthquake resistant design and construction of buildings. The coverage includes design criteria, loading standards, plain and reinforced concrete, unreinforced masonry, guidelines for repair and seismic strengthening, and so forth. The Design Criteria (IS: 1893 to 1984) and the subsequently issued Vulnerability Atlas of India, 1997, include an earthquake zoning map for India which puts Kutch in zone V (highest earthquake risk–MM: IX and above) and Ahmedabad in Zone III (moderateearthquakerisk–Modified Mercalli scale VII). The Design Criteria and Code endeavor to ensure that structures are able to respond, without structural damage, to shocks of moderate intensity, and without total collapse to shocks of heavy intensity.
Normally, codes of practice only have a recommendatory status, unless they are incorporated into relevant building by-laws and regulation through an appropriate legal framework. Compliance with the Indian Standard Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of buildings (IS 4326-1993) has been very weak across Gujarat. In the case of private multistoried housing and one to three storied public buildings, code compliance seems to have been the exception rather than the rule. A limited inspection of some of the collapsed and heavily damaged structures confirms that structural damage/distress and adverse impact of the January 2001 earthquake could have been significantly reduced, through better compliance with applicable earthquake codes.
- 21 - Review of Current Building Permit and Construction Procedures
The building permit process, as well as enforcement of the Indian building Codes and Standards appear to have been flawed in many respects. Observations and discussion in the field, indicate that the developers’/contractors’ rush to cash in on the disposable income of the affluent, particularly during the development boom years of the last decade, led to a series of violations of building regulation, prudent structural and architectural design practices, and shoddy construction practices, frequently using poor quality building materials. In most smaller towns building regulation and permit procedures have been almost nonexistent. In all urban areas enforcement has been lax.
Small towns (characterized by Bhuj). The municipality nominally categorizes the 25 odd practicing Architects/Engineers in the city (A, B, or C) on the basis of qualifications and experience. Builders are not registered. Municipality by-laws prescribe an application and review process for grant of building permits. Technical review capacity of staff is very limited (no graduate engineers) and focuses on compliance with planning norms only. Structural engineering drawings, soil investigation or material testing reports are not required to be submitted or reviewed. A Town Planning Committee comprised of seven members four elected and three governmental) is charged with final responsibility of issuing building permits, and frequently overrules any technical objections recorded by municipality staff. There is no site inspection by Municipality staff during the construction phase. After completion, the municipality engineer gives a completion certificate to the owner. Government officials acknowledge that present practices are clearly deficient and do not assure quality.
Buildings of large corporations (characterized by Ahmedabad). In 1999, a common set of regulations (General Development Control Regulations, Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority ) was introduced for the Ahmedabad Urban Development Area – covering both the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) and the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority. These require that building plans be signed by registered architects. Registered Structural Designers (graduate civil engineers with at least five years structural design experience) are required to prepare detailed structural designs strictly on the basis of National Building Code or relevant Indian Standards, to sign off on all major buildings and high rise structures and issue a formal Certificate of Structural Safety on completion of construction. A registered Clerk of Works is required for execution of all major buildings and high rise structures. AMC currently has a surprising 400 ‘Registered Structural Designers’ on its records, and anecdotal evidence suggests lack of rigor in the screening and registration process, as well as in its strict enforcement--core steps under the present arrangement to ensure public safety.
Government buildings. R&B Department is responsible for the design of all reinforced concrete frame structures centrally, at its design circle in Gandhinagar, and has some seismic design capacity. Performance of RCC public buildings designed to meet this code by R&B has generally been satisfactory during the recent earthquake event. However, one to three storied load bearing structures (including primary schools and most hospital buildings) are left to field engineers, many of whom (particularly under Panchayats) have no design capacity or familiarity with earthquake requirements.
- 22 - Recovery and Reconstruction Needs
Overall recommendations for improving earthquake resistance of buildings are presented in the following section. Generally these are short-term recommendations for the Government of Gujarat, unless specifically stated for the medium-term and highlighted in italics.
Legal and Regulatory Framework. (a) mandate compliance with relevant Indian Earthquake Resistant Design Codes and related Standards for all buildings and works, through necessary amendments to State level legislation, Bye-laws and Regulations applicable to Municipal/Panchayat areas, etc. (b) make earthquake ground motion records/data from the seismological network particularly for major events, routinely available in the public domain for use by the technical community. (c) strengthen development control regulations in place in Ahmedabad, to include enhanced quality assurance through: mandating peer review of structural designs for major buildings, requiring soil investigation and material testing/reporting, screening and registration of builders based on demonstrated qualifications, experience and financial strength, random third party inspections (and, in the medium term use of licensed structural engineers), introduce use of higher grades of concrete in multistoried RCC structures, (d) replicate such regulations/bye-laws, as far as possible, in other municipal corporations as well as in secondary towns of Gujarat - particularly the high earthquake hazard districts. In the medium term: (e) Pursue Licensing of Professional Engineers/Structural Engineers to help safeguard public life and property; and (f) update earthquake codes and standards to reflect lessons from building performance during the 2001 Gujarat EQ, as well as latest global knowledge and research
Technological Enhancement and Capacity Building. It is necessary to: (a) undertake an urgent technical review of current rural housing practices by a high-powered expert committee – to develop innovative (safe, affordable and climatically appropriate) rural housing solutions, particularly for the high risk seismic zones of Gujarat, using earthquake resistant technology based on indigenous materials and community implementation arrangements - as far as possible. Incorporate lighter materials/components to minimize risk to life, in case of collapse. The process must actively discourage the return to existing housing construction practices in rural areas; (b) set up demonstration centers in rural areas: to help widespread dissemination and acceptance of these solutions, and for training of artisans/rural folk in the required construction practices; (c) arrange refresher courses/workshops/seminars for practitioners: covering earthquake engineering analysis, design, code compliance, construction aspects and retrofitting practices, in collaboration with professional bodies/academia; specific training of construction supervisory level staff, etc. In the medium-term: (d) facilitate establishment of a network of soil and material testing facilities throughout the state; (e) facilitate introduction of post-graduate earthquake engineering programs in local institutions; and (f) support continuous research aimed at improving the knowledge base in earthquake hazard mitigation.
Code enforcement. As a matter of urgency, the following measures should be implemented: (a) urgently complete structural damage assessment of building structures; (b) facilitate repair of damaged buildings; (c) link state funding of new residential units that are built to replace collapsed structures in rural and urban areas to compliance with appropriate seismic resistance standards/ safe housing types; (d) introduce mandatory building insurance - as an incentive towards code compliance; (e) hold R&B Department accountable for strict compliance with earthquake resistant codes in design and construction of all essential government buildings such as primary schools, hospitals and emergency health facilities (irrespective of the size of the facility), to ensure public safety and continued operation in emergencies. In the medium term to meet minimum safety standards; (f) undertake a program of retrofitting essential government
- 23 - facilities (including primary schools and hospitals); and (g) facilitate a program aimed at retrofitting of the existing private building stock.
Retrofitting. Given the vulnerability of the building stock in Gujarat, painfully confirmed in the past two years in successive devastation first by a cyclone and now by an earthquake, it is necessary for the government, primarily, to undertake a systematic inventory of public buildings. Especially critical facilities, such as hospital and school buildings, police and fire stations, as well as buildings essential for the uninterrupted functioning of the government need to be carefully reviewed and, if necessary, subsequently “retrofitted,” or more accurately – repaired and strengthened. Techniques for retrofitting of most common building types are well known in India and internationally. For example, the Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), under the Ministry of Urban Affairs, published guidelines for earthquake-resistant construction, and in 1999, issued technical guidelines for retrofitting of existing houses and building of new ones for architects, engineers and construction agencies. In addition to public buildings, the government in partnership with the private sector – specifically professional associations of structural engineers, institutes of architects, academic institutions, relevant NGOs, and above all, consulting groups of practicing engineers and insurance companies–should reach out to home owners and home-owners’ associations to educate them about the benefits of certain retrofitting measures. This process should be well weighed, as all retrofitting measures do not yield desired results. Innovation with relatively low-cost, but otherwise state-of-the-art retrofitting techniques, such as base isolation (rubber-and-steel bearings that allow a building to “ride” with the seismic waves), should be seriously explored. In the neighboring Maharashtra, following the 1993 earthquake, a school was built in one of the villages using this technique. NGO capacity for housing reconstruction. The Joint team’s assessment is that NGOs in Gujarat, knowledgeable in house construction are limited in number. There are good institutions in the state for producing plans, layouts, type designs, and technical specifications, but experience of building demonstration centers and providing outreach appears to be inadequate. Private agencies in the building industry may be better suited for these activities. There is also limited capacity among NGOs for working with communities to mobilize, organize and guide them in the housing sector. The state would need to draw on NGOs that have been working in other areas of rural development (such as watershed development, non-formal education, women’s organization) to meet the needs for housing. NGOs with good experience of participatory development could partner with the more technical institutions to achieve the desired participatory planning of and involvement in housing. These partnerships could also be “force multipliers” if they train other village-based groups – such as the proposed village reconstruction committees. The situation in urban areas is somewhat more complex, and institutions, including NGOs, that have experience of working with urban dwellers would need to be brought in to assist the process of owner-driven reconstruction.
- 24 - Annex 3
Health
Introduction
The devastating earthquake in Gujarat on the morning of January 26, 2001 has left behind a trail of death and disintegration of families, thousands seriously injured and handicapped, both physically and psychologically and a severely damaged health infrastructure. As the time of writing, the number of confirmed human deaths was over 20,000 (of which over 17,000 have been reported from Kutch alone) and the number of persons injured was nearly 167,000. Persons have been admitted with orthopedic injuries, head injuries, tissue losses, abdominal and thoracic trauma and amputations. A large proportion of these patients are likely to develop permanent disabilities, requiring rehabilitation and care in the future.
Widespread damage has occurred in six districts: Kutch, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Surendranagar, Patan and Ahmedabad. Kutch, the district closest to the epicenter is the worst affected in terms of lives lost, injuries, and damage to infrastructure. Kutch is an arid area and has faced a cyclone and drought in the last three years. Government health care facilities had been the main source of medical care for the majority of the population in this district. The allopathic private sector was primarily located in Bhuj, with about 80 medical practitioners of different specialties. In addition the government had an extensive setup of Ayurvedic hospitals and dispensaries.
Consultations and Site Visits
In order to assess the damage caused by the earthquake a team visited Kutch, Rajkot and Surendranagar districts between February 13 to 15, 2001. Health facilities at district, taluka and primary health care levels, including sub-centers and Anganwadi centers, were visited in Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, Rapar, Malia, Surendranagar, Dhrangadhra and Halwad. The team had an opportunity to witness the extensive relief measures in place and the mechanisms being put in place for longer term management of the sick and injured and their rehabilitation. Discussions were held in Gandhinagar with the Additional Chief Secretary, Department of Health and Family Welfare (DOHFW), GOG; the Additional Chief Secretary and Commissioner Family Welfare, GOG; the Commissioner, Health, Medical Services and Medical Education, GOG and their team. In the field, discussions were held with the Chief Medical Officers, Chief Health Officers and their teams in different districts. In addition the team met with representatives of WHO, UNICEF and a number of bilateral aid agencies and Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These visits and consultations supplemented various written reports and data provided by GOG. Information available was based on data from rapid surveys conducted by one Deputy Engineer with a medical personnel visiting each site. More detailed assessment of damage is ongoing.
Damage to Assets
The damages to assets in the heath sector are estimated to be about Rs. 220 crores ($47 million) (Table 1).
Infrastructure. Damage to health infrastructure in the affected areas is severe, as a result of which service delivery at the facilities, including maternal and child health services, has been seriously disrupted. Many health buildings have been completely destroyed, others partially
- 25 - damaged, still others structurally weakened and more will require minor repairs. Power and water supply to the facilities has also been damaged. A total of 2 District Hospitals (Bhuj and Gandhidham), 21 Community Health Centers (CHCs), 48 Primary Health Centers (PHCs), 227 Sub-centers, about 800 Anganwadi Centers, 6 Integrated Child Development Services Scheme (ICDS) Go-downs, 11 Chief District Project Officer (CDPO) offices, 96 Ayurvedic dispensaries, 21 Homeopathic dispensaries and 1 Food Laboratory have been completely destroyed. In addition, all types of facilities at different levels of health care have suffered major and minor damages. In total, damages are assessed at about Rs. 203 crores ($44 million) or about 92.13 percent of total health sector asset losses.
District Hospital, Bhuj, a 281-bedded facility, was completely destroyed. 161 patients and 10 staff nurses died in the collapsed building. In addition to the main hospital building, the Nursing School and hostel, Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (ANM) Training School, District Tuberculosis Center, Mental Hospital and staff quarters, all located in the same campus, have been destroyed or suffered major damage. The District Hospital was the referral hospital for the entire district of Kutch, which in terms of area, is the second largest district in the country. It was also the hub of all training activities in the district.
Food Laboratory, Bhuj. The building has been destroyed; however most of the equipment has been salvaged. There are three such laboratories in Gujarat. The one at Bhuj was a state-of- the-art laboratory catering to the Western Region of Gujarat, including the Port of Kandla. The laboratory at Vadodara has taken on the work-load of the Bhuj laboratory for the interim, but a permanent facility in the Kutch region is required.
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme. The ICDS scheme has suffered considerable loss of its infrastructure. This program provides services to children in the 0-6 age group and pregnant and lactating women. The capacity of the program to target the most vulnerable sections of the population who are at risk of developing malnutrition and its management, has been affected by the earthquake. The loss to this program is about Rs.13 crores ($2.8 million), which is about 6 percent of the total damage to the health infrastructure. This damage is included in the total infrastructure damage estimates.
Indian Systems of Medicine. The Department of Health and Family Welfare supports a large network of hospitals and dispensaries in the state, providing services in Ayurveda and Homeopathy. Gujarat Ayurveda University, Jamnagar, is the only one of its kind in India. There is a section of the population which prefers this system of medicine and often Ayurvedic/Homeopathic dispensaries are located in villages where there is no PHC or sub-center. The damage to these hospitals and dispensaries is about Rs.3 crores ($0.7 million) and has been included in the estimate of total infrastructure damage to the sector.
Municipalities. In Gujarat, public health services are primarily provided by the government health infrastructure described above. Municipalities are meant to provide services in urban areas through small dispensaries located in the municipality area. Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has several health care facilities, including few large tertiary care hospitals. Damages assessed are about Rs. 5.3 crores ($1.14 million), of which about Rs. 5.0 crores ($1.1 million) is in Ahmedabad city hospitals. These damages are included in the total infrastructure losses.
Equipment, Drugs and Medical Supplies. Equipment, including vehicles, at the facilities that have been completely destroyed has suffered damages. However, the health functionaries have been able to retrieve equipment and presently safe storage of this equipment is a priority.
- 26 - Small existing stocks of drugs and supplies were affected in the destroyed facilities, but there has been no damage to the Central or Regional Drug Stores, estimated losses to equipment, vehicles and supplies are valued at about Rs.17 crores ($3.7 million).
Private sector. The private sector, providing primarily curative services, has been maximally affected in Kutch. In Bhuj, there are about 80 doctors in the private sector, and almost all of them are reported to have suffered major losses during the earthquake, however no quantitative estimates of this are available. In other areas of Kutch the private sector was less active.
Other Impacts
Other impacts on the health sector are difficult to quantify at this time. The earthquake has resulted in disruption in provision of routine curative and preventative care, as a result of damage to the infrastructure and displacement of health staff. At the same time, the sector has been called upon to provide emergency curative (particularly surgery and orthopedics) and preventative care much beyond its capacity. The earthquake resulted in an unprecedented loss of human life, injuries and large scale destruction/damage to the health infrastructure. Loss of medical manpower has fortunately been small compared to the loss of infrastructure. However, this is based on available data, and a reliable inventory is awaited. One doctor, 10 staff nurses and 5-8 health workers are reported to have died.
Post-traumatic stress. The psychosocial impact and mental trauma on the survivors of the earthquake is difficult to assess. There has been huge loss or injury of family and loved ones, loss of belongings and property and the persistent fear of another similar incident. The emotional effects may show up immediately or after many months
Disease surveillance. The widespread damage to health infrastructure and displacement of medical manpower has resulted in disruption of routine disease surveillance. No outbreaks of any disease have been reported so far (February 19, 2001).
Immunization program. The routine immunization program has been disrupted due to damage to the health infrastructure, dislocation of health personnel and damage to the cold chain.
Potable water. Following the earthquake, water supply had been severely affected. Water supply has now been restored in all affected towns and villages by means of tankers or pipeline supply, but availability to all persons in adequate quantity is not ascertained. A field laboratory has been established in Bhuj to test the chlorine levels and growth of coliform bacteria in water to monitor water quality and reduce the chances of any outbreak of a water-borne disease.
Sanitation and waste management. This has been completely disrupted in the affected areas. Though water supply has been restored, its quantity does not seem sufficient to ensure sanitation at temporary hospitals and relief camps.
- 27 - Table 1: Damage Assessment
S.No. Type of Damage Damage to Buildings Damage to Damage to Total Rs. Complete Partial Buildings in equipment in crores Rs. crores Rs. crores ($ million) ($ million) ($ million) 1. Sub-center 227 357 36.2 (7.78) - 36.2 (7.78)
2. PHC 48 118 50.7 (10.89) 4.3(0.93) 55.0 (11.82) 3. CHC 21 46 57.5(12.37) 9.6 (2.05) 67.1 (14.42) 4. District/Taluka 5 26 28.5 (6.12) 3.2(0.69) 31.7 Hospital (6.82) 5. ICDS : (i)Anganwadi center 800 2180 12.2 (2.62) - 12.2 (2.62) (ii)CDPO office 0.2 (0.05) 11 4 0.2 (0.05) - 0.4 (0.08) (iii)Go-down 6 4 0.2 (0.03) 0.2 (0.04) 6. Ayurvedic 110 8 3.0(0.65) - 3.0(0.65) hospital/dispensary 7. District TB - 8 1.0 (0.22) - 1.0 (0.22) Hospital/Training Center 8. Adm - 14 2.0(0.43) - 2.0 (0.43) building/Training Center 9. Food and Drug Lab 1 1 0.5 (0.10) - 0.5 (0.10) 10. Medical colleges and - 15 5.5 (1.18) - 5.5 (1.18) specialty hospitals 11. Municipalities - 10 5.3(1.14) - 5.3(1.14) including Ahmedabad Corporation TOTAL 219.9 (47.29)
Source : Department of Health and Family Welfare (DOHFW), Government of Gujarat
Reconstruction/Recovery needs
Ongoing reconstruction works. Relief works have been managed and coordinated by the GOG. The immediate challenge was to manage the thousands of injured persons and provide appropriate surgical care for the orthopedic and spinal injuries. Assistance in the form of medical and surgical teams, drugs and medical supplies, mobile and temporary hospitals, evacuation and transportation of patients and disinfection of water was forthcoming from UN agencies, several state governments, the private sector, NGOs and other countries. Temporary hospitals have been established in pre-fabricated structures and tents. Since the day after the disaster the private sector doctors have been working together with the public sector doctors in the temporary hospital in Bhuj The DOHFW is planning to provide pre-fabricated structures to re-establish health care service provision at the taluka and primary level. In addition to government supplies, large quantities of medical supplies were made available by different state Governments, private sector and NGOs, and hence there has been no shortage of drugs and supplies for relief
- 28 - operations. GOG has sufficient stocks from the donations and an adequate drug budget to cater to continuing needs.
UNICEF has been taking the le ad in assessing this damage and re-establishing the routine immunization network and maternal and child health (MCH) services. In addition, UNICEF and WHO with the state government have initiated a mass measles immunization program and Vitamin A supplementation to all children in the nine-months to five years age-group in all affected areas.
The main focus of WHO during the immediate post-disaster period has been to setup a surveillance system for infectious diseases and early warning of epidemics, in cooperation with the state and district health authorities. Public Health Specialists from the National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD) are also in the field. A Disease Surveillance Cell has been established in Bhuj since February 5, 2001. Quality control of water supply has been initiated by WHO. Chlorine tablets and Oral Re-hydration Solution (ORS) packets are being distributed systematically and regularly.
WFP is providing 178,000 children below five-years of age, as well as pregnant and nursing mothers, with nutritious biscuits for the immediate term. Subsequently, daily rations of fortified blended food will be distributed to the vulnerable population to prevent severe malnutrition. This activity is being coordinated by the ICDS program in the state. The ICDS program will need to put in place a mechanism to reach the vulnerable children and women, and ensure that there is no deterioration in pre-existing levels of nutrition.
The DOHFW with the assistance of the Maharashtra Institute of Mental Health, Pune (who did similar work with the survivors of the 1993 Latur earthquake), the Government of the Netherlands, UNICEF and other UN agencies is discussing a program for post-traumatic stress management. Several NGOs are currently working in the affected areas and providing support for acute stress management.
Short and Medium-term Needs
Health infrastructure. Rebuilding the destroyed/damaged health infrastructure at district, taluka and primary levels, including that of the ICDS scheme, is the major infrastructural need. This would enable re-establishing effective service delivery at the appropriate level. The public sector will continue to be the main provider of health services in the affected areas, especially Kutch. The existing private sector in Bhuj has suffered major losses, and it does have the option to relocate outside Kutch. Rationalization of service norms based on past utilization rates data is being done by the Department. The extensive damage sustained by health facilities makes it imperative to design and construct hazard resistant buildings. This upgradation in technical norms will reflect in replacement costs higher by about 20 percent over the base replacement cost. All building plans and designs should be reviewed by an architect/structural engineer to ensure conformity with appropriate hazard-resistant standards. Reconstruction should be completed as quickly as possible – ideally district hospitals in about 18 months, taluka hospitals and PHCs in about 12 months and sub-centers and anganwadi centers in about eight months. It is estimated that the replacement cost with upgradation could be as much as Rs. 280 crores ($60 million).
Equipment and supplies. Equipment for the reconstructed health facilities and the Rehabilitation Center will be procured by the Central Medical Stores Organization Central Medical Stores Organization. Technical specifications of equipment and its rationalization will be based on agreed service norms.
- 29 - Rehabilitation center and prosthetic workshop. The majority of the serious injuries have been orthopedic/spinal injuries, including amputations. The need for a center to be established in Bhuj at the earliest, for long-term management of these patients is critical. The emphasis will be on providing the best possible rehabilitation technology for diversely handicapped individuals. The essential features at the center will include the following: splint workshop, prosthetic/ orthotic workshop, physiotherapy, occupational therapy and two mobile workshops. It is also proposed to provide for psychotherapy and counseling at this center, to build the capacity for future needs for management of post-traumatic stress.
Food Laboratory, Bhuj. The Laboratory at Vadodara has taken on the work-load of the destroyed facility at Bhuj for the interim. The Food Laboratory at Bhuj caters to Kandla Port, re- building it will be a priority.
Central Medical Stores Organization (CMSO) Regional Depots. The CMSO Depot at Ahmedabad is responsible for supplying drugs and supplies to all health facilities in Gujarat. There are six regional stores in the six administrative zones of the state. These stores are small, and the experience during the earthquake has clearly identified the need for larger stores which can immediately dispatch drugs and supplies in an emergency. Designs should be reviewed by an architect/engineer and construction completed within 18 months.
Health care waste management. Reconstruction of health facilities will provide an opportunity to establish appropriate waste management measures, which can later be extended to facilities in other parts of the state. Procurement of equipment for implementing short and medium term measures and training health personnel will be done within 18 months
Training. Training for doctors and para-medical personnel will be provided in the following areas: orthopedic rehabilitation, prosthetics and physiotherapy; equipment-based health care, waste management and disaster management.
Implementation Arrangements.
The DOHFW, GOG, will manage implementation of all activities. It will appoint a core team which will have the requisite managerial and technical expertise. Engineers will be deputed from the PWD, and consultants would also be used to supplement in-house resources. Third party inspection and quality assurance will be done through reputed external agencies. Training activities will be planned and implemented through established institutions.
- 30 - Table 2: Possible Replacement Costs of Damage to Health Sector
S.No. Type of Facility Total Damage Total Replacement Rs. Crores Cost Rs. Crores ($ million) ($ million) 1. Sub-center 36.2 (7.78) 23.4 (5.04)
2. PHC 54.9 (11.82) 32.8 (7.06) 3. CHC 67.1 (14.42) 65.2 (14.01) 4. District/Taluka Hospital 31.7 (6.82) 73.4 (15.77) 5. ICDS : 27.2 (5.84) (i)Anganwadi center 12.2 (2.62) (ii)CDPO office 0.2 (0.05) (iii)Go-down 0.4 (0.08) 6. Ayurvedic hospital/dispensary 3.0 (0.65) 3.0 (0.65) 7. District TB Hospital/Training 1.0 (0.22) 1.0 (0.22) Center 8. Adm building/Training Center 2.0 (0.43) 2.0 (0.43) 9. Food & Drug Lab 0.5 (0.10) 0.5 (0.10) 10. Municipalities including 5.3 (1.14) 5.3 (1.14) Ahmedabad Corporation 11. Medical colleges &Specialty 5.5 (1.18) 5.5 (1.18) hospitals TOTAL 219.9 (47.29) 233.3 (50.17)
TOTAL REPLACEMENT COST 279.9 (60.20) WITH UPGRADATION* * Upgradation: additional 20 percent added to the civil works component for hazard-resistant designs and construction Source: Department of Health and Family Welfare, GOGovernment of Gujarat
Table 3: Summary - Estimated Damage Assessment and Replacement costs
Asset losses Total Loss Rs. ($) Replacement Cost Rs. Replacement Cost with million ($) million Upgradation Public 219.9 (47.29) 233.3 (50.17) 279.9 (60.20 ) Private* Rural 206.7 (44.45) 225.9 (48.58) 271.1 (58.29) Urban** 13.2 (2.84) 7.4 (1.59) 8.9 (1.90) * No data available ** Includes Municipalities, Drug stores, Food Laboratory and Administrative offices and training centers.
- 31 - Annex 4
Education
Introduction
Educational infrastructure and processes were affected in 18 districts by the earthquake, especially, in Kutch, Rajkot, Surendranagar, Jamnagar, Ahmedabad and Patan. The lives of educational administrators, teachers and students were disrupted both physically and emotionally. While the psychological toll of the earthquake is difficult to quantify, the following assessment consolidates the damage on educational infrastructure and the activities and strategies of the Government of Gujarat and others to address the situation.
Assessment materials, consultations and site visits
During the initial briefing meeting by government officials, a preliminary estimate of the damage incurred during the earthquake in the education sector was provided to the team. This estimate of the loss of educational infrastructure across the 18 districts was based on a survey done by a team of two people, a Panchayat officer and a civil engineer from Ahmedabad. This estimate was further verified by an assessment done by district educational officials and engineers from the R&B Department. A more detailed investigation of the damage in the education sector is currently being conducted by teams comprising of educational officials and engineers from the Center for Environment Planning and Technology, Ahmedabad in Kutch, Surendranagar, Jamnagar, Banaskantha, Patan, and Rajkot and will be available in March. Discussions were held with the Secretary of Education and officials from the elementary, secondary, higher and technical education in Gandhinagar. The assessment team visited and interacted with officials from the Panchayat and Education Department, NGOs and community members at sites impacted by the earthquake in two districts, Kutch and Surendranagar. Reports from various agencies (UN, NGOs and DFID) also informed this report. The team worked jointly with GOG education officials in reviewing and preparing the assessment.
Damage to Assets
The total amount of damage to assets in the education sector is approximately Rs. 670 crores ($144 million) (Table 1). Considerable damage has been sustained in the recent earthquake in all subsectors in education–more extensively in elementary and secondary than higher and technical education. A large number of buildings have been either damaged or destroyed. According to the Government of Gujarat, 910 elementary, 37 secondary, 3 higher and 21 technical education students died as a result of the earthquake in the state; 1,051 elementary education students were injured, 31 teachers lost their lives and 95 were injured.
Elementary Education: In the elementary education subsector 9,593 municipal and Zilla Panchayat schools are completely demolished or require repair, amounting to 38 percent schools in 18 affected districts. In Kutch and Surendranagar over 90 percent of the schools are unusable. The cost for reconstruction and repair for these schools amounts to about Rs. 307 crores ($66 million). Other asset damage costs in the elementary education subsector include the reconstruction and repair of government and government aided teacher training institutions Rs. 14.9 crores ($3.2 million) and kitchen sheds that provide midday meals for elementary school students Rs. 3.7 crores ($0.8 million).
- 32 - Secondary education: 78 percent of the government secondary schools are damaged, the reconstruction and repair amounting to Rs. 22.3 crores ($4.8 million), 35 percent of the grant-in- aid institutions are damaged Rs. 200 crores ($43 million). Grant-in-aid institutions in Gujarat are privately owned with the government providing teachers’ salaries.
Higher education: A variety of higher educational institutions have been affected by the earthquake including government colleges, hostels, universities, Gram Vidaypaths, institutions of research and culture and private institutions. The estimated damage in the higher education subsector is Rs. 41 crores ($8.8 million). Damage to technical education infrastructure (engineering colleges, polytechnics, vocational training centers, and pharmacy colleges) amounts to Rs. 82 crores ($17.6 million).
Except in higher education, GOG has not yet undertaken the assessment of damage incurred by fully private educational institutions. The task of evaluating damage to private elementary schools is particularly difficult since there are many schools that are unrecognized by the Government and are therefore not registered or monitored.
Other Impacts
Other impacts of the earthquake can be identified but are difficult to quantify. The first one is the grave psychological, physical and social impact on many students, teachers and educational administrators. An estimate for the setting up of a counseling program for students and teachers is about Rs. 14 crores ($3 million). This would involve training of counseling personnel and establishing centers for counseling services in affected districts.
Secondly, the loss of time spent in the classroom learning. This has a particularly serious impact on secondary education students in years 10 and 12. Both years are certifying years, the former for secondary and the latter for higher secondary. In many of the Talukas visited, students have yet to resume classes, thereby shortening the time spent for revising academic subjects in preparation for the examinations to be held in April.
Table 1: Summary of Damage Assessment
Asset Damage Sub sector No. of Institutions Estimated cost Affected Rs. Crores ($ million) Primary Education · Primary Schools 9593 307 (66.0) · Teacher training institutions 42 14.9 (3.2) · Kitchens 1871 3.7 (0.8) Secondary Education · Government Schools 127 22.3 (4.8) · Grant-in-aid Schools 1913 200 (43.0) Higher Education 47 40.9 (8.8) Technical Education 58 81.8 (17.6) Private educational institutions Not available Not available Total 13581 670.5 (144.2) NB: 20% less GOG, Department of Education estimates Costs for Grant-in-aid teacher training, technical and higher education institutions were less than Rs. 4.7 crores ($1 million) and therefore, has been included in the above figure.
- 33 - Table 2: Summary of Damage Assessment
Public Private Urban Rural Cost estimate in Rs. Crores 461 (99.2) 208 (44.8) 376 (80.8) 294 (63.2) ($ million) NB.: 20% less GOG, Department of Education estimates NB: Private institutions are Grant-in aid schools and colleges. Except in higher education information on fully private institutions was unavailable.
Needs
Immediate requirements: Clearly, the immediate task of GOG is to restart educational institutions and classroom instruction as soon as possible. Recommencing elementary and secondary schools is an immediate need. The assessment team’s interactions with adults and children in the affected districts and a preliminary report by a Government/DFID team indicate that there is an emerging demand and interest among communities to see their children attend primary school without delay.2 The cost for earthquake resistant primary schools might be as much as Rs. 372 crores ($80 million). Within the $80 million, Rs. 167 crores ($36 million) is for reconstruction of destroyed classrooms; Rs. 158 crores ($34 million) is for the repair of damaged classrooms; and Rs. 46.5 crores ($10 million) is the estimated damage to teaching and learning material and furniture. Rebuilding kitchen sheds Rs. 4.7 crores ($1 million) to provide nourishment to primary school students would also be an immediate need. Reconstruction and repair of government secondary schools is crucial especially for those students in Grade 10 and 12. Rs. 28 crores ($6 million) is required for government secondary schools Rs. 14 crores ($3 million) for reconstruction; Rs. 9.3 crores ($2 million) for repairs and Rs. 4.7 crores ($1 million) for teaching and learning material and furniture). In addition, the setting up of a counseling program to attend to the psychological needs of teachers and students is an immediate need. The restoration of technical education and teacher training institutions Rs. 18.6 crores ($4 million) does impact the employability of students and, therefore, could be considered a short-term need. For technical education with earthquake resistant models Rs. 102.3 crores ($22 million) might be required Rs. 42 crores ($9 million) for reconstruction, Rs. 27.28 crores ($6 million) for repair and Rs. 32.5 crores ($7 million) for furniture, equipment and teaching and learning material. The total amount required by GOG for immediate and short term needs might be as much as Rs. 539 crores ($116 million).
Medium-term requirements: Grant-in-aid secondary education institutions could be considered as a medium term requirement. This would allow time for these institutions to explore private sources of funding. If these institutions are unable to reconstruct and repair their infrastructure, GOG would explore the possibility of a full or partial loan for grant-in-aid schools. With earthquake resistance, as much as Rs. 246.5 crores ($53 million) might be required for damaged grant-in-aid institutions Rs. 162.7 crores ($35 million) for reconstruction; Rs. 51 crores ($11 million) for repairs and Rs. 33 crores ($7 million) for teaching and learning material and furniture). Since students in higher education institutions Rs. 51 crores ($11 million) are being transferred to unaffected colleges, damages in the higher education subsector could be considered within the medium-term. The total amount required by GOG for the medium-term might be as much as Rs. 298 crores ($64 million).
2 This team consisted of the Gujarat Council for Educational Research and Training; the District Institute for Educational Research; and the Department for International Development (DFID, UK).
- 34 - Table 3: Estimated Reconstruction, Repair and instructional material/furniture costs for the main subsectors in Rs. Crores ($ million)
Sub sector Reconstruction Repair Instructional material/Furniture Primary Schools 167 (36) 158 (34) 47 (10) Secondary Government Schools 14 (3) 9.3 (2) 4.7 (1) Grant-in-aid Schools 163 (35) 51 (11) 33 (7) Technical Education 42 (9) 28 (6) 33 (7)
Total 386 (83) 246 (53) 116 (25) Source: GOG, Department of Education
Reconstruction Strategy
First steps: In order to restore some normalcy and routine, the immediate response of the Government of Gujarat has been to start primary schools in clusters of 6-8 villages. About 300 such clusters are to be/being established in the affected districts. Since teachers in these districts were initially reluctant or unable to attend school, officers from non-affected districts were deputed to these centers to resume instruction in primary school centers. Tents, water facilities, toilets, mats, teaching and learning material and family survival kits are to be provided by UNICEF for these centers. Trauma identification and treatment centers facilitated by NGOs and the Mumbai based Nirmala Niketan social work organization will also be located in these centers. The textbook board has provided 20 sets of textbooks for each cluster.
In secondary education, schools have become operational in tents. Students not in 10th and 12th grade will be promoted to the next grade using local assessment and not through examinations. Procedures are in place to enable students to transfer to another Taluk or district without delay, if they so wish. Board examinations for grades 10 and 12 have been postponed by a fortnight and students who wish to take these examinations in non-affected Talukas are provided board, lodging and tuition through voluntary organizations. Examinations in higher education have also been postponed by two weeks. Temporary relocation of both higher and technical education students to institutions in non-affected districts is in progress.
Next steps and reconstruction: The immediate priorities for the education sector are: (a) to reconstruct collapsed classrooms and repair damaged classrooms in primary, secondary, teacher training and technical institutions; (b) rebuild kitchen sheds; and (c) to set in place a counseling program that will address the needs of psychologically affected students and teachers. Strategies for addressing the damage in higher education institutions and grant-in-aid secondary schools are being explored.
GOG intends to rebuild and repair government primary schools within the year and government secondary schools within the next two years. The structure and processes for the construction of buildings, in place in the ongoing District Primary Education Project II (DPEP II), supported by the Netherlands and the World Bank, will be used to reconstruct and repair primary education buildings in the affected districts. The designs used will be revisited to ensure earthquake resistant models with the help of the Center for Building Research. The designing and implementation of reconstruction and repair of secondary education institutions, kitchen sheds, teacher training colleges, and technical education institutions would need to be finalized. GOG
- 35 - indicated that 20 percent of the estimated cost for reconstruction and repair is for earthquake resistant designs and construction.
Table 4: Summary of reconstruction costs with upgrade
Sub sector No. of Estimated cost Time Frame Institutions in Rs. Crores Affected ($ million) Primary Education · Primary Schools 9593 372 (80) Immediate · Teacher training institutions 42 17 (4) Immediate · Kitchens 1871 4.7 (1) Immediate Secondary Education · Government Schools 127 28 (6) Immediate · Grant-in-aid Schools 1913 246 (53) Medium Higher Education 47 51 (11) Medium Technical Education 58 102 (22) Immediate Total 13581 837 (180) Source: GOG, Department of Education Costs for Grant-in-aid teacher training, technical and higher education institutions were less than Rs. 4.7 crores ($1 million) and therefore, has been included in the above figure.
Table 5: Summary of Damage Assessment with Upgrade
Public Private Urban Rural Cost estimate in Rs. Crores 577 (124) 260 (56) 470 (101) 367 (79) ($ millions) Source: GOG, Department of Education NB: Private institutions are Grant-in aid schools and colleges. Information on fully private institutions was unavailable.
Implementation considerations
An issue that would have to be addressed with reference to reconstruction and repair in both education and in other sectors is the question of whether the village or town is to be relocated. Since relocation is going to be a lengthy process, it was understood that the Department of Education would set up prefabricated structures in the 256 villages being considered for relocation.
The assessment team suggested that the community mobilization component in the DPEP II (Banaskantha and Panchmahal) and in the new project Gujarat DPEP (in six districts including Kutch, Surendranagar and Jamnagar) be tailored to address community involvement in the education of children within the context of the earthquake. Since the needs of children with disabilities is a specific development objective in DPEP projects, particular attention could be given to the special needs of 620 children left handicapped by the earthquake.
GOG will seek the assistance of UNICEF, Nirmala Niketan and NGOs to train personnel in counseling and to develop a program in the affected districts over the next few months.
- 36 - Annex 5
Water Storage and Irrigation
Introduction
The January 26, 2001 earthquake has caused widespread and severe damage to the water storage and irrigation infrastructure in Gujarat’s Kutch and, to a lesser extent in Saurashtra region. In Kutch, 21 earthen dams have, to date, been identified as severely affected and require complete reconstruction, while 164 earthen dams have been identified to date as requiring major or moderate repairs and strengthening. (Such earthen dams are also sometimes referred to as "reservoir embankments," but the term earthen dam is more commonly used and will be used here). In Saurashtra 61 earthen dams have been identified to date as suffering moderate to minor damages, and requiring repair and rehabilitation. Some structures and linings in the canal networks, both in Kutch and Saurashtra regions, have also suffered damages, and will also require repairs/rehabilitation. Urgent addressing of the above works is critical. Twenty-one severely affected earthen dams would breach causing serious risk to life and property, if not either reconstructed or cut open ( so that the water is not stored ) before the onset of the July 2001 monsoon. A number of other earthen dams also present risks unless repaired and strengthened by July, 2001. All these dams are sources of supplies of rural and urban drinking water, industries and agriculture, and their full functioning by July 2001 or, latest, by July 2002 is a strategic priority. The damages are limited to earthen dams on medium and minor schemes, generally to those constructed before the 1970s with either no or lower seismic engineering design standards than the modern dams. More recently constructed dams, and dams for major schemes have not been affected.
Consultations, Assessment Material and field visits
This assessment is based on: (a) detailed working meetings with the Department of Water Resources (WRD), Government of Gujarat (GOG), (b) review by the Assessment Team of WRD’s preliminary report, (c) consultation with the three inspection teams sent by the Central Water Commission (CWC), Government of India’s apex Technical Organization under the Ministry of Water Resources, and (d) extensive field visits by the Assessment Team in company with the senior/project level officers of WRD, and a subsequent review meeting on February 19, 2001 by the Assessment Team with the Secretary, WRD, GOG, and the three Assessment Teams of the CWC led by Chief Engineer, Dam Safety Organization. The Assessment Team’s site visits over five days (February 13-17, 2001) were to eight water storage/irrigation schemes in the worst earthquake affected Bhuj, Bhachau, Anjar, and Rapar Talukas of Kutch district, and five schemes in the moderately affected districts of Rajkot, Surendranagar and Jamnagar in the Saurashtra region. The schemes visited were: (a) Kutch district (seismic zone 5): Fategadh and Shivalakha (Rapar taluka), Ratia, Natharkui, Kaswati and Rundramati (Bhuj Taluka), Chang (Bhachau Taluka) and Tapar (Anjar Taluka); and (b) Saurashtra region (seismic zone 4): Machhu-II and Ghadodrohi (Rajkot district), Und-II (Jamnagar district) and Nimbhani, and Limbdi Bhogavo (Surendranagar district).
Damage Assessment
Mission Observations . The Assessment Team observed that, while all the above mentioned 8 earthen dams in the worst affected areas of the Kutch district have suffered severe damages (such as, complete collapse of some dams, very deep multiple cracking, crumbling and rupturing of earthen dam body, sloughing and settlement of slopes; and deep crack formations on
- 37 - slopes associated with slippage’s of boulder pitching, rendering the dams of these schemes absolutely unsafe and unfit for water storage); the damages in the storage dams of the 5 schemes in the Saurashtra region are generally of moderate to minor nature (such as minor cracks in short reaches of earthen embankments, slight settlements at the junctions of the earth dams and the spillways, small damages to the masonry wing walls and to the concrete pedestals under the spillway bridge girders etc.) and have not suffered any serious distress. Damages have also occurred in the distribution networks of all schemes visited, including damages to some canal structures and lining.
Damage to Assets
As per seismic zoning of India, Kutch region falls in the most vulnerable and earthquake- prone zone V. The epicenter of the earthquake being in the Kutch district, 12.5 kms. N-NE of Bhachau, the dams and appurtenant structures in this region have experienced the major impact. The severely affected dams visited have become nonfunctional due to widespread and diverse damages caused by the earthquake. No storage of water for irrigation/drinking water is possible till these dams are rehabilitated through reconstruction based on the revised upgraded designs conforming to the relevant Indian Standards applicable to the design of dams in various seismic zones. There are 20 medium and 165 minor irrigation dams/schemes in Kutch district. Besides the 8 dams visited, 13 more dams are reported to be likewise severely damaged requiring reconstruction. The balance 164 dams have also suffered moderate to major damages. In Saurashtra region, the range and types of damages caused by the earthquake in 61 schemes (44 medium and 17 minor) are of moderate to minor nature, and will require some repairs and strengthening. Besides the storage dams, the distribution networks of all the above schemes have also suffered moderate to minor damages. The total cost of the above damages is provisionally estimated to be about Rs. 186 crores ($40 million) (Table 1).
Table 1: Effects of the disaster
Total in Rs. Total with upgrade in Reconstruction/Repair Crores Rs. Crores period (years) ($ million) ($ millions) Cost of asset replacement
Public 186 (40) 419 (90) 18 months – 2 years
Private nil nil Rural 186 (40) 419 (90)
Urban nil nil Sources: GOG, Assessment Team estimates
Based on the reassessment by GOG and the assessment team review, the revised cost of reconstruction and rehabilitation/strengthening to the latest earthquake resistant design standards is provisionally estimated to be anything up to Rs. 419 crores ($90 million). However, this figure is provisional and should be subjected to further scrutiny.
Other Impacts
In Kutch region, agriculture output in about 73,000 hectares (ha) of irrigated area will severely suffer, impacting the income and food security of about 365,000 rural population in 216 villages. In addition, drinking water supply in 2 towns and 26 villages covering a population of
- 38 - about 224,000 has also been affected. In Saurashtra region, agriculture output in about 181,000 ha of irrigated area will moderately suffer, impacting the income of about 1,800,000 rural population in 444 villages. Drinking water supply in 19 towns and 224 villages covering a population of about 5.9 million has also been affected. Further, as Kutch and Saurashtra regions are water scarce with the average annual rainfall ranging only from 25cm to45 cm, the population in these areas may face the added problem of migration of some people and cattle due to loss of assured sources of water supply on account of damages to the water storage/irrigation infrastructures. Though, it is difficult to quantify the other damages, agriculture output may drop significantly in the irrigated areas in Kutch and Saurashtra regions.
Reconstruction Needs and Recovery Strategy
Reconstruction Needs: As indicated in the table above, total reconstruction cost, including upgrading to modern seismic engineering standards, might be anything up to Rs. 418 crores ($90 million). This consists of the urgent short term needs before end June 2001, and the possible medium term need to end March 31, 2003. The aim is to start providing full irrigation and drinking water benefits by impounding the waters from the July 2002 monsoon. The break up is as under:
Urgent short term need Rs. 69.7 crores ($15 million) Up to June 30,2001 Possible medium term need Rs. 348.7 crores ($75 million) July 2001-March 31,2003
Recovery Strategy: The critical safety and strategic nature of the reconstruction works will require a combination of parallel and sequenced actions on an urgent basis, which has been given in an “ Action Plan “ developed by the WRD. Summary details , divided by “ Immediate Actions “, and “ Medium-term Actions “ are given below:
Immediate Needs/Actions:
(a) In schemes, where it is not possible/feasible to reconstruct the dams before the onset of July 2001 monsoon, appropriate cuts in the earthen dams are required to be made for the evacuation of flood flows.
(b) Urgent constitution of 2 Dam Safety Panels, one for Kutch, and one for Saurashtra and other regions.
(c) Completion of the requisite investigations, soil sampling and testing to determine the relevant soil parameters to be adopted in the design of earth dams required to be reconstructed/strengthened to the upgraded standards.
(d) Identification of the borrow areas of the construction material (bearing and casing soils etc.) to be used.
(e) Inspection of all dams by WRD, and, as needed by OSP, to check for existent of any other damaged dams that have not yet been identified.
(f) Completion of the designs of earth dam sections conforming to the latest relevant Indian Standards applicable for the reconstruction of dam embankments, in seismic zones, in Kutch region.
- 39 - (g) Immediate site vis its of dam safety panels for inspection and finalization of the designs of earth dam embankment and the remedial measures for rectifying the various range of damages
(h) Finalization of the cost estimates, bid documents, and initiate tendering processes for execution of works.
(i) Keeping the earthmoving and compaction equipment in full readiness for undertaking reconstruction of three dams (Taper, Shivlakha, and Kasvati) departmentally. The activities (i) to
(j) listed above may be taken up concurrently.
The restoration measures which need to be completed by June 30, 2001 are included in this phase.
Possible Medium Term Needs/Actions
(a) Completion of other civil works necessary to secure the safety of the dams and also to derive planned benefits from these schemes latest by June 30, 2002 (i.e., before the monsoon of the year 2002)
(b) Completion of other balance works and the software activities by March 31, 2003.
Implementation Arrangements
The Water Resources Department will implement the reconstruction and remedial works through the Chief Engineers and Field Construction Circles. Whenever so needed, GOG will arrange additional construction staff through re-deployment. GOG has a well established, well staffed, and well equipped mechanical organization which is considered fully competent to undertake and complete the reconstruction of 3 dams critical for water supply in Kutch region in the immediate phase viz. by June 30, 2001. Other works of reconstruction, repairs, strengthening and restoration could be implemented through contracting and–ideally, by June 30, 2002. GOG has a strong designs organization to undertake requisite design works. Necessary quality control and quality assurance arrangement will also be placed to ensure quality execution of works.
Keeping in view the urgency and nature of works to be completed within a short time frame (some of the works before June 30, 2001, and the balance ideally in a period of about 18 months), fast-track procurement procedures should be considered. Nevertheless, these are very significant investments, and they should be given rapid but extremely careful scrutiny before decisions to proceed are taken.
- 40 - Annex 6
Rural Water Supply
Consultations and field Visits
This assessment is based on the following consultations, reports and field visits.
(a) Consultations: (i) a sectoral briefing on Rural Water Supply (RWS) from the Secretary, Water Supply, GOG and the senior officials of Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board (GWSSB) and the Chief General Manager of the Gujarat Drinking Water Infrastructure Company Ltd. (a GOG company); (ii) a consultation workshop with NGOs involved in relief and rescue operations; (iii) consultation with UNICEF, WHO and other UN agencies involved in earthquake relief and assessment activities; and (iv) a detailed supplementary report3 on RWSS containing the assessment of immediate and medium term needs that need to be addressed to bring back the water supply service to its pre-earthquake levels.
(b) Field visits: A three-day visit was made to most affected parts of Kutch and Rajkot districts. The assessment team was accompanied by the Member Secretary and Chief Engineers of GWSSB. In the field, the team met with field staff of GWSSB (engineers, operators), village communities, and Gram Panchayat (GP) and Taluka Panchayat members as well as representatives of international voluntary agencies such as OXFAM. To carry out spot assessments of the damages that have occurred the mission visited the following sites.
Intakes and water treatment plants at Morbi and Tappar dam;
(ii) Village meetings : Chirai moti, Wandh, Adhoi, Maliya Miyana, Mahendragarh (iii) Towns passed through : Bhachau, Morbi (iv) Water supply schemes : Banni RWSS; Khirasara RWSS, Gandhidham surface water and ground water schemes , Morbi-Maliya- Jodiya RWSS ( including Pipaliya pumping station)
Damage Assessment
Drinking water systems have been affected in 1340 villages in 5 districts (Kutch, Rajkot, Jamnagar Banaskantha, and Surendranagar) of which some 1100 village systems have suffered severe damages. Systems in Banaskantha and Surendranagar have suffered minor damages. Water supply in Kutch is largely ground water based with only Tappar and Shivlakha dams providing surface water sources. Affected areas in Rajkot and Jamnagar receive water supply mainly from surface water (Machhu II dam) and from a few ground water schemes.
Damage to Assets
Total devastation has taken place in 5 talukas (Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, Gandhidham and Rapar) and 4 towns (Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau and Rapar) and partial damages have occurred in other talukas and towns (Urban water supply and sanitation are covered in a separate Annex). Both the surface water schemes (dams, pumping stations, pipelines, water treatment plants), all the ground water based schemes (121 regional schemes covering 693 villages and 191 individual
3 Supplementary information on water supply and Sanitation for the World Bank – ADB Mission , February 2001 by GWSSB
- 41 - schemes) have been affected in varying degrees. Most severely damaged properties include: 2 dams, 2 water treatment plants, over 350 tubewells with pumping equipment and pump houses and pipelines of over 1500 km length of asbestos cement (AC)/PVC and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) material. The RCC underground tanks and Overhead Tanks (OHT), which were designed for seismic zone V, have largely withstood the earthquake impact whereas the masonry structures (pump houses, staff quarters, village level small tanks) have nearly all collapsed. Another major damage has been in terms of ruptures and dislocation of transmission pipelines resulting in excessive leakages. In the case of tubewells, the damages are in the form of caving in, casing pipe ruptures and disruption in gravel packing.
Rajkot, Jamnagar, and Banaskantha: Major devastation is in Maliya taluka of Rajkot and Jodiya Taluka of Jamnagar district. There are partial damages in three talukas of Rajkot (Morvi, Tankara and Wankaner) and one taluka of Jamnagar (Dhrol) district. In Banaskantha, major damages are in Santalpur taluka. Most severely damaged water supply properties include: transmission pipelines, village level tanks and pump houses, staff quarters etc. The surface water sources including dams, intake structures and water treatment plants have suffered only minor damages.
Other Impacts
The water supply service to the village communities, town residents as well as sizable number of industries (Kerala Port Trust, Indian Oil, Fertilizer corporation) has substantially deteriorated in terms of quantity, quality and reliability. Since a large number of houses have collapsed they have also lost in-house water-receiving and storage facilities. They are therefore required to wait for long periods for arrival of tanker and water collection from tankers to their houses/ relief camps. Environmental sanitation has deteriorated and health and hygiene has suffered (refer separate annex on health aspects). The women are the most hit by the water supply disruption since they are the ones who have to collect water from the tankers as and when they arrive in the village. This is causing severe hardships to the people and adverse impact on industrial output.
Provisional Damage Assessment Table in Rs. Crores ($ Million) Total Reconstruction with upgrade Asset Costs Public 234 (50.3) 447 (96.0) Private 0.0 (0.0) 0.00 (0.0) Rural 194 (41.7) 371 (79.7) Urban 40 (8.6) 76 (16.3) Imported Component 140 (30.0) # excludes temporary relief measures, TA and ‘design & engineering’ cost shown in the table on page 47.
Districtwise table in Rs. Crores ($ mMillion)
Kutch Rajkot Jamnagar Banaskantha Total Damage to Assets 192 (41.3) 15 (3.20) 10 (2.15) 17 (3.65) 234 (50.3)
- 42 - Needs
(a) Immediate needs: GOG/GWSSB has taken the following steps to restore part of the services: use of over 450 tankers of capacity 10-20 cum for supplying water to 550 villages and 14 towns; installation of 700 HDPE tanks of 5 Cum capacity, temporary installation of pumps, pipes and accessories, PVC cabins for pumps, and spot-disinfection of water. Mobile laboratories (10 nos.) are continuously on the move carrying out water quality surveillance, ensuring disinfection in tankers, temporary tanks and at supply points. The Health Department has distributed huge stocks of chlorine pills to the houses/ relief camps. The Army and Border Security Force as well as national and international voluntary agencies and some corporations have supplemented GOG efforts with tanker supply. Since January 26, GOG has incurred Rs. 11.6 crores ($2.5 million) to implement the above temporary measures and water supply is now available to all the villages, towns and industries, though with a much reduced supply level (about 30 % of the pre-earthquake supply). The temporary measures (tankers, tractors, diesel generating sets, etc.), will need to continue over the next nine months, though on a declining scale (estimated cost over nine months Rs. 20 crores ($4.3 million).
(b) Medium-term needs: GOG/GWSSB have planned a range of medium term measures to provide sustainable and reliable drinking water supply to affected areas which can stand multi risk situations covering cyclones and earthquake. These measures are aimed at ensuring bulk water supply to 14 towns and bulk supply as well as internal distribution in all the affected 1300 villages (beneficiary population about 0.4 million urban and 0.7 million rural). This involves repairing/replacing damaged properties to achieve functional equivalence of the destroyed capital assets (tubewells and pumps, pipeline repairs) and, in some cases, their upgradation to mitigate higher risks (e.g., all civil works, pipelines, dams, water treatment plants). The strengthening of dams will be done in consultation with dam safety panel and Gujarat’s Central Design Organization (water resources). For designing RCC structures, India has extensive expertise and well established codes of practices published by Bureau of Indian Standards and National Building Organization. These codes include the design requirements to withstand seismic and wind forces. These codes are already being used by GWSSB in designing OHTs and underground tanks and will be used for other structures to be built now. Where necessary, GWSSB will also seek expert opinion in designing replacement properties. In case of water supply pipelines, use of mild steel and ductile iron pipes will be considered, which would have more flexibility and strength to encounter earthquake impacts. Greater use of expansion joints, and thrust and anchor blocks will be ensured to minimize disruptions in pipeline alignments.
It will be difficult to separate the monetary value of functional equivalent units from that of upgraded units. Long term measures for raising service standards and expansion/ extension of services have not been identified or included in this needs assessment. The possible medium term measures to be considered are:
(a) Tappar and Shivlakha surface water systems: replacement of intake structure, pumps, large pipelines and water treatment plant (Rs. 8.4 crores or $1.80 million);
(b) repairs/drilling of deep tubewells and pumping installations: about 400 Nos. (Rs. 21.1 crores or $4.75 million);
(c) Reconstruction of local distribution system and tanks in 1,300 villages (Rs. 49 crores or $10.58 million); (d) replacing transmission pipelines of over 2000 km length by metallic pipes ( MS, DI) which are less susceptible to earthquake effects (Rs. 343 crores or $73.7 million)
- 43 - (v) Other works such as pump houses, intermediate balancing tanks and pump houses (Rs. 24 crores or $5.17 million).
Further details of the replacement works are in the attached table.
Recovery Strategy
GWSSB intends to adopt the following prioritization criteria for implementation of its RWSS recovery program (this includes bulk supply arrangements to 18 towns):
· Works that can be done within a period of six to nine months to restore as far as possible pre- earthquake service levels (benefits) to the maximum population. These are : repairs/drilling of bore wells, installing pumping equipment, village level works and priority transmission pipelines (Rs. 140 crores or about $30 million).
· Simultaneously start other works which might take between one and two years for completion. The design and construction of water supply schemes to towns and villages which may decide to relocate, will be taken up only after final decision on their relocation has been taken. The current estimates assume their in situ rehabilitation and reconstruction.
· Encourage NGOs/CBOs to assist village communities in planning and implementing village level works.
· Limit the above measures to rehabilitating/replacing the damaged properties to deliver pre- earthquake functional equivalence and not include further expansion or augmentation of water supply.
· Repairs and particularly replacements will be with materials and specifications designed for higher earthquake resistance, where this proves cost-effective and affordable following further detailed analysis.
Institutional and Implementation Arrangements
GWSSB will implement all water supply schemes except ‘in-village’ water supply works which will be implemented by the local communities/Gram Panchayat/NGOs, with technical support of GWSSB. GWSSB has a strong engineering cadre of over 1,200 engineers and has in- house implementation capacity to implement this emergency program. It will use consultants as needed to supplement its own resources. Many of the large contracting firms (e.g., Larson and Toubro, Esaar projects, Dodsal) are already working with GWSSB for major projects. GWSSB regularly adopts pre-qualification and other procurement practices which are largely in line with standard guidelines. Third-party inspection and construction supervision is also practiced through reputed agencies like Engineers India Limited, SGS and Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES). GWSSB has set up a Community Management and Support Unit with assistance from the Government of Netherlands to ensure community consultation and participation in its RWSS programs. Gujarat has a number of large and capable NGOs who have extensive experience in social intermediation in RWSS and other development programs. GWSSB will seek their active support in implementing particularly ‘in-village’ works of the emergency program.
- 44 - Reconstruction and Project Cost Estimate
Possible costs of reconstruction are set out in the table below. It is important to stress that these figures are highly provisional and should be subjected to further careful scrutiny.
Sl. Kutch Rajkot Jamnagar Banaskatha Total No. Rs. crores US $ M Rs. crores US $ M Rs. crores US $ M Rs. crores US $ M Rs. crores US $ M 1 Temp.Measures 13.94 3.00 2.03 0.44 2.03 0.44 2.00 0.43 19.98 4.30 Sub - Total 13.94 3.00 2.03 0.44 2.03 0.44 2.00 0.43 19.98 4.30 2 RWS-regional 244.54 52.59 14.79 3.18 7.37 1.59 32.92 7.08 299.62 64.43 3 RWS- individual 49.33 10.61 9.52 2.05 8.47 1.82 0 0.00 67.32 14.48 4 Urban WSS (bulk supply only) 70.23 15.10 2.61 0.56 2.78 0.60 0 0.00 75.62 16.26 5 Ground water recharge 4.00 0.87 Sub - Total 364.10 78.30 26.92 5.79 18.62 4.00 32.92 7.08 446.56 96.04 Technical assistance 6 Leak detec. Equip 1.00 0.22 7 water Quality moni equipment, surveys 2.00 0.43 8 hydrogeological studies 1.00 0.22 9 Institutional Dev 5.00 1.08 Sub-Total 9.00 1.94 TOTAL 10 Design and engineering @ 8 % of WS 23.52 5 1.95 0.42 1.27 0.27 2.63 0.57 29.37 6.31 Grand Total 401.56 86.35 30.89 6.64 21.91 4.71 37.54 8.07 504.90 108.59 $1 = INR 46.5 Note: Reconstruction costs include items 2-8 only.
* The investment cost estimates are based on prevailing market rates and recent bid values. The estimates follow closely with GWSSB estimate of Rs 298 crores ( $64 million) though some individual estimates were increased and some others decreased.
Next steps
(a) prepare detailed and accurate assessment of the rehabilitation/reconstruction program, implementation plan; (b) prepare detailed engineering designs and cost estimates for all works; (c) prepare model bid documents for each type of work; and (d) prepare proposal contract packaging and procurement plan.
- 45 - Damage assessment Table ( repairs/ replacement without upgrading at current prices); Rs. 100 Lakhs = Rs. 1 Crore
Water Supply Kutch Rajkot Jamnagar Banaskantha Total works Unit Qty Rs Lakhs $ M Qty Rs Lakhs $ M Qty Rs Lakhs $ M Qty Rs Lakhs $ M Qty Rs. Lakh $ M RWS-Regional Tubewells Nos 160 560 1.20 5 5 0.01 2 2 0.00 5 17.5 0.04 172 584.5 1.26 Pumping equip Nos 160 320 0.69 5 10 0.02 0 0 0.00 5 10 0.02 170 340 0.73 pump houses Nos 160 96 0.21 5 3 0.01 2 1.2 0.00 5 3 0.01 172 103.2 0.22 Trans. Pipes Km 1280 9216 19.82 62 446.4 0.96 31 223.2 0.48 180 1296 2.79 1553 11182 24.05 local dist village 693 2079 4.47 122 366 0.79 56 168 0.36 148 296 0.64 1019 2909 6.26 local tanks Nos 564 564 1.21 85 85 0.18 58 58 0.12 70 70 0.15 777 777 1.67 Shivalakha-intake repairs 1 50 0.11 0 0.00 0 0 1 50 0.11 Pumping equip Nos 6 60 0.13 0 0.00 0 0 6 60 0.13 Treatment plant Mld 6 6.5 0.01 0 0.00 0 0 6 6.5 0.01 Sub-Total 12952 27.85 915 1.97 452.40 0.97 1693 3.64 16012 34.43 RWS- Individual Tubewells Nos 110 385 0.83 16 16 0.03 16 16 0.03 0 0 0.00 142 417 0.90 Pumping equip Nos 110 220 0.47 16 16 0.03 16 16 0.03 0 0 0.00 142 252 0.54 pump houses Nos 110 66 0.14 16 9.6 0.02 16 9.6 0.02 0 0 0.00 142 85.2 0.18 Trans. Pipes Km 382 1146 2.46 84 252 0.54 76 228 0.49 0 0 0.00 542 1626 3.50 local dist village 191 573 1.23 42 126 0.27 33 99 0.21 0 0 0.00 266 798 1.72 local tanks Nos 191 191 0.41 21 21 0.05 16 16 0.03 0 0 0.00 228 228 0.49 Sub -total 2581 5.5505 440.6 0.9475 384.6 0.8271 0 0 3406.2 7.33 Towns- bulk supply Tappar Dam Repairs 0 0 0.00 0 0 0.00 intake Replace 1 100 0.22 1 100 0.22 pumping equip Replace 6 120 0.26 6 120 0.26 R-main-7 Km Km 7 105 0.23 7 105 0.23 Treatment plant mld 9 90 0.19 9 90 0.19 0.00 Tubewells Nos 110 385 0.83 3 10.5 0.02 0 0.00 0 113 395.5 0.85 Pumping equip Nos 110 220 0.47 3 6 0.01 0 0.00 0 113 226 0.49 pump houses Nos 110 66 0.14 3 1.8 0.00 0 0 0.00 0 0 113 67.8 0.15 TW Conn. Mains Km 150 450 0.97 0.00 0.00 150 450 0.97 inter. Tanks Nos 30 900 1.94 2 30 0.06 7 84 0.18 0 39 1014 2.18 Trans. Pipes Km 108 1080 2.32 10 80 0.17 8 64 0.14 0 126 1224 2.63 Staff quarters units 120 180 0.39 4 6 0.01 5 7.5 0.02 0 129 193.5 0.42
Sub - Total 3696 7.9484 134.3 0.2888 155.5 0.3344 3985.8 8.57
TOTAL 19229 41.352 1490.3 3.2049 992.5 2.1344 1692.5 3.6398 23403.8 50.33
- 46 - Annex 7
Municipal and Environmental Infrastructure
Introduction
Gujarat has 6 municipal corporations and 143 municipal towns. Of these, 5 municipal corporations4/ and 57 municipal towns have been affected by the earthquake. The assessment team visited the worst hit towns such as Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, Rapar and Gandhidham in Kutch district and moderately hit Ahmedabad city during February 13 to 17, 2001 to review the damages caused to the urban and municipal infrastructure and the repairs, rehabilitation and reconstruction needs. The assessment team also received briefing from the state government and the municipal staff. From the various reports provided by the GOG and from discussions the assessment team held in the field, it was observed that the government machinery moved quite expeditiously to the affected urban areas and the basic services were restored although at a significantly lower scale.
Delimitation of the Affected Area
The impact of the earthquake on the municipal infrastructure varied widely among the districts. Severe damages were caused in several towns in Kutch, Rajkot and Surendranagar districts and some damages to several cities/towns in the remaining districts. Municipal infrastructure in Ahmedabad city also suffered damages. Based on available information, urban infrastructure in 15 cities were damaged to significant degree. The table below summarizes the major impacts district-wise. Damages were reported from other Corporation/ Municipalities, but details were not readily available. The Urban Development Dept., GOG (UDD) is currently conducting a detailed survey of the damages in the municipal areas and results are awaited.
Severely Affected District Affected Municipality/City Kutch Bhuj, Anjar, Rapar, Bhachau, Gandhidham, Mandvi Rajkot Morvi, Wankaner Surendranagar Surendranagar, Limdi, Thangadh, Dhrangadhra, Halwad, Wadhwan Ahmedabad Ahmedabad
Situation Prior to Disaster Event
Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Rajkot, Surat, and Jamnagar are the large cities which suffered medium to low damages. The services in these cities are provided, operated and maintained by the respective Municipal Corporation. Similarly, the municipalities are responsible for the provision of the services in the towns. However, there are some exceptions. For example, bulk water to Gandhidham in Kutch district, and Thangadh and Wadhwan in Surendranagar district is obtained from the regional water supply schemes operated by the GWSSB and the retail distribution is made by the municipality.
The water supply in most of the municipalities are based on groundwater abstracted through large diameter borewells and distributed through piped reticulation. Those who take private connection pay water charges/taxes whereas the poorer communities are supplied water through public standposts, free of charge. Per capita water supplied in the affected municipalities ranged between 20 liters/day in
4/ Ahmedabad, Surat, Jamnagar, Rajkot, and Vadodara.
- 47 - Bhuj to 150 liters/day in Anjar. In general, the municipalities have a very weak financial base and the operation and maintenance of the services are much below the desired level.
Water borne sewerage systems existed only in Bhuj and Anjar. The municipalities also provide and maintain sanitation (on-site), solid waste management, roads, drainage, street lighting, schools, dispensary, community hall, sports stadium and recreational facilities. The operation and maintenance of these services/facilities are inadequate due to paucity of resources and limited institutional capacity.
Damages to Assets
Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation has suffered major damages to various structures and buildings and water supply and sewerage systems. In Kutch district the worst affected towns are Bhuj, Anjar, Rapar, Gandhidham, and Bhachau. In Rajkot district Morvi was most affected. The other municipal towns, which suffered relatively less damage, are Mandvi (Kutch district), Wankaner (Rajkot district) Surendranagar, Wadhwan, Thangadh, Dhrangadhra, Halwad and Limbdi (all in Surendranagar district).
In the severely hit towns the urban infrastructure is devastated. The water supply system is broken. The sewerage systems are damaged. At many of the places the electrical lines have snapped. The buildings (both public and private), are badly affected. In Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau and Rapar there has been devastation of the town core areas including the urban infrastructure.
Water supply. Anjar is a typical example of the extent of damage caused in the affected towns in Kutch. Its water supply system consists of a network of 15 deep bore wells, clear water storage sumps, multistage pumps, overhead reservoirs and a 45 km long distribution network of asbestos cement and rigid PVC pipes. Eight bore wells have been damaged. The chlorination plant and the room housing the pumping unit are damaged. About 25 km of the distribution network will have to be re-laid using earthquake resistant pipe material such as cast iron or ductile iron. Three overhead reservoirs have developed cracks and will require a thorough investigation to determine their structural integrity. All civil structures are to be designed for earthquake/cyclone resistance. The sewerage system consisting of open gutters, manholes, and 66 km of gravity sewers (mainly reinforced cement concrete and glazed stoneware) and the untreated wastewater is disposed to agriculture land. The extent of damage to the network has to be determined since these are underground and their conditions need to be verified. However, it was estimated that almost half of the sewerage network will have to be re-laid. Asset damage in the severely affected towns and Ahmedabad city (see attachment) is assessed to be Rs. 48.2 crores ($10.4 million).
Municipal buildings. Most of the civic buildings such as primary and high schools, town hall, city gate, stadium, clock tower, octroi collection posts, municipal office building, staff quarters, municipal dispensary, library, municipal market, community halls, sports stadium and community toilets/urinals have been badly damaged in the affected municipal towns. Most of them require reconstruction. Asset damage (see attachment) is assessed to be Rs. 4.3 crores ($0.9 million).
Roads. The municipal roads are intact except for minor damage to the top surfaces in some places. In Anjar 30 km of roads need minor repair and resurfacing. Asset damage (see attachment) is assessed to be Rs. 26.4 crores ($5.6 million).
Bulk water source. The Tappar dam, source of water supply of Gandhidham, has been severely damaged. The damage repair and strengthening of the Tappar dam has been included in the rural water supply and sanitation damage assessment annex.
- 48 - The estimate for asset damage is Rs. 141 crores ($30.3 million) and the estimated cost of upgrading them to earthquake resistant is up to Rs. 209 crores ($45.0 million) (see attachment) as below:
Municipal and Urban Environmental Infrastructure: Assessment of Asset Damage
Total (cost of asset Total (with upgrade) Reconstruction/repair period (Years) replacement) in Rs. in Rs. Crores Crores ($ million) ($ million) Public 141.1 (30.34) 209.3 (45.00) Repairs/Rehabilitation: 1.5 years Reconstruction: 3 years Urban 141.1 (30.34) 209.3 (45.00) Repairs/Rehabilitation: 1.5 years Reconstruction: 3 years Sources: Government of Gujarat Urban Development and Urban Housing Department, Gujarat Municipal Finance Board, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, Anjar Municipality, joint mission estimates.
Assessment of Asset Damage: District-wise table
Total (cost of asset replacement) Total (with upgrade) In Rs. Crores ($ million) In Rs. Crores ($ million) Kutch 70.8 (15.23) 82.6 (17.77) Rajkot 30.5 (6.55) 36.4 (7.84) Surendranagar 8.1 (1.75) 9.7 (2.09) Ahmedabad 18.8 (4.05) 61.4 (13.21) Other districts 12.8 (2.76) 19.0 (4.09) Total 141.1 (30.34) 209.2 (45.00)
Other Impacts
In the towns with major damage, the affected inhabitants have moved to temporary shelters. The provision of basic amenities to these temporary shelters is marginal. There are inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities. This has resulted in loss of productive time, unsanitary conditions leading to health consequences and degradation of the local environment.
The lack of disposal of household waste from temporary shelters and the surviving houses will have a profound impact on the health of the inhabitants.
The loss of shops and markets has slowed down the local economy, both in immediate and medium terms. The damage to municipal offices have adverse impacts in terms of the revenue due to municipalities and efficient functioning of municipalities. The loss of office records, files and related important documents has adversely impacted post-earthquake operations–e.g., verification of the bonafides of the inhabitants and verification of land records and noncollection of dues, etc. The impacts related to damage of health centers, libraries and schools maintained by the municipalities are significant. Assessments of these impacts are covered under education and health annexes separately.
Needs
From the various reports furnished to the assessment team, observations from the field visits and consultations with the local staff, it was evident that several services and facilities can be repaired, some will have to be retrofitted to make them multi-hazard resistant while others will have to be reconstructed to bring them back to pre-earthquake, level of their productive functioning. However,
- 49 - there are possibilities that those services and facilities which will be reconstructed will help upgrade the quality of the services as existing prior to the earthquake.
The piped water supply system in Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, Rapar, Gandhidham in Kutch district and Ahmedabad city, and the sewerage network in Anjar and Ahmedabad, have suffered considerable distress. There is some evidence of major leakage in the water transmission and distribution network, but the majority of the leak points are not identifiable at this stage as currently the systems are being used under very low pressure. Similarly, the sewerage system is also being run with considerable under-loading. These will have to be studied extensively to determine the extent of repairs and rehabilitation needed. As a result of the likely relocation of the affected families to newer locations in Bhachau, Bhuj and Anjar, the services to be provided there could be upgraded with marginal additional costs.
Other municipal infrastructure such as street lights, markets and community halls have also suffered heavy damages in Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, Rapar, Gandhidham and Morvi, and will need reconstruction.
About 20 million tons of debris and rubbles from damaged structures will have to be removed from the urban areas. Debris removal in urban areas alone is estimated to cost about $33 million5/. See annex on environment.
Recovery Strategy Under Urban Infrastructure
The ongoing relief efforts have somewhat restored basic levels of essential services such as power, water and transportation. However, there is a continuing problem with water supply and sanitation in the temporary shelter areas. In addition, thousands of people remain without normal basic services to their homes.
UDD and GSDMA have developed an initial strategy for restoration of basic services in the larger urban areas. The strategy follows a three phase approach: (a) mmediatei needs to restore essential services such as water supply, power, sanitation, and roads to a level that will sustain both the people still remaining in their homes and the large displaced population during the reconstruction period; (b) medium-term, for the next three years, to rehabilitate and reconstruct the urban infrastructure and civic facilities; and, (c) longer-term to develop improved capacity at the local level enabling them to properly operate and maintain their local systems for which they have become responsible for under the 74th Constitutional Amendment.
Immediate needs. The design of the immediate needs, benefiting the maximum population, will require careful planning to ensure that the most cost effective and efficient approach is followed so that the works done are compatible with and can be readily incorporated into the permanent works that will be undertaken in parallel. This urban plan should be prepared with extensive community input, to determine solutions to housing relocation issues related to loss of private property, and to enable widening of roads and providing for adequate sized building plots. The cost of rubble clearing will be in the order of one third that of constructing new sites and services.
In order to achieve this, the following steps are envisaged:
· establishment of a Reconstruction Committee in each town, with civic leaders and elected or appointed representatives from the major interest groups and cultural communities, participating in
5/ Estimated cost of per ton/km of debris removal is Rs 75.0 (equivalent $1.61).
- 50 - the decision making process of the administrative authorities, and the monitoring of the reconstruction works;
· public consultations and information campaigns to explain the strategy and procedures;
· detailed examination and testing of existing public structures and systems to determine what is structurally sound and suitable for rehabilitation and use as is, or if it should be demolished (if done by a respected team and properly promoted this will help overcome the current fear and get many people back into their homes, enable school to resume, and civil servants to get back to their offices);
· temporary repairs to restore water and sewerage systems as much as possible through patching, jury rigging, above ground lines and setting up a regular tanker service for water to unserviced areas and the numerous temporary camps around the major centers. Public toilets and solid waste disposal facilities will be required near all water outlets and these must be cleaned and hauled away on a regular basis to designated disposal sites;
· rehabilitation of superficially damaged buildings on a permanent basis; and,
· removal of rubble to enable private house and building owners and builders to access their sites, and to clear the roads of the current congestion and dangerous driving conditions.
The cost of the immediate needs program for reconstruction without upgrading is estimated at Rs. 63 million ($13.4 million).
Medium term reconstruction. This phase will continue for the estimated three years required to complete rehabilitation and reconstruction of all facilities and systems, incorporating standards and specifications to strengthen the reconstructed facilities against damage from all disasters. The urban planning initiated in the first phase would be expanded to incorporate future requirements into the reconstruction. During this period all works would be completed to enable full restoration of services. This could include new building sites for swapping or sale to existing owners who elect to relocate their houses or businesses.
During this period, capacity building of municipal authorities will be initiated so that they can properly operate and maintain the new systems. This will include a detailed assessment of professional and technical expertise and personnel requirements within the municipal authority (the assessment team found that in some cities there were few or no staff with these basic skills). This will require a rationalization of the local civil service and a massive training program. The reconstruction does afford an opportunity to institute such changes since the involved staff could practice their newly acquired skills by taking advantage of the expertise and specific capacity building programs provided under the reconstruction program.
The cost of the medium term reconstruction program without upgrading is estimated to be Rs. 79 crores ($16.89 million).
Long term. In the longer term, strategies need to be developed and installed for coping with future disasters, to avoid the delays and problems incurred in the recent earthquake. The Kutch region unfortunately suffers from annual calamities related to cyclones and droughts. In the past, municipalities have been fully dependent on the State to provide emergency services, relief and
- 51 - rehabilitation of these calamities. Disaster management capability needs to be developed at the local municipal level.
The municipalities have been very dependent on grants and subsidies from the State to manage, operate and maintain local services and public facilities. For example, in one town visited by the assessment team, the local cost recovery for water, sewerage and solid waste was less than 10 percent of the cost of operation. This has caused severe deterioration of all facilities, which undoubtedly contributed to the extensive damage caused by the earthquake, and deteriorating levels of service. Once recovery from the earthquake is well underway, rationalization of property taxes and water tariffs and fees for sewerage, sanitation and other services should be instituted through a plan to achieve cost recovery of the operation and maintenance costs.
Institutional and implementation arrangements
The reconstruction will be implemented under the auspices of the UDD, by the Gujarat Urban Development Company Ltd. (GUDCOL), a semi-autonomous entity established with the longer term mandate of developing into an independent financing institution for urban development, along the lines of similar entities in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, which were developed through support from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank, respectively. The reconstruction program affords a unique opportunity to strengthen GUDCOL. This may be achieved by having institutions such as Infrastructure Leasing and Financing Services (ILFS) tie-up with GUDCOL through a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for realizing the urban infrastructure reconstruction. For the immediate restoration of temporary services GWSSB and the Gujarat Electricity Board (GEB) will work closely with GUDCOL for the water and power components. GUDCOL would work closely with the municipal authorities, communities and NGOs to ensure community participation in the planning process and monitoring. GUDCOL should initiate commercial policies regarding the operation and maintenance of municipal facilities with a view towards eventual contracting or privatization of the services.
Environmental aspects
The environmental impacts associated with the immediate needs program include the need for proper sanitation facilities at the temporary camps to prevent outbreaks of diseases related to poor sanitation. Proper toilets and washing facilities will need to be provided, along with water supply. For smaller camps, human waste disposal could be through simple pit latrines while larger more permanent camps should install septic tanks. Bleaching powder should be applied to the pits on a daily basis to control odor and flies. Cooking and kitchen wastes should be disposed of to leaching pits, constructed in central locations. These pits should be sprayed by disinfectants to control flies. The people in the camps should be instructed on basic hygiene by NGOs and health workers. In urban areas where sewage systems exist, the collection pipes may still be functional, though connections from houses may have to be rebuilt. Similarly, solid waste containers should be installed at strategic locations in the camps and urban areas, and the wastes hauled to a proper landfill for burial.
Wastes from the field hospitals, clinics and dispensaries should receive immediate attention and systems for proper collection and disposal put in place. The collection and disposal of all wastes should be monitored to ensure operators and truckers do not dump it along the road. For private houses and buildings in towns without a sewage system, low cost sanitation or septic tanks, depending on individual owner, should be inspected and repaired if possible, otherwise replaced.
Similarly, the solid waste management before theearthquake was not well structured and regulated. While reconstruction can replace containers and vehicles, the UDD and local municipalities
- 52 - should begin working on modernizing the collection and disposal of solid wastes, preferably through privatization.
Social aspects
This section is covered in the social impacts annex.
- 53 - INDIA: GUJARAT EMERGENCY EARTHQUAKE RECOVERY PROGRAM MUNICIPAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE COST TABLE: ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE (1) REPLACEMENT COST (2) REPLACEMENT WITH UPGRADING Rs. million Municipality/ District Water Supply Sewerage Solid Waste Mgt. Sanitation Municipal Bldgs. Dispensary Roads Street lights Others Total Corporation (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) 1 Bhuj Kachchh 14.65 15.55 0.00 0.00 3.67 3.67 2.27 2.84 4.50 5.63 0.00 0.00 130.20 130.20 2.50 2.50 66.50 83.13 224.29 243.52 2 Rapar Kachchh 10.33 13.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.29 2.30 2.88 0.00 0.00 2.56 2.56 0.50 0.50 4.10 4.38 20.02 23.71 3 Anjar Kachchh 60.10 116.40 37.50 42.50 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 10.42 12.97 1.80 2.25 19.65 27.37 3.00 3.00 75.90 89.73 209.37 295.22 4 Bhachau Kachchh 7.10 7.10 0.00 0.00 3.35 3.35 0.55 0.69 2.00 2.50 0.00 0.00 17.15 17.15 8.00 8.00 10.85 13.16 49.00 51.95 5 Gandhidham Kachchh 100.00 102.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.50 5.50 0.00 0.00 66.25 66.25 0.00 0.00 3.00 3.25 173.75 177.50 6 Mandvi Kachchh 16.70 16.70 0.00 0.00 1.36 1.36 0.90 0.90 4.50 5.63 0.00 0.00 1.85 1.85 0.00 0.00 6.56 7.86 31.87 34.30 7 Morbi Rajkot 179.50 222.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60 1.78 9.00 11.25 1.00 1.25 14.70 14.70 10.00 10.00 38.70 48.25 254.50 309.23 8 Wakaner Rajkot 12.90 15.25 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.30 2.00 2.30 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 6.60 6.60 8.60 8.60 18.82 21.57 50.22 55.62 9 Limdi S'nagar 7.50 9.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.74 5.93 1.60 1.90 1.20 1.20 0.89 0.89 0.15 0.15 5.40 6.75 21.48 26.07 10 Thangadh S'nagar 5.70 7.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.60 0.14 0.15 2.90 3.60 9.39 11.60 11 Dhrangadhra S'nagar 5.81 6.87 0.00 0.00 0.66 0.66 1.49 1.68 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 0.46 0.46 0.20 0.20 3.39 4.10 13.01 14.97 12 Halvad S'nagar 4.00 5.10 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.22 0.84 1.05 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.00 1.55 1.55 0.35 0.43 6.00 7.25 13.16 15.80 13 Wadhwan S'nagar 1.01 1.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.30 1.60 2.00 2.91 3.57 14 Suren'ranagar S'nagar 7.50 9.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.50 3.13 1.15 1.15 0.25 0.25 0.55 0.55 9.05 10.05 21.00 25.01 15 Ahmedabad Ahmedabad 49.20 49.20 139.20 139.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 426.00 188.40 614.40
Total 482.00 597.37 176.70 181.70 10.56 10.56 14.67 17.51 43.12 53.19 5.55 6.25 262.71 270.43 34.29 34.38 252.77 731.08 1282.37 1902.47
Water Supply Sewerage Solid Waste Mgt. Sanitation Municipal Bldgs. Dispensary Muni. Roads Street lights Others Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Repairs Reconst. Ratio 0.61 0.39 0.096 0.904 0.05 0.95 0.05 0.95 0.17 0.83 0.30 0.70 0.10 0.90 0.00 1.00 0.03 0.97 (Replacement cost for 15 municipalities/corporations only) Repairs and Rehabilitation (Rs. million) Reconstruction (Rs. million) Immediate Ph Short Term Ph Immediate Phase Short Term Phase Sub-Sector Total Immediate Phase Short Term Ph Total Immediate Phase Short Term Ph Total Total Total Total Cost Co-eff. Cost Co-eff. Cost Cost Co-eff. Cost Co-eff. Cost (Rs. million) (Rs. million) (US$ million) (US$ million) Water Supply 294.02 0.75 220.52 0.25 73.51 187.98 0.25 47.00 0.75 140.99 267.51 214.49 5.75 4.61 Sewerage 16.96 1.00 16.96 0.00 0.00 159.74 0.10 15.97 0.90 143.76 32.94 143.76 0.71 3.09 Solid Wastes Mgt. 0.53 1.00 0.53 0.00 0.00 10.03 1.00 10.03 0.00 0.00 10.56 0.00 0.23 0.00 Sanitation 0.73 1.00 0.73 0.00 0.00 13.94 0.50 6.97 0.50 6.97 7.70 6.97 0.17 0.15 Municipal Buildings 7.33 1.00 7.33 0.00 0.00 35.79 0.50 17.89 0.50 17.89 25.23 17.89 0.54 0.38 Dispensary 1.67 1.00 1.67 0.00 0.00 3.89 1.00 3.89 0.00 0.00 5.55 0.00 0.12 0.00 Municipal Roads 26.27 0.20 5.25 0.80 21.02 236.44 0.00 0.00 1.00 236.44 5.25 257.46 0.11 5.54 Street lights 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 34.29 1.00 34.29 0.00 0.00 34.29 0.00 0.74 0.00 Others 7.58 1.00 7.58 0.00 0.00 245.19 0.70 171.63 0.30 73.56 179.21 73.56 3.85 1.58 TOTAL 355.0942 260.57 94.52 927.28 307.67 619.61 568.24 714.13 12.22 15.36 Others included municipal markets, shopping complexes, library, staff quarters, octori posts, stores, godowns, fire brigade
SUMMARY ------> Replacement Cost (US$ million) Total Imm.Ph. Short Ph. Total Replacement Cost with Upgrading (US$ million) Total Imm. Ph. Short Ph. A. 15 municipalities/corporation towns per above 27.58 12.22 15.36 A. 15 municipalities/corporation towns per above 40.91 18.13 22.78 B. Other municipal/corporation towns 2.76 1.22 1.54 B. Other municipal/corporation towns 4.09 1.81 2.28 Total 30.34 13.44 16.89 Total 45.00 19.94 25.06
- 54 - Annex 8
State Public Buildings and Historic Monuments
Introduction
This section describes the damage assessment of public buildings, including administrative buildings, historical monuments and buildings, and residential quarters provided by the government to its employees and their families. A four-day program of site visits was carried out with assistance from the Roads and Buildings (R&B) Department. The program covered the following districts: Kutch, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Surendranagar, Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar. After the cities of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar, the team went to Bhuj. Before returning to Ahmedabad, specific site visits were undertaken in Kukuma, Ratnal, Anjar, Gandhidham, Bhimasar, Bhachau, Maliya, Morbi, Rajkot, Dhrol, Jamnagar, Jodia, Jamdudhai, and Amran. In addition to the concerned R&B Department officials, local officials were consulted in several of the places visited, including the District Collector in Rajkot.
The main sources of information for the damage assessment presented in this section are the R&B Department, the Police Department, and the Department of Sports, Youth and Cultural Activities, particularly the Directorates of Archeology, Libraries and Museums. Other sources include general reports produced by the GOG and the local and national newspapers and magazines.
Administrative buildings and residential quarters for government employees and their families belong to various line departments, and district level authorities. However, most of these buildings are built and maintained by the R&B department.
The historical monuments and buildings comprising an important part of India and Gujarat’s cultural heritage fall under the responsibility of the Archeological Survey of India or the State Department of Sports, Youth and Cultural Activities (SY&C) depending on their category. Category 1 monuments (total of 212) are protected by the former, and Category 2 monuments (total of 329) are protected by the latter. SY&C Department is also responsible for those museums and libraries that occupy historic structures. There is a significant number of unprotected monuments and buildings (category 3), many of which are in private hands. At the same time, some administrative buildings, hospitals, schools and colleges occupy historic structures.
Situation before the Disaster
Most of the administrative buildings and residential quarters in the most affected districts, and particularly in Kutch, were old, load bearing structures, in need of renovation. Many government offices also occupied historical buildings to which, often, new sections have been added without paying sufficient attention to structural matters. The buildings with a frame structure were relatively well built, although not necessarily with seismic considerations, and some needed more maintenance. The protected historical monuments were well kept, but their structural soundness varied depending on their location, materials used and the historical period to which they belong.
Earthquake Damages
Description of damages. The spatial distribution of damage to administrative buildings and residential quarters followed closely the damages in housing. As the table below indicates,
- 55 - most of the public buildings destroyed were located in Kutch district. In Jamnagar, Palan, Patan and Navsari districts, and in Ahmedabad City, buildings also collapsed or were so damaged that will have to be demolished. In these districts, at least 12 court buildings and 12 jails and sub-jails were badly damaged. In Ahmedabad, the main office and the hospital buildings at the Central Jail at Sabarmati will have to be reconstructed. Many official records have been lost or are lying among the debris.
The buildings that collapsed were usually old, one or two story high structures with masonry walls. Damaged buildings were more geographically spread, but were also, for the most part, load bearing structures. In many cases, walls partially collapsed or developed heavy cracks, while the roof settled and often collapsed. In the case of more modern frame structures, expansion joints generally opened up, causing damages to flooring, and minor cracks in walls, plaster, ceiling and beams.
Table 1 – Summary of State Public Buildings Affected by the Earthquake Total Gujarat (*) Kutch District Type of Building Location Destroyed Damaged Destroyed Damaged
A. Administrative buildings Urban 137 859 120 184 Rural 57 95 53 24 Total (Buildings) 194 954 173 208
B. Residential quarters Urban 184 901 153 24 Rural 67 118 65 95 Total (units) 251 1,019 218 119
Sources: GOG, Department of Roads and Buildings Notes: (*) Includes all affected districts / (**) the table does not include buildings under the Police Department, for which information is restricted to the destroyed buildings in Kutch district (23 police stations, 56 outposts, 1 office of superintendent and 4 offices of deputies; 1,441 staff residential quarters, 86 officer’s bungalows and 2 superintendent and deputy’s bungalows).
Damage to historic structures, and by extension the impact on Gujarat’s cultural heritage, was significant. While some monuments such as the 1,000-year-old Rani Ki Vav (the Queen’s stepwell) in Patan survived unscathed, other invaluable structures collapsed. Damage to the famous Navlakha temple in Jamnagar District is extensive, requiring a major restoration effort and specialized technical inputs. Bhuj contained many old historic buildings that were completely destroyed or badly damaged, including the Kutch Museum, the oldest of its kind in Gujarat. Out of the 329 monuments protected by the GOG (category 2), 33 suffered major damage and 100 some damage such as major and minor cracks. Many unprotected historic buildings and monuments have been destroyed or damaged.
Damage estimates. Based on surveys conducted by the R&B Department and the Police Department, an inventory of damages to the administrative and residential quarters was developed. To estimate the asset damages, collapsed buildings or those that will have to be demolished were assessed at their replacement value at current prices, considering additional costs to make them more hazard resistant. Two categories of damages were assumed (minor and major), and costs per square meter were estimated for each category based on current prices. Asset cost due to office furniture and equipment damaged was also assumed at replacement value at current prices. Demolition of buildings and debris removal were assumed as global figures based on the experience of R&B Department in Gujarat, and included as part of the asset damages.
- 56 - It is impossible to assume a replacement value for collapsed historical monuments. Thus, only costs of damages have been estimated, and the costs due to destroyed monuments and buildings not included. Damage figures, based on preliminary surveys, are very tentative. Moreover, no survey has been carried out regarding the historic buildings that are not protected by the central or state government.
Table 2: Total Asset Damages and Reconstruction Costs Total Reconstruction (3 years) Rs Crores ($ million) Rs Crores ($ million)
Damages 340 (73.10) 444 (95.40)
Public 325 (69.80) 425 (91.40) Private 15.3 (3.30) 18.6 (4.00)
Rural 44.2 (9.50) * 53.5 (11.50) Urban 296 (63.60) 390 (83.90)
Memorandum item Imported component -- --
340 (73.10) 444 (95.40) Sources: GOG, Department of Roads and Buildings, Department of Sports, Youth and Cultural Activities, Police Department, and joint mission estimates Notes: * 40 percent of asset damages under historical monuments assumed to be in rural areas
Recovery and Reconstruction Needs and Strategy
Table 3: Summary of Possible Reconstruction Costs (short and long-term)
R&B Dept Police Dept SY&C Dept Others TOTAL Rs. Crores Rs. Crores Rs. Crores Rs. Crores ($ million) ($ million) ($ million) ($ million)
Short-term (next 18 149 (32.10) -- 0.9 (0.20) 2.3 (0.50) 153(32.8) months)
Long-term (next 3 years) 123 (26.50) 97 (20.80) 18 (3.80) 53 (11.50) 291 (62.6)
TOTAL 272 (58.60) 97 (20.80) 19 (4.00) 56 (12.00)* 444 ( 95.4)
Notes: * Includes $4.0 million for restoration of private assets lost in residential quarters, and $7.50 million for restoration of Category 1 monuments, for which funding would come from different sources
Short and Long-term Needs
Short-term needs (the next 18 months). The R&B Department is responsible for the repairing and rebuilding of administrative buildings and residential quarters, and it has already started to do some minor repairs. Temporary office and housing arrangements will be necessary while some buildings are repaired or reconstructed. Major repairs and strengthening of buildings,
- 57 - as well as design of new buildings with improved standards can be carried out in the next 18 months.
Long-term needs (two to three years). Many administrative buildings, police stations and outposts, and residential quarters will have to be reconstructed in the next two to three years. In addition, it is critical to carry out a comprehensive survey of critical public buildings to develop and implement a state-wide retrofitting program.
The SY&C Department has already taken the immediate steps to commence minor restoration works and detailed conservation reports of badly damaged monuments. The department is also exploring financing sources that could be approached to carry out restoration works, including specialized international agencies and corporate sponsors.
Reconstruction Strategy
Short-term program. R&B Department has prepared a short-term program to be implemented in the next 18 months, which would include: provision of temporary office space (temporary residential accommodations to be provided through regular provision of temporary housing); minor and major repairs and strengthening to damaged buildings, and preparation of designs for buildings to be reconstructed in the next two to three years. Table 4 contains the detailed costs for the short-term program.
Table 4: Short-term Reconstruction Costs (18 month period)
R&B Department Administrative Residential TOTAL in Rs. Rs. Crores ($ million) Rs. Crores ($ million) Crores ($ million)
Temporary Office Space 20 (4.30) -- 20 (4.30) Minor and Major Repairs (*) 72 (15.50) 44 (9.50) 116 (25.0) Office furniture and 3.7 (0.80) -- 3.7 (0.80) equipment Demolition and Debris 3.3 (0.70) 1.9 (0.40) 5.2 (1.10) Removal Consultancies (**) 3.3 (0.70) 0.9 (0.20) 4.2 (0.90)
TOTAL 102 (22.00) 47 (10.10) 149 (32.10)
Source: Roads and Building Department, joint mission estimates Notes: (*) Includes strengthening / (**) Includes supervision consultants and technical assistance consultants
Long-term program. R&B Department has prepared a two to three year program, which would include design and rebuilding of collapsed or badly damaged administrative buildings and residential quarters; and a survey of undamaged structures in conjunction with a detailed technical analysis to implement a retrofitting program. The R&B Department’s reconstruction plan does not include administrative or residential buildings of the Police Department, which fall under the responsibility of the Home Department. See table below with cost estimates for both departments.
- 58 - Long-term Reconstruction Costs (three-year period)
Item R&B Dept, Rs. Police Dept, Rs. TOTAL, Rs. Crores Crores Crores ($ million) ($ million) ($ million)
Reconstruction of Administrative 31.6 (6.80) 11.6 (2.50) 43.2 (9.30) Buildings Reconstruction of Residential Quarters 32.6 (7.00) 53.0 (11.40) 85.6 (18.4) Office furniture and equipment 6.5 (1.40) 20.9 (4.50) 27.4 (5.90) Retrofitting of Critical Buildings 50.2 (10.8) 9.3 (2.00) 59.5 (12.8) Consultancies * 2.3 (0.50) 1.9 (0.40) 4.2 (0.90)
TOTAL 123 (26.5) 97 (20.80)** 220 (47.3) Source: Roads and Building Department, Police Department and joint mission estimates Notes: * Includes supervision consultants and technical assistance consultants / ** Covers reconstruction n Kutch District
In addition to above, it has been estimated that approximately Rs. 55.8 crores ($12.00 million) will be required for technical assistance and restoration works of historical monuments and buildings protected by the central and state governments. This figure does not include the costs of retrofitting of the most important monuments. That estimation world require identification of monuments to retrofit and a detailed structural analysis combined with a preservation strategy.
- 59 - Annex 9
Power
Consultations and Field Visits
The assessment team had a detailed presentation by the Chief Secretary and other senior officials of GOG on 12 February 2001 on the devastation caused by the earthquake that hit the state on 26 January 2001 and the immediate relief and rescue operations underway. The team had further briefings on the power sector by the Principal Secretary(Energy) and other senior officials of GOG, Gujarat Electricity Board (GEB), and Gujarat Power Corporation Limited (GPCL). The assessment team visited the affected areas in Kutch and Rajkot districts, where the damage was extensive, to apprise itself of the extent of damage to the power system and the temporary emergent actions taken by GEB to restore power supply. The other affected areas were in Jamnagar, Banaskantha and Surendranagar distribution circles. Subsequently, detailed discussions were held with officials of GOG and GEB to finalize the assistance that will be required. The assessment team also had detailed discussions with experts who have experience in the design of earthquake resistant structures.
Damages to Assets
Power Stations
While some minor damage was sustained by the thermal power stations, severe damages occurred to the transmission and distribution systems in Kutch and Rajkot districts. Power supply was restored within three days and in most of the remaining affected areas in ten days. The Kutch Lignite Thermal Power Station at Panandhro has suffered some minor damages, such as (a) the resuction duct of one mill of the first unit has shifted from its normal position; (b) two vent pipes of the economizer have detached from the boiler of the second unit; and (c) for the third unit, the foundation plates of the turbine generator have loosened. In addition, cracks have developed in the buildings of the power plant and township. The diesel generator (DG) set building at Bhuj is damaged; cracks have developed in the Sikka Thermal Power Station building, staff quarters and overhead tank; Dhuvaran Thermal Power Station Air Pre-heater I-A caught fire and internal parts have melted, and due to excessive hydrogen leakage the sixth unit had to be shut down. The Bus-B battery set of the first stage is damaged and needs replacement. Cracks have developed on the compound wall of plant, some of the staff quarters, school building, and overhead tank. The powerhouse cooling water in-take has also been damaged. It is estimated that the total damage is about Rs.14.9 crores ($3.2 million).
Transmission and Distribution Systems
There has been a severe impact on the transmission and distribution system in the entire region. Damages occurred at the 220kV substations at Anjar, Nakhatrana and Nani Kakhar, two 132kV substations at Samkhyali and Bhuj, and 44 substations at 66kV level in Bhuj, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Jamnagar circles. The major damages are to the 220kV substation at Anjar, and to about twenty 66kV substations in the Bhuj circle. The control rooms have collapsed, smashing the control panels and battery banks underneath. Power transformers have broken from their moorings and toppled over. Other than Anjar, there has been no major damage to switchyard equipment, although some smaller equipment were damaged at many substations. Besides the power transmission system, there is extensive damage to the distribution system (11 kV feeders and low-tension 0.415 kV lines) with most of the villages in the region being affected. The total damage on the transmission and distribution systems is Rs. 113.9 crores ($24.5 million).
- 60 - The damage due to collapse of buildings and staff quarters is Rs. 54.9 crores ($11.8 million). Damages to the diesel generator and plant building in Bhuj are estimated at Rs. 14.9 crores ($3.2 million). Needs
While temporary restoration of power in the region has been effected, there is a need to completely overhaul the distribution system in the region to ensure efficient and reliable power supply in the long term. The immediate needs will include repairing of equipment of the Kutch Lignite Thermal Power plant, replacing the diesel generator at Bhuj, repair of the transmission and distribution network, transmission lines, and substations. The damaged equipment had been installed many years back and have become obsolete and spares are not available. These will have to be replaced with new equipment. However, such ad hoc replacements will not be sustainable, as equipment of different reliability and fault levels will be operating in the same system. Such a mismatch will contribute to operation problems. Therefore, for the medium term, GOG and GEB have planned a range of measures to ensure reliable functioning of the power transmission and distribution systems, and to improve systems efficiency. These measures include converting rural feeders from low-tension to the high-tension system, installation of meters for rural connections and provision of capacitors.
Recovery Strategy
Temporary restoration of power supply has been done in most of the affected areas. However, the asset damages are considerable and replacement of the old equipment will not be sustainable. While integrating new equipment with the obsolete portions of the existing system, attention needs to be devoted to installation of suitable equipment to enhance the reliability and efficiency of the power system in the region. The immediate needs will have to focus on repairs and reconstruction of substations and accommodation of operating staff. The medium term needs will focus on replacement of equipment, transmission lines and transformers. GEB will be the implementing agency for the restoration works. The staffs of GEB are well conversant with international bidding procedures. A consultant, who has experience in the design of multi-hazard protection measures, especially earthquake resistant structures, will be needed to prepare the specifications, designs and construction methods. The consultant would also ensure that the approved procedures are being followed at site.
The total cost for restoration and upgradation of the affected power system could possibly be as much as Rs.456 crores ($98 million).
Reconstruction estimates
Activity Amount of Damage Restoration Cost Rs. Crores Rs. Crores ($ million) ($ millions) Generation System 14.9 (3.2) 14.9 (3.2) Transmission System 28.4 (6.1) 193.0 (41.5) Distribution System 85.6 (18.4) 190.7 (41.0) Civil Works 54.8 (11.8) 55.8 (12.0)
Total 183.7 (39.5) 456 (97.9)
Next Steps
- 61 - Following a careful scrutiny of a full range of options, the next steps would be as follows:
· Selection of consultant · Preparation of layout drawings, specifications, bidding documents · Soil investigations · Procurement action · Construction
- 62 - Annex 10
Transport Infrastructure
Introduction
The assessment of the transport sector covers road, bridge, rail, port and airport infrastructure in 8 districts (Kutch, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Surendranagar, Mehasana, Patan, Banaskantha and Ahmedabad) of Gujarat most affected by the earthquake. The joint World Bank/ADB mission received information and assessment reports on the various transport subsectors primarily from the Roads & Buildings Department (R&BD), Kandla Port Trust (KPT), Gujarat Maritime Board (GMB), Indian Railways (IR) and Airports Authority of India (AAI).
Damage Assessment
When compared to the other infrastructure sectors, the transport sector suffered relatively less earthquake damage (see the following four tables). Based on preliminary figures, the cost of asset damage caused by the earthquake to the transport infrastructure of Gujarat has been assessed at about Rs. 419 crores ($90 million), while the reconstruction costs directly related to asset damage is at about Rs. 479 crores ($103 million). In addition, for the state road sector an estimated additional Rs. 419 to 465 crores ($90 to $100 million) will need to be spent during the next one to five years for the rehabilitation and deferred maintenance in the earthquake affected districts of Gujarat.
Roads In Rs. Crores ($ million) Disaster effect Total Total (with upgrade) Reconstruction/Repair Period Asset Costs - Public Sector/Rural 233/233 (50/50) 256/256 (55/55) Within 18 months - Private Sector/Urban 0 0 - Imported Component 0 0 Railways In Rs. Crores ($ million) Disaster effect Total Total (with upgrade) Reconstruction/Repair Period Asset Costs - Public Sector/Rural: 79/79 (17/17) 93/93 (20/20) About 1 year - Private Sector/Urban: 0 0 - Imported Component: 0 0 Ports In Rs. Crores ($ million) Disaster effect Total Total (with upgrade) Reconstruction/Repair Period Asset Costs - Public Sector/Rural: 93/93 (20/20) 116/116 (25/25) About 1 year - Private Sector/Urban: 1 1 - Imported Component: 0 0 Airports In Rs. Crores ($ million) Disaster effect Total Total (with upgrade) Reconstruction/Repair Period Asset Costs - Public Sector/Rural: 9.3/9.3 (2/2) 9.3/9.3 (2/2) About 1 year - Private Sector/Urban: 0 0 - Imported Component: 0 0 Source: GMB, Kandla Port Trust, IR, R&BD, AAI, joint mission assessment
- 63 - Asset Damage
Road subsector. The preliminary road damage survey conducted by the R&BD with the assistance of international consultants, has found that structures (bridges & culverts) have suffered the most damage. The damage to the nonstructure portion of the roads is mainly confined to intermittent longitudinal/transverse cracks. In the case of structures, damage is more extensive and, depending on the structure, can include; (a) shifted or collapsed piers; (b) cracking in piers; (c) damage to pier caps; (d) cracking in abutment caps; (e) cracking of main beams; (f) disintegration of bearing pedestals; (g) collapsed parapet walls; (f) damage to approach embankments; (g) damage to approach slabs; and (h) cracking of wing and dirt walls.
Although the pattern and type of damage to road infrastructure was similar in all of the districts affected by the earthquake, the greatest concentration was in the Kutch district which has about 8% (5565 km) of Gujarat’s state and national roads. The single most important part of the road network that was damaged was the existing Surabjari Bridge which is on one of only two major roads into Kutch. However, with the exception of the road leading to the Navlakhi Port, there were no complete failures to any major section of the road network.
The monetary damage to the road network (state and nationa l roads) is about Rs.233 crores ($50 million). The breakdown is as follows: (a) National Highways (NH) – Rs. 51 crores ($11 million); (b) State Highways (SH) – Rs.121 crores ($26 million) and; (c) Major District Roads (MDR), Other District Roads (ODR) and Village Roads (VR) – Rs.60 crores ($13 million).
Railway subsector. Railway infrastructure suffered relatively minor damage from the earthquake. Most of the damage was to buildings (stations and staff quarters) with some minor damage to structures and signaling infrastructure. With the exception of the rail link to the Navlakhi Port, all rail links were restored shortly after the earthquake. The rail only Surabjari Bridge, adjacent to the damaged road only Surabjari Bridge, seems to have suffered only very minor damage.
IR has conducted a preliminary assessment of the damage to its infrastructure which comes out to Rs. 79 crores ($17 million) broken down into the following categories; (a) track, structures and housing Rs.56 crores ($ 12 million); (b) signaling and telecommunications – Rs. 14 ($3 million); (c) electrical and other damage – Rs.9.3 crores ($2 million).
Port subsector. The GOI owned Kandla Port had a throughput during FY 1999-2000 of 46 million tons which represents about 16 percent of India’s cargo. The Port’s hinterland includes most of Northern and Central India. An initial damage assessment indicates considerable damage to the port infrastructure. Five of the ten dry cargo jetties have developed major cracks and have been put out of operation. One oil jetty and a small wharf used by small craft such as pilot launches and tug boats are damaged and out of operation. Some mechanical and electrical equipment has been damaged.
Twelve of the forty GMB ports have been damaged of which Navlakhi Port is the most affected. Most of the marine structures, coal handling equipment, storage facilities, residential/office buildings, roads, bridges, and water mains have been destroyed. Efforts are being made to repair the port facilities and approach roads of Navlakhi Port by which it is expected that about 50% operational capacity can be achieved. Coal movement will suffer as the coal cargo of about 1 million tons will have to be diverted to other ports in India. A time-frame of 1 year is estimated before the port can be made fully operational again. Damages to the other 11 major state ports does not seem to be significant.
- 64 - The monetary damage to the port subsector in Gujarat has been estimated at about Rs. 98 crores ($21 million); (a) Kandla Port – Rs.84 crores ($18 million); (b) GMB owned ports – Rs.9.3 crores ($2 million) and; (c) private sector ports – 4.7 crores ($1 million).
Airport subsector. AAI confirmed that with the exception of Bhuj and Kandla airport, there was very little damage to the airport infrastructure of the state (10 operational major airports). The airport in Bhuj suffered some damage to the runway/aprons and major damage to the old terminal building. However, it should be noted that in the case of Bhuj Airport there is already a new terminal under construction which should be operational within the next 6 months or so. There was also some damage to the terminal building at the airport in Kandla and very minor damage to other airports such as Rajkot of Porbandar.
The AAI has conducted a preliminary survey of the damage to the airport infrastructure. It has estimated the cost of asset damage at about of Rs.9.3 crores ($2 million): (a) air terminal, runway and apron at Bhuj; (b) air terminal at Kandla; and (c) damage to staff quarters.
Other Impacts by Subsector
Road. Apart from some possible minor traffic diversion caused by weight and speed restrictions to the Surabjari Bridge, there are no other impacts to this subsector. With damage to the Surabjari Bridge some of the traffic into Kutch from Ahmedabad/Northern India has started using the slightly longer northern route (about 30 km longer) leading to slightly higher road transport costs. However, to quantify the traffic diversion, updated traffic counts and detailed origin destination (O&D) surveys will need to be conducted.
Rail. Apart from the disruption to coal shipments out of Navhlaki Port, there are no other significant impacts caused by this subsector. However, it should be noted that the reconstruction of the rail link into Navhlaki Port should take much less time (3 months) than reconstruction/rehabilitation of the port itself (at least 1 year).
Port. The through-put of Kandla Port has been reduced to about 50-60% of what it was before the earthquake and that the Navlakhi port has suffered serious damage. The true impact of the damage of these two critical port facilities on export and import trade will depend on how long it will take to rehabilitate/reconstruct the two ports. In addition to the physical damages, port operations have been slowed down by a shortage of labor as many port workers from other states have left the Kandla area fearing more earthquakes.
Airport. No other impacts were identified in this subsector. (It is worth noting that if there had been damage to the Air Traffic Control (ATC) infrastructure managed by the AAI it could have caused serious disruption to the relief flights into Gujarat and to air travel, since there are about 250 over-flights a day over the Ahmedabad Air Traffic Control (ATC) area from Europe/Middle East to India/Asia).
Reconstruction Needs
Road. Based on the preliminary reports prepared by the R&B Department and discussions during the mission the following first phase (within 18 months) reconstruction/rehabilitation needs for the SH network have been identified:
- 65 - Km and Type of Roads by District By district(s) NHs SHs MDR/VR/ ODRs Kutch: 20 85 300 Mehsana/Patan: 0 45 100 Jamnagar/Rajkot: 0 40 200 Surendranagar: 0 30 150 Total: 20 200 750
Type and Number of Affected Structures in all Affected Districts Type of structure Reconstruction/rehabilitation Major Bridges (> 60 meters): 17 Medium Bridges (30-60 meters): 18 Minor Bridges (< 30 meters): 80 Pipe and Slab Culverts: 80 Total 215
The preliminary estimate for the rehabilitation/reconstruction of all roads/structures that have suffered asset damage has been estimated at about Rs.256 crores ($55 million): (a) NHs (inclusive of structures)–Rs.60 crores ($13 million); (b) SHs (inclusive of structures) – Rs.126 crores ($27 million) and; (c) MDR/ODR/VRs (inclusive of structures)–Rs. 70 crores ($15 million). In addition, the GOG has identified a Rs. 419–465 crores ($90 to $100 million) program to be implemented within the next one to fiveyears to cater for the reconstruction/maintenance/rehabilitation of the state road network in the earthquake affected districts of the state. Thus, the total rehabilitation/maintenance/reconstruction needs for the road sector in the earthquake affected districts of Gujarat has been estimated at about Rs.651-698 crores ($140 to $150 million) over the next five years.
Subsectors
Railway: The reconstruction needs of the rail subsector are limited to the following; (a) reconstruction of rail link (about 3 km) to Navlakhi Port; (b) reconstruction of train stations and staff housing in affected districts and; (c) rehabilitation of signaling, telecommunications and electrical infrastructure. The estimated preliminary cost of rehabilitating/reconstructing railway infrastructure will not exceed Rs. 3 crores ($20 million) and should be implemented within one year.
Port: The reconstruction needs of the port subsector will be focused on: (a) rehabilitating Kandla Port; (b) reconstructing/rehabilitating Navlakhi Port and; (c) repairing minor damage to other ports. The estimated preliminary cost of rehabilitating/reconstructing port infrastructure is about Rs. 121crores ($26 million) and should be completed within the next 1 year.
Airport: The reconstruction needs in the airport sector will be confined to rebuilding a small terminal at the airport in Kandla and in quickly completing the construction of the new terminal at the airport in Bhuj. This work should be completed within 1 year.
Recovery strategy
Road: The R&BD/GOG have identified a short term reconstruction program which might be implemented within the next 18 months. The first phase (six to nine months) will focus on emergency rehabilitation of roads with particular emphasis on structures while the second phase (18 months) would focus on the rehabilitation and reconstruction of roads and structures. Simultaneously, GOG has identified a road improvement program to be implemented during the
- 66 - next five years in the districts most affected/prone to natural calamities (earthquakes, droughts and cyclones). The preliminary costing of this state road specific program is about Rs. 419–465 crores ($90 to $100 million) over one to five years. In addition, depending how many towns/villages are relocated, Rs. 372 crores ($80 million) would be required to provide new state road infrastructure. In addition, GOI would rehabilitate/reconstruct the damaged portions of the NH network with particular emphasis on the rehabilitation of the Surabjari Bridges.
Rail: The recovery strategy would focus on the rehabilitation of the rail line into the Navlakhi Port together with re-establishing full traffic capacity (nine trains a day vs. seven after the earthquake) on the Virangam–Gandhidham broad gauge line. IR will also focus on the reconstruction/rehabilitation of stations and staff housing.
Port: The recovery strategy for both the GOI and GOG would focus on the rehabilitation of Kandla and Navlakhi ports. This is because of their importance to the Gujarati and Indian economy. GOI will manage the rehabilitation of Kandla Port while GOG/GMB will manage the rehabilitation/reconstruction of Navlakhi Port.
Airport: The recovery strategy would focus on accelerating the construction of the new terminal at the airport at Bhuj since the existing terminal has been destroyed and to initiate the reconstruction of the terminal building at the airport at Kandla. The AAI will manage and fund the recovery strategy itself.
Institutional and Implementation Arrangements
Road: The R&BD will implement all of the reconstruction & rehabilitation works on the SH network following the same existing institutional set up and staff currently in place to implement the ongoing WB funded Gujarat State Highway Project (GSHP). To expedite and simplify its implementation, the short term road emergency rehabilitation/reconstruction program will be added to the existing GSHP. For the rehabilitation/reconstruction of MDR/ODR/VRs, the Panchayat Raj Department will be responsible under existing schemes and for the rehabilitation/reconstruction of NHs, GOI will be responsible for their management and implementation.
Railway: IR owns and manages all railway related infrastructure in India. Therefore, it will also manage and execute the rehabilitation/reconstruction of the railway infrastructure in the earthquake affected districts of Gujarat.
Port: The GMB will focus on rehabilitating/reconstructing the state owned ports while GOI will focus on rehabilitating Kandla Port. The rehabilitation of private ports in Gujarat, like New Mundra Port, will be managed and funded by the private sector.
Airport: The AAI will manage the reconstruction of the terminal at Jamnagar and the completion of the construction of the new air terminal at Bhuj. It will also select contractors to rehabilitate/reconstruct staff housing damaged by the earthquake. The Indian Air Force has already rehabilitated the runway and apron at Bhuj Airport.
- 67 - Annex 11
Telecommunications
Consultations
The assessment team had detailed discussions with the Chief General Manager and other senior officials of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), a GOI entity. BSNL's Gujarat Circle operates the telecommunication system of Gujarat, and the union territories of Dadra, Daman, Diu, and Nagar Haveli. There are 2,469 telephone exchanges with a line capacity for 2,704,972 connections. Most of the telecommunication net work is in the public sector, with two private companies providing cellular telephone services.
Damage Assessment
Summary Table, Rs. Crores ($ millions) Item Original Cost Replacement Cost
80,000 telephone lines and equipment 25.6 (5.5) 51 (11) 179 buildings and 846 staff quarters 25.6 (5.5) 70 (15)
Total 51 (11) 121 (26)
Asset Damages
Immediately resulting from the earthquake, all communications collapsed as the telecommunication system went out of operation. This contributed to the initial delay in providing relief measures by the authorities, as no details were available about the intensity off the earthquake, the locations concerned, and the damages caused. The only communication facility restored early was through the police wireless system.
As a result of the earthquake, about 80,000 lines were affected. This was mainly due to collapse of telephone exchange buildings, houses and lines. In addition, the administration building at Bhuj, 846 residential houses, of which 146 were BSNL owned residential houses and the remaining were rented or owned by the employees, were also destroyed. Based on the historical cost of acquisition or construction, BSNL has estimated that the total amount of damage is about Rs.51.2 crores ($11 million). A few towers of the private sector operators were also damaged. According to BSNL, the loss incurred by the private sector was nominal.
Other Impacts
Currently, BSNL has recommissioned about 54,000 lines out of the damaged 80,000 lines. However, even after the lines and exchanges are restored, use of the system will be marginal as the consumers who have lost their houses are unable to use the facilities. At best, temporary connections, public booths and some community telephones will be in operation. As and when the houses are gradually built, permanent telephone connections will be required. Therefore, BSNL feels that revenue collections will get affected for about 9 to 12 months.
Needs
The reconstruction priorities in the immediate and medium-term, in light of assessed damages, will be to repair all the remaining lines as soon as possible. Temporary housing has to
- 68 - be arranged for the staff, in addition to providing alternate locations for the telephone exchanges. To restore the entire telecommunication system BSNL has estimated an expenditure of Rs.51.2 crores ($11 million). Another Rs.70 crores ($15 million) may be required to construct the new exchange buildings, offices and 850 staff houses. Cost of the staff houses will be borne by BSNL and are not included in the state government estimates.
Reconstruction Strategy
Telephone exchange equipment has been brought in from various locations within the Gujarat Circle and also from other circles. Line testing work has started, with about 54,000 lines charged. The remaining would be charged within the next four weeks. Staff have been provided alternate temporary accommodation, till such time permanent arrangements are made. Action has been initiated for the procurement of equipment and construction of exchange buildings, offices and residential accommodation. All structures will be designed taking into consideration the need for multi hazard risks. A time frame of about 12 months is envisaged, at this stage, to achieve full restoration including civil works.
- 69 - Annex 12
Agriculture and Livestock
Agriculture contributes only 20 percent to the overall state economy and of this only a small share is estimated to be produced in the areas most affected by the earthquake (CMIE, 2001). As the state has become more industrialized, the share of agriculture and livestock husbandry has declined, in particular over the past twenty years. However, the sector still provides employment to around 50 percent of the population of Gujarat. Agriculture has been hit by two consecutive years of severe drought, which have led to a contraction in output of nearly 13 percent in 1997/98 and 2 percent in 1998/99. The areas most severely affected by the earthquake were also those worst affected by the drought.
Damages in agriculture
According to GOG estimates, preliminary losses of assets to the private sector in the agriculture and livestock sectors are estimated at Rs. 510 crore ($110 million), nearly 80 percent of which in the Kutch district. Major asset losses are concentrated in irrigation assets, such as bore wells, pump houses, engine rooms, submersible pumps, water storage tanks, as well as storage bins, farm implements, livestock, plant protection equipment, and stored outputs and inputs. Output losses due to the earthquake are estimated to amount to Rs. 228 crores ($49 million). These losses are expected to result from delay in picking the standing crops of groundnuts, bajra, and cotton, lack of irrigation at a critical stage, and lack of storage facilities. These estimates, obtained through rapid survey methods in the affected districts, are expected to be an upper bound for overall losses. In addition, damages to buildings of the Agriculture Department, including Gujarat Agriculture University and Animal Husbandry units were estimated at Rs. 35.3 crores ($7.6 million) (estimated at replacement costs). Reconstruction costs are estimated at Rs. 344 crore ($74 million).
Preliminary Estimate of Disaster-Related Damages to Agriculture and Livestock
Asset damages $ million Rs. Crores Total 117.2 545.0 Public 7.6 35.3 Private 109.6 509.6 Source: Government of Gujarat and mission estimates.
Table: District-wise Preliminary Estimates of Disaster-Related Damages to Farmers District Asset damages Output Losses ($ million) Rs. Crores ($ million) Livestock Stored goods Irrigation Other Total and tools assets Kutch 1.17 4.37 61.03 20.84 87.40 175 (37.61) Surendranagar 0.01 1.44 10.34 0.92 12.72 9.1 (1.94) Rajkot 0.01 1.66 4.47 0.26 6.40 32.7 (7.03) Jamnagar 0.03 0.17 1.14 0.47 1.82 13.2 (2.84) Patan - - 0.49 0.73 1.23 -
Total 1.22 7.6 77.5 23.23 109.6 228 (49.4) Source: Government of Gujarat and joint mission estimates.
- 70 - There are four main reasons why damages to agricultural and livestock output is relatively low in terms of value. First, climatically, the areas most severely affected by the earthquake are arid and semi-arid. Agriculture is largely rainfed and there are virtually no perennial crops. Thus, the scope for high value losses in agriculture is limited. Second, agriculture and livestock for milk output are extensive, with little mechanization and thus low levels of capital intensity. Third, the earthquake occurred during the dry season, the winter, during which productivity is lower, and at a time of day when cattle ere grazing outdoors. And fourth, the region was already affected by two consecutive years of drought, which had already depressed output in the previous two years.
Impact on poverty. There are no consumption-based measures of poverty incidence available at the district level. However, indirect measures of poverty indicate that many of the inhabitants of the earthquake affected area are poor, especially those engaged in rainfed agriculture, livestock raising, and handicrafts. Social indicators, such as literacy rates, are lower in the earthquake affected area than elsewhere in Gujarat. Therefore, while not very large in value, the loss of their agricultural assets and inputs, including housing (which serves as storage space as well), cattle, basic agricultural implements, inputs for the monsoon planting season, grain and fodder stocks, as well as water pumps and other materials, is likely to have drawn down the assets of already poor groups of the population.
Recovery strategy. Reviving the economy of the earthquake-affected region is fundamental, especially for those who have few other sources of income, such as remittances from family members working abroad or in other parts of India. For those who lost irrigation assets, (tubewells, pumps sets, pump houses) the output loss due to the earthquake is likely to be high. The same can be said for those engaged in livestock husbandry. In the short-run, recovery of public services such as veterinary services, in order to maintain the health of the animal population and reconstruction of public facilities, such as markets and repair of irrigation canals should be prioritized. While all landowners in the state are covered under a Group Accident Insurance Policy of up to Rs.50,000 per person for death or incapacitation, landless agricultural laborers are not. For many landless agricultural workers, whose jobs may have been lost due to the earthquake’s impact, targeted, time-bound social assistance could be considered. This could include self-targeted interventions such as paid work for rubble removal. Public assistance to the poorest farmers in jump-starting their economic activities could also be envisaged, on a targeted basis. This could include assistance, for instance as a matching grant, in rebuilding store-rooms or acquiring storage bins. While beyond the scope of this report, in the long-run, water harvesting, pricing, and rationalization, as well as the related issue of power supply and pricing, will become key to encouraging that activities explore the region’s economic comparative advantage and profitability.
- 71 - Annex 13
Industry
Contribution of Gujarat Industry to Output and Employment
Gujarat is one of the most industrialized states in India. In 1998-99, the industrial sectors accounted for Rs.40,050 crores ($8,613 million), or 39.2 percent of Gujarat’s GSDP. Although Gujarat’s inhabitants constitute less than 5 percent of India’s population, the state’s contribution to India’s industrial value added is second only to that of Maharashtra. In 1998-99, the manufacturing sector contributed 77.8 percent of industrial value added; mining and quarrying accounted for 5.7 percent; construction accounted for 8.8 percent; and electricity, gas and water supply accounted for 7.7 percent. The state’s manufacturing sector includes subsectors like chemicals, petrochemicals, fertilizers, engineering, electronics, food processing, and gem cutting and polishing.
Contribution of Industry in Earthquake-Affected Areas to Output and Employment
According to Government data, the five districts where industry was worst hit by the earthquake were Kutch, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Bhavnagar. These districts include almost 75 percent of India’s salt output, and a range of small scale manufacturing subsectors including chemicals, textiles, ceramics, diamond cutting and polishing and handicrafts. However, this is not the industrial heart of Gujarat, which spreads from Ahmedabad down the rail-road corridor to Surat in south Gujarat. According to the 1998 Economic Census, in 1998 these five districts accounted for only 23 percent of overall industrial employment. Kutch, where over half of the industrial damage took place, accounted for less than 2 percent of overall industrial employment.
District-wise GSDP figures are not available. However, Table 1 presents our best estimates of industrial GSDP in each of these five districts. These have been calculated by applying the employment shares by district to industrial GSDP figures for Gujarat as a whole. This approach suggests that total industrial value added in the five districts was Rs. 9,556 crores ($2,055 million) in 1998-99. The 1998 Economic Census suggests that industrial employment in the five earthquake-affected areas is split almost equally between rural and urban areas. Some 45 percent of industry is in rural areas.
Table 1: Industrial GSDP in the main Earthquake-Affected Districts, 1998-99 Total Total (current Rs. crores ) ($ million) Kutch 1,250 269 Jamnagar 2,440 525 Rajkot 2,214 476 Surendranagar 1,106 238 Bhavnagar 2,575 554 Total for five districts 9,554 2,055 Gujarat total 40,048 8,612 5-districts as % of Gujarat 2,390 514 Source: joint mission estimates
- 72 - Damages to Assets
The GOG Industries Commissioner established 31 teams of district industry officers to carry out preliminary surveys of damage to the industries in affected areas. Results, summarized in Table 2 (and presented in further detail in the appendix table) suggest that Rs. 339 crores ($73 million) of damage was done to buildings, machinery and inventory in Gujarat industry (excluding electricity, gas and water supply, which are surveyed elsewhere). Some 58 percent of this damage was in Kutch district and over 95 percent of it in the five districts of Kutch, Jamnagar, Rajkot, Bhavnagar and Surendranagar.
About Rs.200 crores ($43 million) of damage was to some 3,000 small scale industrial units. In Kutch, there was extensive damage in Gandhidham, where there is a Gujarat Industrial Development Corporation (GIDC) estate and a number of wood-based industries; in the Kandla Free Trade Zone; and in the salt industry at Bhachau, where ten to 12 salt washery/refinery units suffered extensive damage. GIDC estates in Bhuj and Anjar also suffered severe damage. In Rajkot, the damage included buildings, chimneys and kilns in the ceramics industries at Morbi and Wankaner, as well as the buildings of cotton and other textile manufacturers. Damage to the ceramics industry is also reported in Surendranagar. Damage was also done to the Kutch cottage industry sector, which contributes a negligible amount to GSDP but which plays a significant role in the welfare of poorer people in rural villages of the district. Many of the homes out of which the craft women worked have been destroyed, with their tools and stocks inside.
The remaining Rs.140 crores ($30 million) of damage was to medium and large scale enterprises. Medium and large scale industrial units suffering major damage include the IFFCO fertilizer plant at Gandhidham, Digvijay Cement Ltd. in Jamnagar, the 20 Micrones Salt Refineries in Kutch and Tata Chemicals in Jamnagar.
There was minimal damage in the major economic centers of Ahmedabad and Surat, although the housing sector in Ahmedabad suffered greatly. The very large enterprises, like Reliance Petroleum Ltd. in Jamnagar, reported no damage. (Although there were some temporary stoppages, output losses are likely to be made up quickly).
No break down of the damage by urban and rural is available, but it would be reasonable to assume that about half was in urban areas and half in rural. The very large majority of the facilities damaged were privately owned. The exceptions are the small proportion of the damaged buildings situated on GIDC estates, which were publicly owned.
Table 2: Summary of Damage to Industrial Buildings, Machinery and Inventory District Estimated Damage (Rs. crores ) Estimated Damage % of total ($ million) Kutch 199.1 42.8 58.4% Jamnagar 52.6 11.3 15.4% Rajkot 45.0 9.7 13.2% Bhavnagar 17.4 3.8 5.1% Surendranagar 12.5 2.7 3.7% Other Districts 14.4 3.1 4.2% TOTAL 341.0 73.3 100.0% Source: Government of Gujarat Industries Commissioner Survey (as at Feb 19, 2001).
During field visits the assessment team saw extensive damage to industrial plants, including small-scale chemical factories, ceramics factories and damaged GIDC facilities. While we have not conducted our own survey, and are not in a position to corroborate the initial
- 73 - estimates provided, the assessment team found no grounds on which to qualify the Government’s statistics.
In assessing the reconstruction costs, the assessment team has made the assumption that one half of the asset damages are accounted for by buildings, and that reconstruction would cost 20 percent more if done to earthquake-resistant standards. The reconstruction costs with improvement would thus be Rs. 204 crores ($43.8 million). The total cost of reconstruction of lost buildings with improvement and replacement of lost machinery and inventory would be Rs. 374 crores ($80.4 million).
Output Losses
In addition to the losses to capital and inventory associated with the earthquake, it is also necessary to consider the impacts on industrial value added. Based on its surveys, the Government of Gujarat has assumed that industrial output will be disrupted for approximately one month on average. Initial estimates produced by the Government put these losses at Rs. 2,046 crores (440 million) in the month following the earthquake, which is around 2 percent of Gujarat’s 1998-99 GSDP.
Given the limited extent of the damage to industrial capacity, the assessment team finds these calculations to be on the high side. We recognize of course that the assets taken out of production may be much greater than the assets damaged. Damage to one small part of a plant may bring the entire factory to a halt. In addition to this loss due to capital damage by the earthquake, there may also be some loss of value added due to flight by migrant workforces. There is reported to have been such a flight of labor from the diamond cutting and polishing industries situated in these districts and in Ahmedabad.
Nevertheless, a review of the methodology used revealed that the calculations were based on total industrial production, rather than on industrial value added; and that asset damage had been erroneously added to lost output. Our own calculations, set out in Table 3, suggests that the fall in industrial value added in 2000-01 as a result of the earthquake is unlikely to exceed Rs. 1070 crores ($230 million), which is 0.8 percent of Gujarat’s GSDP and a negligible amount of India’s total GDP. This is assuming that an entire month’s industrial value added is lost in all five of the earthquake affected districts, which is probably an extreme assumption.
Offsetting this loss, there are likely to be positive impacts on industrial GSDP as a result of the earthquake. First, the demand for the output that is lost in earthquake-affected areas is likely to be made up at least in part, by producers in districts that are not affected. Second, a massive investment by public and private sectors is likely to be necessary to provide temporary accommodation, restore damaged buildings, replace damaged machinery and replace lost inventory. This is certain to give a significant boost to growth, particularly in the construction sector. With these effects taken into account, it is possible that the earthquake may have almost no net impact on Gujarat’s GSDP.
- 74 - Table 3: Estimated Lost Industrial Value Added as a Result of Earthquake Damage Item Rs. crores $ million A: Nominal industrial value added in the five districts in 1998-99 (from 9,550 2,054 Table 1) B: Nominal industrial value added in the five districts in 2000-01, assuming no 12,280 2,770 earthquake and 16.1% nominal growth per annum (average of past five years) C: Loss of one month’s worth of above due to earthquake 1,070 230 D: Total nominal GSDP in Gujarat, 1998-99 (from Table 1) 102,210 21,981 E: Total nominal GSDP in Gujarat, 2000-01, assuming no earthquake and 135,870 29,219 15.3% nominal growth per annum (average of past five years) F: Fall in industrial value added as share of 2000-01 GSDP assuming no 0.8% 0.8% earthquake Source: joint mission estimates based on Government of Gujarat data
Reconstruction Strategy
Although the impacts of the earthquake on aggregate GSDP are likely to be small, it is important not to understate the impact of the earthquake on employment and earnings of people in the five earthquake-affected districts. Up to 170,000 people are thought to be seasonally employed in the salt industry, where output has been severely disrupted. As many as 40,000 households may make income from handicrafts.
The primary need is to limit the extent to which the incomes of people in the earthquake affected areas fall in the months following the earthquake. Remittance income in Kutch is traditionally very significant, and support from relatives outside the area will help considerably. In addition, efforts should be made to involve local people wherever possible in rubble removal and reconstruction work, and to restart activity in sectors such as handicrafts by helping artisans with the costs of replacing lost tools and materials. A revolving fund for artisans, administered by local NGOs involved in the handicrafts sector, might be the most effective and targeted mechanism.
The Government has plans to reconstruct the 11 GIDC industrial estates which were damaged by the earthquake. Careful consideration should be given to the economic viability of such investments. The Government also has plans to subsidize the interest costs of reinvestment or to offer tax concessions for reinvestment. Careful thought should be given to whether such measures can be effectively targeted. Attempts to coerce the banks and insurance companies into supporting industries in the area on a noncommercial basis are likely to be counter-productive in the medium-term.
- 75 - Appendix Table: Survey of Damage to Industrial Buildings, Machinery and Inventory District/units damaged Estimated Damage (Rs. crores) % of total Kutch: 199.1 58.4% - Ballarpur Industries Ltd. 3.0 - IFFCO, Gandhidham 50.0 - Ashapura Minechem Ltd, Bhuj 2.0 - 20 Micrones Salt Refineries 20.0 - 531 Small Scale Units 124.1 Jamnagar: 52.6 15.4% - Digvijay Cement Ltd. 40.0 - Tata Chemicals 10.0 - 189 Small Scale Units 2.6 Rajkot: 45.0 13.2% - Arunodaya Mills/Morbi Paper & Board 2.0 - 971 Small Scale Units 43.0 Bhavnagar: 17.4 5.1% - Nirma Ltd. 8.0 - Vipul Ginning Pressing .006 - Steel Cast, Bhavnagar 0.04 - 146 Small Scale Units 9.4 Surendranagar: 12.5 3.7% - Hindustan Salt Ltd 0.1 - Smruti Ceramic DCW Ltd 0.3 - 775 Small Scale Units 12.0 Porbandar: 0.4 0.1% - 4 medium/large chemical units 0.1 - 168 Small Scale Units 0.2 Amreli: 6.6 1.9% Gujocomasol 0.004 - L&T 3.3 - 15 Small Scale Units 3.4 Patan: 0.1 0.0% - 26 Small Scale Units 0.1 Gandhinagar: 2.0 0.6% - Shah Alloys, Santej 0.7 - Madhusudan Industries 0.1 - 87 Small Scale Units 1.3 Ahmedabad: 1.8 0.5% - Kaisre Hind Ltd. 1.5 - 13 Small Scale Units 0.3 Junagadh: 1.0 0.3% - GHCL 1.0 Bharuch: 1.7 0.5% - 28 Small Scale Units 1.7 Surat: 0.7 0.2% - 53 Small Scale Units 0.7 Other Districts 0.03 0.0% TOTAL 341.0 100.0% Source: Government of Gujarat Industries Commissioner Survey (as of Feb 19, 2001).
- 76 - Annex 14
Services
The service sector contributes nearly 41 percent of the state’s income and accounts for 50 percent of total employment. In the five most earthquake affected districts, nearly half a million people worked in the service sector and together they contributed about Rs. 6,766 crores ($1,455 million) towards the state’s annual income. The assessment team estimated that the asset damages and output losses in the service sector are Rs. 1,160 crores ($250 million) and Rs. 1,748 crores ($ 376 million) respectively 6. The assessment team has expressed the view that the government, instead of getting involved in a full-scale rehabilitation of commercial buildings 7, should create an enabling environment to let the entrepreneurs quickly rebuild their establishments and bring back normalcy to the region.
Overview of the Service Sector of the Affected Region
The five most severely earthquake affected districts (i.e., Kutch, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Patan, and Surendranagar) have a large number of trade and commerce establishments, with wholesale and retail shops, restaurants, and hotels constituting the largest segment of the service sector, both in terms of employment and number of enterprises. Some of the largest shopping centers in the affected region are in the Gandhidham area, where a large number of imported goods brought through the Kandla port are sold. Some of the rich Kutchis living in Mumbai are known to have made large investments in shopping centers in Gandhidham and nearby places.
Community, social, and personal services constitute the second biggest segment of the service sector in the affected region, with the presence of a large number of NGOs in the drought affected parts of the Kutch district.
Table 1: Level of Employment and Output Produced in the Service Sector
Name of the District Trade, Restaurants Transport, Communication Finance, Insurance Community, Social and Hotels and Storage and Real Estate & Personal Service Employment Output Employment Output Employment Output Employment Output (Nos.) Rs. Crores (Nos.) Rs. Crores (Nos.) Rs. Crores (Nos.) Rs. Crores
Jamnagar 31,456 403 7,717 249 2,978 150 44,487 540 Rajkot 57,847 740 14,355 462 8,249 414 65,733 797 Surendranagar 21,637 277 5,105 165 1,915 96 30,132 366 Kachchh 20,749 266 12,920 416 3,220 162 39,402 478 Patan 22,917 293 3,847 124 1,799 90 23,001 279 In Affected Districts 154,606 1,979 43,944 1,416 18,161 912 202,755 2,460
A district-wise breakdown of number employed and value added (see Section IV for details) in various subsectors of the service sector is shown in Table 1. Nearly half a million
6 While estimating the asset damages, damages to various infrastructures in the service sector, like health, education, and all those sectors covered in the previous annexes are excluded. But for estimating the output losses, the damage to the entire service sector is included.
7 On February 26th, the local press reported the announcement of a rehabilitation package by GOG for industry and some parts of the service sector (See Times of India). Further details concerning this package are not yet available, but it is expected to be much smaller in size compared to the housing package.
- 77 - people worked in the service sector in these districts and the net income generated from the sector was estimated at Rs. 6,766 crores ($1,455 million) in 1999-2000.
Damage to Assets
The damage to the assets of commercial establishments (shops, restaurants, hotels, banks, cooperatives, and other financial institutions) is estimated to be nearly Rs. 772 crores ($166 million). Another Rs.298 crores ($64 million) worth of inventories, working capital, and other goods are estimated to have been lost or destroyed (Table 2).
Table 2: Estimate of the Damage to Assets Type of Damages in Various Sub-sectors Direct Cost Reconstruction Rs. Crores (US$ million) Rs. Crores (US$ million)* 1. Commercial Buildings (Totally and Partially Damaged) 772 (166) 930 (200) Trade, Restaurants, and Hotels 721 (155) 865 (186) Finance, Insurance, and Real estate 51 (11) 65 (14) 2. Goods, Inventory, Equipment and Working Capital Lost 298 (64) Trade, Restaurants, and Hotels 247 (53) Finance, Insurance, and Real estate 51 (11) 3. Damages to other Segments of the Service Sector 93 (20) Service Sector Damages (Sum of lines 1, 2, and 3) 1160 (250) 930 (200) * Reconstruction costs are assumed to be 20 percent higher than the damage to assets. Source: ‘Status Report of Damages due to Earthquake on 26th January 2001 in Municipalities of Gujarat State, GOG; and Joint Team Estimates.
The damage to assets in the case of the service sector refers to the value of the physical damage to the commercial establishments (shops, restaurants, hotels, and financial institutions), goods, inventories, and other working capital stored in these establishments, and infrastructure related to education, health, transport, and communication sectors. Since most of the infrastructure related asset damages are discussed in the various annexes of this report, we limit our discussion to asset damage to commercial establishments alone.
A precise assessment of the asset damage to commercial establishments is difficult, because there is very little information available from GOG yet8. The only information available is the number of units damaged in municipalities (source: Urban Development and Urban Housing Department and Gujarat Municipal Finance Board). Using this information, a ratio of commercial to residential buildings damaged is estimated for each of the affected municipalities. The same ratio is assumed for estimating the number of commercial buildings damaged in rural areas. The unit value of a damaged commercial building in a particular area is assumed to be twice the unit value of a damaged private house in the same area. Based on these assumptions, the damage to commercial establishments is estimated to be around Rs. 772 crores ($166 million).
To estimate the damage to inventories and working capital, a two-month turnover amount of the affected commercial establishments in the five most affected districts (namely Kutch, Rajkot, Jamnagar, Surendranagar, and Patan) is used9. This results in a loss of Rs. 298 crores ($64 million) worth of inventories, working capital, and other goods by these commercial establishments because of the earthquake.
8 According to GOG, a survey on damages to shops and other non-industrial commercial establishments will begin at end of February 2001 and is likely to be completed in the next 2 months.
9 The turnover amount is assumed to be one-and-half times the value added by these retail units.
- 78 - Estimated Output Losses
The output losses in services is expected to be around Rs. 1748 crores ($376 million). On account of these damages alone, the state’s real GSDP growth rate may get lowered by more than one percentage point in 2001-02. However, this negative growth effect is likely to be more than offset if the government successfully implements the large-scale rehabilitation and reconstruction packages, and the anticipated surge in remittances from abroad materializes.
Output losses are caused by four factors. First, damages to the infrastructure of the service sector will adversely affect output. Second, many of the commercial establishments have lost their inventories and working capital. This is likely to severely limit their activities in the initial period. Third, as much of the labor in the affected region have moved out, output in the short run is likely to be adversely affected by labor shortages and a corresponding rise in wages. Finally, the demand for consumer goods is expected to remain depressed for the next few months for the following reasons: (a) much of the affected population living in temporary housing will postpone their purchases; (b) some of the affected population are likely to remain liquidity constrained; and (c) a huge amount of relief materials continue to be flown into the affected region from outside the state.
At the same time, there are two potential factors, which are expected to have a positive impact on output of the service sector. First, are the activities associated with relief and rehabilitation efforts in the housing sector (which has been announced) and in the industrial sector (to be announced soon). These activities are expected to give a boost to the real estate market, create new jobs in the community, social, and personal subsectors of the affected districts, and raise the demand for insurance products. Second, it is widely expected that there will be a surge in remittances from outside the state and the country from friends and families of the affected people, which is likely to have a positive impact on aggregate demand.
To estimate the contribution of a particular subsector of a district to the overall output of the economy, we assume that the labor output (and/or the enterprise output) ratio is the same across all the affected districts10. We then assume that the following portion of the output from each district will be lost for the next few months due to disruption caused by the earthquake: 50 percent from Kutch and 20 percent each from Rajkot, Jamnagar, Surendranagar, and Patan. A district-wise breakdown of the output that will be lost from the affected districts in the coming months on account of the earthquake is shown in Table 3.
Our estimate of the asset losses and output losses cannot be easily compared with the estimates provided in the GOG report, because the latter does not distinguish between the asset damages (stock loss) and the output losses (flow loss). According to GOG’s industry and service department, an assessment of the asset damage to commercial establishments is being planned, so more precise numbers will be available in the next few weeks. It is however important to note that our estimate of the asset and output damages combined is Rs.2,911 crores ($626 million), which is very close to the Rs.2,999crores ($645 million) estimated by the GOG as the overall loss in the ‘trade and commerce sector’.
10 Such an assumption is necessary, because data on district-wise value added by various segments of the service sector is not compiled by the GOG. The assumption would appear highly stylized under most conditions. But given the nature of the affected districts, which are mostly rural, and have a large number of labor intensive service organizations, this assumption can be defended in our context.
- 79 - Table 3: District-wise Breakdown of the Output Losses in various segments of the Service Sector in Rs. Crores ($ million)
Name of the District Trade, Restaurants Transport, Communication Finance, Insurance Community, Social Total (expected loss) and Hotels and Storage and Real Estate & Personal Service
Kachchh (75%) 133 (28.6) 208 (44.8) 80.9 (17.4) 239 (51.4) 660 (142) Rajkot (20%) 148 (31.8) 92.5 (19.9) 82.8 (17.8) 159.4 (34.3) 484 (104) Jamnagar (20%) 80 (17.3) 49.7 (10.7) 29.7 (6.4) 107.8 (23.2) 270 (58) Surendranagar (20%) 55 (11.9) 33.0 (7.1) 19.1 (4.1) 73.0 (15.7) 181 (39) Patan (20%) 59 (12.6) 24.6 (5.3) 18.1 (3.9) 55.8 (12.0) 158 (34) In Affected Districts 475 (102) 408 (87.8) 231 (49.7) 635 (136.6) 1748 (376)
Needs
As noted above, a complete assessment of the assets lost in the service sector is yet to be determined by the GOG. This assessment should be initiated as soon as possible. Even without a precise assessment, it is however known that a large part of the population in the affected region is dependent on the service sector for their livelihood. Thus, there is a need to restart economic activities in the area soon. The financial institutions, like banks and co-operatives, who were closed for a week or longer after the earthquake need to begin their normal operation of lending to the trade and commerce sector, so that monetary transactions can begin in the region. In order to ensure that the country’s trade is not affected by transportation bottlenecks, the Kandla port needs to operate at full capacity soon (it is currently working at 50-60 percent capacity). Many of the laborers, especially from the transportation sector, who have moved out of the affected areas, should be encouraged to return to the area and facilitate in the rehabilitation exercise. The reconstruction of the commercial establishments in fully destroyed villages is now dependent on where the new villages will be built. Therefore, the state administration should initiate steps whereby the reconstruction of commercial establishments is carried out in parallel with the construction of private houses.
Reconstruction Strategy
Unlike the private housing sector, the government does not appear to be interested in undertaking any large-scale rehabilitation of commercial establishments, and the joint team fully endorse the government’s approach. The team views that the government should create an enabling environment to let the entrepreneurs quickly rebuild their establishments and bring back normalcy to the region. For example, the government should treat rebuilding of the affected infrastructure of the service sector (e.g., health centers, schools, community houses, transportation and communication infrastructures, water) as top priority, provide price based incentives for small traders and shopkeepers to reconstruct their properties and begin their operation soon, and encourage migrant laborers to return to the affected region. It should ensure that most of the relief materials are procured from the local area, giving a boost to trade and commerce in the affected region.
Implementation Considerations
Most of the lost properties in this sector (excluding the infrastructure) were in private hands. Therefore, there has not been much interest among the donor community to finance reconstruction activities in this sector, and so we do not anticipate any donor coordination problem for the sector. There are, however, at least 3 risk factors that we have identified, which
- 80 - the government and donor communities should consider while implementing their projects. They are:
If the retail market does not return to normalcy soon, shortages in certain commodities can develop (especially on items like cement, steel, and other construction materials), giving rise to steep price hikes, and this can seriously undermine the reconstruction activities.
Second, the region may have lost some of the service sector jobs permanently, (like the large commercial centers in Gandhidham, where there are doubts that some of the promoters would rebuild them), and this is likely to increase unemployment in the region, at least in the short-run.
Finally, some of the public sector banks are likely to experience decline in their profitability as they have been instructed by the RBI to give two years moratorium on existing loans and to provide highly subsidized loans to affected people to rebuild their houses. This policy may adversely affect the balance sheet of some of the banks, forcing them to limit their exposure to the earthquake affected region. Thus, the loan to the housing sector may crowd out the loan that otherwise would have gone to the wholesale and retail traders, thereby restricting trade and commerce activities in the region.
- 81 - Annex 15
Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment and Proposed Environmental Management Programs
Summary Environmental Context
The state of Gujarat can be divided into three broad regions based on geographical position and drainage characteristics: south Gujarat, north and central Gujarat (mainland) and Saurashtra and Kutch. Most of the earthquake affected area is classified seismic zone V (very high risk) or zone IV (high risk). The affected area is located in arid and semi-arid agro-climatic zones where water resources are limited, even scarce. In recent years, Gujarat, and particularly Kutch and Saurashtra, have suffered several natural disasters, including droughts, two severe cyclones, and floods in major urban centers of Ahmedabad and Surat. The earthquake has therefore hit during a time of extreme environmental vulnerability.
Preliminary Assessment of Environmental Impacts
In addition to damage to dwellings, infrastructure and facilities, the earthquake has resulted in a number of environmental impacts on the environment. The earthquake will also have environmental impacts associated debris disposal, temporary shelter set-up and the reconstruction effort. Finally, as is outlined below, there are a number of areas where the environmental impacts are as yet unclear. 1
Environmental Impacts Presently Identifiable
Debris and Rubble Disposal. The disposal of the rubble and waste material is proving to be a huge issue because of the sheer volume and associated costs. The problem is potentially so serious that the question of complete city relocation is being considered as a means of reducing the overall reconstruction cost. Emergency clearing efforts has lead to haphazard disposal of rubble along roads, primary and secondary, in open fields, into drainage ditches and water catchment areas.
An estimate of the total urban rubble disposal requirements was prepared on the basis of the Gandhidham situation. With an estimated 25 percent of the rubble already cleared, the volumetric estimate stands at about 50,000 cubic meters. On this basis therefore, about 0.5 million metric tons (MT) of rubble for Gandhidham appears to be a plausible estimate. On this basis, an estimate of total urban rubble disposal requirement was developed for the entire affected area in the order of 10 to 20 million MT.
The amount of rubble in rural areas is mainly linked to the collapse of housing. Disposal of rubble in a rural setting presents a different challenge than in urban areas given that there is less of it (smaller units and smaller buildings) and it is less concentrated than in urban areas. Nevertheless, given the large number of rural villages affected and the level of damage to houses and huts, the total volume of rubble will be significant, in the range of 15 to 30 million MT. Disposal of the rubble will be a key consideration in the reconstruction efforts and appropriate guidelines will need to be developed to mitigate the environmental impacts. Furthermore, the possible recycling of rubble in noncritical applications should be considered as a means of
1 This rapid environmental impact assessment was prepared with the assistance of the Gujarat Ecology Commission and the Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology.
- 82 - reducing disposal volumes and costs. Rubble removal, transport and disposal is estimated to cost in the range of Rs. 116, 233 crores ($25 to $50 million).
Environmental impacts and residual risks from damage to industrial facilities. There have been a small number of reported petroleum and chemical leaks, but none appear to have had impacts beyond the immediate areas of the leaks. There have been no catastrophic collapses of large industrial facilities such as refineries or chemical manufacturing plants leading to severe environmental impacts. Kandla Port, near Gandhidham, was inspected for signs of environmental problems but there was no apparent indications of any major mishaps. There is nevertheless some residual risk as the port brings back online some of its riskier operations such as liquid propane gas and naphtha unloading. Lines are being checked and double-checked. Structures may have been weakened by the earthquake and may not give-in immediately. It is therefore critical that all handling of hazardous substances in an industrial context, in the port and elsewhere in the affected area, be undertaken with extreme caution and close oversight of all key systems, at least for the foreseeable future and until such a time that structural integrity has been confirmed by inspections and/or tests, as is appropriate. A summary of environmental issues in the industrial sector needing urgent attention along with the ongoing relief efforts is presented in Table 1 below.
Table 1.: Industrial Sector: Environmental Issues, Potential Impacts & Mitigation Measures
Issues Potential Impacts Mitigation Measures Damage to storage and Release to the environment Safe disposal & containment of material handling facilities causing health impacts releases and contaminated sites. Proper handling of chemicals. Damaged equipment &Risk of industrial accidents Proper inspection and repairs that machinery reduces the risks of accidents Damage to pollution control Release of polluting substances Restoring the full efficiency of the facilities into the environment systems in the shortest time Damage to ports & material Release of polluting substances Repairs and clearing of handling facilities into the environment accumulated goods
There has also been extensive damage to small and medium-size industrial facilities. In Kutch alone there are about 500 enterprises damaged by the earthquake, especially in the industrial estates of the GIDC in Bhuj, Anjar and Bhachau. There was also considerable damage at the Kandla free trade zone where nearly 130 industrial units were reported damaged. Large number of salt industries in Kutch, Rajkot and Surendranagar have suffered losses. It is also estimated that there are about 5,000 brick, ceramic and tile production units damaged in Morbi, Thanghadh, Wankaner and surrounding areas. Rubble from industrial facilities must be handled and disposed off carefully given the possible presence of hazardous chemicals. Finally, damage from sewage and industrial effluent treatment plants and hazardous management sites must be assessed through a detailed inspection/monitoring program.
Impact to water and water management resources. Water management infrastructure was also greatly affected and has been assessed in detail by the technical specialists in irrigation (see separate Annex on irrigation). Environmental impacts and risks associated with the damaged water resource infrastructure are outlined in Table 2.
- 83 - Table 2: Water Resources: Issues, Impacts and Mitigation Measures Sector Issues Impacts Mitigation Measures Ground Damage to tube wells Economic loss Urgent repairs Water Surface Damage to Reservoirs Reduced storage capacity, Urgent repairs to be completed Water and Tanks slower recharge and risk of before the onset of monsoon Collection breaching during monsoon Systems Damage to Irrigation Loss in agricultural Urgent repairs System productivity Siltation due to bank Reduced storage capacity De-silting failures
Other Environmental Impacts Anticipated
There will be a number of other environmental impacts associated with the earthquake. Some of the more significant impacts that must be considered during the reconstruction effort and incorporated into environmental management programs are discussed below.
Poorer sanitation and waste management practices. The set-up of temporary camps will require the installation of basic sanitation and waste management facilities in order to effectively manage environmental and health issues and minimize impacts from poor sanitation and waste management.
Increase in industrial pollution. Reconstruction activities will require the production and transport of millions of tons of construction materials (cement, bricks, etc.), leading to additional emissions from factories and vehicles. Intensive production of construction materials in the affected area could lead to significant increases in the level of industrial pollution, particularly from those sectors that poor environmental performance.
Changes in land use. Identification of appropriate rubble disposal sites could lead to the permanent reallocation of land away from productive use. Permanent relocation of villages or cities will lead to localized changes in land use patterns, although land scarcity is not an issue for most parts of the affected area. Indiscriminate rubble disposal could also lead to loss of productive land and lower the aesthetic value of the environment.
Undefined Environmental Impacts
All environmental impacts cannot yet be assessed, requiring the development of environmental monitoring programs. Some of these issues are discussed below.
Potential impact on aquifers and groundwater movement. In much of Gujarat, groundwater is the main source in meeting the water demand of domestic, agriculture and industrial sectors. Following the earthquake, there have been several reports of change in the level water table and quality. These phenomena have been reported from a number of places in Kutch and Jamnagar districts. The increase in water table and improvement of quality are considered to be positive impacts of the earthquake, although restricted to very limited areas. However, the reports of decline in the level of the water table and increase in salinity appear to be common in the earthquake-hit areas, which on a long-term basis has serious negative impact on agricultural production systems and thus the economy of the region. Follow-up environmental monitoring is therefore required to assess whether any permanent changes have occurred in the hydrogeological regimes.
- 84 - Potential impact to ecosystems. Long-term disturbances on ecosystems can result from earthquakes in the event of large-scale alternation of landforms. These effects can only be ascertained through long-term studies. As can be seen from in Table 3, there are a variety of potential impacts ranging from habitat loss, deaths and adverse affects on the breeding patterns.
Table 3: Biodiversity: Issues and Potential Impacts
Issues Possible Impacts Close to the epicenter about 75% of steep slopes had Loss of habitats of lizard species like landslides geckos, skinks, monitor lizard etc. Loss of nesting sites for birds. Compaction of soil at varying degrees in deep alluvial areas Death of burrow dwelling animals like spiny like in Banni, Ranns and their fringe areas tailed lizard, snakes and rodents Almost all inland wetlands in Kutch, especially the Decrease in planktonic productivity and reservoirs had high turbidity due to falling of loose soils dependent animals Coastal areas of Gulf of Kutch recorded tidal surges Shift in coastal productivity and resulting in increase in turbidity sedimentation pattern in mangroves Possible development of fissures in and around the Damage to nesting sites and abandoning of Flamingo City in Ranns nests
Needs and Actions
Immediate and Short-term Needs and Actions
Development of guidelines on rubble and debris disposal. The disposal of rubble in urban settings requires that guidelines be issued promptly to avoid haphazard disposal and additional costs through the repeated loading and dumping of waste materials. The guidelines should address siting issues and be based on basic principles which minimize environmental impacts. Removal and disposal of rubble from industrial facilities must consider the likely presence of hazardous substances. Recycling and reuse of rubble in noncritical applications should be considered whenever and wherever possible. Finally, specific instructions should be issued with regards to rubble removal/movement from heritage sites (more on this in the Annex on Public Buildings and Historic Monuments);
Inspection of water management schemes. It is vital that dams (whether small, medium or large) be thoroughly inspected before water is allowed to accumulate in them during the next monsoon season. Appropriate corrective measures should be taken promptly to fix the schemes or to not allow them to hold significant amounts of water (more on this in the Annex on Irrigation);
Short-term environmental monitoring. There are several short-term environmental monitoring needs which are required to: (a) further define the environmental impacts of the earthquake; and (b) effectively mitigate residual environmental risks that arise from the damage and/or weakening of industrial infrastructure. For example, it is not known whether the linings used in hazardous waste disposal sites have developed any cracks. While these should be inspected urgently, it is also recommended that well water which is being used for drinking purposes in the surrounding areas be subjected to ongoing water quality tests. A top priority on the environmental monitoring front relates to the elaboration of a monitoring protocol to measure whether there are any changes in hydro-geological levels and regimes;
Technical assistance for reconstruction efforts. The offices and equipment of the GIDE were devastated by the earthquake. Given the important role GIDE will play in the
- 85 - implementation of the earthquake recovery environmental management plan, a technical assistance component is proposed in the short term recovery strategy.
Development of community environmental management plans for temporary camps. community environmental management plans (CEMPs) should be developed for the proper management of environmental issues, mainly sanitation and waste management, in camps set-up as temporary shelter for earthquake victims.
Medium-term Reconstruction and Recovery Needs and Actions
There are a number of environmental actions that are recommended over the medium term to further support an environmental risk mitigation strategy and sustainable reconstruction effort. Key actions are elaborated below.
Undertake comprehensive environmental impact assessment. The rapid environmental impact assessment, supported by additional environmental monitoring activities, will form the basis for the elaboration of a comprehensive environmental impact assessment that will attempt to capture the medium and long term impacts associated with the earthquake and define an appropriate environmental management framework.
Assessment and monitoring of industrial risks. The disaster management framework to be developed by the state must specifically include a program on the assessment and monitoring of industrial risks (through HAZOP-type analysis), especially for industries producing/handling/storing/transporting hazardous materials. The framework should also include the development of emergency response measures and capacity.
Strengthening of institutional capacity and environmental governance framework . In addition to strengthening regional environmental management capacity of the Gujarat Pollution Control Board to monitor industries using, producing or discharging hazardous substances, the overall framework for pollution control and environmental governance needs to be strengthened through the development of an Environmental Management Framework (EMF). An EMF-type effort would support better communications and networking; industrial pollution information collection, analysis and dissemination; environmental economic analysis as basis for policy development, and others.
Introduction of cleaner technologies. The Government should consider adopting new technological standards for those industrial sectors where significant impacts have been reported and where significant reconstruction is likely to take place. For example, reconstruction of the brick and tiles sector should consider the use of natural gas instead of lignite, and the kilns should be rebuilt on the basis this cleaner source of energy.
Environmental guidelines for GIDC reconstruction efforts. As part of its reconstruction efforts, GIDC should consider the adoption of stricter environmental guidelines for the industrial estates that it is rebuilding as a further measure of environmental governance and sustainability.
- 86 - Recovery Strategy
As part of the recovery strategy, GOG will require support in the development and implementation of the following components:
· Guidelines on rubble and debris disposal; · Short-term environmental monitoring; · Technical assistance for reconstruction efforts of key institutions; · Undertake a comprehensive environmental impact assessment; · Assessment and monitoring of industrial risks; and · Environmental guidelines for GIDC reconstruction efforts.
Moreover, an inspection program is being envisaged as part of the irrigation sector rehabilitation. Sanitation and waste management issues at temporary camps are being addressed as part of a temporary housing action plan.
- 87 -