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Phylum Cnidaria (Formerly Coelenterata) Has Been Reported to Be Responsible for More Envenomations Than Any Other Marine Phylum

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Phylum Cnidaria (Formerly Coelenterata) Has Been Reported to Be Responsible for More Envenomations Than Any Other Marine Phylum Ramasamy Santhanam Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians Ramasamy Santhanam Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians Ramasamy Santhanam Fisheries College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, India ISBN 978-981-15-1602-3 ISBN 978-981-15-1603-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1603-0 # Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Preface Seas and oceans cover 70% of the earth’s surface. While the plants of these ecosystems produce 70% of the oxygen we breathe, their deep waters are home to 80% of all life found on the planet. So far about 250,000 species have been collected and formally described from these systems. Among the different components of marine life, the phylum Cnidaria (formerly Coelenterata) has been reported to be responsible for more envenomations than any other marine phylum. It is believed that 2% of about 11000 species are toxic to humans. Accidents caused by jellyfish are common all around the world, with serious manifestations and occasional deaths reported in some countries. The major species of jellyfish associated with accidents in Brazil include the cubozoans Tamoya haplonema and Chiropsalmus quadrumanus; and the hydrozoans Portuguese man-of-war, Physalia physalis and Olindias sambaquiensis. While the first two species are responsible for both local and systemic signs and symptoms, P. physalis causes severe injuries to bathers and fishermen. O. sambaquiensis provokes mild accidents on the southeastern coast. Though books such as Poisonous and Venomous Marine Animals of the World, Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes, Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Snails and Biology and Ecology of Toxic Pufferfish are presently available on venomous marine fauna, a comprehensive book on the Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians (formerly coelenterates) has not so far been published. This publication, the first of its kind, would answer this long felt need. It deals with the biology, ecology, envenomations, venomology and treatment and management of 240 species of marine cnidarians. It is hoped that the present publication when brought out would be of great use as a standard text-cum-reference for researchers, teachers and students of various disciplines such as fisheries science and marine biology; as a guide for beach goers, divers, physicians and environmentalists; and as a valuable reference book for libraries of colleges and universities. I am highly indebted to Dr. K.Venkataramanujam, former dean, Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thoothukudi, India, for his valued comments and suggestions on the manuscript. I sincerely thank all my international friends who were very kind enough to collect v vi Preface and send certain species/images of venomous marine cnidarians for the present publication. The services viz. photography and secretarial assistance rendered by Mrs. Albin Panimalar Ramesh are also gratefully acknowledged. Thoothukudi, India Ramasamy Santhanam Contents 1 Introduction ........................................... 1 1.1 Ecology of Marine Cnidarians . 2 1.2 Envenomation of Marine Cnidarians ..................... 2 1.2.1 Irukandji Syndrome . ......................... 2 1.2.2 Marine Cnidarian Envenomations that Cause Severe Injuries in Humans . 3 1.2.3 Cnidarian Toxins . ................ 3 1.2.4 Harm to Fisheries ............................. 3 1.2.5 Uses of Cnidarians . ..................... 4 2 Biology of Marine Cnidarians [Phylum Cnidaria (¼ Coelenterata)] ....................................... 7 2.1 Biology of the Hydrozoans (Hydroids) (Class Hydrozoa) . ...... 7 2.1.1 Geographic Range ............................ 8 2.1.2 Habitat .................................... 8 2.1.3 Anatomy ................................... 8 2.1.4 Nervous System . .......................... 10 2.1.5 Communication and Perception . 10 2.1.6 Behaviour . 10 2.1.7 Food Habits ................................. 10 2.1.8 Predation . ................................. 11 2.1.9 Defence Mechanism . 11 2.1.10 Reproduction . 11 2.1.11 Ecosystem Roles ............................. 12 2.1.12 Significance to Humans . ..................... 12 2.2 Biology of the True Jellyfish (Scyphomedusae) (Class Scyphozoa) . 13 2.2.1 Characteristics of Scyphozoa . .................. 13 2.2.2 Distribution ................................. 14 2.2.3 Habitat .................................... 14 2.2.4 Size ....................................... 14 2.2.5 Colouration ................................. 14 2.2.6 Biology . 15 vii viii Contents 2.3 Biology of the Box Jellyfish (Cubomedusae) (Class Cubozoa) . 18 2.3.1 Distribution ................................. 18 2.3.2 Habitat .................................... 19 2.3.3 Behaviour . 19 2.3.4 Physical Characteristics . ..................... 19 2.3.5 Feeding Ecology and Diet ....................... 19 2.3.6 Reproductive Biology .......................... 20 2.3.7 Significance to Humans . ...................... 20 2.4 Biology of the Anthozoans (Anemones) (Class Anthozoa) ...... 20 2.4.1 Distribution ................................. 21 2.4.2 Habitat .................................... 21 2.4.3 Formation of Coral Reefs ....................... 21 2.4.4 Biology of Anthozoa . 21 2.4.5 Association . 26 2.4.6 Predators . 26 2.4.7 Bioluminescence ............................. 27 2.4.8 Lifespan ................................... 27 2.4.9 Coral Reefs and Their Uses . 27 2.4.10 Environmental and Commercial Importance . 27 3 Biology and Ecology of the Venomous Marine Hydrozoans (Class Hydrozoa) ........................................ 29 3.1 Family: Aeginidae . 29 3.2 Family Aequoreidae . ........................ 31 3.3 Family Aglaopheniidae ............................... 34 3.4 Family Apolemiidae . 39 3.5 Family Corynidae . ........................... 40 3.6 Family Cuninidae ................................... 41 3.7 Family Eirenidae . 42 3.8 Family Geryoniidae . 43 3.9 Family Haleciidae ................................... 44 3.10 Family Hydractiniidae . ............................... 46 3.11 Family Milleporidae . 48 3.12 Family Olindiidae . 54 3.13 Family Pandeidae ................................... 59 3.14 Family Pennariidae . ................................. 62 3.15 Family Physaliidae . 63 3.16 Family Porpitidae ................................... 65 3.17 Family Rhizophysidae ................................ 68 3.18 Family Rhopalonematidae . ............................ 70 3.19 Family Sertulariidae . .............................. 72 Contents ix 4 Biology and Ecology of the Venomous Marine True Jellyfish (Class Scyphozoa) ....................................... 75 4.1 Family Atollidae . .................................. 75 4.2 Family Cassiopeidae . ................................ 78 4.3 Family Catostylidae . ............. 81 4.4 Family Cepheidae . 84 4.5 Family Cyaneidae . 86 4.6 Family Drymonematidae .............................. 90 4.7 Family Linuchidae .................................. 91 4.8 Family Lobonematidae . .............................. 93 4.9 Family Lychnorhizidae . 94 4.10 Family Mastigiidae . ................................. 95 4.11 Family Nausithoidae . ................................ 97 4.12 Family Paraphyllinidae . 97 4.13 Family Pelagiidae ................................... 98 4.14 Family Periphyllidae . 113 4.15 Family Rhizostomatidae . ........................... 114 4.16 Family Stomolophidae . ......................... 123 4.17 Family Ulmaridae . 125 5 Biology and Ecology of the Venomous Marine Box Jellyfish (Class Cubozoa) ........................................ 133 5.1 Family Alatinidae ................................... 133 5.2 Family Carukiidae . 137 5.3 Family Carybdeidae ................................. 145 5.4 Family Chirodropidae ................................ 153 5.5 Family Chiropsalmidae ............................... 158 5.6 Family Chiropsellidae . ............................. 162 5.7 Family Tamoyidae .................................. 163 5.8
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