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⁄⁄ Assessment Ecosystem Millennium The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is an international process de- signed to meet the needs of decision-makers and the public for scientific infor- mation concerning the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being, and to analyze options available to enhance the conservation of ecosystems and their contributions to meeting human needs. Leading scientists from more than nations are conducting the assessment through working groups chaired by members of the Millennium Assessment Panel, with oversight by a Board com- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment prised of representatives of international conventions, United Nations agencies, scientific organizations, and leaders from the pri- vate sector, civil society, and indigenous groups. Millennium Assessment Panel H uman Well-being Ecosystems and The MA was launched by - Ecosystems UN Secretary-General Harold Mooney Angela Cropper Kofi Annan in June . The full assessment re- and ports will be released in Human Doris Capistrano Stephen Carpenter . Kanchan Chopra Partha Dasgupta Rashid Hassan Rik Leemans Sir Robert May Robert Scholes Prabhu Pingali Cristian Samper Well-being Zhao Shidong ISBN 1-55963-403-0 Island Press 90000 www.islandpress.org Island Press All Island Press books are printed on recycled paper 9 7 81 5 59 63 4 03 8 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 1 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM About Island Press Island Press is the only nonprofit organization in the United States whose princi- pal purpose is the publication of books on environmental issues and natural re- source management. We provide solutions-oriented information to professionals, public officials, business and community leaders, and concerned citizens who are shaping responses to environmental problems. In 2003, Island Press celebrates its nineteenth anniversary as the leading pro- vider of timely and practical books that take a multidisciplinary approach to criti- cal environmental concerns. Our growing list of titles reflects our commitment to bringing the best of an expanding body of literature to the environmental com- munity throughout North America and the world. Support for Island Press is provided by The Nathan Cummings Foundation, Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, Educational Foundation of America, The Charles Engelhard Foundation, The Ford Founda- tion, The George Gund Foundation, The Vira I. Heinz Endowment, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Henry Luce Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, The Moriah Fund, The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, National Fish and Wildlife Founda- tion, The New-Land Foundation, Oak Foundation, The Overbrook Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, The Pew Charitable Trusts, The Rockefeller Foundation, The Winslow Foundation, and other generous donors. The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of these foundations. MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 2 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM Ecosystems and Human Well-being A Report of the Conceptual Framework Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 3 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board The MA Board represents the users of the findings of the MA process. Co-chairs Robert T. Watson, World Bank A.H. Zakri, United Nations University Institutional Representatives Delmar Blasco, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Peter Bridgewater, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Philbert Brown, Convention to Combat Desertification Hama Arba Diallo, Convention to Combat Desertification Max Finlayson, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Colin Galbraith, Convention on Migratory Species Richard Helmer, World Health Organization Yolanda Kakabadse, World Conservation Union Arnulf Müller-Helmbrecht, Convention on Migratory Species Alfred Oteng-Yeboah, Convention on Biological Diversity Seema Paul, United Nations Foundation Mario Ramos, Global Environment Facility Thomas Rosswall, International Council for Science Dennis Tirpak, Framework Convention on Climate Change Klaus Töpfer, United Nations Environment Programme Jeff Tschirley, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Alvaro Umaña, United Nations Development Programme Meryl Williams, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Hamdallah Zedan, Convention on Biological Diversity At-large Members Fernando Almeida José María Figueres Paul Maro Ismail Serageldin Phoebe Barnard Fred Fortier Hal Mooney David Suzuki Gordana Beltram Mohammed H.A. Hassan Marina Motovilova M.S. Swaminathan Antony Burgmans Yoriko Kawaguchi M.K. Prasad José Tundisi Esther Camac Corinne Lepage Walter V. Reid Axel Wenblad Angela Cropper Jonathan Lash Henry Schacht Xu Guanhua Partha Dasgupta Wangari Maathai Peter Johan Schei Muhammad Yunus Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Secretariat The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinates the Millennium Eco- system Assessment Secretariat, which is based at the following partner institutions: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Italy Institute of Economic Growth, India Meridian Institute, USA National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Netherlands Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), France UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, United Kingdom University of Pretoria, South Africa University of Wisconsin, USA World Resources Institute (WRI), USA WorldFish Center, Malaysia MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 4 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment Authors Joseph Alcamo Rashid Hassan Daniel Pauly Neville J. Ash Eric F. Lambin Steve Percy Colin D. Butler Louis Lebel Prabhu Pingali J. Baird Callicott Rik Leemans Robert Prescott-Allen Doris Capistrano Liu Jiyuan Walter V. Reid Stephen R. Carpenter Jean-Paul Malingreau Taylor H. Ricketts Juan Carlos Castilla Robert M. May Cristian Samper Robert Chambers Alex F. McCalla Robert (Bob) Scholes Kanchan Chopra Tony (A.J.) McMichael Henk Simons Angela Cropper Bedrich Moldan Ferenc L. Toth Gretchen C. Daily Harold Mooney Jane K. Turpie Partha Dasgupta Shahid Naeem Robert Tony Watson Rudolf de Groot Gerald C. Nelson Thomas J. Wilbanks Thomas Dietz Niu Wen-Yuan Meryl Williams Anantha Kumar Duraiappah Ian Noble Stanley Wood Madhav Gadgil Ouyang Zhiyun Zhao Shidong Kirk Hamilton Stefano Pagiola Monika B. Zurek Contributing Authors Assessment Panel Chairs Chapter Review Editors Elena M. Bennett Angela Cropper Gilberto Gallopin Reinette (Oonsie) Biggs Harold A. Mooney Roger Kasperson Poh-Sze Choo Mohan Munasinghe Jonathan Foley MA Director Léon Olivé Pushpam Kumar Christine Padoch Walter V. Reid Marcus J. Lee Jeffrey Romm Richard H. Moss Hebe Vessuri Gerhard Petschel-Held Editorial Board Chairs Sarah Porter José Sarukhán Stephen H. Schneider Anne Whyte Washington • Covelo • London MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 5 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM Copyright © 2003 World Resources Institute All rights reserved under international and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20009. ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of The Center for Resource Economics. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ecosystems and human well-being : a framework for assessment / Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ; authors, Joseph Alcamo [et al.] ; contributing authors, Elena M. Bennett [et al.]. p. cm. “The first product of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a four-year international work program designed to meet the needs of decision-makers for scientific information on the links between ecosystem change and human well-being”—Pref. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-55963-402-2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-55963-403-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Human ecology. 2. Ecosystem management. I. Alcamo, Joseph. II. Bennett, Elena M. III. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program) GF50.E26 2003 333.95—dc21 2003011612 British Cataloguing-in-Publication Data available Printed on recycled, acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 6 7/14/2003, 11:12 AM The Board of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment dedicates this report to the memory of Angela Cropper’s husband, mother, and sister: John Cropper, Maggie Lee and Lynette Lithgow-Pearson. Through their lives and work they embodied the spirit and intent of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by their love of the natural world and their concern to improve the lives of people. MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM Table of Contents Preface x Acknowledgments xiii Summary 1 Chapter 1. Introduction and Conceptual Framework 26 Introduction 26 Overview of Conceptual Framework 34 The Multiscale Approach 43 Types of Knowledge Assessed 44 Minimizing Structural Biases 45 Use in Decision-making 47 Chapter 2. Ecosystems and Their Services 49 Introduction 49 Ecosystems Boundaries and Categories 50 Ecosystem Services 53 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 60 Ecosystem Condition and Sustainable Use 62 Chapter 3. Ecosystems and Human Well-being 71 Introduction 72 Key Components of Human Well-being 73 Linkages between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being 76 Substitutability and Well-being 79 Balancing Priorities: Present Versus Future 81 Institutions and Freedoms 82 Conclusion 83 Chapter 4. Drivers of Change in Ecosystems and Their Services 85 Introduction
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  • Resilience of Alternative States in Spatially Extended Ecosystems

    Resilience of Alternative States in Spatially Extended Ecosystems

    RESEARCH ARTICLE Resilience of Alternative States in Spatially Extended Ecosystems Ingrid A. van de Leemput*, Egbert H. van Nes, Marten Scheffer Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands * [email protected] Abstract Alternative stable states in ecology have been well studied in isolated, well-mixed systems. However, in reality, most ecosystems exist on spatially extended landscapes. Applying ex- isting theory from dynamic systems, we explore how such a spatial setting should be ex- pected to affect ecological resilience. We focus on the effect of local disturbances, defining resilience as the size of the area of a strong local disturbance needed to trigger a shift. We show that in contrast to well-mixed systems, resilience in a homogeneous spatial setting does not decrease gradually as a bifurcation point is approached. Instead, as an environ- OPEN ACCESS mental driver changes, the present dominant state remains virtually ‘indestructible’, until at Citation: van de Leemput IA, van Nes EH, Scheffer a critical point (the Maxwell point) its resilience drops sharply in the sense that even a very M (2015) Resilience of Alternative States in Spatially Extended Ecosystems. PLoS ONE 10(2): e0116859. local disturbance can cause a domino effect leading eventually to a landscape-wide shift to doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116859 the alternative state. Close to this Maxwell point the travelling wave moves very slow. Under Academic Editor: Emanuele Paci, University of these conditions both states have a comparable resilience, allowing long transient co-occur- Leeds, UNITED KINGDOM rence of alternative states side-by-side, and also permanent co-existence if there are mild Received: April 11, 2014 spatial barriers.