Unslienced Draft 2 to Alan.Indd

giving a voice to women silenced by ignorance

Draft 2: 4.21.16

alan gaRRett

Published by Harmon Press Woodinville, WA 98077 http://www.harmonpress.com

ISBN: 978-1-935959-63-2 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016937298

Unless otherwise noted, “Scripture quotations taken from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission.” (www.Lockman.org)

All rights reservedDraft solely by the 2: author. 4.21.16 The author guarantees all contents are original and do not infringe upon the legal rights of any other person or work. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means mechan- ical or electronic, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from author except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. The views expressed in this book are the views of the author and do not necessarily represent those of Harmon Press or one of its Imprints.

Photos: Suzette Allen.com (www. suzetteallen.com) Cover design: Harmon Press table of contentS

Foreword ...... vii Preface ...... ix Chapter 1: Back to the Garden ...... 1 Chapter 2: Leading Ladies of the Old Testament ...... 17 Chapter 3: Leading Ladies of the New Testament ..... 25 Chapter 4: A Cultural Backdrop to Jesus’ Ministry ... 47 Chapter 5: A New Beginning ...... 63 Chapter 6: Let the Women Keep Silent? ...... 77 Chapter 7: SubmissionDraft and 2: Context 4.21.16 (1 Tim. 2:11-15) . 85 Chapter 8: What Did Paul Mean When He Said Man is the Head of Woman ...... 97 Chapter 9: Closing Thoughts ...... 107 Chapter 10: One Woman’s Testimony by Marialice Garrett ...... 115 Bibliography ...... 125 Dedication This book is dedicated to Mary Elizabeth Stewart (June 17, 1925 – February 28, 2011) Thank you for believing in me and for being a woman of class and style.

Draft 2: 4.21.16 acknoWleDgementS arialice Garrett: Thank you for believing in me. MYou were a great help in editing and shaping the content of this book. Thank you for writing chapter ten of this book. You are the love of my life. Danny Silk: It was one of your sermons that challenged me to write this book. I can now cross it off “the bucket list.” Banning Liebschier and Jesus Culture Sacramen- to Family: Thank you for supporting me and creating a church culture that supports women in ministry. Richard &Draft Lindy Oliver 2: and 4.21.16Matthew & Siobhan Oli- ver: It was at the Family Church where I fi rst believed I could write this book. Thank you for providing an atmosphere in which I could grow as a leader. Dr. Richard Cervin: Thank you for taking the time to meet and discuss issues surrounding the topic of women in ministry. Thank you for your input into early drafts of this book. Your skill and experience related to the Greek language are a gift to the body of Christ. Dr. Winn Griffi n (Harmon Press): Thank you for your input and for publishing this book. Note: The opinions in this book are mine and may not refl ect the opinions of the people and organizations listed above. W Draft 2: 4.21.16 foReWoRD orem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing Lelit. Vivamus eleifend mauris semper, luctus est quis, rutrum ante. Phasellus at placerat metus. Curabitur nec interdum neque. Suspendisse aliquam arcu ac velit pharetra, vel mollis tellus fermentum. Cras ac est nulla. Proin malesuada scelerisque effi citur. Fusce consequat laoreet turpis. Sed vehicula diam pharetra, tempus arcu vitae, feugiat nisl. Suspendisse vitae diam eget enim luctus ullamcorper eget at eros. In scelerisque fi nibus urna eu venenatis. Sed eleifend, lorem vitae placerat rhoncus, risus dui imperdiet eros, eu blandit turpis metus non enim.Draft Etiam quis 2: gravida 4.21.16 tortor. Pellentesque consequat augue nulla, id sollicitudin leo tristique non. Ut congue ligula at lobortis condimentum. Nam varius facilisis velit id elementum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vivamus eleifend mauris semper, luctus est quis, rutrum ante. Phasellus at placerat metus. Curabitur nec interdum neque. Suspendisse aliquam arcu ac velit pharetra, vel mollis tellus fermentum. Cras ac est nulla. Proin malesuada scelerisque effi citur. Fusce consequat laoreet turpis. Sed vehicula diam pharetra, tempus arcu vitae, feugiat nisl. Suspendisse vitae diam eget enim luctus ullamcorper eget at eros. In scelerisque fi nibus urna eu venenatis. Sed eleifend, lorem vitae placerat rhoncus, risus dui imperdiet eros, eu blandit turpis metus non Unslicenced enim. Etiam quis gravida tortor. Pellentesque consequat augue nulla, id sollicitudin leo tristique non. Ut congue ligula at lobortis condimentum. Nam varius facilisis velit id elementum. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Vivamus eleifend mauris semper, luctus est quis, rutrum ante. Phasellus at placerat metus. Curabitur nec interdum neque. Suspendisse aliquam arcu ac velit pharetra, vel mollis tellus fermentum. Cras ac est nulla. Proin malesuada scelerisque efficitur. Fusce consequat laoreet turpis. Sed vehicula diam pharetra, tempus arcu vitae, feugiat nisl. Suspendisse vitae diam eget enim luctus ullamcorper eget at eros. In scelerisque finibus urna eu venenatis. Sed eleifend, lorem vitae placerat rhoncus, risus dui imperdiet eros, eu blandit turpis metus non enim. Etiam quis gravida tortor. Pellentesque consequat augue nulla, id sollicitudin leo tristique non. Ut congue ligula at lobortisDraft condimentum. 2: 4.21.16Nam varius facilisis velit id elementum. W

viii

b 127 ibliogRaPHy

R R R 125 ecommenDeD eaDing anD eSouRceS

m g 115 aRialice aRRett by

c 10: o W ’ t HaPteR ne oman S eStimony

c 9: c t 107 HaPteR loSing HougHtS

m H W 97 an iS tHe eaD of oman

c 8: W D P m W H S HaPteR Hat iD aul ean Hen e aiD

c 7: S c (1 t . 2:11-15) HaPteR ubmiSSion anD ontext im

c 6: l W k S ? 77 HaPteR et tHe omen eeP ilent

5: a n b 63 c HaPteR eW eginning

c 4: W f c c 47 HaPteR omen in iRSt entuRy ultuRe

c 3: l l n t 25 HaPteR eaDing aDieS of tHe eW eStament

c 2: l l o t 17 HaPteR eaDing aDieS of tHe lD eStament

c 1: b g 1 HaPteR ack to tHe aRDen

P Reface ix

f oReWoRD vii

a cknoWleDgementS v

D eDication iv

t c able of ontentS iii

a g lan aRRett i Contents

PReface

erhaps my background is similar to many other people. PI grew up in an evangelical, Christian environment. Evangelicals believe in salvation by faith in Christ alone. They value family life, outreach, discipleship, and community. The Bible is considered the written word of God and the plumbline by which they measure life and practice. As a young man, I remember learning to recite 2 Timothy 3:16, “All Scripture is inspired by God and profi table for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training Draftin righteousness.” 2: I4.21.16 am an evangelical and I continue to hold these values. As a youth, I attended a non-denominational, Bible-believing church in Scottsdale, Arizona. It was similar in values and practice to many Baptist churches. That church was, and still is, a good, solid church. I became a Christian in 1967 through that church’s Children’s Sun- day School program. God met me there and used that church to help set the moral and spiritual foundation for who I am today. At that time, in that particular church community, women were generally respected, but not permitted to teach or lead men in any formal sense. Men and women were seen to have different but complementary roles and responsibilities in marriage, family, and church leadership. Women were not ordained as pastors. Men were Unslicenced seen as the authoritative head and decision makers in their families as well as the church. Women were not allowed to serve as elders, deacons, or ushers. However, they were very welcomed to teach children (boys to the age of 12) and other women. They were often called upon for works of service: hosting, cooking, event coordinating, and bookkeeping. Once, while attending a high school youth meeting, I remember having a discussion with a woman. She was the wife of a man who was leading one of the all male small groups for our youth. As I talked with her, the question came up about women being allowed to teach men. I thought I remembered a passage of Scripture somewhere in 1 Timothy that addressed the topic. So, I opened my Bible and thumbed through its pages until I found 1 Timothy 2:12. I carefully read the Apostle Paul’s words, “But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man,Draft but to remain 2: quiet.”4.21.16 God’s word seemed pretty clear to me and I believed this was God’s stance. I did not have a problem with women teaching men, but Paul seemed pretty clear in that passage. Since I had witnessed the male pastors at my church use 1 Timothy 2:12 to defend the belief that women should not teach men, I chose to interpret the passage the same way. After graduating from high school, I left Scottsdale to attend Westmont College in Santa Barbara, California, where I earned a BA in Religious Studies with an emphasis in Biblical Greek. Westmont is a non-denominational Liberal Arts Christian College. It is not a typical Bible College, but rather offers several kinds of Liberal Arts study paths including Sociology, Biology, Chemis- try, Pre-med, Physical Therapy, Primary and Secondary Education, English Literature, Psychology, Anthropolo- gy, as well as Religious Studies. “The Bible plus nothing,

x Unslicenced minus nothing,” was foundational to each path of study. My educational experience at Westmont exposed me to broader streams of thought and gave me a strong academic foundation for studying the Bible. After graduating from Westmont College in 1984, I attended The Vineyard Christian Fellowship (VCF) of San- ta Barbara. VCF Santa Barbara was a dynamic church that grew from about 100 to 800 people in roughly three years. This church also regularly planted other churches. While there, I learned that God used both men and women in the gifts of the Holy Spirit mentioned in 1 Corin- thians 12 -14. I witnessed healings, deliverances, words of knowledge, prophecies, and frequent conversions to Christianity. The Holy Spirit used men and women alike, just as he did in the early church: “In the last days,” God says, “I will pour out my Spirit upon all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy. Your youngDraft men will see 2:visions, 4.21.16 and your old men will dream dreams. In those days I will pour out my Spir- it even on my servants—men and women alike—and they will prophesy” (Acts 2:17-18 New Living Transla- tion, NLT). In 1986, I left with Jack Little, the Senior Pastor of the VCF Santa Barbara, along with a church planting team to start The Gold Coast Vineyard Christian Fellowship in the Fort Lauderdale, FL, area. About four years later, I joined Jack and another team to help start the North Coast Vineyard in Oceanside, CA. I also attended the Vineyard Anaheim under John Wimber and Carl Tuttle for about five years. While attending Vineyard Anaheim, I married the love of my life, Marialice Garrett. During the period of the mid-nineties, the practice of releasing women to minister in Vineyard churches varied from church to church. In general, the Vineyard Move-

xi Unslicenced ment allowed women to run programs, teach, and be hired as pastoral staff, but would not release women to be the senior pastor of a church. The extent women were released was left to the discretion of the senior pastor of each fellowship. Autonomy was part of the philosophy of the Association of Vineyard Churches. At the time, they were an association of churches, not a denomina- tion. More recently, the Vineyard churches have changed their stance to ordain women as pastors and allow them to function as senior pastors of churches. In 1996, Marialice and I moved to the Sacramento area and attended Vineyard Sacramento under the direction of Rick Martinez. The church eventually left the Associa- tion of Vineyard Churches and now relates with a group of independent churches. Marialice and I were part of the leadership of that church for about a dozen years. The church was similar to many early Vineyard churches in the way theyDraft released women. 2: 4.21.16Women were allowed to teach, be hired as staff, run small groups, function in the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and hold the office of a deacon, but they were not ordained as pastors/elders. In 2007, my wife and I joined the Family Church in Ros- eville, California, under the leadership of Rich and Lindy Oliver and then Matthew and Siobhan Oliver. My family attended this church for six years where I functioned as a lay pastor. The Family Church is a part of The River International Revival Network (The River), which is over- seen by Rich and Lindy Oliver. This network of churches releases women into the full spectrum of ministry including ordination as pastors. I am currently ordained as a pastor through The River. Currently, my wife and I are a part of Jesus Culture, Sacramento, under the leadership of Banning Liebscher. Jesus Culture, Sacramento, also encourages women to

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lead in all areas of ministry. While on this trek of church ministry, I’ve also continued my Westmont passion-theology. I love to choose a topic and then dig deep into the Word of God to find all the treasure hidden there. Proverbs 25:2 states,

It is the glory of God to conceal a matter, But the glory of kings is to search out a matter.

I have grown to love the search. One of these topics of study is women in ministry. In my heart, I have always believed women should be given as much freedom to serve and lead as Scripture allows. Segments of the church have failed to release women into higher levels of ministry because they are ignorant of what the Bible teaches. This ignorance has robbed the church of oneDraft of its most 2: important 4.21.16 resources--women. Failure to release women has limited the church’s ability to impact the world. It is a world longing to hear the gospel and to be released from the effects of sin and the curse (Rom. 8:19-23). With these values and experiences in mind, I have written the following chapters. I firmly believe that the Bible should determine doctrine and practice. I also believe that the women within our Christian communities should be released into all that God has ordained for them, both to do and to be. In our current world culture, women have become doc- tors, lawyers, CEOs, college professors, and even heads of state. If they lead effectively in those arenas, then why can’t they do it in the church? What does the Bible say about the topic? How did the fall of man affect the relationship between men and women? Are there examples

xiii Unslicenced of women leaders in the Bible and what did they do? How did the ministry of Jesus affect the status of women? Are there God-ordained differences in the roles of men and women where men are destined to function author- itatively over women? The Apostle Paul did say that the husband is the head of the wife, as Christ also is the head of the church (Eph. 5:23). What did Paul mean by that? These are some of the questions I will try to answer in this book. I have also come to realize that the topic of women in ministry can be controversial and emotionally charged. As you read the following pages, I ask that you be willing to take a fresh look at the topic. You may not agree with everything. But, as my former pastor, John Wimber, used to say, be willing to “eat the meat and spit out the bones.” My hope is that what I have written will bring freedom to the body of Christ as we release women to be all that theyDraft were created 2: to be. 4.21.16 Alan Garrett Sacramento, CA March 25, 2016 W

xiv cHaPteR 1: back to tHe gaRDen

tHe Role of Women anD tHe book of geneSiS

hat Genesis says about the role of women as it relates Wto the role of men is important for three reasons. First, the New Testament Scriptures about women refer to the creation narrative. Therefore, how Genesis is interpreted will impact the way those New Testament Scriptures are understood. Second, arguments that women (as a class) are to be submissive to men are made from the fi rstDraft few chapters 2: of Genesis.4.21.16 There is a need to understand those arguments and determine if they have merit. The third is the need to look at woman’s position before the fall. If the fall of man affected her position negatively, then one could conclude that the redemption of mankind would restore her position. Because Jesus’ death on the cross broke the power of sin, death, and the curse, wouldn’t God in his mercy want to restore the position of woman to his original intent?

tHe cReation of man

The creation of man, as recorded in Genesis, reveals that both men and women were created in the image of God. Also, God blessed them jointly and gave them a mandate to rule: Unslicenced

Then God said, “Let Us make man [Adam] in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the skyand over the cattle and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.” God created man [Adam] in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. God blessed them; and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it; and rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over every living thing that moves on the earth” (Gen. 1:26-28) [emphasis added].

The Hebrew word, Adam refers to both men and women. The Adam is not a he, but a they,1 and is synonymous with the English word mankind.2 The Adam, “male and female” were created in his image and bear God’s image equally. NeitherDraft men by themselves, 2: 4.21.16 nor women by themselves, but both sexes together were created in the image of God. God blessed them and gave them the mandate to rule creation. There is no mention of one sex ruling over the other, but rather they are jointly to be fruitful and multiply, fill the earth, subdue it, and to rule. Not all Christians believe men and women were created to rule equally. Complementarians believe that, although men and women were given the mandate to rule, men and women are to fulfill different roles within that rulership. Men and women are said to be equal in value, but not in function. Complementarians believe men hold

1. Aida B. Spencer, Beyond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2005), 21. 2. F. Brown, Driver, S., Briggs, C., “Brown-Driver-Briggs’ Hebrew Definitions (BDB),” e-Sword. www.e-sword.net (accessed February 2, 2016).

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a positional leadership role over women in both marriage and the church. Four common arguments, based in Gen- esis, that complementarians use to teach that women were created subservient to men are:

1. Women are subservient to men because woman was created as a helper for man. 2. Women are subservient to men because man was created first. 3. Women are subservient to men because woman came from the man. 4. Women are subservient to men because Adam named Eve.

Does the fact the woman was created as a helper imply that women were created to be subservient to men? Complementarians argue from Genesis chapter two that the womanDraft (Eve) was 2: created 4.21.16 as a suitable helper for the man. The helper role of woman is believed to be a subservient position to that of the man. Genesis 2:18 states, “Then the LORD God said, ‘It is not good for the man to be alone; I will make him a helper suitable [‛êzer keneged] for him.’” A “helper” is often thought of as an assistant to someone who is superior in rank or knowledge, like a helper who assists a supervisor in the context of the work environment. But that is not what is meant here. The Hebrew word for “helper” (‛ezer̂ ) in this quote simply means “one who helps.”3 The word occurs 21 times in the Old Testa- ment and the majority of the time it is used to describe God being a helper to man. Here are examples:

3. Ibid.

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There is none like the God of Jeshurun, Who rides the heavens to your help, And through the skies in His majesty (Deut. 33:26).

Blessed are you, O Israel; Who is like you, a people saved by the Lord, Who is the shield of your help, And the sword of your majesty! So your enemies will cringe before you, And you will tread upon their high places (Deut. 33:29).

I will lift up my eyes to the mountains; From where shall my help come? My help comes from the Lord, Who made heaven and earth (Ps. 121:1-2). Our help is in the name of the Lord, Who made heaven and earth (Ps. 124:8). [emphasis added]

In all of these occurrences of the word ‛ezer̂ (help), “the one who helps”Draft does so from 2: a position4.21.16 of superiority, not inferiority. In Genesis 2:18, the word ‛ezer̂ is connected to the word keneged, which means, “part opposite” or “counterpart”4 “corresponding to,” or “parallel to.”5 Philip B. Payne suggests that a better translation of the phrase ‛ezer̂ keneged in Genesis 2:18 is “a strength corresponding to him” rather than “a helper suitable for him.”6 So when these two words are put into their context, does the text say that the woman was created as the man’s helper? Yes, but not in a subservient sense. The woman helps as a teammate. Furthermore, there are other Biblical texts showing

4.. James Strong, The New Strong’s Complete Dictionary of Bible Words. (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1996). 5. Brown, “Hebrew Definitions.” 6. Philip B. Payne, “The Bible Teaches the Equal Standing of Men and Women,” Priscilla Papers 29 no. 1, Winter (2015): 3.

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that man was also created to serve others including women. Galatians 5:13 speaks of mutual serving. This text indicates that men are to serve women as well as women serving men. Jesus came to earth not to be served, but to serve, and give his life for us (Mark. 10:45). These passages indicate that we are meant to serve each other in the manner of Jesus’ example. Therefore, the fact that women were created to serve cannot imply a hierarchical relationship because men also were created to serve (John. 13:14-15). When these things are taken into consideration, especially the meaning of the phrase ‛êzer keneged, it is clear that Genesis 2:18 does not teach women were created subservient to men.

Does the fact that man was created before woman indicate that women were created to be subservient to men? ComplementariansDraft also 2: argue 4.21.16 that because Adam was created before Eve (creation order), that women should be subordinate to men in marriage and the church. But, does that make sense? Think about the creation order from Genesis chapter 1. Day 1: Heavens and Earth, day and night Day 2: The expanse (our atmosphere) and water Day 3: Dry land and water (seas), vegetation Day 4: Lights in the expanse, day and night, sea- sons, moon and earth Day 5: Water creatures, birds Day 6: Land creatures, and last, humans Day 7: God rested Looking at the order in list form makes it easier to argue that creation occurred in an ascending order rather than descending order. Matter was created first, then atmosphere and water, next plants, creatures, and birds,

5 Unslicenced then land creatures, and last, humans. Man was the crowning glory of God’s creation. We are told in chapter two of Genesis that man was created before woman. In context, arguing man is hierarchically superior to woman because he was created first makes no sense. Following the same logic, plants and animals were created before man; therefore, man should be subservient to animals and plants. Moving on, in the New Testament, Paul states that man is the “head” of woman and that the woman came from the man. (1 Cor. 11:2-16; Eph. 5:21-24). Thus, it can be argued that man is the “head” of woman. If the logic laid out so far is sound, then it is possible Paul meant something else besides “authoritative ruler” over women when he used the term “head.” Paul’s use of the term “head” and the concept of headship will be discussed later in chapter eight. For now, it is enough to know that Genesis doesDraft not support a2: hierarchical 4.21.16 view of man over woman based on the order of creation. In a similar vein, Complementarians see a parallel between Adam being born first and the concept of the firstborn found later in Genesis. They believe that Adam received a blessing and a right to lead God’s family, much like the Jewish cultural practice of the father blessing the firstborn (Gen. 27; 48:18; Ex. 13:2). However, the creation narrative does not specifically mention this practice, nor is it easily inferred. Both man and woman received the same blessing and charge to rule. In context, the subordination of women to men based on birth order becomes a difficult argument to prove.

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Does the fact that woman came “from the man” support the idea that women should be subordinate to men?

Man was created first:

Then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being (Gen. 2:7).

Then woman was created:

So the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then He took one of his ribs and closed up the flesh at that place. The Lord God fashioned into a woman the rib which He had taken from the man, and brought her to the man.

The manDraft said, 2: 4.21.16 “This is now bone of my bones, And flesh of my flesh; She shall be called Woman, Because she was taken out of Man.”

For this reason a man shall leave his father and his mother, and be joined to his wife; and they shall become one flesh. And the man and his wife were both naked and were not ashamed (Gen. 2:21-25).

So, does the fact that woman came “from the man” support the idea that women should be subordinate to men? Not any more than man being “formed from the dust of the ground” makes man subordinate to dust. The fact that a rib was taken out of man and woman came from him points to the origin of woman as being unique from the animals. She alone is a suitable mate for Adam. This

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points more to sameness than it does the idea of subordination. In fact, this passage says that a man will leave his father and mother, be joined to his wife, and become “one flesh” with her, a description of unity!

Does the fact that Adam called Eve “woman” after he named the animals in Genesis 2:23 imply that man has authority over woman? The Hebrew word translated as “called” is qara and is used in Genesis 2:23: “The man said, ‘This is now bone of my bones, And flesh of my flesh; She shall be called [qara] Woman, Because she was taken out of Man’” (Gen. 2:23). Adam does “call” (qara) Eve woman here, but this verse does not contain the normal pattern/formula for naming. The typical formula for naming is the verb to “call” (qara) plus the explicit object “name” (shem). Genesis 2:23 has the verb “call” (qara) but does not have the object “name” (shem).7 Additionally, naming someone does not always implyDraft exercising authority 2: 4.21.16 over him/her. In Gene- sis 16:13, Hagar “called” (qara) the “name” (shem) of the Lord “You are a God who sees.” If “called” (qara) in conjunction with the object “name” (shem) always implied exercising authority over someone, then Hagar would be exercising her authority over God. Obviously this is not the case. Further strengthening the view that Adam is not naming Eve in this passage is the fact that he calls her woman. As scholar Phyllis Tribble has pointed out, “Woman itself is not a name. It is a common noun; it is not a proper noun. It designates gender; it does not spec- ify person.”8

7. Stanley J. Grenz and Denise Muir Kjesbo, Women in the Church: A Biblical Theology of Women in Ministry. (Downers Grove, IL:: InterVarsity Press, 1995), 163. See also: Phyllis Trible, Eve and Adam: Genesis 2-3 Reread. (Andover, MD: New- ton Theological School, 1973), 2. 8. Trible, Eve and Adam: Genesis 2-3 Reread, 2.

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Another question begging an answer in connection with this passage is what was God’s purpose for Adam’s task of naming the animals? One possibility is that this task was a way for Adam to exercise his newfound authority over the animals. But, in Genesis 1:28, God gave both man and woman a charge to rule over creation. If that were the reason Adam named the animals, would not woman also need to exercise her authority by naming also? A more plausible explanation is that God had Adam name the animals to show Adam his need for a “helper suitable” (ezer̂ keneged: Gen. 2:20). That way, Eve becomes the one who helps Adam by taking him away from his loneliness. In summary, the creation account in Genesis does not adequately support the idea that man was created hierarchically superior to woman. Genesis also does not give men the right, in the church or in marriage, to make women submitDraft because God 2: appointed 4.21.16 men to rule over women. Instead, these verses clearly teach that God has charged men and women with joint rule over creation, with multiplying by bearing children, with filling the earth, and subduing it.

The Fall of Man and the Curse

So, how did the fall of man and the resulting curse affect the relationship between man and woman? How did the fall affect God’s blessing and charge to multiply and rule? Did anything change because of the fall of man? It’s time to take a look:

Then the LORD God took the man and put him into the Garden of Eden to cultivate it and keep it. The LORD God commanded the man, saying, “From any tree of

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the garden you may eat freely; but from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat from it you will surely die” (Genesis 2:15-17).

Now the serpent was more crafty than any beast of the field, which the LORD God had made. And he said to the woman, “Indeed, has God said, ‘You shall not eat from any tree of the garden’?” The woman said to the serpent, “From the fruit of the trees of the garden we may eat; but from the fruit of the tree, which is in the middle of the garden, God has said, ‘You shall not eat from it or touch it, or you will die.’“ The serpent said to the woman, “You surely will not die! For God knows that in the day you eat from it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.” When the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes,Draft and that the 2:tree was 4.21.16 desirable to make one wise, she took from its fruit and ate; and she gave also to her husband with her, and he ate (Genesis 3:1-6).

Notice in Genesis 2:17, God warned man that he would “surely die.” The result of sin is death, physical and spiritual death. Also, notice that in chapter 3:5, Satan said they would “be like God, knowing good and evil.” But what does being “like God, knowing good and evil,” mean (See also Gen. 2:9, 2:17, 3:22)? We know that God does not “know evil” in the sense of experiencing sin, because God does not sin. What this “knowing” most likely means, is that man would be able to choose what is good and what is evil for himself. Until the fall, man had always lived within the boundaries of what God said was good. Satan offered man a different set of rules. Man would be like God, because he would be able to define the boundaries of good and evil for

10 Unslicenced himself. Satan subtly offered man rebellion.

How did this rebellion affect the relationship between man and woman?

Then the eyes of both of them [Adam and Eve] were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves loin cov- erings.

They heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden in the cool of the day, and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of the Lord God among the trees of the garden. Then the Lord God called to the man, and said to him, “Where are you?” He said, “I heard the sound of You in the garden, and I was afraid because I was naked; so I hid myself.” And He said, Draft“Who told you that2: you 4.21.16 were naked? Have you eaten from the tree of which I commanded you not to eat?” The man said, “The woman whom You gave to be with me, she gave me from the tree, and I ate.” Then the LORD God said to the woman, “What is this you have done?” And the woman said, “The serpent deceived me, and I ate” (Genesis .).

Notice that the fall not only affected man’s relationship to God, it affected man’s relationship with woman. Adam blamed God and Eve. Eve blamed the serpent. Neither Adam nor Eve took full responsibility for their behavior. The result was a far less than perfect relationship between man and woman. Then, enters the curse.

The Curse The Lord God said to the serpent,“Because you have

11 Unslicenced done this, Cursed are you more than all cattle, And more than every beast of the field; On your belly you will go, And dust you will eat All the days of your life; And I will put enmity Between you and the woman, And between your seed and her seed; He shall bruise you on the head, And you shall bruise him on the heel.” To the woman He said, “I will greatly multiply Your pain in childbirth, In pain you will bring forth children; Yet your desire will be for your husband, And he will rule over you.”

Then to Adam He said, “Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten from the tree about which I commandedDraft you, 2:saying, 4.21.16 ‘You shall not eat from it’; Cursed is the ground because of you; In toil you will eat of it All the days of your life. “Both thorns and thistles it shall grow for you; And you will eat the plants of the field; By the sweat of your face You will eat bread, Till you return to the ground, Because from it you were taken; For you are dust, And to dust you shall return.” Now the man called his wife’s name Eve, because she was the mother of all the living. The Lord God made gar- ments of skin for Adam and his wife, and clothed them.

Then the Lord God said, “Behold, the man has become like one of Us, knowing good and evil; and now, he might 12 Unslicenced

stretch out his hand, and take also from the tree of life, and eat, and live forever” (Gen. 3:14-22).

In the first part of the pronouncement over Eve, God said that he would multiply Eve’s pain in the childbirth experience. This pronouncement indicated an increased difficulty for woman to fulfill God’s charge to be fruitful, multiply, and fill the earth. God does not fully take away his blessing over the task, but the task will now be more challenging. God also said to the woman “Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you.” But what does “Your desire will be for your husband” mean? The Hebrew word for “desire” used here is teshuquah. It simply means “a desire” or “longing for.” It does not necessarily carry sexual connota- tions as it might in English. Taken in context, it refers to a desire to rule over the husband. The New Living Translation captures this thought in verse sixteen: “Then he said to the woman, ‘I willDraft sharpen the 2: pain 4.21.16of your pregnancy, and in pain you will give birth. And you will desire to control your husband, but he will rule over you’” (Gen. 3:16, NLT). The fall of man negatively affected the relationship between man and woman, husband and wife. In the ruling and exercising dominion over creation, there became a struggle for power between man and woman. Scripture here is not supporting either the woman’s “desire” to rule over the husband or man’s “ruling over” the woman. The struggle itself is the result of man choosing sin, and the struggle is a new element in their relationship. It did not exist prior to the fall. The Septuagint chose to translate the phrase “He will rule over you” as (kaì autós sou kurieúsei) “he will lord it over you.”9 Notice also that the text says he “will rule over you,” in the

9. I learned about the Septuagint (LXX) translation of Genesis from Dr. Richard S. Cervin, Sacramento, CA. 13 Unslicenced

future tense. This is further indication that men and women were both charged to rule and considered equal before the fall. God would not say, “he will rule over you” if Adam had already been placed in a position of ruling over his wife prior to the fall. What God said to the man was different from what he said to the woman. Man was told that the ground would be cursed; would produce thorns and thistles, and that it would be hard work to produce food. The consequences given to the woman were similar to the consequences given to the man in that it would now be more difficult for man to fulfill his original charge. As a result of the fall, man incurred difficulty in his task to be fruitful, fill the earth, subdue it, and to rule. All of creation was affected by the fall of man. Man’s original task was to hold dominion over creation, but his sin subjected all of creation to a struggle. In the following verses, Paul puts it another way. He calls it a “subjection to futility” or “slavery toDraft corruption.” 2: 4.21.16

For the anxious longing of the creation waits eagerly for the revealing of the sons of God. For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of Him who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself also will be set free from its slavery to corruption into the freedom of the glory of the children of God. For we know that the whole creation groans and suffers the pains of childbirth together until now. And not only this, but also we ourselves, having the first fruits of the Spirit, even we ourselves groan within ourselves, waiting eagerly for our adoption as sons, the redemption of our body (Rom. 8:19-23).

Notice that creation is eagerly awaiting freedom from slavery. And, God’s hope is that creation becomes free. It is not God’s intention that creation, including man and wom-

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an, stays subject to the curse. While it is true that all of creation came under the curse, Jesus’ sacrifice broke the power of the curse over both man and creation. Noted scholar F. F. Bruce puts it this way:

Man [Adam] was put in charge of the ‘lower creation’ and involved it with him when he fell; through the work of the ‘second man’ [Jesus] the entail of the fall is broken not only for man himself but for the creation, which is dependent on him.1

So, since Jesus broke the power of the curse, and creation is longing to be freed from the curse, why are so many Christians content to live with its effects? They should not be. True, we will not see the entirety of the curse removed until Jesus returns, but our position as Christians should be to reverse the effects of the curse wherever and whenever possible. ThatDraft was the point 2: of Jesus’ 4.21.16 ministry. He ushered in the kingdom of God. Where the kingdom of God is in effect, there is no curse. Jesus came to set the prisoners free and to free all people from the effects of the curse (Luke 4:18- 21). He passed that same ministry (his ministry) on to the church (Luke 10:1-21; Matt. 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-19; Acts 1:4-9). Most Christians are comfortable fighting the effects of man’s portion of the curse. The ground was cursed. As a result, food was harder to produce. The consequences given to the man resulted in starvation and poverty. No one has a problem with making the task of producing food easier or with eliminating poverty.

1. F. F. Bruce, Tyndale New Testament Commentaries: The Letter of Paul to the Romans. (Leicester, England: InterVarsity Press, 1992), 160.

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If we oppose the effects the curse given to the man, then we should also oppose the effects of the curse given to the woman. To seek freedom from only part of the curse makes no sense. The woman’s part of the curse resulted in a struggle between man and woman where men rule or dominate women. We should bring redemption to this part of the curse the same way we do with sin, sickness, poverty, and starvation. God’s intention for woman is for her to rule alongside man in harmony as she did in the garden before the fall of man. W

Draft 2: 4.21.16

16 cHaPteR 2: leaDing laDieS of tHe olD teStament

biblical examPleS of Women WHo leD

criptures of both the Old and New Testaments show Sexamples of women in ministry. These passages are biographical and topical in nature in that they describe the leader and show how she led. The leading ladies of the Old Testament form a foundation for the New Testament passages on women in ministry. This foundation is especially important when interpreting Paul’s writings. This chapterDraft will give an2: overview 4.21.16 of women who led in the Old Testament. Particular attention will be given to women who functioned as prophetesses and exercised leadership over men. The next chapter will cover women who led in the New Testament.

miRiam

Miriam was a prophetess and the sister of Moses and Aaron (Ex. 15:20). She was present when Pharaoh’s daughter found Moses in the river and guided the prin- cess to use Moses’ mother, Jochebed, as a wet-nurse (Ex. 2:2-10). Miriam sang a victory song after Pharaoh’s army was defeated by drowning in the sea (Ex. 15:20-26). God spoke directly to her in an audible voice when he disci- plined Aaron and Miriam for speaking against Moses’ Unslicenced

marriage to a Cushite woman (Num. 12:4). Roughly five hundred years after Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the prophet Micah recognized Miriam as functioning in a leadership role,

I brought you up out of Egypt and redeemed you from the land of slavery. I sent Moses to lead you, also Aaron, and Miriam” (Mic. 6:4 NIV).

According to Josephus, Miriam was married to Hur of the tribe of Judah - the same Hur who, along with Aaron, supported Moses’ arms in Israel’s battle with the Amale- kites. Miriam was a strong leader in the nation of Israel.

Deborah

From the time following the conquest of Canaan under Joshua,Draft until the formation 2: 4.21.16 of the first kingdom of Israel under Saul, fourteen judges ruled Israel. Deborah was one of those Judges and she ruled for roughly sixty years.2 The Hebrew word for Judge is Sophet, which can be translated as judge, ruler, deliverer, or savior. Debo- rah was a Sophet in every sense of the word.

Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was judging Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm tree of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim; and the sons of Israel came up to her for judgment (Judg. 4:4-5).

Interestingly enough, Deborah is introduced as,

2. Catherine C. Kroeger, & Evans, Mary J., The IVP Women’s Bible Commentary. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2002), 134.

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“the wife of Lappidoth.” Nothing more is mentioned of Lappidoth in Scripture. There is no mention of him judging Israel alongside her. It would seem that this is a case where the wife functioned in an anointing and sphere far greater than that of her husband’s. Many women in the church today have been criticized for functioning in greater gifting than that of their husband’s. Others have been criticized for leading spiritually in the church and at home when their husbands either have chosen not to lead, or for whatever reason, are unable to lead alongside them. But here, Deborah’s leadership and prophetic ministry are clearly welcomed in the apparent absence of her husband’s leadership and gifting. Deborah was both a judge and prophetess in Israel, which means she wielded both spiritual and political authority. Her prophetic gifting enabled her to minister so effectively that people came for judgment under the palm tree. ScriptureDraft says, “the 2: sons 4.21.16of Israel came up to her for judgment.” That means that she exercised authority over both men and women. She was arguably the highest political and spiritual authority in Israel at the time. She led the Israelite army along with Barak to defeat Jabin and the Canaanite army. She gave Barak prophetic direction and a promise of victory for Israel. When Barak refused to go to battle without her, she prophetically declared that Sisera, commander of the Canaanite army, would die at the hands of a woman. Then, she accompa- nied Barak into battle as Israel defeated the Canaanite invaders. Of significance, Deborah’s name is mentioned first, before Barak’s (Judges 5:1). A man’s name would typically be mentioned before a woman’s. After the victory over the Canaanites, Deborah sang a song that commemorated the occasion and praised God for his divine intervention. Because of the similarities be-

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tween the Song of Deborah and Psalm 68, some Jewish traditions have attributed the authorship of the Psalm to Deborah.3 Although this is not the traditional view, it would not be a far stretch since she authored the song recorded in Judges Chapter 5. In Jewish literature, she is often referred to as “a mother of Israel” (Judg. 5:7).

Huldah

Huldah was a prophetess during the reign of King Jo- siah. Josiah was a righteous king who ushered in a revival of Judaism in Israel. During a major renovation of the temple, “the book of the law” was discovered. After reading the book, Josiah was so moved that he asked Hilkiah the high priest and Shaphan the scribe to “Inquire of the Lord” because Israel had not been following what was written in the book. Together, the high priest and the scribe inquiredDraft of Huldah 2:the prophetess: 4.21.16

So Hilkiah the priest, Ahikam, Achbor, Shaphan, and Asaiah went to Huldah the prophetess, the wife of Shallum the son of Tikvah, the son of Harhas, keep- er of the wardrobe (now she lived in Jerusalem in the Second Quarter); and they spoke to her (2 Kings 22:14).

Huldah was a contemporary of Jeremiah, Zephani- ah, Nahum, and Habakkuk.4 Although there were male prophets in the land of whom Josiah’s advisors could have inquired, the delegation chose to inquire of the Lord through Huldah. The delegation’s choice of Huldah is a

3. Ibid., 135. 4. Ronald W. Pierce and Rebecca M. Groothuis, Discover- ing Biblical Equality: Complimentary without Hierarchy. 2005 (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic), 113.

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clear indication that God chooses women to lead men, and not just when men refuse to do his bidding. Further- more, this is an indication that she must have functioned at a very high level of gifting (the office of a prophet). Her ministry was so significant that in Herod’s Temple, two sets of gates were built in her honor and were located in the Southern Wall of the Temple Mount of Jerusalem.

Esther (The Book of Esther)

The events of the Book of Esther took place when the Jews were exiled to Babylon. Esther was orphaned and raised by her uncle, Mordecai. The King of Persia, Aha- suerus (Xerxes I), chose her to be queen. Mordecai and Esther uncovered a plot to kill the king, saving his life. A Persian prince named Haman planned to kill all the Jews in Persia because they would not bow down to him. Esther riskedDraft her life by 2:approaching 4.21.16 the king, gaining his favor, thwarting Haman’s plan, and saving the Jew- ish people. Jewish rabbis name Esther as one of the seven prophetesses of Israel,1 and the Jews still commemorate this deliverance in the yearly Festival of Purim. Esther is another example of a woman who was both a political and spiritual leader.

Isaiah’s Wife (Isaiah 8:3)

Isaiah refers to his wife as, “the prophetess” (Isa. 8:3). Some translations refer to her as, “my wife” instead of, “the prophetess.” Although Isaiah is referring to his wife

1. Leila L. Bronner, From Eve to Esther: Rabbinic Reconstructions of Biblical Women. (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1994), 163.

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in this passage, omitting the word “prophetess” strips her of having functioned in prophetic gifting and reduces her role in ministry. While we do not know the extent of her ministry, she probably functioned prophetically alongside her husband and is another candidate for a woman who functioned in the office of a prophet.

The Mother of King Lemuel

Proverbs 31 starts off with the following words, “The words of King Lemuel, the oracle, which his mother taught him” (Proverbs 31:1). This chapter is a group of sayings (an oracle or utterance) taught to King Lemuel by his mother. That teaching became an entire chapter in the Bible. So, even though King Lemuel’s mother did not physically write Proverbs 31, her teaching was pro- found enough to be classified as Scripture. Not only that, but this chapterDraft of Proverbs 2: is 4.21.16the teaching of a woman directed primarily towards men. Verse 10 tells us this chapter was written to instruct men in proper behavior and to teach them how to choose an excellent wife. The Hebrew word used here for “excellent wife” is chayil, and it can also be translated as strong, capable, valiant, and forceful.2 These are qualities, which women have been criticized for having even when these qualities are exhibited as godly. Jewish tradition, and most commentaries, hold that King Lemuel and King Solomon were the same persons making Bathsheba the original author of the Proverbs 31 teaching.3

2. Brown, “Hebrew Definitions.” 3. John Wesley, “Explanatory Notes,” Thomas Nelson Publishers. www.e-sword.net (accessed February 2, 2016). See also: Matthew Henry, “Commentary on the Whole Bible,” www.e- sword.net (accessed February 2, 2016).

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These examples of Old Testament women show they indeed led men from positions of political and spiritual authority. Their God-given gifting and anointing made a way for them in a culture that is much more patriarchal than is our modern day Western culture. W

Draft 2: 4.21.16

23 In Romans 16:1-6, Paul mentions a number of people who were actively engaged in the ministry of the church, ten of which were women. Draft 2: 4.21.16 cHaPteR 3: leaDing laDieS of tHe neW teStament

biblical examPleS of Women WHo leD

s was mentioned at the beginning of the last chapter, Astudying how women led in the Bible will shed light on how we are to interpret Paul’s writings. The New Testament provides many examples of women who functioned as leaders and engaged in ministry. In Ephesians 4:11-12, Paul says that the offi ce gifts of apostle, prophet, evangelist, pastor/shepherd and teacher are givenDraft for equipping 2: the saints4.21.16 for the work of the ministry or diakonia. The implication is that all of these offi ces require some form of leading and teaching in order to fulfi ll the function of equipping. If women in the early church functioned in any of these offi ces, it is reasonable to conclude that they would have had to teach to fulfi ll the duty of that offi ce. Also, women would have equipped/ taught men as well as women if they functioned in any of these offi ces. Of these offi ce gifts, the gifts of apostle and prophet are foundational to establishing and leading the church (Eph. 2:20; 3:5). According to Paul, the offi ces of apostle and prophet are higher order gifts than those of pastor/ shepherd and teacher. Paul lists gifts in 1 Corinthians 12:28 and Ephesians 4:11. Unslicenced

And God has appointed in the church, first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then miracles, then gifts of healings, helps, administrations, various kinds of tongues (1 Cor. 12:28).

And He gave some as apostles, and some as prophets, and some as evangelists, and some as pastors and teachers, for the equipping of the saints for the work of service, to the building up of the body of Christ (Eph. 4:11-12).

In 1 Corinthians 12:28, Paul says, “first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then…” It would seem from these lists that Paul believed the office gifts of apostle and prophet were of a higher order than that of a teacher. Excluding women from the lower order ministries of shepherding and teaching would not make sense if women functionedDraft in the higher 2: order 4.21.16 ministries of apostles or prophets. If women in the Bible functioned apostolically and prophetically, they should be allowed to function in areas of gifting that are less authoritative, e.g., the offices of, pastor/shepherd and teacher. Note: Examples of Jesus’ Interactions with women will not be discussed here and will instead be addressed in chapter five, A New Beginning: Jesus’ Interactions with Women.

Anna, the daughter of Phanuel

Anna was an amazing woman. At eighty-four years of age, “she never left the temple, serving night and day with fastings and prayers” (Luke 2:36-37). She was the prophetess and intercessor who prophesied over Jesus when Mary and Joseph brought him to the temple “to present

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Him to the Lord.” Every Jewish firstborn male was considered “holy to the Lord” (Ex. 13:2). At the time of Pass- over, Joseph and Mary brought Jesus to the temple to have him dedicated to the Lord. Anna was able to recog- nize who Jesus was and prophesied about him to “all those who were looking for the redemption of Jerusalem.” She prophetically instructed them (teaching) that Jesus was the Messiah.

Chloe

Chloe was a prominent woman in the early church who lived in Corinth or Ephesus.4 She is only mentioned once in the New Testament, “For some members of Chloe’s household have told me about your quarrels, my dear brothers and sisters” (1 Cor. 1:11, NLT). The phrase “Of Chloe’s household” or “of Chloe’s people” (ton Chloes)Draft may refer to members2: 4.21.16 of her household or extended household including slaves or servants. The phrase literally means “Those… of Chloe.” The term “household” is implied.5 Her husband is not mentioned. She may have been better known than her husband, or possibly a widow. If she lived in Ephesus, her people may have been doing business on her behalf and brought news of the Corinthi- an church to Paul. Some connect “Chloe’s people” with Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (1Cor 16:17-18) because Paul said they had visited him. They carried a letter from the Corinthian church to Paul at Ephesus and probably brought Paul’s return letter to the Corinthian church.6

4. Gordon D. Fee, The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The First Epistle to the Corinthians. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987), 54-55. 5. Loren Cunningham and David Joel Hamilton, Why Not Women? (Seattle, WA: YWAM 2000), 147. 6. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 832. 27 Unslicenced

Euodia and Syntyche

Euodia and Syntyche were two female members of the Philippian church. Paul instructed a man he called Syzu- gus in the Philippian church to help them. The fact that the letter was meant to be read to the church suggests the conflict between these two women was a threat to the unity of the church.

Now I appeal to Euodia and Syntyche. Please, because you belong to the Lord, settle your disagreement. And I ask you, my true partner [or Syzugus], to help these two women, for they worked hard with me in telling others the Good News. They worked along with Clem- ent and the rest of my co-workers, whose names are written in the Book of Life (Phil. 4:2-4, NLT).

Paul saidDraft Euodia and 2:Syntyche 4.21.16 labored with him to spread the good news. In the spreading of the good news, they would have engaged in evangelism and teaching. A possibility is that these two women led house churches in the church at Philippi. About these two women, FF. Bruce states: Paul pays the two women a striking tribute when he says that they contended at my side in the cause of the gospel. This is a forceful athletic term (the same verb syn- athlein, has appeared in 1:26 “contending as one man for the faith of the gospel). This does not suggest that Paul’s female coworkers played a minor part as compared with their male counterparts.7 Some translations give the male name Euodias instead

7. F. F. Bruce, New International Biblical Commentary: Phi- lippians. (Peabody, MS: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002), 138-139.

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of the female Euodia. Vincent’s word studies states, “Eu- odias is incorrect, the name being feminine, Euodia.” Thayer’s and Strong’s Greek dictionaries agree that the feminine form of the name is used in the original Greek. The Canonical Greek text for the Orthodox Church uses the feminine name, Euodía.8

Junia

Paul ends his letter to the Romans with a section of personal greetings. In that section of greetings, there is a verse, which references a woman named Junia. Paul writes, “Salute Andronicus and Junia my kinsmen, and my fellowprisoners, who are of note among the apostles, who also were in Christ before me” (Rom 16:7, King James Version, KJV). English versions of the Bible are mixed in how they translate theDraft name Junia. 2: A number 4.21.16 of them have chosen to use a male name Junias instead of the female name Junia. Greek dictionaries also have differing opinions. Strong’s Greek Dictionary gives the male version of the name while Thayer’s Greek Definitions gives the female version of the name. Bauer’s Greek-English Dictionary points out that ancient commentators believed Andronicus and Junia were a husband and wife team, and that from a “lexical point of view” the name could be translated as a female name. But, they chose the male version of the name because of the “context.” The authors of Bauer’s lexicon believed that it was improbable that a woman could be “prominent among the apostles,” so they chose the male version

8. Information obtained from Dr. Richard Cervin. Orthodox scholar. Sacramento.

29 Unslicenced of the name. They did this even though historical and linguistic evidence suggested to them the female version of the name is most appropriate. So, how did this happen? Why so much confusion over whether Junia was a man or a woman? Two books are helpful in identifying who Junia was and in tracking the history of the translation of her name are The Lost Apos- tle by Rena Pederson and Junia: the First Woman Apos- tle, by Eldon Jay Epp. Historical and linguistic research reveals that an archbishop in the thirteenth century (late Middle Ages) named of Giles of Rome was the first person to refer to Junia as a male. Before Giles, all evidence points to Ju- nia being a woman. In his commentary on Romans, Giles noted the variant readings (Latin) Juniam and Juliam and chose Juliam. Not taking into consideration the precedent of earlier Greek translations and the opinions of the early churchDraft fathers, he2: assumed 4.21.16 it was a male name because it referred to an apostle.9 As a result, Junia dis- appeared from Romans 16:7 as a female name for hun- dreds of years. Then, in 1516, Erasmus produced a Greek version of the New Testament called the Textus Receptus. Because Erasmus consulted early Greek sources for the Textus Receptus, he chose to translate Romans 16:7 with the female name Junia. After Erasmus, translators were divid- ed as to whether they translated Junia as a woman or a man’s name. More recently, the Nestle-Aland Greek Bible corrected the mistake and changed Junia’s name back to a female name. Noted Scholar and translator Bruce Metzger, who

9. Rena Pederson, The Lost Apostle: Searching for the Truth About Junia. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2006), 127.

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was a part of the Nestle-Aland Greek linguistics team, gave the following two reasons Junia was chosen. First, “the female Latin name occurs more than 250 times in Greek and Latin inscriptions found in Rome alone.” 10 Sec- ond, when Greek manuscripts began to be accented in ancient times to show the difference between feminine and masculine forms, early scribes preferred the feminine name Junia. An important fact relevant to our discussion pointed out by Dr. Richard Cervin is that the name Junia is not a Greek name, but a Latin name. Dr. Cervin’s examination of how Latin names are transcribed into Greek demonstrates that the name Junia can only be feminine, not masculine.11 Furthermore, searches of ancient literature from the first century reveal the feminine name Junia was a common Roman name, but the masculine name Ju- nias is not found.12 In summary,Draft scholars who2: have 4.21.16 chosen the male version of the name give the following reasons:

1. They do not believe a woman could have been an apostle, let alone prominent among the apostles, 2. They were influenced by previous translators that translated Junia as a male’s name, 3. They believed that Junia was a diminutive of a male name. But none of these reasons is satisfactory for choosing to translate Junia as a male name.

10. Eldon J. Epp, Junia: The First Woman Apostle. (Minneapo- lis, MN: Fortress Press, 2005), 53-54. 11. Richard S. Cervin, A Note Regarding the Name ‘Junia(S)’ in Romans 16.7. New Testament Studies, vol. 40 (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 464-470. 12. Grenz and Kjesbo, Women in the Church, 94. See also: Pederson, The Lost Apostle, 164.

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There is also a strong historical precedent for translat- ing Junia as a female name. Junia was called an apostle from the first through twelfth centuries by church fathers and scholars.13 Origen (185–254 AD), John Chrysostom (345-407 A.D.),14 and St. Jerome (340-420 A.D.), who produced the Latin Vulgate translation, all thought that Ju- nia was a woman and all believed Junia was a female.15 So did Hatto of Vercelli (924-961 AD), Theophylact (1050- 1108AD) and Peter Abelard (1079-1142 AD).16 So, a thorough examination of both the historical and linguistic evidence reveals Junia was a woman. But was Junia an apostle and what does the phrase “of note among the apostles” mean?

“Of note among the apostles” There is some debate about how to translate the phrase “of note among the apostles” or “prominent among the apostles.”Draft Some translate 2: the 4.21.16 phrase as “well known among the apostles” or “esteemed among the apostles.” But that is not the best translation of the phrase. Paul uses the word episēmos to describe Junia’s relationship with the apostles. Episēmos means marked, stamped, remarkable, prominent, outstanding, distinguished, emi- nent, or of note.17 F. F. Bruce stated the phrase “probably” means that they [Andronicus and Junia] were not merely well known to the apostles but were apostles themselves

13. Pederson, The Lost Apostle, 213. 14. Grenz and Kjesbo, Women in the Church, 94. 15. Pederson, The Lost Apostle, 154. 16. Bernadette Brooten, Outstanding among the Apostles (Romans 16:7). ed. Arlene Swidler & Leonard Swidler, Women Priests (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1977), 141-144. 17. Joseph Thayer, “Greek-English Dictionary of the New Tes- tament,” e-Sword. www.e-sword.net (accessed February 5, 2016). See also: Strong, The New Strong’s Complete Dictionary of Bible Words.

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(in the wider, Pauline, sense of the word).”18 The Greek word en that is used here is most often translated as among or within. Ronald W. Pierce states, “To say that Junia was “esteemed by” or “prominent in the sight of the apostles” is to ignore the early Greek translations and commentaries. For example, the Vulgate, the standard Latin translation of the Western Church, has “Junia… notable among the apostles (Nobiles in apostolis).”19 Dr. Richard Cervin states, based on linguistic evidence, that the appropriate translation of the phrase is “noteworthy among the apostles.”20 In the fourth century, John Chrysostom, in his Hom- ilies on Romans 31 [on Romans 16:7], wrote this about Junia:

To be an apostle is something great. But to be outstanding among the apostles - just think what a wonderful song of praiseDraft that is! They2: were4.21.16 outstanding on the basis of their works and virtuous actions. Indeed, how great the wisdom of this woman must have been that she was even deemed worthy of the title apostle.

So the historical and linguistic evidence overwhelm- ingly points to Junia being an apostle. Not only that, she was highly esteemed as an apostle, among apostles. The English word apostle is a transliteration of the Greek word apostolos. It occurs more than 74 times in the New Testament. As a ministry title, it is used more than any other including elder/overseer. Thayer Greek dictionary defines an apostle as a delegate, messenger,

18. Bruce, The Letter of Paul to the Romans, 258. 19. Pierce and Groothuis, Discovering Biblical Equality, 118. 20. Cervin, A Note Regarding the Name ‘Junia(S)’ in Romans 16.7, 470.

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one sent forth with orders. Thayer’s goes on to say that although the word specifically applied to the twelve apostles of Christ, in a broader sense it applied to other em- inent Christian teachers. Barnabas, Timothy, Silvanus (Silas), and others were also called apostles. As an apostle, Junia would have been an effective teacher and communicator of the gospel. She would have been highly gifted and been effective in establishing and laying foundations in the church.

What else is known about Junia? Andronicus and Junia were most likely a husband and wife team. Paul calls them “kinsmen” indicating they were Jewish by birth. Their names are not Jewish names, so they were probably Hellenists (Greek speaking Jews). Since they became Christians at an early date, before Paul, they may have seen Jesus minister and been a part of the JerusalemDraft church 2: (Acts 4.21.16 2 & 8). Origen (185– 254 AD) and some of the early church fathers believed that Andronicus and Junia were among the Seventy that Jesus sent out mentioned in Luke 10:1.1 Andronicus, Ju- nia’s husband, is included in lists of the Seventy Apos- tles given by the Orthodox Church and by Hippolytus of Rome. Because Paul mentioned the couple in Romans chapter 16, it is probable that they were instrumental in establishing the Roman church. Andronicus and Junia were imprisoned with Paul, which means their activism in Christianity must have been well known to the author- ities, and they may have ministered with Paul in other cities. The fact that Junia was a woman and an apostle is

1. Grenz and Kjesbo, Women in the Church, 93.

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significant. There is no higher order ministry than that of an apostle. If a woman can be an apostle, women can be pastors and teachers.

Lydia in Philippi

Paul and his apostolic team were on a trip to strength- en the churches in Asia Minor when Paul had a vision (Acts 16: 6-15). Paul saw a man from Macedonia, who said, “Come over to Macedonia and help us.” Paul and the team then traveled to Philippi, which was the leading city in the district of Macedonia (Acts 16:9). They met up with Lydia by a river where women regularly met for prayer. Lydia was probably a Gentile convert to Judaism. As Paul began to speak to her, the Holy Spirit “opened up her heart” to the things Paul was saying and she became the first known convert in Europe (Acts 16:14, 40). The women wereDraft probably meeting 2: by4.21.16 the river for prayer instead of a synagogue because there were not enough men to form one. The minimum requirement for a synagogue was ten men. Paul was willing to cross socio-religious boundaries by approaching this group of women at the river and by founding the Philippian church with Lydia. Lydia was a businesswoman who imported and sold purple fabric and/or purple dye from her native city of Thyatira. A husband is not mentioned, so she may have been a widow. Lydia and her whole household were saved and baptized. The Greek word used here for household is oikos and most likely refers to her extended household including servants. Lydia had a house large enough to host Paul and his team. Her house was most likely a gathering place for the early church after Paul left. Sig- nificantly, two households were converted on this journey (Lydia’s and the Philippian jailer’s). But, Paul chose to

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stay with Lydia. It may very well be that Lydia was the stronger leader and her household was a better choice for establishing a Christian community.

Phoebe

Phoebe was a patron of the early church and Paul’s emissary to the church at Rome. Her name means “radi- ant” or “pure.” She is identified as living in Cenchrea, a port city off the Saronic Gulf, not far from Corinth. Paul called Phoebe “a sister in the Christian faith.” He asked the Roman church to welcome her and provide her with anything she needed.

I commend to you our sister Phoebe, who is a deacon [diakonos] in the church in Cenchrea. Welcome her in the Lord as one who is worthy of honor among God’s people. HelpDraft her in whatever 2: 4.21.16she needs, for she has been helpful [prostasis] to many, and especially to me (Rom. 16:1-2, NLT).

She functioned as Paul’s apostolic ambassador to Rome and carried the letter to the Romans. In doing so, she delivered what is arguably one of the most important theological books in the Bible. Paul would not have chosen just anybody to represent him to deliver this letter. At the time the letter to the Romans was written, Paul had not yet been to Rome. Although he had often planned to, he was unable to visit them (Rom. 1:7-15) and would not until his imprisonment and appeal to Caesar took him there (Acts 28:14-31). Quite possibly, Paul’s intention was to build an apostolic base in Rome from which he could take the gospel to Spain. For this reason, Paul would have certainly chosen someone who would repre-

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sent him well, who was qualified to interpret the letter, and who could answer questions about it. Historians believe that as few as five percent of the people at that time were literate.2 Presumably, Phoebe read the letter to the church as well. Paul calls Phoebe a deacon (diakonos) of the church that is at Cenchrea. Other people referred to as deacons were Tychicus, (Acts 20:4; Eph. 6:21; Col. 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:12; Titus 3:12), Epaphras (Col. 1:7; 4:12-13; Phm. 1:23), Epaphras (Col. 1:7; 4:12-13; Phm. 1:23), Philip (Acts 6.1- 6; 8.1-40), and Steven (Acts 6.7). According to these passages, those who were referred to as deacons (diakanos) functioned as members of apostolic teams to preach the gospel as well as plant and establish churches, teach and make converts. They ran ministries, performed miracles, healed the sick, facilitated deliverance, baptized converts, had angelic visitations, were “translated,” and were martyredDraft for the gospel.2: 4.21.16 Scripture records male deacons serving the church by engaging in these kinds of activities and Paul used the same term when referring to Phoebe. One can assume that the same level of ministry was open to her. In his groundbreaking book Diakonia, John Collins analyzed over a thousand years of ancient Greek literature including early Christian literature. Collins got an accurate picture of what the early church meant when they used terms relating to the word deacon (diakonia). He suggests that the word diakonia has little to do with works of service or caring for the poor. But rather, these words are more directly connected with the carrying out of a mission. The diakonia word group is more often di-

2. Joan C. Campbell, Phoebe: Patron and Emissary. (Col- legeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2009), 4.

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rectly connected with the work of spreading of the gospel and teaching than it is serving.3 Those who held the office of a deacon in the early church were commissioned for a specific task by theepiskopos or overseers.4 Deacons often functioned as delegates or representatives. The linguistic evidence surrounding the term deacon, along with the contextual evidence of Romans 16:1-2, shows that Phoebe was a strong leader who engaged in the spreading of the gospel and teaching. Notably, many versions of the Bible are biased in how the word diakonos is translated in connection with Phoe- be. In similar passages referring to men as diakonos, the word “minister” is used, but in Romans 16:1, the same word is often translated as “servant” (cf. Eph. 6:21; Col. 1:7, 23; 4:7; 1 Thess. 3:2; 2 Cor. 3:6). In verse 2, Paul says that Phoebe had been “helpful to many, and especially to me.” The Greek word translated as “helpful”Draft is prostasis 2:. Thayer’s4.21.16 Greek Dictionary defines prostasis as a woman set over others or a female guardian, protectress, patroness, caring for the affairs of others and aiding them with her resources. The masculine form of this word was used by Justin Martyr to describe a person serving Communion.5 By using the word prostasis, Paul is not saying here that Phoebe has been placed as a leader over him. However, the word carries conno- tations of leadership. Paul used the verb form proistemi

3. John N. Collins, Deacons and the Church: Making Connec- tions between Old and New. (Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Pub- lishing, 2002), 52-54. See also: Diakonia John N., Re-Interpreting the Ancient Sources. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990), 63. 4. Collins, Deacons and the Church, 129-130. 5. Lynn H. Cohick, Romans. ed. Catherine C. Kroeger, & Evans, Mary J.,, The IVP Women’s Bible Commentary (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2002), 644.

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in 1Thessalonians 5:12 to mean people set over others in leadership and again in Romans 12:8 to mean the gift of leadership or ruling.

Philip’s daughters

Luke tells us that Philip the evangelist had “four virgin daughters who were prophetesses” (Acts 21:9). Some versions translate the end of verse nine as daughters “who could prophesy” or “who had the gift of prophecy.” But in the Greek, the phrase literally means “four unmarried prophetesses.” The best translation is “who were prophetesses.” Philip’s daughters functioned as local prophetesses and possibly functioned in the office of a prophet.

Priscilla (Prisca)

Priscilla Draftand her husband 2: Aquila 4.21.16 were an influential couple in the early church (Acts 18:2, 18, 26; Rom. 16:3, 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19). Together they played a key role in establishing the church in Rome, Corinth, and Ephe- sus. When referring to Aquila’s trade and “their house,” biblical authors chose to place Aquila’s name first (Acts 18:2; 1 Cor. 16:19), but in passages that are describing ministry (Acts 18:18, 26; Rom. 16:5; 2 Tim. 4:19), the authors chose to place Pricilla’s name first.6 Naming the wife before the husband is a departure from the cultural norm, especially since women were often not mentioned at all.7 Because of the placement of names, some scholars believe Priscilla had the stronger, more visible gifting

6. Pierce and Groothuis, Discovering Biblical Equality, 122. 7. Marie Keller, M., Priscilla and Aquila: Paul’s Coworkers in Christ Jesus. (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2010), xiii.

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and ministry of the two. Priscilla, or Priska, is a Roman name meaning ancient. It is thought that Priscilla was probably born in Rome. Inscriptions in the catacombs hint that Priscilla was of a distinguished family of high standing in Rome.8 Luke states that Claudius expelled Priscilla and Aqui- lla from Rome sometime before they met Paul in Corinth (Acts 18:2). The historian Suetonius wrote, “Claudius expelled Judeans from Rome who were constantly making disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.”9 A later historian, Paulus Orosius, placed the date of the expulsion at 49 CE.10 Chrestus was a common misspelling of the name Christ. Priscilla and Aquila had been Christian activists before they met Paul. Preaching Christ in the Roman synagogues resulting in public disturbances would certainly have been cause for Claudius to expel them from Rome. They may haveDraft had contact 2: with 4.21.16 Jesus and the Jerusalem Church. The Orthodox Church includes Aquila in a list of the Seventy Apostles mentioned in Luke10:1.11 Priscilla and Aquila may have been in Jerusalem when the Holy Spirit was poured out at Pentecost; pilgrims from Rome were present (Acts 2:9-11). Luke tells us Aquila was a Jew from Pontius, who was of the same trade as Paul, a skenopoios; “one who makes

8. Henry H. Haley, Haley’s Bible Handbook. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1963), 576. 9. Keller, Priscilla and Aquila, 7-10. Quote from Suetonius, Life of Claudius (25.4). 10. Ibid. Quoted from Historiae Adversum Paganos (7.6.15-16), The Acts of the Apostles, 347. 11. Orthodox Church in America, “Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles,” Orthodox Church in America. http://ocafs.oca.org/ FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=100017 (accessed February 6, 2016).

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tents or works with linen, canvas, or leather.”12 Although the term can be interpreted as one who makes tents, it is more likely that both men worked with leather since leather tools would have allowed Paul and Aquila to be more mobile. John Chrysostom and Origen thought Paul, Priscilla, and Aquila were leather workers.13 Pricilla probably assisted her husband in his trade. Priscilla and Aquila worked in teams with Paul and others to plant churches. They stayed with Paul in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3) and traveled with Paul to Ephesus (Acts 18:18-19). They instructed Apollos by explaining to him “the way of God more accurately” (Acts 18:26). John Chrysostom believed that Priscilla was solely responsible for instructing Apollos.14 Some believe that women can only teach other women and males below the age of twelve. Here, in Scripture, is an example of a woman instructing a male leader on correct doctrine. Priscilla Draftand Aquila’s house2: 4.21.16was a meeting place for the church in Ephesus, Rome, and Corinth (1Cor. 16:9). They were in Ephesus more than once (2Tim. 4:19). They “risked their necks” for Paul (Rom. 16:4). Some have even credited Priscilla as being the author of Hebrews.15

Tryphena, Tryphosa and Persis

Paul greeted a number of people in Romans 16. He had not yet been to Rome when the letter of Romans was delivered. Paul hoped to visit Rome to help establish the church. Arguably, those greeted were key people in the

12. Keller, Priscilla and Aquila, 14. 13. Ibid. 14. Ruth Hopkins, Priscilla The Author of Hebrews. ed. Cath- erine C. Kroeger, & Evans, Mary J.,, The IVP Women’s Bible Commentary (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2002), 762. 15. Ibid., 762-763.

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Roman church; either deacons, elders, or those involved in the leadership of house churches. Paul knew them by reputation, or they were those he had met during one of his journeys, as he did with Priscilla and Aquila (Rom. 16:3). Paul considers Tryphena, Tryphosa, and Persis worth mentioning. Sociologist Rodney Stark estimated that the Roman church had one thousand people around the time Paul’s letter was delivered.16 These women stood out amongst them for good reason. Paul said these three women labored hard in the Lord; “Greet Tryphaena and Tryphosa, workers [kopiao] in the Lord. Greet Persis the beloved, who has worked hard [kopiao] in the Lord” (Rom. 16:12). The Greek word kopiao is used here to describe their efforts. It means, “diligently labored” or “worked hard to the point of growing tired.” Although this word can mean physical labor, Paul often used this same word to describe hisDraft efforts for the 2: gospel 4.21.16 (1 Thess. 5:12; 1 Tim. 5:17; Phil. 2:16; 1 Cor. 16:16). Because the word work (kopiao) is followed by kurios, which is translated as in the Lord, it means these women did more than physical labor. Tryphaena, Tryphosa, and Persis were engaged in ministry, possibly evangelism and teaching. Some commentators think these three women were deaconesses. Likely, Tryphaena and Tryphosa were sisters.17 Paul used the same terms sunergos (co-laborers) and diakonos (minister) to describe the activity of men and women. Paul commonly refers to those males who work with him as “fellow-worker” or “co-laborers.” He used the term sunergos to describe Urbanus (Rom. 16:9), Timothy

16. Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity. (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 1997), 6. 17. Bruce, The Letter of Paul to the Romans, 260.

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(Rom. 16:21; 1 Thess. 3:2), Titus (2 Cor. 8:23), Philemon (Phm. 1:1), Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, Luke (Phm. 1:24), and Epaphroditus (Phm. 2:25). Paul used the word minister diakonos to describe the pastoral work of Paul (Rom. 15:15-16; Eph. 3:7; Col. 1:23), Christ (Gal. 2:17; Heb. 8:2), Tychicus (Eph. 6:21), Epaphroditus (Phil. 2:25), and Onesimus (Phm. 1:10-12). Paul used similar language when referring to the ministry of women and men.18 Some women engaged in ministry that was similar to the ministry of men. In Romans 16:1-6, Paul mentions a number of people who were actively engaged in the ministry of the church, ten of which were women. When referring to Phoebe, Paul used the words adelphe (sister), diakonos (deacon/minister), and prostasis (patroness/one set over).19 Prisca was called a sunergos (coworker) and Paul mentioned that a church met in her house.20 Mary was said to have “worked hard” for the RomanDraft church. Persis, 2: Tryphaena,4.21.16 and Tryphosa were also praised for having “worked hard in the Lord.”21 Junia (along with Andronicus) was said to be episttemoi en tois apostolois (prominent among the apostles). To believe that some of these women functioned in pastoral roles is not a far stretch.

18. Susan Mathew, Women in the Greetings of Romans16.1-16: A Study of Mutuality and Women’s Ministry in the Letter to the Romans. (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 1. 19. The Greek word diakonos was used to describe the ministry of Epaphrus (Col.1:7, Paul (Col. 1:23), and Tychicus (Col. 4:7). 20. The Greek word sunergos was used when referring to the work of Timothy (Rom 16:21), Epaphroditus (Phil. 2:25), and Titus (2 Cor. 8:23). 21. Mathew, Women in the Greetings of Romans16.1-16, 162.

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Bias in translation

Some choose not to ordain women as elders because they see a precedent set by Paul in 2 Timothy 2:2 for a male-only eldership: The things, which you have heard from me in the presence of many witnesses, entrust these to faithful men who will be able to teach others also. But, this is a case where modern translators have shown a tendency towards a male-dominant view of leadership. The Greek phrase that Paul used for “faithful men” is pistois anthropois. Anthropois is a form of the Greek word anthropos, which means “mankind” in the general sense.22 So, a better translation of this passage would be “entrust these to faithful people who will be able to teach others also.” Paul’s words cannot be seen as a command to entrust teaching to men only.

DraftThe problem 2: of L4.21.16anguage

In Greek, some masculine forms of words can refer to men or women. Consider that Paul used the term diakonos to refer to Phoebe in Romans 16 and apostolos in connection to Junia. Similarly, some masculine plural forms of words can refer to groups of men or groups of men and women. Ute Eisen points out an inconsistency in the way some interpret the masculine forms of Greek words by stating:

It is significant that in exegetical literature non- functional designations such as “saints,” “elect,” “righteous,” are interpreted inclusively - that is,

22. Thayer, “Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament.” See also: Strong, The New Strong’s Complete Dictionary of Bible Words. 44 Unslicenced

both men and women are understood to be described by these terms. On the other hand, terms that mark leadership functions, such as apostles, teachers and overseer are understood exclusively, that is, applying only to men.23

Many of our modern translations have a bent towards male-dominant forms of leadership because translators have viewed the original texts through the lenses of a Complementarian theology of women and ministry. The language of the New Testament does not exclude women from leadership positions in the church.

Evidence for Women Elders?

Paul wrote to Titus, “Rebuke not an elder (presbutero), but intreat him as a father; and the younger men as brethren; TheDraft elder women 2: ( presbuteros4.21.16) as mothers; the younger as sisters, with all purity” (1 Tim. 5:1-2, KJV). And, in Titus 2:3, Paul refers to a group of women by using the term, presbutidos. The term by itself can refer to older women, or to women who functioned as elders. Many scholars choose to translate the word presbutidas as “older women” because of the context. Even so, the word has been used to refer to women elders. Jewish inscriptions say that sometimes women carried the title of presbytera (elder) and even “ruler of a synagogue.”24

23. Ute E. Eisen, Women Officeholders in Early Christianity: Epigraphical and Literary Studies. (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2000), 5. 24. Richard Kroeger and Catherine Kroeger, Women Elders... Called by God. (Louisville, KY: Women’s Ministry Unit, Pres- byterian Church (USA), 2001). See also: Mathew, Women in the Greetings of Romans16.1-16, 93-94.

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History reveals that some women did function in pastoral roles in the early church. Studies of literary (including canonical) and epigraphical evidence indicate that women did function as ordained deacons and less commonly as elders. In their book, Ordained Women in the Early Church, Madigan and Oseik write, “What can be said with certainty is that the claim that women never function as presbyters in the ‘orthodox’ church is simply untrue,” and, “the evidence for women presbyters is not “confined to fringe or ‘heretical’ groups.”25 Examples of women who led in the New Testament show that women did teach and exercise authority over men. Junia was a woman and outstanding among the apostles. Some women hosted house churches in their homes and led in them. There is reason to believe that some of them functioned in pastoral/eldership roles. BecauseDraft Paul used 2: similar 4.21.16 language to refer to the ministry of men and of women, it is likely women engaged in ministry that was similar to the ministry of men. W

25. Kevin Madrigan, Ordained Women in the Early Church: A Documented History. (Baltimore, MD: Jon Hopkins University Press, 2005), 9.

46 cHaPteR 4: a cultuRal backDRoP to JeSuS’ miniStRy

Women in HebReW, gReek, anD Roman cultuRe

his chapter will look at the status of women in Tancient Jewish, Greek, and Roman cultures in order to paint a cultural backdrop for Jesus’ interaction with women. Keeping in mind, what is provided here are only glimpses of the way women were seen in the ancient world. Attitudes regarding women varied from culture to culture, and even within subcultures. Many positive comments aboutDraft women 2:can also4.21.16 be found in ancient literature. Care must be taken not to paint with too broad of a brush. Even so, the following will show that the status of women was generally much lower in Jewish, Greek, and Roman cultures than in modern Western cultures. Understanding the surrounding cultures in which Christianity was birthed will aide in building a theology of women in ministry. Only when understanding the way Jesus and the early church treated women in contrast to those cultures, does one grasp how truly liberating Chris- tianity was for women.

Women in JeWiSH cultuRe:

In general, adult males dominated Jewish society Unslicenced

during the time of Jesus. The Mishnah, a book of legal rules written by Jewish rabbis dating to the second century, gives some indication of how women were viewed in rabbinical circles. According to Judith Wegner, the Mish- nah depicts:

A society whose central character is the free adult Is- raelite male. Possessor of wives, children, land, slaves, livestock, and other chattels, he occupies a sociological status, not unlike that of the Roman paterfamilias, his counterpart in the dominant culture of the day”1

The Importance of Bearing Children and Contributing Economically A woman’s place was in the home. Women were most often married at age thirteen or fourteen to men in their twenties and early thirties. These young women were ordinarily unableDraft to attain 2: autonomy 4.21.16 unless they were divorced or became widowed.2 A woman’s value was often defined by her ability to contribute economically and produce children. The rabbis of the Mishnah required a man to take a second wife if his first wife was unable to have children the first ten years of the marriage.3 The Mishnah gave guidelines for how economically produc- tive wives were to be by specifying how much yarn or cloth a married woman should produce.4

The Public Arena Although women were allowed to engage in commerce,

1. Judith R. Wegner, Chattel of Person?: The Status of Women in the Mishnah. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1988), 3-4. 2. Ibid., 15. 3. Ibid., 5. 4. Ibid.

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it was commonly not considered appropriate for Jewish women to speak to men unless those men were members of the family. Jewish women were not encouraged to have a formal higher education in Jewish Law. They were not admitted to Jewish schools. Women were also not considered reliable legal witnesses in court.

Religion Women were allowed limited participation in the public religious arena and were excluded from performing priestly duties at the temple.5 The Mishnah barred women from leading a mixed congregation of men and women as well as a congregation made up of entirely women.6 Females were often separated from men in the synagogue and were allowed, but not encouraged to read the Torah in front of the congregation.7 During the first century AD, Jews, as well as the early church, worshipedDraft in the 2:temple 4.21.16 built by Herod. In that temple, women were segregated from men; and were allowed to enter the Court of the Women but were not admitted to the innermost courts. Only men were required to travel to Jerusalem for Passover, Pentecost, and Tab- ernacles.8 The following Jewish prayer illustrated the position of women in Jewish culture at the time. In it the author expresses his gratefulness that he is not a Gentile, a woman, or a slave because they did not have the benefit of learning the Torah:

Blessed be He who did not make me a Gentile,

5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 6. 7. Ben Witherington III, Women and the Genesis of Christiani- ty. (Cambridge, MS: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 8. 8. Spencer, Beyond the Curse: Women Called to Ministry, 48.

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Blessed be He who did not make me an uneducated man or a slave, Blessed be He who did not make me a woman.9

The Rule of the Father The Mishnah gave a man the right to sell his daughter as a slave until she reached the age of twelve.10 Legally, a father held the rights over his daughter’s sexuality until she was married. A father could marry his daughter off to any man of his choosing, and do so without her consent. As a means of protecting the asset of his daughter’s vir- ginity, a man was paid a fine, equivalent to a bride price, by a man convicted of raping or seducing his daughter.11

Divorce Divorce laws were not applied equally to men and women. A man was allowed to divorce his wife. But, a woman wasDraft not permitted 2: to divorce 4.21.16 her husband, even in cases of suspected infidelity.12

Rights The Mishnah did consider women to be persons with rights but did not give them equal status with men. These rabbinical writings viewed women as having ratio- nal minds, practical skills, and moral sensibilities. The Jewish sages “acknowledge a woman’s competence to own property, conduct business, engage in lawsuits…”13

9. Ibid., 64. From Palestinian Talmud Ber. 136b 10. Wegner, Chattel of Person?: The Status of Women in the Mishnah, 14. 11. Ibid., 15. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., 7.

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Ancient Greek Culture

Although the social position of women varied between the Greek city-states, the general position of Hellenistic women was a little better than of Jewish women. The belief that men were generally superior to women was root- ed in Greek mythology, especially in the creation myths. The Greek poets were mixed in their portrayal of women. Some were outright misogynistic while others portrayed women in a more positive light. A handful of Greek women became poets themselves.14

The Greek Creation Myths According to Greek mythology, men existed as a race before the arrival of women. Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus were given the task of creating man. Pro- metheus fashioned a clay figure out of water and earth while AthenaDraft breathed life 2: into 4.21.16the first man. Hesiod According to Hesiod, Zeus and the other gods created the first woman (Pandora) to punish men for stealing fire. Pandora was created to be exceedingly beautiful. Zeus had all the gods give her evil gifts designed to make men’s lives miserable. Argos gave her a “bitch’s mind and a lying heart.” Hermes gave her “lies, tricky speeches,

14. Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 85. Blundell mentions women Poets: Sappho of Lesbos and Megalostrata of Sparta from the Archaic period as well as Myrts, Corrina, Praxilla, and Telesilla from the Classical Age. A Spartan poet named Alcman is mentioned in Fantham. See also: Elaine Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text. (New York, NY: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1994), 12.

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and a thieving heart.”15 In addition to an evil nature, Pandora was given a jar full of evils for men. Every time she opened the lid, all kinds of perils were released into the world. According to Hesiod, before woman was created, “all the races of men lived without evils and without harsh labor, and without diseases…”16 In the Theogony, Hesiod taught that the nature of woman was evil, “So, high-thundering Zeus made an evil for men, women, conspirators in cruel works.”17 Hesiod also said, “The man who trusts a woman trusts deceiv- ers.” He recommended that men marry women who were much younger and, therefore, more easily trained.18 In her book Women in Ancient Greece, Sue Blundell writes, “Thus the myth of creation can be seen to validate male domination on the human level by erecting a divine pattern in which the onset of patriarchy is linked to the creation of order.”Draft19 2: 4.21.16 Sermonides A fragment of a poem by Sermonides (sixth century B.C.) describes a version of the origin of women. Al- though the context of the poem is lost to us, Sermonides’ poem may have been intended as social satire similar to Aesop’s fables.20 According to Sermonides, there were

15. M.R. Lefkowitz and M.B. Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome: A Source Book in Translation. (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 24-24. 16. Ibid., 24. 17. Ibid., 25. 18. Sarah Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. (New York, NY: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2011), 48. 19. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, 22. 20. Lefkowitz and Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome, 25.

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eight different types or “tribes” of women created from eight different sources. The Poem says that women were created from a sow, a dog, the sea, a donkey, a ferret, a horse, a monkey, or a bee. These types of women carried unique characteristics.21 All of these types of women had evil characteristics except one, the bee, who was prized for her beauty, affection, and ability to bring her husband wealth.22

Homer The Odyssey Depicts the Homeric household as one where men and women operated in separate spheres of activity. The women were to keep the household while the men were to take care of the land and animals.23 The Odyssey emphasized a patristic model of the family and demonstrated the chaos that can happen when the husband (Odysseus) is absent from the household. At one point in theDraft story Telemakhos, 2: 4.21.16 Odysseus’ son, tells his mother “Go, then, within the house and busy yourself with your daily duties, your loom, your distaff, and the ordering of your servants; for speech is man’s matter, and mine above all others - for it is I who am master here.”24 In the book Women in Ancient Greece, Sue Brundell points out that women in Homer’s writings also dis- played positive characteristics like wisdom and faithful-

21. Ibid., 25-27. 22. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, 78-79. See also: Fan- tham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 42. 23. Helen Whittaker, Gender Roles in the Odyssey. ed. Brit Berggreen and Nanno Marinatos, Greece and Gender (Norwegian Institute at Athens: Bergen, 1995), 35. 24. Homer, “The Odyssey, Book 1,” http://classics.mit.edu/Ho- mer/odyssey.1.i.html (accessed March 11, 2016).

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ness, and at times exercised political influence.25 Women exercised limited power that functioned within the con- fines of a patristic society. Concerning Homeric women, Brundell states, “A woman is ultimately dependent on her husband for the maintenance of orderly relations within society at large, and when he is present her position can never be anything other than subordinate.”26 The Illiad also depicts a patriarchal society where women were responsible for domestic duties while men participated in duties that are generally outside the home.27 Women were often portrayed as the cause of suffering and conflict.

The Greek Gods The male Greek gods were, in general, poor role mod- els in their treatment of women. Zeus was physically abusive to his wife Hera,28 and had children produced from affairsDraft with seven other 2: goddesses. 4.21.1629 Zeus’ attitude towards women was reflected in Greek culture. Sarah Pomeroy writes, “Similarly among their human counterparts, a man had sexual access to a legitimate wife as well as to the female slaves in his household, while his wife was expected to remain faithful to him.”30 Pomeroy also states, “Among the [male] gods there are no virgins, and sexual promiscuity, including rape, was never cause

25. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, 55. Queen Arete was wise and yielded political influence and Penelope was a faithful, cleaver, and determined wife. 26. Ibid., 57. 27. Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 34. 28. Eva Cantarella, Pandora’s Daughters: The Role of Women in Greek and Roman Antiquity. (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1987), 31. 29. Cunningham and Hamilton, Why Not Women?, 4. 30. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves, 10.

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for censure even among the married ones.”31

Promiscuity Promiscuity was often considered a norm for men. So- lon, a prominent Athenian politician, passed laws that promoted prostitution. He was praised because the government hired prostitutes who brought money into the state.32 It was commonplace for men to have mistresses and concubines as well as wives. Demosthenes (fourth century BC) reflected on this in his statement, “We have mistresses for our enjoyment, concubines to serve our person, and wives for the bearing of legitimate offspring.”33

Marriage, Guardianship, and Education Women were often married at fifteen or sixteen years of age to men who were in their late twenties to mid-thirties. Although women were allowed to be educated to some degree,Draft34 they did not 2: have 4.21.16 as much access to education as men. In general, the oikos or household was a patriarchal institution. Because of the desire for a legitimate heir, male children were often preferred to female children.35 A son was under his father’s guardianship until he came of age, but a daughter remained under male guardianship her whole life.36 In general, women were not allowed to make significant financial or social decisions without the guidance of a male guardian.37

31. Ibid., 8. 32. Cunningham and Hamilton, Why Not Women?, 81. 33. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves, 8. 34. Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 60. 35. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, 131-132. 36. Ibid., 66-67. 37. Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 72.

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Religious Activity Greek women did obtain some level of equality serving as priestesses for female goddesses. Males oversaw the cults of male gods while women oversaw the cults of goddesses.38 Women were allowed to be the prophetess of Apollo, serve as priestesses of Artemis, and were used in worship as temple prostitutes.

Plato and Aristotle However, the ideal of equality between the sexes was not completely foreign to Greek society. In The Repub- lic, Plato described his idea of a utopian society. In that work, Plato envisioned a society where men and women would more equally share power. Women were to be educated alongside men, to participate in government, and engage in commerce.39 Aristotle held a more traditional, patriarchal view of women and marriage. He believed that DraftPlato’s ideas as2: stated 4.21.16 in the Republic were unworkable.40

Macedonia and Asia Minor Although heavily influenced by Greek and Roman culture, women in Macedonia and Asia Minor were afforded more freedoms. One such example of this is Lydia in Acts Chapter 16. Paul and his team met up with her in Philippi, which was the leading city in the district of Macedonia. Lydia was a wealthy businesswoman and patron of the early church who imported and sold purple fabric and/or purple dye from her native city of Thyatira.

38. J.B. Connelly, Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 2. 39. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, 184-187. 40. Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 122.

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Women in Macedonia and Asia Minor more commonly engaged in commerce and were able to attain positions of prominence and wealth.41 The city of Thessalonica, in Macedonia, was named after a woman. Women in that city held political positions, were allowed to engage in commerce, and own property. In Asia Minor, women were allowed to hold both public and religious offices.42

Sparta Spartan women were considered more independent than Athenian women in that they spent time outdoors and talked to their husbands in public.43 Spartan women exhibited more independence in the managing of wealth and engaging in public affairs than Athenian women. This may be due to the segregated nature of the Spar- tan society (men verses women) and that the Spartan men frequently left in groups for extended military cam- paigns.44 Draft 2: 4.21.16 Roman Culture

Rome had a marked influence over all other cultures during Jesus’ time because the Romans ruled the known world. Rome set the tone. In general, women in Roman culture were treated in much the same manner as Greek women. The Romans borrowed much of their culture from the Greeks, including many cultural values about women. Roman women were granted a limited form of citizenship, which did not allow them to vote or hold

41. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves, 120-121. 42. Ben Witherington III, Women and the Genesis of Christi- anity, 17. 43. Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 63. 44. Ibid., 64-65.

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public office. Some women did exercise indirect influence in the Roman Senate. The idea of women rulers was not completely foreign to the Roman world. In Egypt, there were female queens, including Cleopatra, who is famous for her interactions with Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony. In the Hellenistic period (323-31 BC), women had more autonomy and could engage male strangers more freely in public conversation.45 Some Roman women from well-to-do families were educated and did rise to positions of wealth and influence within the patriarchal Roman society.46

The Abduction of the Sabine Women According to myth, men first founded Rome with no women present in the community. The poet Ovid gave an account of how the Roman men acquired women from the neighboring Sabine people through abduction in what is commonly calledDraft The “Rape 2: of the4.21.16 Sabines.”47 The historian Livy gave a milder account of the abduction claiming that there was no direct sexual assault by the Roman men and emphasized that the Sabine women willingly chose to stay with the Roman men after their abduction.48 In her book, Roman Women, Eve D’Ambra states, “This founding myth provides a blueprint for Roman attitudes towards women, marriage, and the imperial mission of conquest.”49

45. Ibid., 141, 161. 46. Ibid., 243, 257, 272, 308. Tanaquin was a powerful Etrus- can queen of Rome. Some Roman women became well-educated orators and exerted political influence. Livia and Agrippian the Younger were influential Imperial women during the first century AD. 47. Ibid., 217-218. 48. E. D’Ambra, Roman Women. (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 10. 49. Ibid.

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The Roman Gods Although the names are different, the Romans adopted the same pantheon of gods as the Greeks. Romans traced their origin back to the gods Venus and Mars. While Venus (Greek Aphrodite) was a role model for women, Mars (Greek Ares), the god of war, was a role model for men. Venus was the goddess of prostitution and erotic love. Her enemy was Juno (Greek Hera), the goddess of marriage. While Venus was known for her beauty and de- sirability, Juno was less desirable. Juno was dominated by her husband and unable to prevent his many sexual indiscretions.50 This mythology laid the foundation for a male-dominated culture in the same way that the Greek pantheon of gods did.

Guardianship Ancient RomanDraft men commonly2: 4.21.16 believed that it was necessary for a woman to be under the guardianship of her father or a husband because women were not as capable as men. Cicero, a Roman politician and orator, said, “Our ancestors, in their wisdom, considered that all women, because of their innate weakness, should be under the control of guardians.”51 Marriages were arranged, and Roman women were married off to men who were often ten years older.52

The Rule of the Father The father held the position of authority in the home. A father had the right to sell his children or grandchil-

50. Cunningham and Hamilton, Why Not Women?, 86. 51. Antony Kamm and Abigail Graham, The Romans: An Introduction. (London: Taylor & Francis, 1995), 107. 52. D’Ambra, Roman Women, 13.

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dren, who would then enter a social position called causa mancipii that was functionally identical to slavery. The father carried the right to life and death over the entire family including slaves and extended household.53 A husband could divorce his wife for not bearing a son. When a woman became divorced, the children would stay with the father. This was true for much of Roman history. But by the end of the late Republic, the rule of the father was limited to some degree.54 Recent studies show that affluent Roman women during the first century B.C. were less likely to fulfill classic roles of traditional women.”55

Infanticide Like the Greeks, Romans allowed the practice of infantile exposure, and girls were more likely to be exposed than boys.56 Justin Martyr (114-166 AD) spoke out against the injustice of infanticide, “We have been taught that it is wickedDraft to expose 2:even newly-born4.21.16 children, first, because we see that almost all those who are exposed (not only girls, but boys too) are raised in prostitution.”57 This excerpt from a letter dating to first century BC written by a husband to his wife captures the casual attitude toward infantile exposure among some pagans, “Know that I am still in Alexandria.... I ask and beg you to take good care of our baby son, and as soon as I received

53. Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 141, 227. 54. Ibid., 302-303. 55. Steve Robbins, “1 Timothy 2:8-18; Paul and the New Roman Women at Ephesus,” http://sjvineyard.com/uploads/3/4/2/3/34238987/paul_and_the_new_roman_women.pdf (accessed March 12, 2016). 56. Stark, The Rise of Christianity, 97-98. See also: Fantham, Women in the Classical World: Image and Text, 161. 57. St. Justin Martyr, “The First Apology,” New Advent. http:// www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm (accessed March 12, 2016).

60 Unslicenced payment I shall send it up to you. If you are delivered [before I come home] if it is a boy keep it, if a girl, discard it.”58 As illustrated above, the power to expose a child or accept it rested squarely with the father. Eva Cantarella writes:

The earliest power that the father could exercise over a filius familias was that of exposure. At birth, in a highly symbolic rite, newborns -- male and female -- were de- posited at the feet of the father. He -- without explanation or justification -- either recognized the child as his by picking it up (tollere or suscipere liberos) or withheld his recognition by leaving it where it was. The recognized child became a member of the familia; the unrec- ognized child was abandoned to the river or left to die by starvation. Exposed children were more likely to be girls thanDraft boys. 59 2: 4.21.16 A Man’s World

So, when taking a look at the general treatment of women in literature, religion, philosophy, and law, the ancient Greco-Roman world was largely a man’s world. Compared to our current Western culture, the roles of women in ancient Hebrew culture, as well as Greek and Roman culture, were more restrictive. Importantly, the low status of ancient women should be considered while interpreting passages concerning women in the Bible. Looking at Jesus’ interactions with women in light of the cultural context, one sees that he chose to treat women

58. Stark, The Rise of Christianity, 98. Quoted in: Naphtali Lewis, Life in Egypt under Roman Rule. (Oxford, UK: Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 54. 59. Cantarella, Pandora’s Daughters, 115.

61 Unslicenced with honor and respect. In many ways, Jesus brought lib- erty to women. W

Draft 2: 4.21.16

62 ChapTer 5: a neW begInnIng

Women in tHe miniStRy of JeSuS

t is important to study Jesus’ interactions with women Ibecause Jesus is our role model, and we are to be like him. Women should be treated with the same dignity and respect that Jesus used in his interactions with women. If Jesus elevated the status of women, we should, too. Martin Scott rightly said, “If Jesus, in the entirety of His redemptive life and death, is the revelation of God, then we mustDraft give Him central 2: 4.21.16place hermeneutically.”1 Jesus is the very expression of the Father’s heart and values and, therefore, his treatment of women should take central place when interpreting other passages of Scripture. The Apostle John put it this way, “No one has seen God at any time; the only begotten God who is in the bosom of the Father, He [Jesus] has explained Him” (John 1:18). We often fail to realize the signifi cance of how Jesus treated women because we view those interactions from a cultural perspective that is much kinder to women than the one of Jesus’ day. When we see these interactions in their cultural context, we see that Jesus often crossed so-

1. Martin Scott, For Such a Times as This: The Liberation of Women to Lead in the Church. (London: P.S. Promotions, 2000), 35. Unslicenced cial and religious boundaries to minister to women. Also, he elevated the position of women to that of a disciple. Jesus released women to minister, not just to other women, but also to men. By doing so, Jesus planted seeds of radical change. Some argue that while Jesus did bring new found freedom for women to participate in worship and ministry, he did not intend them to lead or have any positional authority over men. They cite the following reasons: One, Jesus did not choose women to be among the Twelve Apostles, and two, there are no clear examples of Jesus releasing women into positions of leadership over men. Thus, they conclude Jesus must have never intended women to teach or lead in positions of authority over men. But, this is an argument from silence. Just because he did not choose women to be among the Twelve does not mean that he never intended women to lead men in any formal sense. There are alsoDraft no examples 2: in 4.21.16 Scripture of Jesus ever teaching that it is wrong for women to teach men or hold positions of authority over them. Following the same logic, one would not be able to release Gentiles (non-Jews) to minister in positions of leadership over Jews because all the Twelve Apostles were Jewish. Keep in mind that Jesus’ public ministry was only three years long. Jesus did not directly confront all areas that the gospel was intended to penetrate. As Ken Blue points out in his book, Healing Spiritual Abuse, the only social evil the Gospels record that Jesus repeatedly addressed was the spiritual oppression of the Pharisees.2

2. Ken Blue, Healing Spiritual Abuse. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Books, 1994), 1. Blue states, “…in the Biblical record, “Jesus took no public stand against slavery, racism, class warfare, state-sponsored terrorism, military occupation or corruption in government. He spoke not a word against abortion or infanticide, homosexuality or exploitation of women and children. All of these

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The issue of slavery is a prime example. We have no record of Jesus directly confronting the evil of slavery. He did not support the institution of slavery but expected that his followers, who carried radical seeds of the kingdom, would impact every area of society they encoun- tered, including slavery. The cultural/religious boundary that separated Jew and Gentile is another parallel example. We know that the gospel was intended to cross from the Jewish culture into the Gentile world. During Jesus’ ministry, he ministered primarily to Jews and chose Jews to be his disciples. He intended his followers to take the gospel to the Gentiles (Matt. 28:18-20). The early church took the gospel to the Gentile world, set gentile leadership in place, and broke down the religious walls between Gentile and Jew. Similarly, one can argue that Jesus expected the gospel of the kingdomDraft to impact 2: the cultural4.21.16 biases that women face. This study of Jesus’ interactions and teachings concerning women will show that he frequently crossed social and religious boundaries to minister to women and to release women to minister.

Women as Disciples

Jesus did choose other disciples beyond the Twelve. He also sent out the Seventy, and the gender of the Seventy is not mentioned (Luke 10:1-17). But, Origen3 said that Andronicus and Junia were among the Seventy whom Je-

and more were pressing problems in Jesus’ day, but we have no record of his directly addressing any of them.” 3. Origen was an early Christian theologian and philosopher (AD 185–254).

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sus sent out and that Junia was a woman.4 We do know Jesus allowed women into his inner circle and that, at times, groups of women disciples followed Je- sus. Matthew 27:55 and Mark 15:41 say that many women followed Jesus from Galilee while ministering to him. The Greek verb translated as “followed” in both these passages is akoloutheo. This word can mean, “to accom- pany or join someone,” and it can also mean to, “join one as a disciple,” or “become a disciple.”5 Luke 8:1-3 gives a list of women disciples who followed Jesus and regularly contributed to his support out of their private means. These women appear to have followed him from Galilee. Many of them continued through his death, burial, resurrection, and were part of the early church (Acts 1:14; 2:1-2, 2:18).

Soon afterwards, He began going around from one city and villageDraft to another, proclaiming2: 4.21.16 and preaching the kingdom of God. The twelve were with Him, and also some women who had been healed of evil spirits and sicknesses: Mary who was called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna the wife of Chuza, Herod’s steward, and Susanna, and many others who were contributing to their support out of their private means. (Luke 8:1-3.)

Including women disciples would have been highly un- usual, not just for a rabbinical ministry, but also for any Jewish ministry of the time. Ben Witherington puts it this way:

4. Grenz and Kjesbo, Women in the Church, 93, 95. 5. Thayer, “Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament.”

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We know that women were allowed to hear the word of God in synagogues but they were never disciples of rabbis unless their husband or master was a rabbi willing to teach them…For a Jewish woman to leave home and travel with a rabbi was not only unheard of, it was scandalous.6

These women not only teamed with Jesus by supporting him financially, but he also welcomed them as disciples. In Matthew 12 46-50, Jesus spoke to a crowd of people when his mother and brothers arrive on the scene. After Jesus was informed that his family had arrived, he ges- tured to his disciples and said, “Behold My mother and My brothers.” Dr. Kenneth Bailey states:

[In a] Middle Eastern cultural context, a speaker who gestures to a crowd of men can say, ‘Here are my brother, and uncleDraft and cousin.’ 2: He cannot4.21.16 say, ‘Here are my brother, and sister, and mother.’ The text specifically affirms that Jesus is gesturing to ‘his disciples’ whom he addresses with male and female terms.7

This text in Matthew indicates that Jesus considered females to be among his disciples. Luke 10:39-42 gives a clear example of a woman called to be a disciple. Jesus was invited into the house of Mar- tha and Mary at the village of Bethany. Martha went right to work in the traditional role of hosting and pre- paring a meal for Jesus while Mary chose to sit at the Lord’s feet and listen to his words.

6. Ben Witherington III, Women and the Genesis of Christian- ity, 117. 7. Kenneth Bailey, “Women in the New Testament: A Middle Eastern Cultural View,” Theology Matters 6.1 (Jan/Feb 2000): 2..

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Much is lost in the understanding of this passage because we live in a different cultural context and miss the significance of the words, “sit at the Lord’s feet.” The phrase “sit at the feet of” was commonly used in the context of a rabbi teaching and carries the connotation of “being a disciple of.”8 The phrase carried more significance to first-century culture than it does for us today. The phrase “at the feet of” was used by Paul to describe the rabbinical training he received under his mentor Gamaliel (Acts 23:3). Jewish women were not encouraged to have a formal, higher education in the law, nor were they allowed to become disciples of rabbis. But Mary took the posture of a disciple by sitting at the feet of Jesus. Jesus commends Mary for wanting to be a disciple by saying that she had chosen “the good part.” By affirming Mary for her choice, Jesus opened the door for women to become taught and trained as disciples.Draft Here 2: is a look4.21.16 at some other examples of Jesus’ interactions with women.

The Woman with an Issue of Blood

Jesus and his disciples entered the city of Capernaum where they were living at the time. A large crowd followed him, and they were pressing in on all sides. There, a Jew- ish woman who had been suffering from an issue of blood (menstrual discharge) for twelve years pushed through the crowd to touch him (Matt. 9:19-22; Mark 5:25-35). Perhaps she seized the opportunity of the crowd around Jesus to touch him and remain anonymous. A woman with a discharge of blood would have been considered un-

8. Ben Witherington III, Women and the Genesis of Christian- ity, 101.

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clean. According to Levitical Law, anyone who touched an unclean woman, or anything an unclean woman sat on, was considered to be unclean for the day. An unclean person was also required to wash their clothes and bathe (Lev. 15:19-27). Jesus felt power go out of him, and she was instantly healed. When Jesus asked, “Who touched Me?” the woman replied with fear and trembling. She was probably afraid that Jesus would be angry with her because she was unclean and had made him ritually unclean. Instead of being angry with her, Jesus spoke to her using the af- fectionate term “daughter.” He commended her for her faith, and blessed her with the words, “Go in peace.” We see in this encounter that Jesus was willing to cross social boundaries of the day by speaking to women in public and allowing a woman in her unclean state to touch him. Draft 2: 4.21.16 The Woman Who Was “a Sinner.”

Jesus was invited to share a meal at the house of a Pharisee named Simon (Luke 7:36-50). While he was re- clining at the table with a group of Pharisees, a woman who was “a sinner” entered the house carrying an alabas- ter jar of perfume. Most commentators believe she was a prostitute because her sins were public and “were many.” She approached Jesus and stood behind him. Overcome with emotion, she began to wet his feet with her tears. As she wiped his feet with her hair, she kissed his feet and anointed them with a costly perfume called myrrh. Jesus not only accepted her love and devotion, but he also declared that her sins were forgiven. Both acts of wiping his feet with her hair and kissing Jesus’ feet were a “clear violation of rabbinic customs and propri-

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ety.”9 Jesus was unoffended. He blessed her by saying, “Your faith has saved (sozo) you; go in peace” (Luke 7:50). Unlike the Pharisees, Jesus was willing to have relationship with sinners and women (Matt. 9:10-13, 11:19; Mark 2:15-17; Luke 5:30-32, 15:1-2).

The Canaanite Woman with a Demonized Daughter

Jesus went to Tyre and Sidon in the coastal region of Phoenicia. A Canaanite woman from that area had a daughter who was severely demonized (Matt. 15:21- 28; Mark 7:24-30). Jesus told her that he was sent to the house of Israel first and that it was not good to take the children’s bread and give it to the dogs (Gentiles). She responded by saying, “Even the dogs get the crumbs from their master’s table.” Jesus commended her for her “great faith” and told her that the demon had gone from her daughter.Draft 2: 4.21.16 Devout Jews during Jesus’ time would not even eat with Gentiles. Yet, Jesus was willing to cross the Jewish/ Gentile social boundary to free this woman’s daughter from her bondage.

The Samaritan Woman at the Well

Jesus came to the small city of Sychar, about eight miles southeast of the city of Samaria, where he met a Samar- itan woman (John 4:4-43). There are several important things to note about his encounter with this woman. First, he spoke to her at a public well. It was generally not considered appropriate for Jewish women to speak to men in public unless they were members of the family. Je-

9. Ibid., 55.

70 Unslicenced sus’ disciples reflected this attitude in their response. John 4:27 states that the male disciples were amazed that Jesus had been speaking with a woman. Second, the woman was most likely a societal outcast because she chose an odd time of day to get water. The encounter took place at the sixth hour (noontime), which was a common Jewish meal time and the hot time of day. John 4:18 tells us that she had been married five times and that she was currently living with a man who was not her husband. Most rabbis of the day would not have public encounters with any women, let alone those who were considered “sinners.” Third, Jesus crossed an additional social boundary by asking her for a drink of water even though she was a Sa- maritan. Jews and Samaritans were ordinarily unfriendly with each other. Jews considered Samaritans to be “half breeds” because they intermarried with colonies of foreigners whom theDraft king of Assyria 2: had 4.21.16 placed there while the ten tribes were in captivity. Intermarriage with foreigners was forbidden in the Law and therefore frowned upon by the Jews (Deut. 7:3-4). Samaritans embraced a religion that combined Judaism with idolatry. This cultural value was reflected in the woman’s response to Jesus’ request for a drink of water. “Therfore the Samaritan woman said to him, ‘How is it that You, being a Jew, ask me for a drink since I am a Samaritan woman?’ (For Jews have no deal- ings with Samaritans)” (John 4:9). Jesus was not only willing to speak to the woman, but he also offered her “living water,” which represented a living relationship through an encounter with the Holy Spirit. He offered her a relationship that was not tied to a building, but one where she would be free to worship in spirit and truth. After her prophetic encounter with Jesus, the woman

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was so excited, she told men about Jesus (John 4:28). In the culture of the day, women were not even considered reliable witnesses in court.10 Jesus supported her work by telling the disciples that they were reaping where they did not sow. Jesus did not tell the woman to stop teaching because of her gender. To the contrary, Jesus praised her public witness (evangelism), which resulted in many conversions. Christian tradition states that the woman Jesus met at the well was baptized by the apostles and given the name, Photini, which means “the enlightened one.” Her five sisters and two sisters were also converted. Photini became an evangelist to the city of Carthage and was eventually martyred by the emperor Nero for her activism in Chris- tianity.11 DraftThe Woman C2:augh t4.21.16 in Adultery John tells the story of a woman caught in adultery. Ear- ly in the morning while he was teaching at the temple, a group of religious leaders brought a woman who had been caught in the act of adultery to Jesus (John 8:2-12). In an attempt to trap him, they put her on display in the center of the temple court and asked him what should be done with her. They did this to trap him in some sort of contro- versy. If he chose to show mercy to her, they could accuse him of disobeying the Law of Moses, which required her to

10. R. W. Pierce, R. M. Groothuis, and G. D. Fee, Discovering Biblical Equality: Complementarity without Hierarchy. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005), 139-140. 11. The Self-Ruled Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdio- cese of North America, “St. Photini, the Samaritan Woman,” The Self-Ruled Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. http://www.antiochian.org/st-photini-samaritan-woman (accessed February 5, 2016).

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be put to death.

If there is a man who commits adultery with another man’s wife, one who commits adultery with his friend’s wife, the adulterer and the adulteress shall surely be put to death (Lev 20:10,).

If Jesus chose to put her to death, he could be accused of not following the law of the Romans, which reserved the act of execution exclusively for the Romans. Interestingly, these religious leaders chose to bring only the woman to Jesus, without the man. Moses’ law required both of them to be put to death. Jesus responded to their question by stooping down, writing in the dirt and saying, “He who is without sin among you, let him be the first to throw a stone at her.” What he wrote in the dirt is not mentioned. My personal conviction isDraft that he prophetically 2: 4.21.16 wrote the sins of those who were accusing her. John tells us that her accusers left, one by one, starting with the oldest. Jesus chose to show her mercy and send her on her way with the instruction “Go. From now on, sin no more.”

Women as Witnesses of the Resurrection

The first ones chosen to be witnesses of the resurrection were women (Matt, 28:8-10; Mark 16:1-11; John 20:11-18). After Jesus had died, Joseph of Arimathea placed his body in a tomb. The body had not yet been prepared for burial because he had died on a Friday. It became the Sabbath before his family and friends could prepare the body. Burial preparations were considered “work” and devout Jews were not allowed to do any work

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on the Sabbath. Early Sunday morning, after the Sab- bath, Mary Magdalene came to the burial site to mourn and prepare the body. Upon arrival, she noticed that the body was gone and began to weep. It was there that Jesus appeared to Mary. Jesus could have appeared to Peter or John. But, the first person he chose as a witness to his resurrection was a woman. Matthew’s and Marks’s accounts tell us that there were other women with Mary Magdalene at the tomb. Two angels appear to the group of women. One of them, the Angel of the Lord, commissioned them to go and tell the other disciples about what they had witnessed. Isn’t that amazing? Women were also the first to be commissioned to tell others that Jesus has risen even though in the culture of the day, women were not considered to be reliable witnesses in a court of law. Women were thought of as “light-minded.”12 Orthodox Christians have called Mary Magdalene,Draft “the Equal 2: of4.21.16 the Apostles,” and the “Apostle to the Apostles” because she was the first to bring the news of Christ’s resurrection to the remaining eleven apostles.13

Jesus Teaching on Divorce

During the time of Jesus, men were allowed to divorce their wives, but women were not allowed to divorce their husbands. This thinking was supported from Old Testa- ment texts that gave a man the right to divorce his wife but made no mention of a woman being able to divorce her husband (Deut. 22: 19, 22). Jesus overturned this

12. Pierce, Groothuis, and Fee, Discovering Biblical Equality, 139-140. 13. This information was obtained in an e-mail from Dr. Rich- ard Cervin, Sacramento CA, October 7, 2013.

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thinking in Mark 10:11-12 (See also: Matt. 19:3-10).

And He said to them, “Whoever divorces his wife and marries another woman commits adultery against her; and if she herself divorces her husband and marries another man, she is committing adultery.” (Mark 10:11-12)

Notice that Jesus treats men and woman equally in his teaching on divorce. Moses only permitted divorce because of the hardness of men’s hearts (Matt. 19:8). Al- though it is not God’s intent for either the man or woman to divorce, both are viewed as being able to make that choice.

Terminology

Jesus usedDraft terminology 2: that 4.21.16treated men and women equally. Luke 13:10-17 tells the story of a woman who had a sickness for eighteen years, caused by an afflicting spirit. She was bent over and could not straighten up. Jesus laid his hands on her and immediately she was healed. Three things are notable in this story. First, Jesus was willing to cross a religious boundary by healing her on the Sabbath. The Pharisees considered healing on the Sab- bath to be “work” and a violation of the commandment to “Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy” (Ex. 20:8.). Second, he “laid His hands on her” in public, which would have been considered culturally inappropriate. Third, Je- sus called her a “daughter of Abraham.” The phrase “son of Abraham” was a common phrase used to describe Jew- ish men, linking them to the promise and inheritance of Abraham. Here Jesus calls her a “daughter of Abraham”

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linking her to the same promise and inheritance.1 This is the only known occurrence of a woman being called “daughter of Abraham.” It appears to be a phrase unique to Jesus. In using this phrase, Jesus places this woman on equal ground (for inheritance) with men. Looking at Jesus’ interactions with women, one sees that he often crossed social and religious boundaries when ministering to women. Jesus never taught that, because of their sex, women should be subordinate to men in marriage and the church. To the contrary, Jesus elevated the position of women to that of a disciple. He released women to minister, to women as well as to men. In doing so, Jesus planted seeds of radical change, and for women, the ministry of Jesus truly was a new beginning. W Draft 2: 4.21.16

1. Ben Witherington III, Women and the Genesis of Christian- ity, 79.

76 cHaPteR 6: let tHe Women keeP Silent?

oPtionS foR tHe inteRPRetation of 1 coRintHianS 14:34-35

irst Corinthians 14:34-35 are two of the most Fcontroversial verses in all of Paul’s letters. Because of these verses, some see Paul as excessively harsh in his treatment of women. Others fi nd in these verses a support for a hierarchical structure of the husband over the wife within marriage. In our current culture, where women can be CEOs of companies, hold public offi ce, and are consideredDraft equal 2: with 4.21.16 men, one has diffi culty applying this passage to everyday life.

The women are to keep silent in the churches; for they are not permitted to speak, but are to subject themselves, just as the Law also says. If they desire to learn anything, let them ask their own husbands at home; for it is improper for a woman to speak in church (1 Cor. 14:34-35).

So, how are these verses to be interpreted and applied? The following three options will be discussed:

1. Paul’s intent was that women should not speak at all in church services and that practice should be continued today. Unslicenced

2. The words are not Paul’s, not original to the text, and, therefore, do not apply to us today because they are not part of Scripture. 3. Paul’s words were intended to address a specific situation in the Corinthian church and silence a particular group of women within that church. Therefore, they are not to be directly applied to women today.

Option 1

At first glance, this text might seem to be a call for a strict and absolute prohibition of women speaking in church meetings. Verse 34 says that women are to be silent in the church for it is not proper for them to speak/ talk in church gatherings. The word translated as “be silent” is sigaō, which means “to be silent or hold one’s peace.” It is used in 1 Corinthi- ans 14:28 whereDraft Paul tells 2: those 4.21.16 who are speaking publically in tongues (including women) to be silent unless the tongue can be interpreted. It is also used in 1 Corinthians 14:30 where Paul says that two or three people (including women) are allowed to prophesy, and then they must be silent (sigaō). Some suggest that since the silence in 1 Corinthians 14:30 and 14:28 is not a permanent silence, a permanent silence is not meant in verses 14:34-35.2 But, when sigaō is connected with the phrase “during the church meetings” and then “for it is not proper for them to speak” is added, these verses still seem to be a strong injunction against women speaking at all in the church meetings. The word here translated as “not proper,” is aischron, which is also translated as “shameful” or “dis- honorable.” In verse 35, the writer makes the injunction even

2. Cunningham and Hamilton, Why Not Women?, 195-197.

78 Unslicenced stronger by not even allowing women to ask questions in church. These women were required to wait until they arrived home to have their questions answered by their husbands. If one chooses to interpret and apply this passage straightforwardly, women in Christian churches today should not be allowed to speak, give a testimony, or even to ask questions, in any meetings. As discussed above, even though the word for silence does not necessarily refer to a permanent silence, the context suggests a permanent silencing of women. And yet, most churches today, even the ones that hold a complementarian viewpoint, do not adhere to all the limitations these verses would seem to place on women. Another consideration in interpreting this passage as a strict prohibition of women speaking in all church gatherings is that Paul would be contradicting himself. He would be goingDraft against his 2: established 4.21.16 practice of allowing women to prophesy and pray in public gatherings. Paul encouraged women to participate vocally in the Corinthian church through prayer (1 Cor. 11:4-5, 13; Eph. 6:18) and prophecy (1 Cor. 14:1, 31). He instructed the whole church (including women) in 1 Corinthians 12:31 to earnestly desire the greater gifts. The greater gifts are the ones that benefit the whole body and are often manifested orally in public church meetings. Other Pauline texts make it clear that women participated orally in church meetings. For example, Paul sent Phoebe as his emissary to Rome. It is highly unlikely that he would have sent a female emissary to deliver his letter to the Romans and not have allowed her to speak. Pris- cilla was not silent when she “explained the word of God more accurately” to Apollos in a synagogue (Acts 18:26). In Romans, Paul referred to a woman named Junia as

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“prominent among the apostles.” He would not have described a woman in that way if she was not allowed to speak publically in church gatherings.3 So, if verses 34 and 35 were written by Paul, it is highly unlikely that he intended them to silence all women in all church gatherings. An important question to be answered here is what is meant by, “in the church meetings” (v34)? The word translated here as “church meetings” is ekklesia, and it simply means a gathering of believers. Ekklesia can refer to the universal church, churches in a given area, or individual house churches. The meaning is best determined by context. So, do those words refer to the universal church or the local Corinthian house churches? The verses surrounding 14:34-35 show Paul is addressing abuses in the Corinthian church, thus suggesting that these verses are directed toward the Corinthian house churches. This passageDraft is often used 2: to 4.21.16support a church practice of male-dominated leadership where women are universally not allowed to teach men and are required to be submissive to their husbands. However, if these verses were directed toward a localized group of women specific to the Corinthian church, they provide weak support for the practice of a male-dominated leadership in the modern church.

Option 2

A second option has gained popularity among evangelical scholars such as Dr. Gordon Fee, Phillip B. Payne, and F. F. Bruce.4 Perhaps verses 34 and 35 were not

3. See: Chapter 2: Leading Ladies of the Old Testament, for further discussion on Junia as an apostle 4. Ward and Laurel Gasque, “An Interview with F.F. Bruce,”

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part of the original text of 1 Corinthians and thus not authored by Paul. Dr. Fee is a trained textual critic who studies early manuscripts to determine the original and most authoritative form of a passage. As an evangelical, he believes that the Bible in its original form is inspired and authoritative. But not all early manuscripts are the same. When there are differences, the practice of textual criticism is used to determine the original form of the text. Fee states that verses 34 and 35 are found in all known early manuscripts, but they are not always found in the same place. Sometimes they are found after verse 33. Other times they are found at the very end of chapter 14.5 In his commentary on 1 Corinthians, Dr. Fee points out three options for these two verses. 1) They could be placed after verse 33 where most English translations place them now; 2) They could be placed at the end of the chapter (afterDraft verse 40); or 2: 3) They 4.21.16 could be an early marginal note, made by a scribe, that made its way into the text. That early note by the first scribe was then copied by other scribes resulting in two different traditions for placement in the letter of 1 Corinthians.6 Fee believes that the two verses in question were not authored by Paul and were not part of the original text. Fee believes this option makes the most sense and sites the following reasons. He believes a transposition of the text is unlikely because there are no good reasons for a transcriptionist to move the two verses either from a

St. Mark’s Review. http://theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/ffb/inter- view_bruce.pdf (accessed May 14, 2016). See also: Payne: 225- 265. 5. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 699. See also: Gordon Fee, Women in Ministry: The Pauline Texts (Vancouver, Canada: Regent Audio). 6. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 699-711.

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location at 34 and 35 to the end of the chapter or moving them from the end of the chapter to a placement at 34 and 35. Both locations are a tough fit contextually and the text has a better grammatical flow without them. Although it is possible that verses 34 and 35 are an early marginal note that made their way into the text of 1 Corinthians, these two verses do appear in all known texts (Latin and Greek). Many evangelical scholars still believe they are Paul’s words.

Option 3:

A third option is that these two verses were intended to silence a specific group of women local within the Co- rinthian church. Contextually the two verses in question occur in a section of the letter to the Corinthians intended to correct abuses of that local church. Paul mayDraft have been addressing 2: 4.21.16 a particular group of uneducated women, who were disrupting the church service by asking questions at inappropriate times.7 Craig Keener writes, “There is good reason to suppose that most of the women in the Corinthian church - even those raised in the synagogue were insufficiently learned.”8 Some suggest that Paul was limiting a specific type of verbal activity, related to asking questions, that was out of order in the Corinthian church. Keener also states, “It was common in the ancient world for hearers to interrupt teachers with questions, but it was considered rude if the

7. Craig S. Keener, Paul, Women, and Wives: Marriage and Women’s Ministry in the Letters of Paul. (Ada, MI: Baker Books, 1992), 70. 8. Craig S. Keener, Learning in the Assemblies, ed. Ronald W. Pierce and Rebecca M. Groothius, Discovering Biblical Equali- ty:Complimentary without Hierarchy (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2005), 165.

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questions reflected ignorance of the topic.”9 If there were such a group of women who were being disruptive by asking inappropriate questions and thus causing dissension in the church, Paul’s correction would make sense. He would need to silence them and call for their submission. When requiring the silencing and submission of these women, Paul draws support by making the statement, “just as the law also says.” There has been some debate on what exactly Paul meant. Jews considered “the law” to be the first five books of the Old Testament. The problem with interpreting “the law” as a reference to the first five books of the Old Testament is that nowhere in those books does it call for the silencing of women and their submission to men in this manner.10 Some see here an indirect reference to Genesis 3:16, “your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you”(Gen 3:16). Genesis 3:16Draft only states 2:the consequences 4.21.16 of the fall.11 But the man ruling over the woman is not a command for all women to submit to their husbands, or to men in general, rather it is a description of the consequences of the fall. There are instances in the Law where women submit to men, but those examples are individual descriptions of specific incidents and should not be used for the making of a general rule.12 All in all, Paul appears to be asking these women to

9. G. F. Hawthorne, R. P. Martin, and D. G. Reid, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 590. 10. Keener, Learning in the Assemblies, 170. 11. See Chapter 1, Back to the Garden, for more in-depth discussion on this topic. 12. An example of this is when Sarah submits to Abraham in Genesis 20:2ff.

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be submissive to the leadership of the local church. The New International Version revised (NIVr) translates the passage this way:

Women should remain silent in the meetings. They are not allowed to speak. They must follow the lead of those who are in authority, as the Law says (1 Cor. 14:34 NIVr).

Silencing a group of disruptive women would make sense because these verses are found in a passage deal- ing with church order and because the Old Testament shows examples of women following those in authority. In a nutshell, Paul cannot be advocating the silencing of all women in all church gatherings. He would be contradicting both the context of 1 Corinthians and precedent set elsewhere in Scripture where women are encouraged to participateDraft orally 2: in congregational4.21.16 meetings. Possibly, these verses were an early marginal note from a scribe that made their way into the text of 1 Corinthi- ans in two different places. Some think they may not be Paul’s words. If authored by Paul, verses 34-35 are likely a correction aimed at a specific group of women who were causing disruption in the church meetings. Paul deals with these disruptive women by asking them not to speak publicly. It is better that they ask their more educated husbands at home. Therefore, these verses provide very weak support for barring women from teaching in congregational meetings and for a male-dominant leadership within the church. W

84 cHaPteR 7: SubmiSSion anD context (1 tim. 2:11-15)

Introduction he following passage of Scripture in 1 Timothy 2:11- T15 is often interpreted as a strict prohibition of women teaching men and is used to establish a doctrine of hierarchical superiority of men over women.

A woman must quietly receive instruction with entire submissiveness. But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man, but to remain quiet. For it was AdamDraft who was fi rst2: created, 4.21.16 and then Eve. And it was not Adam who was deceived, but the woman being deceived, fell into transgression. But women will be preserved through the bearing of children if they continue in faith and love and sanctity with self-restraint (1 Tim. 2:11-15).

At fi rst glance, this passage seems to make some fairly strong statements limiting the function of women within the church. Paul seems to be making a statement that women are to be subject to men because Adam was created before Eve and because the woman was deceived, not Adam. Certain segments of the church will not allow women to instruct males over the age of twelve based on their interpretation of these verses. Some see a biblical justifi cation for a male-dominant leadership where wom- Unslicenced

en are never allowed to exercise authority over a man. Others use this passage to foster the belief that women are more easily deceived than men and that a woman’s place is in the home. A closer look at Paul’s words and the context of 1 Tim- othy is needed. To be understood correctly, this passage must be viewed in the light of the Greco-Roman culture to which it was addressed. Interpretations of this passage should also take into consideration the broader context of Scripture, particularly Paul’s writings.

The Context of 1 Timothy

In writing this letter, Paul departed from his general practice of addressing letters to churches. He could have addressed this letter to the church in a specific area as he did in his letter to the Corinthians or even in the letter to theDraft Ephesians. But,2: he4.21.16 did not. A known fact is that teachers were spreading errant doctrine in the Ephesian church (1 Tim. 1:3-7). It is quite possible that he addressed the letter to Timothy, not only to encourage Timothy, but also to keep the letter from falling into the hands of these false teachers. So, was Paul’s instruction for women to be silent, submissive, and not to teach or exercise authority over a man, an instruction intended for all women in all churches? Or, was the instruction intended for some local women in Ephesus? A clue can be found in the verses preceding 1 Timo- thy 2:11-15. In verse 2:9, Paul tells Timothy that women are not to braid their hair, wear pearls, gold, or costly clothes. In our modern culture, women can braid their hair, wear pearls and gold without being offensive. To us, it is obvious that those verses are written to a spe-

86 Unslicenced cific culture and situation and thus are not something that Paul intended for all women in all times or in all circumstances. So, we can also view Paul comments in verses 2:11-15 in the same way. The context suggests that Paul was addressing a specific situation within the Ephesian church. Furthermore, these verses cannot be a universal prohibition of women teaching men because evidence shows that Paul allowed women to teach and minister to men elsewhere in Scripture. Priscilla (along with her husband) taught Apollos in Ephesus (Acts 28:26). Although Priscilla’s teaching may not have been public, it was authoritative. She helped bring correction to a man who functioned at a high level of leadership in Corinthian and Ephesian churches (1 Cor. 3:6). In 1 Corinthians, Paul encouraged women as well as men to function publicly in the operation of spiritual gifts (1 Cor. 14:5,Draft 26ff). Teaching 2: and 4.21.16 prophecy are mentioned among those gifts. Since Paul was addressing the use of spiritual gifts in a public setting, both men and women were present. Women would have been vocal while functioning in those gifts. Additionally, Timothy was taught by his mother and grandmother (2 Tim. 1:5; 3:14-15). As previously discussed, Junia functioned as an apostle. Deborah was a prophetess and judge. Huldah and Anna functioned as prophetesses. Women in these ministries would have had to engage in some form of teaching to fulfill the duties of those ministries and would have exercised some level of authority over men. When Anna gave her prophetic word concerning Jesus, she also taught others about him, including men. Luke said that, in the temple, she continued to speak about Jesus to “all those who were looking for the redemption of Je- rusalem” (Luke 2:38). Deborah (prophetess and judge)

87 Unslicenced exercised authority over men since Moses wrote that the sons of Israel came up to her for judgment (Judg. 4:5). If in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 Paul were permanently silencing all women, he would be contradicting his precedence of women being free to participate orally in meetings. Additionally, Paul would not need to instruct Timo- thy to bar women from teaching if it was an established practice in all the Pauline churches. Timothy was an accomplished leader and longtime traveling companion of Paul. Timothy had helped Paul plant and establish a number of churches throughout Asia and Galatia and would have been very familiar with Paul’s practices concerning women and teaching. Therefore, Paul would not have needed to instruct Timothy to, “not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man,” if it were universally practiced. Rather it makes more sense that Paul’s advice to Timothy was intended for a specific group of Draftwomen involving 2: a4.21.16 specific situation in the Ephesian church. Some try to downplay instances of women teaching recorded in Scripture by making a distinction between authoritative teaching (teaching that is up front from the pulpit) and non-authoritative teaching (teaching that happens in a non-official capacity). The problem with this is that Scripture makes no such distinction. Teach- ing is teaching. Teaching that happens one-on-one or in small groups can be just as authoritative as teaching that takes place from the front of the church. Furthermore, most who are against women teaching men in the church do not have any issue with women writing books. But is not the writing of books teaching? Elizabeth Elliot, Hanna Whitehall Smith. Joyce Meyer, Rosalind Rinker, and Anne Graham Lotz have all writ-

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ten books that have impacted the body of Christ in positive ways. If those who do not believe women should teach men are to be consistent, they should bar all men from reading books written by women.

Women Should Learn Quietly and Submissively.

What did Paul mean when he said that a woman must quietly receive instruction with entire submissiveness? To understand Paul’s statement one must view it from the cultural perspective in which it was written. Keep in mind that 1 Timothy was written in the context of a patriarchal Greco-Roman society where the vast majority of women were not formally educated. Women were expected to manage the home and were often segregated from men in the public sector. In contrast, Paul’s words in 1 Timothy commanded women to learn. His words were actually liberatingDraft to women 2: of 4.21.16 the New Testament era because they encouraged women to learn. Allowing women to become religiously educated was a departure from the typical rabbinic practice. In the Jew- ish culture of the time, women were not encouraged to learn the Torah and, therefore, generally unequipped to teach. The second part of Paul’s statement gives instruction on how the women were to learn. They were to learn submissively and in silence. The phrase “submissively and in silence” is a Near Eastern prescription for the way good students were expected to learn.1 All students, male and female, were expected to learn that way. The Greek word that Paul uses for “silence” in 2:11

1. R. C. Kroeger and C. C. Kroeger, I Suffer Not a Woman: Rethinking I Timothy 2:11-15 in Light of Ancient Evidence. (Ada, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 1998), 75-76.

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is hesykhía. The verb form of the word is hesykházein. Dr. Richard Cervin points out that the word means much more than “silence” or “quietness.” An anthology of early Christian Greek texts called The Philokalia states that hesykhía implies:

A state of inner tranquility or mental quietude and concentration which arises in conjunction with, and is deepened by, the practice of pure prayer and the guard- ing of the heart and intellect. Not simply silence, but an attitude of listening to God and of openness towards Him.2

Paul cannot be simply commanding women to be quiet in church. He is describing the state in which these women should be receiving instruction.

DraftWomen and A2:utho r4.21.16ity over Men

Paul wrote to Timothy, “But I do not allow a woman to teach or exercise authority over a man, but to remain quiet (1 Tim. 2:12).” A more literal translation of this verse would read something like this “To teach [didaskein], on the other hand, to a woman I do not grant permission and not to usurp [authentein] a man, but to be in silence.” The word translated as “to teach” is didaskein, and it is the usual Greek word used to describe the activity of teaching. Here, it is connected with another Greek word authentein. The word authentein can be understood as

2. G. E. H. Palmer, P. Sherrard, and K. T. Ware, The Philoka- lia. Vol. 1. (London: Faber & Faber, 2011), 365. This information obtained from Dr. Richard Cervin, Orthodox scholar, Sacramento CA. The Philokalia is an anthology Christian Greek Patristic texts ranging from the third through fourteenth centuries.

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qualifying or describing the activity of teaching.3 Women are not to teach in a manner that demonstrates authentein over a man. But what does authentein mean? It only occurs one time in the New Testament, here in 1 Timothy. Some translate it as “to exercise authority over.” But, if Paul had meant to convey authority in the typical sense, he could have used a form of the more common word for authority, exousia. Studies of ancient extra-biblical literature reveal the word authentein carries a much stronger tone than exousia. It carries the idea of usurping authority or inappropriately dominating. One study by Katherine Kroeger even connects the word to the fertility practices surrounding female goddess cults around Ephesus.4 So, Paul is saying that women are not allowed to teach in a manner that domineersDraft and controls 2: men. 4.21.16 The General Context of Ephesus.

The ancient city of Ephesus was the fourth largest city in the Roman Empire behind Antioch, Syria, Alexan- dria, Egypt, and Rome, and it was a religious center for the area. One of the seven wonders of the ancient world resided there, the Great Temple of Artemis, which was roughly four times larger than the Athenian Parthenon.5 Artemis, also known as the “Lady of Ephesus,” was wor- shiped primarily as a mother goddess. Statues of her de-

3. Kroeger and Kroeger, I Suffer Not a Woman, 80. 4. Ibid. 5. A. J. Köstenberger and T. R. Schreiner, Women in the Church: An Analysis and Application of 1 Timothy 2:9-15. (Ada, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2005), 19.

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pict her chest area as being covered with many breasts.6 This was the cult that Paul had interactions with in Acts 19:28. The cult of Artemis provided a cultural framework for women acting as priestesses. Recent studies have revealed that during the first century, a cultural shift took place from the traditional classic roles of Roman women to that of which scholars have termed, “The new Roman woman.”7 For much of Roman history, married women were barred from the public arena and confined to the role of dutiful wife. They were expected to engage in childbearing and fulfill domestic duties. This “new” kind of Roman woman was much freer to engage in sexual exploits outside of marriage. Apparent- ly, this behavior was common enough with older affluent women, that Caesar Augustus passed laws prohibiting these “new Roman women” from seeking younger lovers. Augustus even offered incentives for young men to marry and form familiesDraft instead 2:of choosing 4.21.16 to be partners with older women.8 In addition to a cultural shift bringing about the role of the “new Roman woman,” there was the influence of Gnosticism. Gnosticism was a religion that emphasized the gaining of secret knowledge; it was a very fluid religion that adopted elements of Judaism and Christianity, eastern mystery religions, and Greek philosophy. The Bible states that Paul had left Timothy in Ephe-

6. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, 30. Blundell suggests the breast-like protuberances on Artemis’ chest might be fruits or testicles of bulls, but that they are still connected to the concept of fertility. 7. Robbins, “1 Timothy 2:8-18; Paul and the New Roman Wom- en at Ephesus.” 8. B. W. Winter, Roman Wives, Roman Widows: The Appear- ance of New Women and the Pauline Communities. (Grand Rap- ids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans Pub., 2003), 4.

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sus to correct false teaching (1 Tim. 1:3). Paul encouraged Timothy to bring correction and order to the Ephesian church. 1 Timothy is grouped together with 2 Timothy and Titus to form what are called the Pastoral Epistles. Roughly twenty percent of the content in the Pastoral Epistles deals directly with heretical teachers.9 So why, in 1Timothy 2:11-15, did Paul allude to the creation narrative in Genesis reminding Timothy that Adam was created first and Eve was deceived? Other Pauline passages in Scripture place the blame for the fall of man solidly on Adam (Rom. 5:14; 1Cor. 15:22, 45). Paul was likely counteracting false teaching connected to Gnosticism. Some gnostics taught an alternative creation story, which praised Eve for acquiring “secret knowledge” from the serpent. Additionally, these gnostics taught that Eve was created before Adam and that he had come from Eve. It is likely thatDraft some form 2: of gnostic4.21.16 teaching had infil- trated the church in Ephesus. Paul chose to emphasize that the woman was deceived and came from man in order to counter false gnostic teaching. As was discussed earlier, the logic that women should submit to men because man was created first does not make sense. Following that same logic, men would have to be submissive to plants and animals because those were created before Adam. More likely, Paul made this reference to the creation narrative for the purpose of countering the false gnostic teaching that was a threat to orthodoxy in the Ephesian church. Since correcting false teaching is the major theme of I Timothy, it is probable that Paul, in 1 Timothy 2:11-15, is addressing a group of unlearned women who need to be

9. Kroeger and Kroeger, I Suffer Not a Woman, 42.

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properly instructed so that they do not participate in, or fall victim to, false teaching. Perhaps, the group of women Paul is addressing was largely composed of unmarried widows that were going from house to house spreading false teaching and dominating the authority of men in the church (1Tim. 5:11- 15).

At the same time they also learn to be idle, as they go around from house to house; and not merely idle, but also gossips [phluaroi] and busybodies, talking about things not proper to mention. Therefore, I want younger widows to get married, bear children, keep house, and give the enemy no occasion for reproach (1 Tim. 5:13-14).

The Greek word often translated as gossips in verse thirteen is phluaroiDraft. It is 2:most 4.21.16often translated as “gos- sip” but is more rightly translated as “to talk foolery” indicating these women were partly responsible for spreading false teaching.10 What did Paul mean by women will be preserved or “saved” (sozo) through childbearing? The word sozo can refer to spiritual salvation or physical healing. In a broader sense, it has to do with being made whole. Here Paul is using the word sozo in a more general sense. He is saying that this specific group of women should not be influenced by the cultural shift to the “new Roman woman” and should not engage in talking foolishness (phluaroi) but rather, should choose a more traditional role of get- ting married and bearing children. In doing so, they will be preserved/saved/made whole by living out godly lives.

10. Fee, Women in Ministry: The Pauline Texts.

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It carries the same vein of thought that Paul expresses elsewhere when he says to, “Workout your salvation with fear and trembling” (Phil. 2:12). Interestingly, Paul’s advice to the widows to get married and raise a family differs from other passages where he recommends that unmarried Christians remain single for the sake of the gospel (1 Cor. 7:24-40). This lends further credence to the idea that Paul here is addressing a specific situation in the Ephesian church where it is better for a specific group of women to be married and raise children. In summary, in order to interpret and apply 1 Timo- thy 2:11-15 correctly, the context in which it was written must be taken into consideration. Paul departed from the typical Greco-Roman culture by encouraging women to learn and become disciples. These verses were written to silence a particular group of women who were spreading false teaching in the Corinthian church. Paul was saying that theseDraft particular 2:women 4.21.16 were not to usurp and inappropriately dominate men. Paul’s argument from Genesis was targeted towards correcting false gnostic teaching rather than being intended as an argument to support the subordination of women to men in all Chris- tian churches everywhere. W

95 An interpretation of kephalē as “authority” or “leader over” can have doctrinal implications that are heretical when applied to the Trinity (specifically concerning God the Father and Jesus) Draft 2: 4.21.16 cHaPteR 8: WHat DiD Paul mean WHen He SaiD man iS tHe HeaD of Woman

intRoDuction

uch of the current debate over whether women Mshould be subordinate to men in marriage and in the church centers around Paul’s use of the word “head” (kephalē) in 1 Corinthians 11:3-16 and Ephesians 5:21- 24. In both of these passages, Paul says that man is “the head of the woman.” Specifi cally, the debate revolves around whatDraft Paul meant 2: by the4.21.16 phrase “man is the head of woman?” Did Paul mean head in the sense of “authoritative head,” “leader,” or “boss?” Did he mean “source” as in the source of life or the head of a river? Or, did he have in mind another meaning like “prominent” as in the top or head of a mountain? Consider Paul’s use of “head” (kephalē) in the following passages: But I want you to understand that Christ is the head [kephalē] of every man, and the man is the head [kephalē] of a woman, and God is the head [kephalē] of Christ (1 Co 11:3.).

…and be subject [hypotassō] to one another in the fear of Christ. Wives, be subject to your own husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head [kephalē] of the wife, as Christ also is the head [kephalē] of the church, Unslicenced

He Himself being the Savior of the body. But as the church is subject to Christ, so also the wives ought to be to their husbands in everything. Husbands, love your wives, just as Christ also loved the church and gave Himself up for her (Eph. 5:21-25).

The Use of Metaphors

In these two passages Paul is using the word head (kephalē) in a metaphorical sense. A metaphor is a figure of speech that creates a mental picture by comparing ob- jects and ideas. The phrase, “John is a worm,” is a metaphor that com- pares a person with a worm. Culture and context are important in determining the appropriate meaning. If the phrase is used in the context of a person reading in a library, it might mean that John reads a lot of books. Used in the contextDraft of a dating 2: relationship, 4.21.16 it might mean that John is a lowly creature about to be stepped on. The same phrase might also convey different meanings to different cultures. A person from a culture in which books are not common would have a difficult time grasping the meaning of the phrase used in the context of the library. The lack of a cultural concept of a library might lead to an interpretation not intended by the original author. Similarly, Paul’s metaphorical usage of the word head (kephalē) is important to examine. We must ask what Paul meant by the metaphor, “man is the head of woman.” There are three main ways of interpreting Paul’s metaphorical use of the word head (kephalē) in these two passages:

1. Head as “authority over” or “leader.”

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2. Head as “source.” 3. Head as “prominent” or “preeminent.”

Head (kephalē) as authority over or leader

Wayne Grudem, John Piper, and others believe that the word head (kephalē) should be understood as meaning “authority over” or “leader” in 1 Corinthians 11:3-16 and Ephesians 5:21-24.1 They argue that their interpretation is the traditional view and cite support from New Testament Greek dictionaries and word studies they have done.2 People who hold this view call themselves complementarians. They believe that men and women were created to have different but complementary roles and responsibilities in marriage, family life, and church leadership. They see men and women as having equal value, but differing roles in marriage and church leadership. Draft 2: 4.21.16 A growing number of scholars have called this view into question for the following reasons:

1. The Greek word kephalē rarely equates with “authority over” or “leader” when used metaphorically in ancient Greek literature.3 Examples can be found in Greek literature where it means “source,” “promi-

1. John Piper and Wayne Grudem, Recovering Biblical Man- hood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism. (Carol Stream, IL: Crossway, 2006). 2. Wayne Grudem, The Meaning of Kephalē ed. John Piper and Wayne Grudem, Rediscovering Biblical Manhood and Wom- anhood (Carol Stream, IL: Crossway, 2006), 425-468. 3. Richard S. Cervin, “Does Kephalē Mean ‘Source’ or ‘Author- ity over’ in Greek Literature? A Rebuttal,” http://theriveroflife. com/wp-content/plugins/Cervin-kephale-1989-pp-1-10.pdf (accessed March 15, 2016).

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nent,” or “preeminent.”4 2. The Greek version of the Hebrew Old Testament that Paul used was called the Septuagint (LXX). The translators of the Septuagint chose to use kephalē for the Hebrew word rosh “head” roughly ninety-five percent of the time.5 But, when the word rosh referred to “leader” or “ruler,” they chose another word besides kephalē as a translation the majority of the time.6 The translators would have only done that if they believed “leader” or “ruler” was a poor translation of the Greek word head (kephalē). 3. Dr. Richard Cervin has a Ph.D. in Linguistics and is well read in ancient Greek literature. He argues that kephalē is not used as a metaphor for “authority over” in ancient Greek literature. Dr. Cervin points out that “authority” as a meaning for kephalē is not found in any specialized dictionaries of classical authors andDraft that the definition 2: 4.21.16 ofkephalē as “authority” is only found in New Testament dictionaries. If “authority” were a common meaning of kephalē, it should also be found as a meaning in classical dictionaries.7 4. An interpretation of kephalē as “authority” or “leader over” can have doctrinal implications that are hereti-

4. Hawthorne, Martin, and Reid, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 375-377. See Also: Catherine Clark Kroeger, “Toward an Understanding of Ancient Conceptions of “Head”,” Priscilla Papers 20, 3 (Summer 2006). And: BibleStudyTools, “Kephalē,” BibleStudyTools. http://www.biblestudytools.com/lexicons/greek/ kjv/kephale.html (accessed March 16, 2016). 5. Cunningham and Hamilton, Why Not Women? 6. Cervin, “Does Kephalē Mean ‘Source’ or ‘Authority over’ in Greek Literature? A Rebuttal.” See also: Alvera Mickelsen, Women, Authority & the Bible. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1986), 102. 7. Alan Garrett, Summary/Review of Two Word Studies About Kephalē. (October 2013). An interview with Dr. Richard Cervin in Sacramento, CA.

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cal when applied to the Trinity (specifically concerning God the Father and Jesus). Consider the following passage:

But I want you to understand that Christ is the head [kephalē] of every man, and the man is the head [keph- alē] of a woman, and God is the head [kephalē] of Christ (1 Cor. 11:3).

If God is the “authority” or “leader” over Christ in any permanent hierarchical sense, then a doctrinal problem called Subordinationism is created. Subordinationism was first taught by Arius. His teachings were ruled heretical by the first Council of Nicaea (AD 325) and again by the First Council of Constantinople (AD 381). Subor- dinationism teaches that Jesus and the Holy Spirit are subordinate to the Father in nature and being.8 The BibleDraft does teach that 2: Jesus 4.21.16 voluntarily submitted himself to the Father (Phil. 2:5-8; John 14:10). But, that submission must be seen as voluntary and temporary. One cannot use this passage to call for the permanent submission of women to men claiming that the nature of woman is different from the nature of man. If this is done, then one must also say that Christ is permanently submitted to the Father and created fundamentally different in being and nature from the Father. Thus, the doctrine of the Trinity is undermined. In his book The Trinity and Subordinationism, Kevin Giles states:

8. Kevin Giles, The Trinity & Subordinationism: The Doctrine of God & the Contemporary Gender Debate. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 13.

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What seems to have happened is that contemporary conservative evangelicals who are opposed to women’s liberation in the church and in the home have read back into the Trinity their understanding of the subordination of woman: God the Father has become the eternal “head” of Christ, and the differences among the divine persons have been redefined in terms of differing roles or functions. Rather than working as one, the divine persons have been set in opposition with the Fa- ther commanding and the Son obeying.9

Any submission by Christ to the Father must be seen as voluntary and temporary. In the same way, any submission a woman grants to a man should be on a voluntary and temporary basis. Furthermore, we must take into consideration that in Ephesians 5:21-25, Paul calls for mutual submission between the manDraft and the woman. 2: 4.21.16 In 5:21 he says, “and be subject to one another in the fear of Christ.” The Greek word for “be subject to” is hupotasso. An alternative translation is “be subordinate to.” So, even though Paul is asking wives to submit to their husbands, that submission needs to be taken in context. Paul is calling for a mutual submission or subordination where the husband and the wife submit to each other.

Head (kephalē) as source.

A growing number of scholars including Gordon Fee, F. F. Bruce, Berkeley Mickelsen, Alevra Mickelsen, and Catherine Clark Kroeger believe that Paul’s use of keph- alē should not be understood in terms of “leader “or “ruler

9. Ibid., 16.

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over.” They see kephalē as meaning “source,” as in the source or head of a river. Instances can be found in Greek literature where the beginning of a river is referred to as the “source” or kephalē of a river.10 Catherine Kroeger points out that the human head itself was also thought of as the source of life and that which produces growth.11 Aristotle believed that human sperm was generated in the head, flowed down the spinal cord and out through the genitals.12 Examples are also found in Greek literature where the body is viewed as drawing life from the head (kephalē).13 Although the metaphorical use of head as “source” is less common in Greek literature than “prominence,”14 “source” does fit well in the contexts of both 1 Corinthians 11:3-16 and Ephesians 5:21-24. In both these passages, Paul is likely referring to the creation story in Genesis, and could be pointing out that woman originatedDraft in man 2: as 4.21.16the church originated in Christ. When asked about Paul’s use of “head” kephalē, in these two passages, F, F, Bruce stated:

It [kephalē] implies that the head is the source of the being of the other party in question. Paul is referring to the Genesis story of Eve’s being formed out of Ad- am’s side. In that sense, the husband was the source of the wife’s being. This suggests priority in terms of

10. Kroeger, “Toward an Understanding of Ancient Concep- tions of “Head”,” 4. 11. Ibid., 5-6. See also: Mickelsen, Women, Authority & the Bible, 124-125. 12. Kroeger, “Toward an Understanding of Ancient Concep- tions of “Head”,” 5. 13. Mickelsen, Women, Authority & the Bible, 124-125. 14. Garrett, Summary/Review of Two Word Studies About Kephalē, 4.

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existence, but not otherwise.15

Dr. Gordon Fee agrees with F.F. Bruce, stating in his commentary on 1 Corinthians, that kepahle should be understood, in terms of “head” as “source,” especially “source of life.”16 But, while the idea of “source” works well in both of the passages in question, it is not the most common metaphorical use of the word “head,” kephalē. It is possible that the Corinthians would have understood Paul to mean more than “source of life” in his metaphorical use of kephalē.

Head (kephalē) as Prominent.

Linguist Dr. Richard Cervin argues that the word keph- alē is often best understood in terms of “prominence” or “preeminence.” He points out that, in Greek literature, kephalē is oftenDraft linked to 2:what 4.21.16sticks out the most or is most notable. This would make sense in that men were more prominent or more noticeable than women in the Gre- co-Roman world and would also fit with the earthly relationship between God the Father and the Son. Jesus is the “only begotten Son” (John 1:14, 3:16; 1 John 4:9) and was sent by the Father (1 John 4:14). Prominence in this sense can be seen as circumstantial and temporary because it is the Son that chose to empty himself, taking on the form of a man (Phil. 2:7). In this way, an understanding of “head” in terms of prominence does not undermine the doctrine of the Trinity because it does not imply Subordinationism. Dr. Cervin states:

15. Ward and Laurel Gasque, “An Interview with F.F. Bruce.” 16. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 503.

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I think he [Paul] is merely employing the head-body metaphor, and that his point is preeminence. This is fully in keeping with the normal and ‘common’ usage of the word.1

When interpreting this passage, it is important to keep in mind the cultural context and that “prominence” does not equate with “authority over,” or “leader.” For one can be prominent or more noticeable without leading or having authority over another.

The Cultural Context

Males dominated the Greco-Roman society of Paul’s time. Men would have been much more prominent and would have held more power than women. In context, then, Paul is asking men as the more prominent partner within theDraft marriage relationship,2: 4.21.16 to be the head like Christ is the head…treat your wives like Christ would have you treat them. Paul is not giving men a charge to rule their wives. On the contrary, he speaks to the reality of that culture and instructs men not to abuse the power that is given to them by their culture. In conclusion, “authority over” or “leader” is an incorrect understanding of Paul’s metaphorical use of “head” (kephalē). “Source” as a metaphor for head is a less common than the idea of “prominence,” but it fits very well contextually in both 1 Corinthians 11:3-16 and Ephesians 5:21-24 and has wide support from current New Testa- ment scholars. More commonly, head was understood as meaning “prominent,” which also works in both these

1. Cervin, “Does Kephalē Mean ‘Source’ or ‘Authority over’ in Greek Literature? A Rebuttal.”

105 Unslicenced texts. Whether head (kephalē) is understood in terms of “source” or “prominence,” these two passages do not support a hierarchical position of men over women in the church and in marriage. W

Draft 2: 4.21.16

106 ChapTer 9: ClosIng ThoughTs

InTroduCTIon

his book is a compilation of about seven years of Tresearch. When I started my theological journey, I was not sure where it would take me concerning the subject of women in ministry. I believed, and still believe, that the Bible is the fi nal authority on the subject. But, interpreting the Bible on subjects like women in ministry is not always easy. I have comeDraft to believe that 2: many 4.21.16 have incorrectly used the Bible to argue for the subordination of women to men in the church and marriage. Just because one can make an argument for the subjugation of women to men from the Bible, does not mean the argument is valid. Consider, from a historical perspective, how the church dealt with the topic of slavery.

a PaRallel betWeen tHe tReatment of Women anD SlaveRy.

In his writings, Paul’s treatment of women was similar to his treatment of slaves. Paul wrote to a culture in which slavery was a reality. A high percentage of people within the Greco-Roman culture were slaves. Paul wrote to Christian slaves telling them, that if they found themselves in a position of being a slave, for the sake of the Unslicenced

gospel, to be a good one (Eph. 6:5-8). Paul did not support slavery. Paul instructed Philemon to treat a runaway slave named Onesimus as a beloved brother, suggesting that Philemon free Onesimus (Phm. 1:1-25). And, according to church tradition, Philemon did just that. Paul seems to have preferred that slaves gain freedom whenever possible. He advised the Corinthians to serve God in the condition in which they found themselves, whether slave or free, and to gain their freedom if they were able (1 Cor. 7:21).

Freedom in Christ

Similarly, Paul wrote to women asking them to be good wives by submitting to their husbands (Col. 3:18). He was not saying women were created to be subordinate to their husbands in any hierarchical sense. He was asking them to honor theirDraft husbands within2: 4.21.16 the cultural context. As he did with those who were enslaved, Paul desired that women be liberated from cultural injustice. In Galatians 3:26-29, Paul wrote:

For you are all sons of God through faith in Christ Je- sus. For all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor freeman, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus. And if you belong to Christ, then you are Abra- ham’s descendants, heirs according to promise.

So we are one in Christ. In Christ, there is no distinction between Jew and Greek, slave and free, male or female. We are all heirs to the promise of Abraham. Some who argue for the liberation of women in the

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church have called Galatians 3:27-28 the “Magna Carta of Christian Equality.”2 Others see these verses as only applying to the act of justification (the offer of forgiveness of sins and citizenship in heaven is applied equally to Jew and Greek, slave and free, male and female). While it is true that forgiveness of sin is applied equally to all who are in Christ, it is also true that the promise of Abraham was intended to affect far more than a person’s status in heaven. Salvation (soteria), in the broader sense, is concerned with the healing and restoration of the total human being. Ultimately, all of creation will be freed from the effects of the curse. It is God’s desire for women to be restored to the position of authority they held before the fall, where men and women jointly ruled creation. Although the context of Galatians 3:26-29 is addressing the topic of man’s redemption, it is easy to see a desire for theDraft liberation of 2: women 4.21.16 in Paul’s words. Barriers Broken

The barrier between Jew and Greek has been broken. The early church wrestled with the issue of Greeks (non- Jews) being included in the church and met to discuss the topic at the Jerusalem Council (Acts chapter 15). As a result of that council, Greeks (non-Jews) were no longer required to be circumcised or to keep the majority of the Law of Moses. The barrier to leadership and function in the church for non-Jews was broken. More recently, in Western culture, the practice of slavery has been abolished. The church also struggled with this issue. Many abolitionists were Christians. Others

2. Debbie Menken, “The Magna Carta of Christian Equality,” https://www.agts.edu/faculty/faculty_publications/gill/The%20 Magna%20Carta.pdf (accessed March 16, 2016).

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within the church used the Bible to defend slavery. We now have laws abolishing slavery and in the majority of churches, all are free to lead as God gifts them regardless of race or skin color. Few now would question the appro- priateness of the abolition of slavery. Since non-Jews are now free to lead in the church, and slavery is no longer an issue for leadership in the church, women should also be free to lead at all levels in the church. In Christ, women are heirs according to the promise.

The Holy Spirit is Given to Men and Women

The prophet Joel foretold a time when the Holy Spirit would be poured out on men and women alike (Joel 2:28- 29). The fulfillment of this prophecy was recorded in Acts chapter two on the day of Pentecost. But this Draftis what was spoken 2: 4.21.16of through the prophet Joel:

‘And it shall be in the last days,’ God says, ‘That I will pour forth of My spirit upon all mankind; And your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, And your young men shall see visions, And your old men shall dream dreams; Even upon My bondslaves, both men and women, I will in those days pour forth of My spirit And they shall prophesy (Acts 2:16-18).

The empowering presence of the Holy Spirit for ministry is available to all. Regarding this empowerment of the Spirit for ministry, Gordon Fee wrote, “The Spirit is unconscious of race, sex or rank.”3 Since the Holy Spirit

3. Fee, Gordon D. Gospel and the Spirit: Issues in New Tes- tament Hermeneutics. Peabody, MS: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991, 137.

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gifts both men and women alike, women should be allowed to lead in the manner the Holy Spirit gifts them.

The Priesthood of all Believers

From the beginning, God’s intention was that women should rule equally, alongside men (Genesis 1:26-28). The Bible also states that God intended that both men and women should function as priests. God gave the following prophetic message to Moses for the people of Israel.

Now then, if you will indeed obey My voice and keep My covenant, then you shall be My own possession among all the peoples, for all the earth is Mine; and you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” These are the words that you shall speak to the sons of Israel. (Ex. 19:5-6)Draft 2: 4.21.16 Quoting this passage, Peter addressed believers (both men and women) who were “scattered” and chosen by the sanctifying work of the Holy Spirit.

But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for God’s own possession, that you may proclaim the excellencies of Him who has called you out of darkness into His marvelous light (1 Pet. 2:9).

Allowing Women to Lead Causes the Church to Grow

When the church allows women to function in all leadership positions, the church becomes more powerful. Con- sider Heidi and Roland Baker. Heidi and Roland function as an apostolic couple. They are both gifted ministers, but Heidi has the more visible ministry of the two. Hei-

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di and Roland founded IRIS Ministries. Their network of churches has grown to more than 10,000 churches in over twenty nations. Their efforts have brought over a million people into the kingdom.4 If Heidi’s ministry were limited to ministering to women and children ages twelve and younger, the progress of the gospel would have been severely limited. Many other women have functioned in giftings tradi- tionally reserved for men. Hanna Whitall Smith (1832- 1911) was a preacher, evangelist, and author. She is most famous for her book, The Christian’s Secret of a Happy Life.5 Aimee Semple McPherson (1890-1944) founded the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel. She was the first woman to preach on the radio. Aimee was a pastor, preacher, author, and missionary. Many people were healed in Aimee’s meetings, and her ministry reached tens of thousands.6 Amy Carmichael was a missionary and preacherDraft who brought 2: thousands 4.21.16 to Christ in In- dia.7 Catherine Booth (1829-1890) founded the Salvation Army along with her husband, William Booth. She was a preacher and author whose ministry reached tens of thousands. The ministry of these women was not limited only to females and men under the age of twelve. So, what do complementarians do with the fact that women have functioned in effective leadership positions over men throughout history? They either have to say that the ministry of these gifted women is invalid, or they have to say that God made exceptions to the rule of not

4. IRIS, “History,” http://www.irisglobal.org/about/history (accessed March 16, 2016). 5. Helen Kooiman Hosier, 100 Christian Women Who Changed the Twentieth Century. (Ada, MI: Baker Publishing Group, 2000), 341. 6. Ibid., 322. 7. Ibid., 246.

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allowing women to minister in positions of authority over men. Neither of these explanations is satisfactory. The time has come to break the stained glass ceiling. Archaic theologies used to subordinate women to men need to be confronted and women need to be given more opportunities to lead in the church. Only eleven percent of current US churches have women as head pastors.1 Fifty-one percent of US churches do not allow women to become head pastors, and thirty-three percent of churches do not allow women to preach.2 Attitudes in the American church need to change. Prej- udicial attitudes towards women do exist. A 2012 survey conducted by the Barna Group reported, “Only half of women (47%) say the male leaders in their church are willing to change the rules and structures to give women more leadership opportunities.”3 I have had discussions with men on the topic of women in ministry Draftwho concede arguments2: 4.21.16 for allowing women to lead as pastors make sense and admit the real reason they do not want women to lead is that they do not feel comfortable with women being preachers. I have also had women tell me that they feel more comfortable with

1. The Hartford Institute, “What Percentage of Pastors Are Female?,” The Hartford Institute. (accessed October 2, 2015). See also: Pew Research Center, “The Divide over Ordaining Women,” Pew Research Center. http://www.pewresearch.org/ fact-tank/2014/09/09/the-divide-over-ordaining-women/ (accessed March 16, 2016). And: Barna.org, “Number of Female Senior Pastors in Protestant Churches Doubles in Past Decade,” Barna. org. https://www.barna.org/barna-update/leadership/304-number- of-female-senior-pastors-in-protestant-churches-doubles-in-past- decade#.Vumif1UrK9I (accessed March 16, 2016). 2. Sarah Pulliam, “Women Pastors Remain Scarce,” http:// www.christianitytoday.com/women/2009/august/women-pastors-remain-scarce.html (accessed March 16, 2016). 3. Barna.org, “Number of Female Senior Pastors in Protestant Churches Doubles in Past Decade.”

113 Unslicenced men in leadership positions. Attitudes like these need to change. I remember feeling uncomfortable the first time I heard a woman preach. I remember thinking, “Are women allowed to do that?” My perspective needed to change. I now feel perfectly comfortable with women in all leadership positions within the church. My hope is that this book will be a persuasive tool in convincing others that women have the God-given right to lead in all areas within the church and that men and women are to function as a team within the context of marriage. The Bible has been incorrectly used to silence women. My prayer is that this book will be used to UnSi- lence them. W Draft 2: 4.21.16

114 cHaPteR 10: one Woman’S teStimony by maRialice gaRRett

WHy WoulD a guy Want to WRite about Women?

hen I’ve mentioned that my husband is writing a Wbook about women in ministry, many have asked, “What does a guy know about women? Shouldn’t a woman be writing on this topic?” One can fi nd many books on this subject written by women. These publications offer insight on the argument about women in church leadership positionsDraft (both 2:for and 4.21.16 against), teaching male and female congregations, and the character a woman needs to have to work within church structures. Who reads these books? I tend to think that women are more likely to read these than men. These books preach to the choir, so to speak. What changes a male patriarchy into a joint women-men leadership? The answer: Men writing, teaching, and demonstrating the making of room for anointed women to lead in any area of church practice. I asked my husband in the early days of this book why he chose this topic. He said that he wanted to see our daughters be allowed to lead within the church and to be able to use the “gracelets” in the fullness of God’s anointing. He also said that he wanted to see me lead to my full capacity and anointing. Sometimes, in the real world of church politics, it takes a man to defend the God-given Unslicenced leadership anointing for women to convince people that there is sound, biblical reasoning for women in ministry. I am so proud and grateful that Alan put this book out there to say, “Come now, and let us reason together…” (Is. 1:18). When Alan started on this book all those years ago, I didn’t have a firm opinion about women becoming elders, head pastors, or ministers. All I knew was that I didn’t want the job! I was not raised “in church,” and thus did not know what God couldn’t do, or for that matter what women would need permission to do. In fact, other areas of ministry are often forbidden to women. For example, I once asked to join the offering team whose primary duties were to collect and count the offering. The answer? “No, because you’re a woman, and women can’t count God’s money!” What was ironic to me is that most of their anointed wives were in charge of the budget in their homes! In thisDraft case, the gift 2: of helps4.21.16 (1 Cor. 12) operates equally in both men and women. Most giftings work similarly in God’s household no matter who may be exercising them, be it male or female, adult or child, lay minister or professional, within the church walls or from without, because they are given by God himself. What churches most disagree with is the context in which women are permitted to use the gifts. Another example I have witnessed over time is seeing women rejected from teaching from the pulpit because they were born female. Sometimes the pulpit privilege is extended to wives of the pastoral staff, as though marriage qualifies the teaching gift. I’ve seen wise and capable women disqualified from being elders and pastors only because they were female. Women have worn the label “Jezebels” because they tried to lead within the context of their gifting. Isn’t it an

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odd thing that the church misses out on the blessing of having the right person for the job just because she was born female? There is a common fear that if men agree to allow women in leadership, it might drive men away from the church or make the church too effeminate, thus weakening the influence of the Christian community. Not only do comments like these crush women’s hearts and limit the gifting in which they operate, but the church then is robbed of a blessing the Holy Spirit is trying to bring.

The made-to-lead tease.

Now, I have led in just about all types of church structure, and from time to time I was frustrated with only using part of the gift mix God had given me. So, I fo- cused on what the church needed at the time. My heart was formedDraft to serve. Serving 2: outside4.21.16 of the gifting and grace he gave me led to burning out. In these circumstances, many women use their gift packages outside of the church such as at work or in para-church organizations. Some become successful CEOs, others run for public office, or play a significant role in charities. Monday through Friday, these women function as leaders but are disqualified to lead in the church because, “God said so.” I call this the “made-to-lead-tease.” Imagine a baby girl formed to lead by God the Father. As she grows, she teaches the Bible to other kids. Later, she leads her friends to Christ, contributing to a church revival. Now, in her mid-twenties, she asks to give a quick word to the congregation and is denied because she is a woman. She knows deep in her spirit that God has called her forward to lead, but since he made her a girl, she cannot. What might that do to a woman’s trust in God? Why would a

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God of goodness and love be two-faced? Yes, there are many levels of leadership in which she could lead, and probably has, but what about growth and dreams? I, myself, am a natural and gifted leader, and my husband has been told to reign me in, take his place as the man of the house. One pastor said to me years ago, “You have the anointing and gifts that usually belong to men, and I don’t know what to do with you!” So, did God make a mistake by choosing womanhood for me? Or did he give me a gift-mix that wasn’t meant to serve beyond women and children? The Bible states that God cannot lie. In the complementarian perspective, men and women are coequal and have different functions. But here’s a point with which to wrestle. The gifts operate the same, dependent on the grace for the using the gift. The Holy Spirit is the giver of gifts and ministries. He distributes them through his unchanging nature as the one who is “no re- specter of persons”Draft (Acts 10:342: KJV).4.21.16

Know people by the spirit and not by the flesh (2 Cor. 5:16)

In humility, it’s time to know each other by what the Holy Spirit is calling each person to be and do. Even Sam- uel looked at the stature and countenance of a man to be king and the Lord corrected him saying that he looks at the heart (1 Sam. 16:7). Thus, shouldn’t the church look at a leader’s heart instead of summing up a leader based on outward appearance? I’m not suggesting a feminist coup here. I am suggesting making room to have both sexes exercise God’s gifts and placements to the measure of grace given them to bless the bride of Christ. I had come from a movement of very evangelical, char- ismatic, complementarian church structures in Orange

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County when I first moved to Sacramento. My church experience down south was a blurring of the lines between complementarian and egalitarian mindsets. For example, in one small group, I was allowed to minister by the laying on of hands in God’s fullness, but I wasn’t permitted to teach the mixed group of men and women. In another home group, I could teach a mixed gender group but was called a Jezebel for wanting to operate as a leader in the ministry of the gifts. The corrective comments my leaders usually gave came with a shrug of the shoulders and an inability to explain exactly why, in the time of the ‘80s and ‘90s during the Women’s Liberation Movement. Some pastors concluded that women were lusting for power and position, and thus, were adding dissension to the church as a whole. One publicly known pastor called all leadership-oriented women as being out of order, and they should rather just run their own households! It was so harmful Draftto the churches 2: in 4.21.16 our area because these scolded women became crushed in spirit. It took a lot of time, ten to fifteen years, to heal this wound in our movement. So I came to Sacramento and joined a church here that felt like more of the same until I got a call from the head pastor asking me to teach a mixed group on the topic of Ministry Team Training. I asked him if he had noticed that I was a girl. His answer was, “Yeah. So?” I asked him if he knew our movement’s position on women teaching. Again, he said, “Yeah. So?” I asked him about the Jezebel spirit thing. He told me that he was never into that and found the label to do more harm than good. Hav- ing a pastor initiate a call to teach was incredibly freeing and washed me clean of a sense of unworthiness due to being female. Later, I was called to run the young kids program. In this church, a leader of a ministry was called

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a deacon and considered a part of the church leadership team. Women had the freedom to be home group leaders, program leaders, and the like. They were, however, excluded from becoming elders (staff pastors) because of the movement’s philosophy on women in executive leadership. Still, it was the most freedom I had experienced up to that point in leading and exercising gifts for which I will always be grateful.

A word to and about women.

Here is how women during the last forty years were able to lead alongside the men. First, both genders start on the same/similar path. People could obtain freedom to minister within a church through their character, and no character trait was greater than humility. All had to enter church ministry with the attitude of being a team player. HumilityDraft allowed a2: man 4.21.16 or woman to exercise the gifts in the hidden places, at first. Then, as the Holy Spir- it highlighted a person’s effectiveness, he/she was given more room to demonstrate who he/she was in God. Both genders were told that promotion was from the Lord (Ps. 75:6). But if a woman submitted her resume, explaining her sense of calling to be a pastor, she was often told that God does not allow people to lead out of spiritual ambition. If a man submitted his resume and explained his calling to be a pastor, he would be considered and he would not be scolded about spiritual ambition. Unfortu- nately, most of the above is still true today. The ministry paths diverge at this point because there is a big difference as to what level/context men and women can dream of leading. Men can dream of being called by God to any ministry, in any context, period. Those dreams are never disqualified by gender alone, a part

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of himself he was born being. Women have to limit who they can be in God’s house just because of their sex and they, too, cannot change that. Most women will never be called a pastor and the dream itself to be a pastor is often vilified. Notably, within church structure, mostly men do the promoting, and they also tend to be promoted into the governing positions of the church, while the women bump their heads on a glass ceiling because they are per- ceived to be biblically excluded. Occasionally, a woman comes along whose anointing blows up the usual feminine box. An example is Kathryn Kuhlman. How can we explain her extraordinary ministry in light of the usual custom to exclude women in leadership? Another example is Jackie Pullinger’s outreach to drug addicts in Hong Kong. She landed in one of the most dangerous cities in the world since no other society would accept her as an unmarried female missionary. AfterDraft creating a 2:ministry 4.21.16 that led thousands to the Lord, she began to be noticed by men of stature within the church. She often received marriage proposals by men who added the incentive that as a married woman, her ministry would become legitimate!

Know to whom you belong

Now, I am not of the same caliber as the women above, but I do have a story to tell on a much smaller scale. I had interned and ministered in several churches of our movement and had gained a reputation for healing, evangelism, and prophecy. God used me in countless ways to help people grow in Jesus. I was praying in church one Sunday about becoming a recognized leader, such as a staff pastor. As the worship band was wrapping up the service, a man came up to me with a word of knowledge

121 Unslicenced saying that the Lord saw me as an Annie Oakley. While this word did not promise a place of leadership, it did reassure me that the anointing in which I was operating was not a mistake just because I was a girl. But rather, he made me a “sharpshooter” to use the foolish to con- found the wise (1 Cor. 1:27 KJV). I lean on that word even today because knowing no matter my position, no matter my gifts, I am the Father’s Annie Oakley. In another church, the pastors recognized that the Holy Spirit used me powerfully, but so differently than they were used to, that they didn’t know how to peg me. The feeling of not fitting in bothered me for some time. One night I had a dream. In the dream, our church had been transformed into an art gallery of sorts. There were paintings richly depicting various churches and aspects of the Christian life. Intermittently, a few cubist paintings were dispersed. These were so joltingly different that people Draftexperienced a2: new 4.21.16way of looking at art. At the end of the dream, I heard the Lord say, “Marialice, you are a Picasso in a Thomas Kincaid world.” Suddenly, I understood who I was to this particular congregation! I have gained more strength in knowing whose I am than I ever did in a church position. (As it should be!) Je- sus bought me with a price, by him alone I am completely owned, and thus, I am only on loan to a church. In be- longing to Christ alone, I have the confidence to minister inside and outside the church, within whatever context I am allowed. Just like Paul advised the slave in 1 Cor- inthians 7:21-24 to “be free if freedom can be obtained, but work for the Lord while still a slave.” As a woman, I really would rather be free rather than asking a man

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for permission to minister. Until then, I humbly accept within whatever parameters I am released.

A few poignant questions

What would Jesus do (WWJD)? What is his heart for males and females? What are his ways? What was the heart he had for early Christians and how does that same heart work in today’s Western culture? Does gender matter when taking up the offering, or should the gift of helps be recognized in both sexes? Is a woman giving a prophetic word from the front of the church considered to be teaching the men in the congregation? Overall where is the love and freedom of Christ best demonstrated? What about inclusion: would more joint-led function be of benefit to the king and the kingdom? Would his heart be to hinder or to give freedom (1 Cor. 7:23)? I’ve been Draftasking these questions2: 4.21.16 all the while Alan has been writing this book, and he has answered many of them. The other queries seem to fall into a world named, “How we do church.” There’s a Scripture verse that talks about the Spirit of the law versus the letter of the law, (2 Cor. 3:6). In keeping with Jesus’ ministry style, I would have to say that women were given authority to minister since women (as Alan mentions earlier) were part of the seventy he sent out. Also, Jesus was quite critical of those who used religious law to exclude people. Last, Paul said there was no male or female in the next world, (Gal. 3:28). Within the Spirit of the law, I firmly believe that there is no duplicity in God. He cannot say one thing and do another. He has anointed and appointed women in the Bible and throughout history. Then how can the church dismiss women as leaders and keep them sub- jugated to a lesser, supportive, background role? I just

123 Unslicenced don’t believe subjugation is the intention of Jesus’ heart for women. Otherwise, the Holy Spirit would give women a lesser measure of gifting/anointing and give men a greater portion. Except, the Lord gives different portions to his children, thus the gifting and anointing are not uniformly distributed. Sometimes the Spirit chooses to give a greater calling and gift-mix to a woman. Leader- ship is one of those God-given gifts. So I shall end with this gender-neutral passage:

We have different gifts, according to the grace given to each of us. If your gift is prophesying, then prophesy according to your faith; if it is serving, then serve; if it is teaching, then teach; if it is to encourage, then give encouragement; if it is giving, then give generously; if it is to lead, do it diligently; if it is to show mercy, do it cheerfullyDraft (Romans 12:6-8, 2: NKJV, 4.21.16 ital. mine). W

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