Morphometric Factors in the Formation of Great Lakes Coastal Wetlands C

Home , Cuesta, Gull Island (Michigan), Maumee Bay, Munuscong Lake, Sandusky Bay, Starve Island

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Morphometric factors in the formation of Great Lakes coastal wetlands C. E. Herdendorf Department of Geological Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA; E-mail: [email protected]

The Great Lakes basins were carved from ancient river valleys by continental ice sheets that receded from the region less than 10,000 years ago. Not only did the glaciers create the basins now holding the lakes, but they are responsible for many of the shallow depressions in the coastal margin that have since developed as coastal wetlands of various types. For the past four thousand years, coastal processes in the lakes have further modiﬁed the shore topography to form embayments, coastal lagoons, estuaries, deltas, and solution basins where thousands of hectares of wetlands have become established. This paper will explore the origin of the various morphometric forms which these wetlands have taken and their characteristic hydrologic processes.

Keywords: estuaries, geomorphology, karst, lacustrine, palustrine, physiography

Physiography of the Great Lakes gin of the waning ice sheet retreated northward into the newly carved lake basins, some of which were dammed The five adjoining Laurentian Great Lakes— by glacial end moraines. The early ice-margin lakes ex- Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario—extend panded as the glacial ice masses shrank. However, as 1,370 km from westernmost point to easternmost point new and lower outlets were uncovered to the north, the and 1,130 km from north to south (Figure 1). With lakes drained to ever lowering levels except during peri- a total surface area of 244,160 km2, this is the largest ods of minor readvances of the ice front (Hough, 1962). freshwater system on earth. The total shoreline of these Following deglaciation, the Earth’s crust rebounded lakes measures 17,017 km and is nearly equally divided from the hundreds of meters of depression experienced between Canada and the United States, although Lake under the weight of the ice masses, causing old outlets Michigan is totally within the United States and Lake to be closed and the levels of the lakes to again rise, Huron’s Georgian Bay lies completely in Canada. The but not as high as their initial levels. Continued uplift lakes in this immense system contain about 22,700 km3 of the land to the north and erosion of the shores and of water or nearly one-fifth of the all the freshwater on outlet channels have continued to cause slow changes the planet. Lake Superior contains 53% of that water; to the configuration of the lakes. Lake Michigan, 22%; Lake Huron, 16%; Lake Erie, The watershed of the Great Lakes is about 764,000 2%; and Lake Ontario, 7%. km2 and extends over parts of three different physio- The Great Lakes are located in zones of weaker sed- graphic (landform) provinces—Canadian Shield, Cen- imentary rocks that were excavated for many millennia tral Lowlands, and St. Lawrence Lowlands. The by steam erosion. Major valleys were deepened and streams that flow into the lakes reflect the character and reshaped by glacial ice during the Pleistocene Epoch. variations of these regions. The rivers that enter Lake The lakes originated late in this epoch when the mar- Superior and the northern parts of Lakes Michigan and

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Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 7(2):179–197, 2004. Copyright C 2004 AEHMS. ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online DOI: 10.1080/14634980490461515 P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Figure 1. St. Lawrence Great Lakes and drainage basin (NOAA, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory).

Huron change elevation rapidly as they descend from south ridges of bedrock flanked by sediment-filled val- the rocky cliffs of the Canadian Shield to the lakes in leys, thought to be the remnants of a preglacial drainage many falls and rapids. Rivers flowing into the south- system. The Keweenaw Peninsula, Apostle Islands, Isle ern Lakes—Michigan, Erie, and Ontario—originate in Royale, and connecting submarine ridges are outcrops the Central Lowlands and are more likely to flow gently of ancient Precambrian volcanic and sedimentary rocks through well-defined channels and to have broad flood- which are more resistant to erosion. The southern bor- plains. The St. Lawrence Lowlands is restricted to the der of the eastern basin consists of Paleozoic strata, wide, flat valley of the river for which it is named. most noteworthy being the colorful sandstone cliffs of Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore. Lake Superior lies Lake Superior almost wholly within the Precambrian Canadian Shield, the Paleozoic Central Lowlands rocks of the southeast- With a volume of 12,230 km3 and a surface area of ern shore being the only exception. 82,100 km2, Lake Superior is the largest of the Great An escarpment borders the shore of Lake Superior Lakes. The lake bottom is divided into two basins; the which rises 120 to 240 m above the surface of the lake Keweenaw Peninsula and a prominent north-south sub- on all sides. Interspersed along this precipitous coast of merged ridge at depths of 150 to 180 m separate the spectacular cliffs are small, rocky, pocket beaches. Off- eastern and western basins. The western basin is char- shore the lake bottom rapidly drops to depths greater acterized by a comparatively smooth bottom consist- than 60 m. In the vicinity of Whitefish Point the bot- ing of thick lake sediments and glacial deposits, while tom slope is more gentle and the shore is characterized the eastern basin is more rugged with numerous north- by shallow reaches composed of sand, derived from P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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nearby glacial deposits, that have been transported into a depth of 60–90 m at mid lake, a deep north central the area by alongshore currents (Upchurch, 1976). The basin drops to the lake’s maximum depth of 281 m. maximum depth of the lake, 406 m, is located east of The bottom of this basin has an irregular floor caused Keweenaw Peninsula. by outcrops of resistant Devonian limestones separated Lake Superior owes its origin to a combination of by Devonian declivities (Upchurch, 1976). A northeast- events. First being the formation of a midcontinent ern basin consists of numerous north-south trending rift and associated igneous activity in the Precambrian valleys and ridges similar to those of eastern Lake Su- Era. This rift was later filled with soft sedimentary perior. This basin contains a number of islands and its rocks which eventually became eroded into a ridge bottom is characterized by a number of deep troughs, and valley system. The older, harder rocks around the 75 to 150 m deep, separated by ridges with only 8 to edges of the Superior basin (lava flows, gabbros, and 15 m of water over them (Hough, 1958). Green Bay, granites) form parts of the bordering escarpment and with a surface area of 4,100 km2, constitutes a fourth Keweenaw Peninsula. Faulting may have also weak- physiographic element of Lake Michigan. Green Bay is ened the bedrock and formed graben-type fault-block a relatively shallow embayment, mostly less than 30 m depressions. Lastly,as continental glaciers swept across deep, that is separated from the main lake by the Door Canada and into the Superior basin, they were guided Peninsula (a western extension of the crescent-shaped by the valleys. The immediate cause of the present sub- cuesta known as the Niagara Escarpment that also sep- marine topography was deepening by successive lobes arates Georgian Bay from Lake Huron and Lake Erie of glacial ice that occupied the bottom of the rift zone, from Lake Ontario). thus eroding the softer sediments but modifying only Lake Michigan lies wholly within the Paleozoic to a moderate degree the resistant Precambrian rocks bedrock province. Rock exposures are not common of the sides. around the lake because glacial deposits mantle the As they retreated, the glaciers and glacial lakes cov- bedrock almost everywhere. However, exposures are ered the bottom surface with a thin layer of drift and sed- sufficient to show that Paleozoic rock formations con- iment. Irregularities and deep canyons in the western trol the major topographic feature of the lake basin. part of the lake basin were filled with sediment, yielding Silurian-aged Niagaran Dolomite forms the cuesta that a smooth bottom, whereas, depressions in the eastern bounds the lake on the west and north and dips under the part of the lake were not filled, leaving the many irreg- lake toward the center of the Michigan structural basin ular north-south submarine canyons and ridges. While centered under the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Mid- the glacial lakes were receding and establishing a series dle Devonian-aged Traverse Group limestones form the of temporary levels, waves carved ancient lake terraces shore from the Straits of Mackinac to the headlands of into the shoreline resembling gigantic stair steps. Sev- Grand Traverse Bay. The shoreline of Lake Michigan eral channels have drained Lake Superior at different ranges from Paleozoic bedrock that forms precipitous times. Outcrops of sandstone in the St. Marys River, cliffs and glacial debris along the northern and west- the present outlet, form a natural weir that restricts the ern shores, to expansive sandy beaches with enormous discharge of the lake. The water level in Lake Superior, dune ridges on portions of the eastern and southern at an average elevation of 183 m above sea level, is now shores. Offshore slopes are gentle in most areas. controlled by engineering works constructed across the Lake Michigan was formed during the Pleistocene rapids at Sault Ste. Marie. ice age when continental glaciers gouged out the lowlands between present-day Michigan and Wisconsin, Lake Michigan and removed the overburden and softer rock formations, leaving ridges of harder, more resistant rocks. The third largest in area and second in volume of As the glaciers retreated, morainic drift buried the rock the Great Lakes, Lake Michigan has a surface area of outcrops and filled many of the preglacial valleys and 57,750 km2 and a volume of 4,920 km3. The bottom ice scoured troughs with glacial till, outwash deposits, of the lake is characterized by three basins. The south- and glacial lake sediments. A major outlet for ancient ern basin is separated by a limestone sill extending from glacial lakes in the basin was near Chicago which Sheboygan, WI to Ludington, MI that is covered by a drained to the Gulf of Mexico. As lower post-glacial veneer of glacial morainic material. The southern basin levels were established in Lake Michigan, this outlet has a relatively smooth bottom, over 500 feet deep, that was abandoned as flow to the north through the Straits consists of silt and clay lake sediments over Devonian- of Mackinac dominated. Because Lakes Michigan and Mississippian shales. North of the sill, which rises to Huron have tihis relatively deep connection, they are P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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hydrologically the same lake, with the same average brian crystalline rocks of the North Channel shores, surface elevation, 176.5 m above sea level. have sheer cliffs and small, rocky, pocket beaches. During the Pleistocene ice age, continental glaciers Lake Huron deepened pre-glacial lowlands and gouged out softer rock formations on the north and east sides of the This lake has the second largest surface area, Michigan highlands to form Lake Huron. The trans- 59,500 km2, and the third largest volume, 3,537 km3 gressing glacier stripped soils from the rock surface and of the Great Lakes. The lake bottom is composed of exposed the Niagara Escarpment. Retreating glaciers three basins. The eastern basin (Georgian Bay), is sep- filled depressions with drift and glacial lake deposits. arated from the main lake by the Niagara Escarpment, These ancient lakes are evidenced by abandoned beach which forms the Bruce Peninsula, Manitoulin Island ridges and terraces carved into the shoreline. The out- (world’s largest freshwater island), Cockburn Island, flow from Lake Huron passes through an outlet channel and Drummond Island. Georgian Bay, at 16,300 km2, composed of the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and De- is underlain by shales that are less resistant to erosion troit River. There are no artificial controls in the chan- than the limestones and dolomites that form the es- nels between Lake Huron and Lake Erie, but dredg- carpment. Lake Huron proper is nearly equally divided ing operations in these waterways over the years have into two basins by a ridge that extends southeast from deepened the natural channels resulting in a substantial Alpena, MI to Kincardine, ON. This ridge is a cuesta of lower of the levels of Lakes Huron and Michigan. Devonian limestone with the basins on each side underlain by softer shales and sandstones (Upchurch, 1976). Lake Erie The deepest point in Lake Huron, 229 m, occurs north of the ridge in the northern or main basin about 37 km Relatively narrow and shallow Lake Erie is the southwest of the northern tip of Bruce Peninsula. The fourth largest of the Great Lakes by surface area at irregular bathymetry of the northern basin is attributed 25,657 km2 and smallest by volume at 483 km3. The to the presence of Silurian reefs and the possible col- lake is oriented with its long axis in a east-northeast di- lapse of strata resulting from solutioning of Silurian rection and is naturally divided into three basins: west- salt beds (Lewis and Herdendorf, 1976). Saginaw Bay, ern, central, and eastern. The western basin, lying west a 3,400 km2 shallow extension of the southern basin, of a line from the tip of Point Pelee, ON, to Cedar formed in less resistant Mississippian and early Penn- Point, OH, is the smallest and shallowest basin with sylvanian rocks to the northwest of Michigan’s ‘thumb’ most of the bottom depths between 8 and 11 m. In con- area. trast with the other basins, a number of bedrock islands The periphery of Lake Huron, from the shoreline and shoals are situated in the western basin and form a out to about 20 km, generally consists of a sand and partial divide between it and the central basin. The bot- gravel bottom. The presence of some coarse gravel and tom is flat except for the steep-sided islands and shoals boulders of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary in the eastern part. The deepest soundings are 19 m rocks represents lag deposits from glacial till (Lewis in a small depression north of Starve Island Reef and and Herdendorf, 1976). Dark gray to brown silty clay 16 m in another depression south of Gull Island Shoal occupies the deeper parts of the basin. Saginaw Bay’s (Lewis and Herdendorf, 1976). The central basin is bottom is predominately composed of silty clay, but separated from the eastern basin by a relatively shal- fine-grained sand is also found throughout the bay. In low sand and gravel bar between Erie, PA and the base Georgian Bay, bedrock outcrops and boulder debris of Long Point, ON. The central basin has an average are common around the ‘flower pot’ islands and sub- depth of 19 m and a maximum depth of 26 m. Except merged reefs from depths of 5 to 30 m; mud covers for the rising slopes of a low morainal bar extending the deeper bottoms. The Lake Huron shoreline is di- south-southeast from Point Pelee, ON, the bottom of verse. Sandy beaches with dune ridges occur where the central basin is extremely flat. The eastern basin is morainal or glacial lake deposits serve as sediment relatively deep and bowl-shaped. A considerable area sources. Consequently, the shore of the southern basin lies below 37 m, and the deepest sounding of 64 m is and southwestern shore of the northern basin are low about 13 km east-southeast of Long Point, ON. and have well-developed beaches. Areas bordered by The varying depths of the Lake Erie basins are at- erosion-resistant rock, such as the Paleozoic limestones tributed to differential erosion by preglacial streams, and dolomites of the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin glaciers, and postglacial lacustrine processes. The Island, ON, and Presque Isle, MI, and by the Precam- strata of the central and eastern basins of Lake Erie P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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dip slightly to the southeast and have a general east- Lake Erie. These dunes are formed presumably under west strike direction roughly paralleling the lake. Lake the influence of the prevailing southwest winds. Lit- Ontario is separated from Lake Erie by the resistant Sil- toral currents have concentrated sand in spits and bay- urian limestones and dolomites of the Niagara Escarp- mouth bars at such places as Point Pelee, Point Aux ment. The central and eastern basins of Lake Erie are Pins, and Long Point, ON; North Cape, MI; East Har- underlain by nonresistant shale, shaly limestone, and bor and Cedar Point, OH; and Presque Isle, PA. The shaly sandstone of Upper Devonian age. The south- natural outlet for Lake Erie is the Niagara River which ward advance of Pleistocene glacial ice was obstructed has a length of 60 km and a total drop of 99 m to Lake by the Mississippian Escarpment and the ice was di- Ontario. Navigation to the east of Lake Erie is via the rected westward along the outcrop of the softer Upper Welland Canal and New York State Barge Canal. Devonian shales. These shales were deeply eroded to form the narrow eastern basin. Farther west, where the Lake Ontario dip of the beds is less and the width of the soft shale belt is greater, glacial erosion resulted in the broader, This lake is the smallest of the Great Lakes with a but shallower central basin. surface area of 19,000 km2 and fourth largest by volume The Devonian shales trend inland between Cleve- at 1,637 km3. Lake Ontario is elongated approximately land and Sandusky and the shallow western basin is east-west and has a surface elevation 75 m above sea underlain by Silurian and Devonian limestone and level. The lake is 245 m deep at its deepest location, dolomite on the northward plunging end of the Findlay where the bottom is 170 m below sea level (a feature Arch. Glacial erosion had relatively slight effects on known as a cryptodepression), lower than the bottom these resistant rocks. The islands in western Lake Erie of any of the other Great Lakes except Lake Superior are arranged in two north-south belts that correspond at 223 m below sea level. Lake Erie is the only one of with the outcrop patterns of the two most resistant rock the Great Lakes that does not possess such a feature. formations. The Kelleys Island-Pelee Island belt is un- Four depositional basins have been identified in Lake derlain by Columbus Limestone and the Bass Islands Ontario, three of which are separated by glacial are underlain by Put-in-Bay Dolomite. moraines (west to east, Niagara basin, Mississauga The bottom sediments of Lake Erie consist of silt basin, and Rochester basin) and a fourth which is iso- and clay muds, sand and gravel, peat, compact glacio- lated by a bedrock sill (Kingston basin). Bottom gra- lacustrine clays, glacial till, shoals of limestone and dients along the south shore are quite variable, ranging dolomite bedrock and rubble, shale bedrock shelves, from 1.9 m km−1 near the Niagara River mouth to 11.7 and erratic cobbles and boulders composed chieflyof mkm−1 near Rochester (Lewis and Herdendorf, 1976). igneous and metamorphic rocks. The distribution of The Lake Ontario basin is a lowland bordered on bottom sediments is related to the bottom topography. the north by an escarpment of the Canadian Shield, on The broad, flat areas of the western and central basin, the east by the Adirondack Mountains, on the south and the deep areas of the eastern basin have mud bot- by the Appalachian Plateau, and on the west by the toms. Midlake bars and nearshore slopes are comprised Niagara Escarpment. The Niagara Escarpment is 60 m of mostly sand and gravel or glacial till. Rock is exposed high at Niagara Falls, but decreases in height along in the shoals of western Lake Erie and along the south the south shore of Lake Ontario. Near Oswego, NY, shore of the eastern basin. glacially deposited ridges, known as drumlins, form Most of the shoreline of Lake Erie consists of low dramatic cliffs that are separated by lush wetland la- marshy coasts or high bluffs of clay-rich glacial till or goons. On the north shore, east of Toronto, ON, the shale. Along the wetlands the shores are commonly pro- high bluffs of gray glacial till at Scarborough are erod- tected by barrier beaches or dikes, whereas the bluffs ing at an rapid rate. are commonly fronted by narrow cobble and shingle As continental glaciers of the Pleistocene ice age beaches. The western Lake Erie Islands and peninsu- crossed the basin, they gouged out the soft red shales las, and the eastern basin’s northeast shore are bound of the Queenstone Formation to form the lake depres- by Silurian-Devonian limestone and dolomite cliffs and sion. The depth of scour and shape of the depression rocky shelving bottoms. In general, sand is limited were influenced by hard limestone formations along along the shoreline, but extensive dune and beach de- the north shore of the lake. The retreating glaciers deposits are found at several places. Notable dunes have posited sediment (till) in the lake creating the morainal been formed at the base and southwest side of Long ridges separating the depositional basins and along the Point, Point Abino, and Sturgeon Point, all in eastern shore forming the drumlins and high bluffs. P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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The St. Lawrence River is the natural outlet for the ary, harbor, or small lake with a direct connection to a Great Lakes, flowing about 1,300 km from Lake On- Great Lake, are here included. tario across the St. Lawrence Plain into the Atlantic Great Lakes coastal wetlands can be classified into Ocean at the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This plain is a low- at least seven morphometric groups: (1) coastal lagoon land between the Adirondack Mountains of New York wetlands, (2) estuarine wetlands, (3) delta wetlands, and the Canadian Shield. The broad, multiple-channel (4) kettle lake wetlands, (5) solution basin (karst) wet- river head is broken into by numerous islands (Thou- lands, (6) riverine wetlands, and (7) diked wetlands sand Islands region). Downstream the channel narrows (Figure 2). This classification scheme cuts across sev- abruptly where the river flows over hard, resistant Pre- eral of the functional or ecological systems (lacustrine, cambrian rocks protruding south from the Canadian palustrine, and riverine wetlands) proposed by the U.S. Shield. The lower course of the river is a long, horn- Fish and Wildlife Service (Cowardin et al., 1979) for shaped, tidal estuary which opens into the Gulf of St. the Great Lakes. For example, portions of coastal la- Lawrence. Outflow of Lake Ontario typically ranges goons, freshwater estuaries, and deltas may be within from 4,250 to 8,500 m3 s−1. the lacustrine system, while more elevated portions of the same morphometric wetland might be classified within the palustrine or riverine systems. The relation- ships of these two classification schemes are further Morphometric types of Great Lakes discussed at the end of this section. coastal wetlands Table 1 presents a listing, by lake, of 309 significant coastal wetlands or wetland complexes of the Great The Great Lakes are noted for their severe west- Lakes. The table contains an estimate of the surface erly and northeasterly storms and the resultant wave area of each wetland or wetland complex, as well as attack and dramatic fluctuations of water levels at their an attempt to place each in a morphometric category. shorelines, as much as 2 m within a few hours. In most ‘Significant’ is here defined as wetlands over 40 ha reaches of the Great Lakes, the high energy produced at (100 acres) in size or, if smaller, a particularly good the shore by these storms precludes the development of example of a morphometric type. fringing coastal wetlands. Only where some natural or artificial protection is available against the harsh coastal Coastal lagoon wetlands process of wave attack, erosion, ice scour, and rapid transportation or deposition of sediments can coastal This category includes the protection afforded to wetlands become established and continue to thrive. wetland development by a variety of embayments and Certainly coastal wetlands can survive water level fluc- isolated raised depressions within the shorelands of the tuations, and are often rejuvenated by them, but gen- Great Lakes that were primarily created or modified by erally quiescent conditions and the absence of marked coastal processes during the present or predecessor lake turdidity favor their formation. Fortunately a number stages. These processes include wave attack and ero- of morphometric situations occur along the shorelines sion, sediment transport and deposition by alongshore of the Great Lakes which have created these favorable currents, ice shove, dune-forming wind, and mass wast- conditions and tend to foster wetland development. The ing of bluffs. Offshore bars, barrier beaches, and sand following categories of coastal wetlands are based on spits are also created by these agents that result in qui- the type of morphometric feature which has created the escent regions where aquatic macrophytes can flourish. necessary protection for the establishment of wetland In large bodies of water such as the Great Lakes, the vegetation. shifting of sediments by nearshore currents can form For the purpose of this paper, coastal wetlands are basins where wetlands eventually develop. If sediments considered as those situated within at least 300 m of are deposited across the mouth of an embayment, a trib- the high water mark of one of the Great Lakes or their utary outlet or a freshwater estuary, the blockage may connecting waterway, including the St. Lawrence River result in the formation of a new pond or lagoon. Wave within the boundaries of New York and Ontario. For a activity, too, has formed bars of sand and gravel, which wetland that occurs within this coastal margin but ex- likewise have closed off the mouths of embayments. tends inland beyond the 300-m limit, the entire contigu- The usual way in which a lagoon capable of support- ous wetland is here considered to be a coastal wetland. ing a wetland is formed is by accretion of a bar across Thus, wetlands located wholly or partly within 300 m some irregularity or indentation of the coastline. The of a coastal body of water, such as a bay, lagoon, estu- term ‘bar’ is used here in a generic sense to include the P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Figure 2. Morphometric classiﬁcation of Great Lakes coastal wetlands.

various types of submerged or emergent embankments hooks with the establishment of numerous, fingerlike of sand and gravel built on the lake bottom by waves beach ponds over the past several thousand years. The and currents. One of the most common types of bars ponds were created when an elevated bar of sand de- associated with wetlands in the Great Lakes is a spit. veloped, thereby isolating a small portion of the lake; This feature is a sand ridge attached to the mainland the ponds were seldom more than 100 to 200 m long, at one end and terminating in open water at the dis- 10 to 20 m wide, and 1 m deep. Some of the ponds tal end. Spits that have extended themselves across or were destroyed in a few days, months, or years by sub- partially across embayments are termed baymouth or sequent storms which either breached the sand bar or barrier bars. Commonly the axis of a spit will extend in blew enough sand to fill in the depression. The bet- a straight line parallel to the coast, but where currents ter protected ponds survived these geological processes are deflected landward a recurved spit or hook can re- only to be subjected to a biological fate, wetland succes- sult. Several stages of hook development may produce sion. A four-year-old pond is characterized by sparse a compound recurved spit with a series of ponds sep- pioneer vegetation, such as stonewort, algae, bulrushes, arated by beach ridges. Such ponds have provided ex- cattail, and cottonwood seedlings. At 50 years, filling cellent sites for wetland development along the Great has occurred in the basin and encroaching vegetation Lakes. has reduced the open water portion to about half of Kormondy (1969, 1984) described wetland succes- its former area. The major vegetation consists of water sion in beach ponds on a 6.4 km-long spit in Lake milfoil, cattail, bulrushes, bluejoint, willow, bayberry, Erie known as Presque Isle near Erie, PA. Owing to and cottonwood. After 100 years the open water portion a combination of its sandy shore and exposure to vi- is almost obliterated and the vegetation has increased olent lake storms, this spit developed as a series of in complexity and the dominant forms include water P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Table 1. Signiﬁcant wetlands of the Great Lakes. Data sources: Ball et al. (2003), Duffy et al. (1987), Geis and Kee (1977), Glooschenko et al. (1987), Herdendorf et al. (1981a,b,c,d,e,f), and Herdendorf et al. (1986).

Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Lake Superior & St. Marys River Agate Harbor Wetlands Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 82 Agawa Bay Algoma County, ON Coastal lagoon 300 Allouez Bay/Nemadji River Douglas County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 187 Apostle Islands Wetlands Ashland & Bayfield Coastal lagoon 705 Counties, WI Au Train Bay & Point Alger County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 255 Bark Bay Wetlands Bayfield County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 275 Batchawana Bay Algoma County, ON Coastal lagoon 500 Bear Lake Wetland Houghton County, MI Coastal lagoon 123 Bibon Lake/Flag River Bayfield County, WI Coastal lagoon/riverine 376 Big Bay Wetland Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 132 Big Bay Wetlands Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon 164 Big Garlic River Wetland Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 182 Black Bay Thunder Bay County, ON Coastal lagoon 900 Blind Sucker River Luce County, MI Coastal lagoon 108 Brewery Creek Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 81 Cedar Swamp Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 212 Chequamegon Wetland Ashland County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 3,850 Dollar Bay Wetland Houghton County, MI Coastal lagoon 82 Fish Creek Wetland Ashland & Bayfield Coastal lagoon/estuarine 316 Counties, WI Flintsteel River Wetlands Ontonagon County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 196 Gogomain River Wetland Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 397 Goulais Bay Algoma County, ON Coastal lagoon 500 Grand Island Wetlands Alger County, MI Coastal lagoon 285 Grand Traverse Bay Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 277 Gratiot River Wetland Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 42 Graveyard Creek Wetland Iron County, WI Coastal lagoon/riverine 51 Huron Mountains Wetlands Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon 75 Isle Royale Wetlands Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 1,037 Izaak Walton Bay Wetlands Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 211 Keweenaw Bay Wetlands Baraga County, MI Coastal lagoon 482 Lac LaBelle Wetlands Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 854 Lake George Algoma County, ON Coastal lagoon/riverine 927 Lake Lily Wetland Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 59 Lake Nicolet Wetland Chippewa County, MI Riverine 102 Laughing Whitefish Point Alger County, MI Coastal lagoon 68 LeChance Creek Wetland Houghton County, MI Coastal lagoon 192 Lightfoot Bay Wetland Baraga County, MI Coastal lagoon 175 Michipicoten Bay Algoma County, ON Coastal lagoon 400 Middle Bay Wetland Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 103 Mud Lake Wetland Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 142 Munuscong Lake Wetlands Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 1,170 Neebish Bay Wetlands Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 800 Nipigon Bay Thunder Bay County, ON Coastal lagoon 900 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Oliver Bay Wetlands Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 192 Oskar Wetland Houghton County, MI Coastal lagoon 109 Pendills Bay Wetlands Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon 136 Pictured Rocks Wetlands Alger County, MI Coastal lagoon 359 Powell Point Wetlands Alger County, MI Coastal lagoon 217 Raber Bay Wetland Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 645 Raspberry Bay Wetland Bayfield County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 57 Salmon Trout River Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 599 Sand River Wetland Bayfield County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 95 Shot Point Wetland Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon 146 Sioux River Wetland Bayfield County, WI Coastal lagoon 82 Siskiwit Bay Wetlands Bayfield County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 101 St. Joseph Island Algoma County, ON Coastal lagoon/riverine 2,257 St. Louis River Wetlands St. Louis County, MN Estuarine 443 Sturgeon & Snake Rivers Baraga & Houghton Delta/riverine 3,300 Counties, MI Sugar Island Wetlands Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 1,318 Tahquamenon Bay Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon 2,400 The Marshes Keweenaw County, MI Coastal lagoon 267 Thunder Bay Thunder Bay County, ON Coastal lagoon 1,500 Torch Bay & Lake Houghton County, MI Coastal lagoon 486 Whitefish Bay & Point Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon 700 Yellow Dog Point Wetlands Marquette County, MI Coastal lagoon 101 Lake Huron, Georgian Bay & North Channel Albert Sleeper Wetland Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 700 Au Sable Point Wetland Iosco County, MI Coastal lagoon 53 Bell River Wetland Presque Isle County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 136 Black Lake Wetland Presque Isle County, MI Coastal lagoon 211 Bois Blanc Island Wetlands Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 860 Cheboygan Wetlands Cheboygan County, MI Coastal lagoon 98 Daie du Dore Wetland Bruce County, ON Coastal lagoon 95 Drummond Island Wetlands Chippewa County, MI Coastal lagoon 747 East Saginaw Bay Wetland Huron & Tuscola Coastal lagoon 6,770 Counties, MI Edgewater Wetlands Cheboygan County, MI Coastal lagoon 46 Gore Wetlands Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 179 Greenbourgh Harbour Bruce County, ON Coastal lagoon 27 Hardwood Point Wetland Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 79 Hill & LaSalle Islands Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 41 Hog’s Bay Marsh Simco County, ON Coastal lagoon 32 Howdenvale Bay Fen Bruce County, ON Kettle 37 Long Lake Creek Wetland Alpena County, MI Coastal lagoon 45 Marquette Island Wetlands Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 99 Matchedash Bay Marsh Simco County, ON Coastal lagoon 807 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) McLeod Bay Wetland Cheboygan County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 336 Misery Bay Wetlands Alpena County, MI Coastal lagoon 763 Mismer-Hessel Bay Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 186 Mulligan Creek Wetland Presque Isle County, MI Coastal lagoon 146 North Thunder Bay Alpena County, MI Coastal lagoon 260 Old Shore Wetland Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 42 Oliphant Wetland Bruce County, ON Coastal lagoon 173 Pointe Aux Barques Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 776 Port Franks Wetland Lambton County, ON Estuarine 123 Prentiss Bay Wetland Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 57 Sandy Point Wetlands Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 675 Schnitzelbank Creek Arenac County, OH Coastal lagoon 1,068 Skipness Wetland Bruce County, ON Riverine 83 South Thunder Bay Alcona & Alpena Counties, MI Coastal lagoon 2,930 Squaw Bay Wetland Alpena County, MI Coastal lagoon 314 St. Martin Bay & Point Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 1,760 St. Martin Island Wetland Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 40 Stokes Bay/Gauley Bay Bruce County, ON Coastal lagoon 237 Sturgeon Bay Wetland Simco County, ON Coastal lagoon 192 Sucker Creek Wetland Bruce County, ON Estuarine 146 Swan Lake Wetland Presque Isle County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 312 Tawas Point Wetland Iosco County, MI Coastal lagoon 332 Thompsons Harbor Presque Isle County, MI Coastal lagoon 130 Tobico Marsh Bay County, MI Coastal lagoon 229 Waterfowl Bay Wetland Huron County, MI Coastal lagoon 128 West Saginaw Bay Wetland Arenac & Bay Counties, MI Coastal lagoon 3,790 Whitestone Point Wetland Arenac County, MI Coastal lagoon 217 Wreck Point Wetland Presque Isle County, MI Coastal lagoon 81 Lake Michigan & Green Bay Arcadia Lake Wetland Manistee County, MI Estuarine 146 Atkinson Marsh Brown County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 206 Baileys Harbor Swamp Door County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 2,044 Bar Lake Wetlands Manistee County, MI Coastal lagoon 480 Bass Lake Wetlands Mason & Oceana Counties, MI Coastal lagoon 67 Beaver Island Wetlands Charlevoix County, MI Coastal lagoon 1,526 Betsie River Wetland Benzie County, MI Estuarine 154 Big Stone Pond Emmet County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 75 Border Wetland Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 43 Cedar River Wetlands Menominee County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 630 Charles Pond Oconto County, WI Coastal lagoon 69 County Line Swamp Manistee/Mason Counties, MI Coastal lagoon 59 Dead Horse Bay Brown County, WI Coastal lagoon 134 Deepwater Point Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 111 Egg Harbor Wetland Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 53 Ford River Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon/delta 157 Gallien River Wetland Berrien County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 178 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Garﬁeld Wetlands Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 81 Good Harbor Bay Leelanau County, MI Coastal lagoon 118 Grand Mere Lakes Berrien County, MI Coastal lagoon 103 Grand Traverse Bay Grand Traverse County, MI Coastal lagoon 74 Granskog Creek Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 295 Hamlin Lake Wetlands Mason County, MI Estuarine/riverine 326 Henderson Lake Wetland Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 102 High/Hog/Garden Islands Charlevoix County, MI Coastal lagoon 193 Horseshoe Point Wetlands Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 110 Illinois Beach Wetlands Lake Co., IL & Kenosha Co., WI Coastal lagoon 1,176 Indiana Dunes Wetland Porter County, IN Coastal lagoon 163 Kangaroo Lake Wetlands Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 65 Kewaunee River Wetlands Kewaunee County, WI Estuarine 146 Lake Calumet Wetlands Lake Co., IN & Cook Co., IL Estuarine 428 Lilly Bay Wetland Door County, WI Coastal lagoon/riverine 170 Little Harbor Wetlands Schoolcraft County, MI Coastal lagoon 56 Little Sturgeon Bay Door County, WI Coastal lagoon/diked 127 Little Sucker Creek Wetland Emmet County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 76 Little Tail Point Wetland Brown County, WI Coastal lagoon 85 Long Tail Point Wetland Brown County, WI Coastal lagoon 66 Lower Millecoquins River Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 42 Mackinaw Wetland Emmet County, MI Coastal lagoon 76 Manistee Lake & River Manistee County, MI Estuarine/riverine 3,800 Martin Bay Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 208 Mattix Creek Wetland Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 594 McGeach Creek Wetland Charlevoix County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 216 McNeil Creek Wetland Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 149 Muskegon Lake & River Muskegon County, MI Estuarine/riverine 2,450 North Bay Wetland Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 870 Oconto Marsh Oconto County, WI Estuarine/riverine 3,792 Ogontz Bay Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 712 Paquin Creek Wetland Mackinac County, MI Estuarine/coastal lagoon 168 Pensaukee River Wetlands Oconto County, WI Estuarine 198 Pentwater Lake & River Oceana County, MI Estuarine/riverine 122 Pere Marquette River Mason County, MI Estuarine/riverine 2,500 Peshtigo River Wetland Marinette County, WI Delta 2,040 Pigeon River/Sloan Pond Ottawa County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 63 Point au Sable Wetlands Brown County, WI Coastal lagoon 45 Point Aux Chenes Wetlands Mackinac County, MI Estuarine/coastal lagoon 1,229 Point Beach Wetland Manitowoc County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 603 Point O’Keefe Wetlands Schoolcraft County, MI Coastal lagoon 43 Point Patterson Wetlands Mackinac County, MI Estuarine/coastal lagoon 599 Port Oneida Wetland Leelanau County, MI Kettle 110 Portage Bay Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 432 Portage Marsh Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 527 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Rocky Point Wetlands Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 563 Rowleys Bay Wetlands Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 219 Rupert Bayou Mason County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 110 Sand Bay Wetland Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 49 Sand Bay Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 73 Seul Choix Point Wetlands Schoolcraft County, MI Coastal lagoon 2,361 South River Bay Wetland Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 45 Squaw Point Wetland Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 295 Stony Lake & Creek Oceana County, MI Estuarine/riverine 157 Stony Point Wetland Schoolcraft County, MI Coastal lagoon 1,762 Sturgeon River Wetland Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 2,710 Sucker Lake Wetland Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 118 Sutton Bay Wetland Leelanau County, MI Coastal lagoon 42 Threemile Creek Wetland Kewaunee County, WI Coastal lagoon/riverine 65 Toft Point Wetland Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 40 Torch Lake Wetlands Antrim County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 416 Trails End Wetland Emmet County, MI Coastal lagoon 149 Upper Big Bay de Noc Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 3,687 Washington Island Wetland Door County, WI Coastal lagoon 109 West Moran Bay Wetland Mackinac County, MI Coastal lagoon 522 Whiskey Creek Wetland Charlevoix County, MI Coastal lagoon/riverine 232 White Lake & River Oceana/Muskegon Counties, MI Estuarine/riverine 1579 Whiteﬁsh Bay Wetlands Door County, WI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 61 Whiteﬁsh River Wetlands Delta County, MI Coastal lagoon 259 Whitney Slough Brown County, WI Coastal lagoon/diked 185 Lake St. Clair, St. Clair River & Detroit River Algonac Wetland St. Clair County, MI Riverine 140 Canard River Marshes Essex County, ON Estuarine/diked 416 Clinton River Wetland Macomb County, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 237 Detroit River Islands Wayne County, MI Riverine/coastal lagoon 239 Mitchell Bay/Thames River Kent County, ON Coastal lagoon/estuarine 6,280 Rockwood Wetland Wayne County, MI Coastal lagoon/diked 73 St. Clair Flats St. Clair County, MI Delta 14,000 Walpole Island Wetland Lambton County, ON Delta 16,000 Lake Erie & Niagara River Bay View Wetland Erie County, OH Coastal lagoon/diked 259 Big Creek Marsh Essex County, ON Estuarine 1,000 Big Creek Wetland Haldimand-Norfolk, ON Estuarine 770 Catawba Island & Harbors Ottawa County, OH Coastal lagoon/solution 850 Cedar Creek Essex County, ON Estuarine 250 Cedar Point Wetland Lucas County, OH Coastal lagoon/diked 644 East Sandusky Bay Erie County, OH Coastal lagoon 800 Fish Point, Pelee Island Essex County, ON Coastal lagoon 45 Grand Island Wetlands Erie County, NY Riverine 144 Grand River Marshes Dunnville/Port Maitland, ON Estuarine/riverine 1,076 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Hillman Marsh Essex County, ON Estuarine 362 Huron River Wetland Erie County, OH Estuarine 280 Lighthouse Point Essex County, ON Coastal lagoon/diked 85 Long Point Sandspit Haldimand-Norfolk, ON Coastal lagoon 6,230 Maumee River & Bay Lucas & Monroe Counties, OH/MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 680 Mentor Marsh Lake County, OH Coastal lagoon 294 Mouillee Marsh Monroe & Wayne Counties, MI Coastal lagoon/estuarine 553 Muddy Creek Bay Sandusky/ & Ottawa Counties, OH Coastal lagoon/diked 1,328 Nanticoke Creek Haldimand-Norfolk, ON Riverine/estuarine 311 Old Woman Creek Erie County, OH Estuarine 63 Ottawa Wetlands Ottawa County, OH Coastal lagoon/diked 1,788 Otter Creek Wetland Monroe County, MI Estuarine 67 Peripheral Marsh Haldimand-Norfolk, ON Coastal lagoon 1,385 Point Pelee Sandspit Essex County, ON Coastal lagoon 1,012 Presque Isle Wetlands Erie County, PA Coastal lagoon 166 River Raisin Wetland Monroe County, MI Estuarine 52 Rondeau Bay & Sandspit Kent County, ON Coastal lagoon 1,201 Swan Creek Wetland Monroe County, MI Estuarine/coastal lagoon 150 Toledo Beach Wetland Monroe County, MI Coastal lagoon 125 Toussaint River Wetlands Ottawa County, OH Estuarine/coastal lagoon 1,076 Turkey Point Marsh Haldimand-Norfolk, ON Coastal lagoon 3,088 Wainfleet Bog Niagara Regional Muni., ON Kettle 1,006 Willow Point Wetland Erie & Sandusky Counties, OH Diked/solution 91 Lake Ontario & St. Lawrence River Albury Swamp Prince Edward County, ON Coastal lagoon 435 Bainsfield Bay Marsh Glengarry County, ON Riverine 472 Barnett Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 71 Beaver Creek Wetland Wayne County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 164 Big Island Marsh Prince Edward County, ON Coastal lagoon 772 Big Sand Bay Prince Edward County, ON Coastal lagoon 195 Black Creek Wetland Cayuga County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 206 Black Pond Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 178 Black River Bay Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 315 Blind Bay Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 38 Blind Bay St. Lawrence County, NY Coastal lagoon 34 Braddock Bay Wetland Monroe County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 240 Buck Pond Wetland Monroe County, NY Diked 144 Butterfly Swamp Oswego County, NY Estuarine/coastal lagoon 164 Chalk Lake & Lynde Creek Durham Regional Muni., ON Kettle/estuarine 110 Charlottenburgh Marsh Glengarry County, ON Riverine 851 Chaumont Bay Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 78 Chippewa Creek Marsh St. Lawrence County, NY Estuarine 275 Cobourg Marsh Northumberland County, ON Coastal lagoon 78 Cootes Paradise Hamilton Regional Muni., ON Coastal lagoon 122 Cranberry Marsh Durham Regional Muni., ON Delta 33 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Cressy Swamp Prince Edward County, ON Coastal lagoon 104 Crooked Creek Wetland St. Lawrence County, NY Estuarine 344 Deer Creek Wetland Oswego County, NY Estuarine/coastal lagoon 546 Delaney Bay Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 85 Densmore Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 40 Doran Creek Marsh Dundas County, ON Riverine 42 East Bay Wetland Wayne County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 507 Eel Bay Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 69 Fifteen Mile Creek Niagara Regional Muni., ON Estuarine 23 Flynn Bay Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 96 Fox Island Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 69 French Creek Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 261 Frenchman’s Bay Durham Regional Muni., ON Coastal lagoon 45 Galloo Island Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 83 Goose Bay Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 208 Grenadier Island Wetland Leeds County, ON Riverine 868 Hoople Creek Wetland Stormont County, ON Riverine 169 Huyck’s Bay Prince Edward County, ON Estuarine 245 Irondequoit Bay Wetland Monroe County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 67 Jacques Cartier Wetland St. Lawrence County, NY Riverine 59 Jones Creek Marsh Leeds County, ON Riverine 140 Little Sucker Brook St. Lawrence County, NY Estuarine 57 McCrae Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 71 Moon Beach Wetland Cayuga County, NY Coastal lagoon 56 Mud Creek & Bay Jefferson County, NY Estuarine 127 Mullet Creek Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 208 North Walcott Wetland Wayne County, NY Coastal lagoon 94 Oak Island Wetland St. Lawrence County, NY Riverine 57 Oshawa Marsh Durham Regional Muni., ON Coastal lagoon 105 Payne Beach Wetland Monroe County, NY Coastal lagoon 51 Point Peninsula Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 134 Port Bay Wetland Wayne County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 168 Presquile´ Bay Marsh Northumberland County, ON Coastal lagoon 970 Ray Bay Wetland Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 96 Red Creek Wetland Cayuga County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 139 Rift Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 49 Riverside Marsh Dundas County, ON Riverine 134 Root Swamp Wayne County, NY Coastal lagoon 73 Rouge River Wetland Durham Regional Muni., ON Estuarine 56 Round Pond Wetland Monroe County, NY Coastal lagoon 91 Sage Creek Wetland Oswego County, NY Estuarine/coastal lagoon 39 Sandy Creek/Colwell Pond Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 911 Sawguin Creek Marsh Prince Edward County, ON Riverine 1,956 Snake Creek Wetland Oswego County, NY Estuarine/coastal lagoon 55 Sodus Bay Wetland Wayne County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 299 Southwick Beach Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 97 (Continued on next page) P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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Morphometric Wetland Name Location Type Area (ha) Sparrowhawk Point St. Lawrence County, NY Riverine 62 St. Lawrence State Park St. Lawrence County, NY Coastal lagoon 111 Sterling Creek Wetland Cayuga County, NY Coastal lagoon/estuarine 369 Stoney Creek Marsh Jefferson County, NY Estuarine 42 Twenty Mile Creek Niagara Regional Muni., ON Estuarine 136 Upper Canada Wetland Dundas County, ON Diked 321 Weller’s Bay Wetland Prince Edward County, ON Estuarine 125 West Lake Prince Edward County, ON Coastal lagoon 706 Westminster Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 61 Wilson Bay Marsh Jefferson County, NY Coastal lagoon 85

milfoil, pondweed, yellow water lily, bulrushes, blue- Estuarine wetlands joint, spikerush, bayberry, and cottonwood. Sparseness of distribution and limitation of plant species mark The lower courses of several tributaries to the Great the early ponds; increased density and heterogeneity Lakes, particularly the more southerly lakes, are char- characterize the older ponds, and the contrast is strik- acterized by estuarine-type or drowned stream mouths ing. From this analysis of succession, Kormondy con- (Brant and Herdendorf, 1972, Herdendorf, 1990). The cluded that the ponds or lagoons at the northeast end flooded flat areas adjacent to these estuaries afford ideal of Presque Isle were the youngest and that the spit had sites for wetland development. The lower 24 km of the grown from the southwest because the ponds were in- Maumee River, which flows into Lake Erie at Toledo, creasingly older in that direction. OH and possesses the largest drainage of any Great Coastal lagoon wetlands, in their various morpho- Lakes tributary, is an excellent example of a freshwa- logical forms, are the most common types of Great ter estuary. The formation of this estuary on Lake Erie Lakes coastal wetlands. Some of the most notewor- is the result of a series of geologic events related to thy examples of these wetlands are found in the large Pleistocene glaciation. The flow of the Maumee River bays: was reversed from its southwestern direction when the glacial lakes drained from the Erie Basin as the ice sheet melted, exposing a lower Niagara River outlet. At Wetland Area (ha) that time, river velocities were accelerated by the base- Lake Superior level lowering, and the Maumee Valley was cut deeply Keweenaw 4,200 into lacustrine deposits, glacial tills, and bedrock. With Thunder Bay 1,500 the weight of the ice removed, the outlet eventually re- Whitefish Bay 2,700 bounded and produced a rise in lake level. The lake en- Lake Huron croached up the valley and formed the present drowned Saginaw Bay 12,800 stream mouth which is analogous in many ways to a Lake Michigan marine estuary. The Maumee River estuary begins near Green Bay 8,700 Perrysburg, OH, at the most downstream bedrock riffle. Lake Erie As the water enters the estuary from the river, its ve- Long Point Bay 11,400 locity abruptly diminishes except during major runoff Maumee Bay 1,300 events, causing sedimentation of suspended particles. Pigeon Bay 2,300 The deposits have formed a series of elliptical islands Rondeau Bay 1,200 which foster wetland formation. Similar deposits are Sandusky Bay 2,500 found in the Sandusky River estuary and in the tribu- Lake Ontario taries along the east shore of Lake Michigan. Virtually Bay of Quinte 4,000 all of the tributaries entering Lake Erie on the Ohio shore have estuarine-type lower reaches and attendant P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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wetlands, where lake water masses affect water level carry so little load. Although each delta has its own and quality for several kilometers upstream from tra- individual form, Strahler (1971) has recognized four ditional mouths (Herdendorf, 1992). basic outlines for deltas: (1) arcuate, triangular outline, Several investigations have demonstrated the en- (2) digitate, bird-foot type, (3) cuspate, tooth-shaped croachment of lake water into the estuaries and the form and, (4) estuarine, drowned valley. subsequent mixing of lake and river water. Measure- The typical arcuate delta originates at an upstream ments of water quality and currents (Schroeder and apex and radiates lakeward by means of branched dis- Collier, 1966; Brant and Herdendorf, 1972) at Lake tributary channels to form a triangular shape. Sedi- Erie tributary mouths along the Ohio shore provided ments reaching the lakes from the distributary mouths the first substantial information regarding the occur- are swept along the coast by wave-induced currents to rence of this phenomenon. For example, within the form curved bars enclosing shallow wetland lagoons; estuary of the Cuyahoga River, a nearly fourfold de- the delta shoreline is thus arcuate in plan, bowed con- crease in river mineralization was observed as it mixed vexly outward. The digitate, or bird-foot delta, contains with and was diluted by Lake Erie water. Klarer and long extensions of its branching distributaries into open Millie (1989) studied the role of Old Woman Creek es- water. This type of delta requires a gently sloping lake tuary in ameliorating the quality of storm water flow bottom in front of the river mouth, such as Lake St. as it passed through this freshwater estuary en route Clair, on which natural levees can be built up quickly. to Lake Erie. Outflow/inflow ratios of chemical con- The cuspate or tooth-shaped delta is normally formed centrations, used as estimates of the estuary’s relative when the stream has a single dominant mouth. Sed- effectiveness to modify waters passing through it, indi- iment from this mouth builds the delta forward into cated that 12 to 60% of the metals and 35 to 80% of the deeper water while wave action sweeps the sediment biologically-important nutrients were retained within away from the discharge to form a curving beach on the estuary. Amelioration of storm-water quality was both sides of the mouth, concave toward the lake. An attributed to sedimentation, biological uptake, and geo- estuarine delta commonly fills a long narrow estuary chemical processes. They concluded that Old Woman that resulted from drowning of the lower part of the Creek estuary acted as a chemical processor and filter river valley because of a rise in lake level. Estuarine of storm-water flow and, therefore, demonstrates func- deltas are characterized by depositional islands con- tional similarity to brackish-water estuaries. They also taining wetlands such as Ewing Island in the Maumee found that the dominant circulation in the estuary was River near Rossford, Ohio and in the Toussaint River storm-driven. Studying the same estuary, Reeder and near Oak Harbor, Ohio. Mitsch (1989) found that conductivity, turbidity, and Delta growth occurs when a stream enters a stand- total suspended solids generally had highest concen- ing body of water as a jet or plume. The jet velocity trations at the inflow, then decreased up to sevenfold as is rapidly checked and sediment is deposited in lat- the water flowed through the estuary. Bedford (1989) eral embankments (natural levees) in zones of less tur- contrasted transport mechanisms in Lake Erie tribu- bulence on either side of the jet, thus extending the taries with those in marine estuaries and concluded that stream channel into the lake. The stream repeatedly although there is no propagation of solar/lunar driven breaks through the embankments to occupy different tide waves, there are estuary transport analogies within radii (distributary channels) and in time produces a de- Lake Erie tributaries. posit in semi-circular form, closely analogous to the alluvial fans found at the base of mountain ranges. The Delta wetlands natural levees serve to isolate shallow interdistributary ponds and marshes containing fine muds and organic A stream reaching a body of standing water, such detritus or peat (Stanley and Swift, 1976). An excellent as the St. Clair River flowing into Lake St. Clair, at example of a delta wetland can be seen at the base of times builds a massive deposit or delta, composed of the Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan, where the Surgeon the stream’s sediment load. These deposits are com- and Snake Rivers flows into Portage Lake. monly the site of extensive wetland development. Not The sediment structure of most deltas on the Great all rivers build deltas; deltas may be lacking at the Lakes is produced by three sets of beds: (1) bottom- mouths of streams which enter the Great Lakes be- set, (2) foreset, and (3) topset. Bottomset beds consist cause their mouths are so exposed to wave and current of fine-grained materials (silt and clay) carried farthest action that sediments are removed as rapidly as they are offshore and laid down on the bottom of the lake em- deposited. Some streams also lack deltas because they bayment into which the delta is being built. Foreset P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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beds are somewhat coarser (fine sand) and they rep- Solution basin (Karst) wetlands resent the advancing front of the delta and the greater part of its bulk; they usually have a distinctly steeper The Lake Erie shoreline of Catawba and the Bass slope (dip) than the bottomset beds over which they Islands, OH contains many indentations and head- are slowly advancing. Topset beds lie above the fore- lands which owe their origin to solution processes in set beds and are in reality a continuation of the allu- the carbonate rock. Roughly circular lagoons in the vial plain of which the delta is the terminal portion. bedrock are particularly common along the west shore It is on the foreset beds that delta wetlands normally of Catawba as evidenced by springs issuing from their develop. Unlike deltas formed along the ocean, fresh- bottoms. Formerly lagoons such as these provided ex- water deltas do not contain aggregates of fine particles cellent protection for coastal wetlands, but in recent induced by electrolyte flocculation (due to the dissolved years most of them have been developed as small boat salts in the sea). Therefore, fine particles are carried off- harbors. A few natural lagoons still exist along the shore in lakes and are not incorporated into the delta rocky shores (i.e., Terwilliger’s Pond on South Bass sediments. Island, OH), but even these are threatened by the rapid Although few in number, delta wetlands form a sig- increase in recreational use of the region. nificant portion of the coastal wetlands in the Great The south shore of Sandusky Bay, OH also contains Lakes region. Delta wetlands are gradational to em- a number of related solution features known as ‘blue bayment, estuarine, riverine, and floodplain wetlands. holes’. These relatively small lakes are fed by ground- water under artesian conditions. Wetlands commonly develop at the periphery of these lakes and along their Kettle lake wetlands discharge streams. Elsewhere in the Great Lakes re- Bogs are the typical types of wetlands that develop in gion where similar carbonate rocks occur, particularly kettle lakes, however when kettles lie near the coast and in association with the Niagara Escarpment, solution communicate with the lake they can take on character- lagoons may be present but are masked by larger wet- istics more associated with coastal lagoon marshes. The lands in which they are inclusions. numerous kettle lakes that occur in the glaciated upland areas adjacent to the Great Lakes were formed by the Riverine wetlands incorporation of ice blocks in the drift material washed out from a melting ice front. As the mass of ice melted, a This type of wetland is typified by flowing water basin was left in the drift, and if the basin penetrated be- as coincides for the most part with the Riverine sys- low the water table, a body of water or kettle lake came tem of Cowardin et al. (1979). For the Great Lakes, to occupy the site of the original ice block. Kettles are riverine wetlands generally occur in the connecting wa- extremely variable in shape and size; some are less than terways such as the St. Marys River, St. Clair River, 30 m across, such as Fern Lake in Geauga County, OH, Detroit River, and St. Lawrence River, as well as in while others, such as Trout Lake, Wisconsin, have a dia- the lower reaches of some of the major tributaries to meter of nearly 5 km (Hutchinson, 1957). In general, the lakes. Such wetlands are restricted to the stream’s kettle lakes depths do not exceed 50 m (Flint, 1971). channel, but terminate where estuarine conditions ex- Kettle lakes and other northern basins, which are ist, such as where the water level is controlled by protected from wind and poorly drained, often become the level of a Great Lake. For the purposes of this bog lakes. They first become fringed by floating mats paper, riverine wetlands that are not contiguous with of sedge vegetation growing inward to encroach upon wetlands in the coastal margin (330 m) have been the open water; this change is accompanied by a drop excluded. in pH as the waters become more acid. The succes- Riverine coastal marshes are particularly prevalent sion then continues as the mat covers the lake surface along the Michigan and Wisconsin shores of Lake and sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.) and ericaceous Michigan. Here, marshes are usually separated from shrubs, such as leatherleaf (Chamedaphne calyculata) the lake by dunes or barrier beaches with only a nar- and Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), become es- row connecting channel to a small inland lake. Marshes tablished. When growth exceeds decomposition, the often form where rivers join the small lake. This type lake basin begins to fill and peat deposits are formed. of riverine coastal marsh is illustrated by Pentwater Ultimately a sequence of tree species, commonly tama- Marsh. This marsh is influenced by seiche activity with rack (Larix laricina) followed by black spruce (Picea periodic water level and flow direction fluctuations of marinana), leads to a climax forest association. 30 minutes to two hours (Burton, 1985). P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

196 Herdendorf / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 7 (2004) 179–197

Diked wetlands even cursory field investigation, it is not always possible to determine the degree of connectivity these wetlands Large diked marshes are common along the Ohio have with the Great Lakes. Thus for the purpose of this shoreline of western Lake Erie. Primarily owned by paper, palustrine refers to wetland basins whose origins state/federal agencies and private shooting clubs, most are not associated with coastal processes, but could in- are managed for waterfowl habitat. A few, lake-diked clude glacially created basins such as those which hold areas used for disposal harbor dredgings, support wet- a kettle lake. land vegetation as a secondary benefit. Earthen dikes were used extensively a century ago, but most have been replaced by stone rip-rap, particularly were the Summary dike is exposed to direct wave attack. Recently, open- Approximately 1,500 coastal wetlands fringe the ings have been installed in some of the dikes to permit Great Lakes and their connecting waterways, for a com- spawning fish access to formerly closed wetlands. bined wetland area of 1,730 km2. The greatest number and area of coastal wetlands ring Lake Michigan, the Relationship to US Fish and only Great Lake entirely within the United States. Lake Wildlife Service Classification Superior has the second highest number of wetlands, but they are relatively small in size. On the average, Lacustrine wetlands the largest wetlands are found along Lake Huron and its discharge channel to the south, particularly the delta Cowardin et al. (1979) defined these wetlands as wetland of the St. Clair River which covers 35 km2. The permanently flooded lakes where wind is the dominant highly industrialized Lake Erie shore has the smallest force generating circulation pattern and there is con- number and area of wetlands while Lake Ontario has siderable wave action. For the purpose of this paper, the smallest average size of wetlands, largely due to wetlands in embayments, coastal lagoons, and other isolated marshes in the Thousand Islands area of the protected situations, but with direct lake-level connec- St. Lawrence River. tion with a Great Lake are considered within the lacus- By area and number, coastal lagoons are by far the trine system of Cowardin et al. (1979). In many cases, most common morphometric type, representing about particularly for coastal lagoons, a gradation exists be- 53% of the total coastal wetland area in the Great Lakes. tween lake-level wetlands and those occur at higher el- Next, the few massive deltas comprise 18% of the evation. These elevated wetlands could be considered coastal wetlands. The estuarine wetlands, typical of the as palustrine, as could be contiguous upland wetlands drowned river mouths of the southern portions of the in estuarine (drown stream mouths) and riverine situa- Great Lakes, account for 15% while the more riverine tions, but for simplicity in the absence of detailed field wetlands of the northern portions and the connecting data a single designation has been used here. waterway add another 12%. Diked wetlands amount to a little over 1%, while kettle lake and solution basin Palustrine wetlands wetlands are each less than 1% of the total. The word palustrine (or paludal) has traditionally References been used to refer to marshes and to material growing or deposited in a marsh or marsh-like environment (Bates Ball, H., Jalava, J., King, T., Maynard, L., Potter, B., Pulfer, T., 2003. and Jackson, 1980). Cowardin et al. (1979) has re- The Ontario Great Lakes Coastal Atlas: A Summary of Informa- stricted this term to include upland vegetated wetlands tion (1983–1997). Environment Canada and Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, ON. traditionally called by such names as marsh, swamp, Bates, D. R., Jackson. J. C., 1980. Glossary of Geology, 2nd ed. bog, fen, wet prairie, and pond that are to some degree American Geological Institute, Falls Church, VA. isolated from other types such as riverine, estuarine, Bedford, K. I., 1989. The Effects of Lake Erie on its Tributaries— and lacustrine wetlands. Within the coastal margin of Resulting Tributary Transport Mechanisms and Contrasts with the Great Lakes (300 m) a number of more or less iso- Marine Estuaries. In: K. A. Krieger (Ed.), Lake Erie Es- lated wetlands occur at elevations well above the high tuarine Systems: Issues, Resources, Status, and Manage- water mark. Some of these wetlands are gradational ment, pp. 71–123. NOAA Estuary-of-the-Month Seminar Se- ries No. 14, NOAA Estuarine Programs Office, Washington, from lacustrine types such as coastal lagoons and estu- DC. arine wetlands while others are situated in closed de- Brant, R. A., Herdendorf, C. E., 1972. Delineation of Great Lakes Es- pressions. From inspection of topographic maps, and tuaries. In: G. D. Hedden (chairman), Proceeding of the Fifteenth P1: GIM TJ1095-03 TJ-AEM.cls May 27, 2004 9:29

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