SPATIO-TEMPORAL DYNAMICS IN THE PROVISION OF PRIMARY SCHOOL EDUCATION IN VHEMBE DISTRICT, LIMPOPO, SOUTH AFRICA by MADZINGE FHATUWANI ELLEN NEMBUDANI submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the subject Geography at the University of South Africa Supervisor: Prof Dr UJ Fairhurst November 2014 i Student number 448 5750 I declare that: Spatio-temporal Dynamics in the Provision of Primary School Education in Vhembe District, Limpopo, South Africa is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. This work has not been submitted before for any degree or examination 13 February 2015 ________________________ _____________________ SIGNATURE DATE (Mrs) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the Almighty who gave me strength all the way when conducting this study. To be able to complete my studies I am indebted to the assistance of the following people: My supervisor, Professor U J Fairhurst for her patience, tireless encouragement and guidance during the course of this study Vhembe Education Department officials for having allowed me access to schools information; Vhembe circuit managers, principals and educators who provided information used in this study Ndou Uteng, Nevondo Nndivhaleni, Ramabulana Phumudzo, and Zongho Kom, (University of Venda 2012 Geography honours students) who helped with data collection and capturing Ms Isabelle Delvare for copy-editing the first draft of this document Ms Ingrid Booysen for professional assistance with the geomatic and cartographic work Mr Farai Dondofema for helping with mapmaking National Research Foundation of South Africa through the University of Venda for financial support University of Venda for financial support Vhembe community members who participated in data collection. i ABSTRACT Spatial, temporal and population dynamics have influenced learner enrolments in Vhembe District primary schools in Limpopo, South Africa. Vhembe District primary schools have in recent years experienced closure of some of its primary schools due to declining learner enrolments. The dynamics of demographic factors such as migration, fertility and mortality cause fluctuations in the school-age population over time and across space. Poor economic development, the location of the district and the spatial distribution of primary schools make the situation in this rural-based district even more complex. The communities of Vhembe District are discontent about the state of affairs in the area regarding the provision of education and the closure of schools. The closure of schools destabilises the social cohesion amongst members of the community and disempowers them, while inadequate provision of primary school education makes them feel neglected and robbed of their constitutional right. This study investigated the causes of declining learner enrolment and the effect of the closure of schools on the communities. To achieve the objectives data came from questionnaires at household level and from interviews conducted with educators, circuit managers, officials in the Limpopo Education Department and traditional leaders. The study found that declining fertility and out-migration from the area are responsible for a declining school-age population. This is the reality and the communities of Vhembe District will have to live with it because overall learner enrolments continue to decline. Lack of a planning model in the former Venda territory led to an over-supply of primary schools thus schools in close proximity had to compete for learners. Poorly equipped schools and general development of the area exacerbate the problem and some members of the community perceive education in this district to be inferior. Younger economically active people are increasingly moving to places with better opportunities. This study offers some recommendations to alleviate the problems identified in Vhembe District. Application of a geographical approach to an adaptive strategy considers the natural environment in political, social and economic context. It suggests that education authorities could apply such a strategy to make the schools in rural areas more sustainable. Key words: Spatio-temporal; population dynamics; primary schools; school-age population; learner enrolments; education policy. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i ABSTRACT ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1: THIS STUDY AS GEOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH 5 1.2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 6 1.2.1: Background to the problem 8 1.2.2: Problem statement 10 1.2.3: Study rationale 12 1.2.4: Research method or procedure 13 1.2.5: Data analysis and interpretation 19 1.3: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY 21 1.4: ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 21 1.5: RESEARCH DESIGN 22 iii CHAPTER 2: THE CULTURAL AND PHYSICAL SETTING OF VHEMBE DISTRICT 24 2.1: CULTURAL BACGROUND 25 2.2: CULTURAL LANDSCAPE 36 2.3 PHYSICAL BACKROUND OF VHEMBE DISTRICY 45 2.4: INFRASTRUCTURE 48 2.5: DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOLS IN VHEMBE DISTRICT 50 CHAPTER 3: INTEGRATING POPULATION AND SCHOOL ENROLMENT TRENDS 56 3.1: POPULATION DYNAMICS AND LEARNER ENROLMENT 56 3.2: GLOBAL POPULATION GROWTH 61 3.3: FERTILITY 64 3.3.1: Current trends in fertility 66 3.3.2: Social change and fertility 68 3.3.3: Prospects of a decline in fertility in sub-Saharan Africa 73 3.3.4: Fertility trends in South Africa 74 3.4: MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY 77 3.4.1: HIV and AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa 78 3.4.2: HIV and AIDS in South Africa and its impact on school enrolments 80 3.5: MIGRATION 82 3.6: TRENDS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL ENROLMENTS 88 3.6.1: Global trends in school enrolments 89 3.6.2: School enrolments in South Africa 89 3.6.3: Closure of schools and its impact on local communities 91 iv CHAPTER 4: POLICY ISSUES AND THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION 96 4.1: POPULATION DYNAMICS AND REALITY 97 4.2: EDUCATION FOR ALL: GLOBAL AND NATIONAL PERSPECTIVES 100 4.3: SCHOOL INFRASTRUCTURE 116 4.4: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND SOUTH AFRICAN POLICIES 122 4.5: EDUCATION AS A SOCIETAL REALITY 129 CHAPTER 5: LIVING SPACES AND SCHOOLING IN VHEMBE DISTRICT 132 5.1: PEOPLE AND THEIR HOUSEHOLDS 132 5.1.1: Household structure 132 5.1.1.1: Gender structure 133 5.1.1.2: Age structure 134 5.1.2: Residential ownership 141 5.1.3: Socio-economic characteristics 144 5.2: SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLING 150 5.2.1: Age of visited schools and building: 150 5.2.2: Access to a primary school from home 153 5.2.3: Choosing a school: the parents’ choice 155 5.3: IMPACT OF SCHOOL CLOSURES 161 5.4: CHALLENGEES IN THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION 164 5.5: LEARNER ENROLMENTS AND THEIR DECLINE 177 CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABLE PRIMARY SCHOOLS 196 6.1: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF SCHOOLS 196 6.2: POLICY ISSUES AND THE PROVISION OF EDUCATION 199 6.3: CHANGING SCHOOL ENROLMENTS 202 v 6.4: COPING STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY SCHOOLS 205 6.5: THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF THE CLOSURE OF SCHOOLS 206 6.6: ADAPTING TO CHANGING LEARNER ENROLMENTS 210 6.7: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 212 7: LIST OF REFERENCES 216 8: APPENDICES 230 Appendices 1, 2, and 3: Questionnaires 230 Appendices 4A, 4B, and C: Permission letters 241 Appendices 5A, 5B and 5C: Samples of raw data 245 vi LIST OF FIGURES PAGE Figure 1.1: The location of Vhembe District in South Africa 2 Figure 1.2: Conceptual framework for population dynamics and learner enrolments 4 Figure 1.3: Location of primary schools in Vhembe District 11 Figure 1.4: Map of the location of sampled schools with reference to population density15 Figure 1.5: Map of school circuit areas 16 Figure 1.6: Map showing population densities in Vhembe District 18 Figure 1.7: Research design of this study 23 Figure 2.1: Location of former South African homelands prior 1994. 24 Figure 2.2: Map of Vhembe municipalities and location of urban places 26 Figure 2.3: Sex/age structure of Vhembe District population in 2011 28 Figure 2.4: Population age-structure percentages for Vhembe District in 2011 28 Figure 2.5: Gender distribution by municipality in Vhembe District in 2011 30 Figure 2.6: Educational achievements for persons 20 years and older in Vhembe District between 2001 and 2011 32 Figure 2.7: Unemployment rates in Vhembe District from 1996-2011 33 Figure 2.8: Map of the location of land under Tribal Authority in Vhembe District 37 Figure 2.9: Dispersed settlement in Mutale Municipality in the Soutpansberg Mountain range 39 Figure 2.10: Villages that have coalesced at the foot of the Soutpansberg region in Vhembe District 40 Figure 2.11: Map showing the relief of Vhembe District. 45 Figure 2.12 Rainfall map of Vhembe District 47 Figure 2.13: Location of old circuit offices between 1957 and 1969 in the Northern Transvaal 51 Figure 2.14: Population characteristics and the location of primary schools. 54 Figure 3.1: Population dynamics and school-age population 57 Figure 3.2: Mismatch between population status and the location of schools 61 Figure 3.3: Global population growth 63 Figure 3.4: Total fertility rates in the various regions of the world 67 Figure 3.5: Marriage trends in South Africa. 70 Figure 3.6: Abortion percentages in Limpopo between 1997 and 2010 71 Figure 3.7: Recorded live births in Limpopo, 1997–2010 72 vii Figure 3.8: Trends in divorce for South African women, 1991–2011 73 Figure 3.9: HIV/AIDS-related deaths of children aged 0–9 in South Africa, 1997–2008 81 Figure 3.10: Net migration figures by province in South Africa in 2011 86 Figure 3.11: Mind map of Chapter 3 94 Figure 4.1: Arrangement