VOL 1 ISSUE 3 SEPTEMBER 2017 Training ISSN 2520-2073 ISSN 2521-442X Language The quarterly journal of ICC (The International Language Association) and Culture and RUDN University (Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia)

‘Te limits of my language means the limits of my world’ Ludwig Wittgenstein

Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic Hayet Bahri and Robert Williams word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova Developing Business English skills using case studies in multilevel education English and foreign language teaching in Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler Teaching negotiation in a globalised world: benefits of a genre approach Sappho’s missed communications Otilia Hutiu Brian Bebbington TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

Editorial Board Barry Tomalin (Joint Managing Editor) Elena Malyuga (Joint Managing Editor) Robert Williams Olga Aleksandrova Tony Fitzpatrick Michael Carrier Myriam Fischer Callus Claudia Schuhbeck

Training Language and Culture is published four times a year (February, May, September, December) by ICC Press, International Certificate Conference – the international language association Address: ICC – Postfach 10 12 28 D – 44712 Bochum, Germany Postal Address: Yorckstr. 58 D – 44789 Bochum, Germany Email: [email protected] and Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education ‘Peoples Friendship University of Russia’ (RUDN University) Address: 17923, GSP117198, Moscow, Russia, 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str. Email: [email protected]/TLCjournal

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Aims and Scope Training Language and Culture covers language training and cultural training and research throughout the world. Our aims are to enhance the scientific foundation of the teaching process, promote stronger ties between theory and practical training, and strengthen mutually enriching international cooperation among educationists and other professionals. All our articles are peer reviewed. Our areas of interest include: s,ANGUAGEANDLINGUISTICSRESEARCH s)NTERCULTURALRESEARCH s,ANGUAGE INTERCULTURALANDCOMMUNICATIONSTRAINING s,ANGUAGEANDCULTURALTRAININGTECHNOLOGY s,ANGUAGEANDCULTURALASSESSMENT

ISSN 2520-2073 ISSN 2521-442X Indexed on Ulbricht’s Periodicals, Linguistics Abstracts, Online, Google Scholar and EBSCO

2 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Contents VOL 1 ISSUE 3 SEPTEMBER 2017

4 About our contributors

6 Introduction to Issue 3: Barry Tomalin

8 Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Robert Williams and Hayet Bahri

31 Developing Business English skills using case studies in multilevel education Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova

41 Teaching negotiation in a globalised world: benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

60 Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova

77 English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Englbert Thaler

93 Sappho’s missed communications Brian Bebbington

Reviews 111 Digital Learning and Teaching by Michael Carrier et al

116 Enough Said by Mark Thompson

121 English for Diplomatic Purposes by Patricia Friedrich ed.

124 RUDN University News Elena N. Malyuga

128 ICC News Michael Carrier

130 EUROLTA News Myriam Fischer Callus

131 TLC Subscriptions

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 3 About our Contributors

Hayet Bahri In 2013 she defended her candidate thesis Hayet Bahri MA is Module Leader in ‘Functional and pragmatic properties Protocol at the Academy of Diplomacy and of cooperative discursive strategies and International Governance at Loughborough tactics in English business discourse’ at University London and teaches at the Moscow State Institute of International University of Westminster. She is also a Relations. Her academic interests include professional conference interpreter and teaching methods, discursive strategies liaison specialist. Her interests are in and tactics, effectiveness of professional interfaith dialogue, discourse analysis and communication and discourse analysis. semantics and she is a Trustee of the She is the author of over 40 Muslim Institute in London. publications including those indexed in Web of Science, Russian Higher Robert Williams Attestation Committee and Russian Former chair of the ICC, Rob has over Science Citation Index. 30 years experience in language education as a teacher, teacher trainer, materials Valentina Pankova writer, assessor and consultant. He also Valentina is a graduate of M.V.Lomonosov trained as a conference interpreter and Moscow State University. She has for the past 15 years has been involved finished a postgraduate course at Russian in teaching intercultural communication Academy of Sciences. She has 40 years of directly in company and within trainer experience of teaching English which she training. He is currently a principal combines with editing and interpreting. lecturer in the department of Modern She has obtained Cambridge Certificates, Languages and Cultures at the University including Proficiency and CELTA and is of Westminster, where he teaches on the constantly improving her qualifications MA TESOL (leading modules on Testing in IH BKC. Her scientific interests are and Materials Development) and is course teaching methods, student-oriented leader for the MA International Liaison teaching, translation and interpretation and Communication, a pioneering course, and Slavic languages. training people to be the bridge across communities and between language Otilia Hutiu groupings. He is currently the internal Otilia is Associate Professor at the Aurel quality assurance member for CoMoViWo Vlaicu University of Arad (UAV) Romania. – a project designing intercultural She has a B.A. in English and Arabic communication training material in English from the University of Bucharest, and Spanish, with a specific focus on Romania (1983) where she also received e-communication. her Ph.D. in English linguistics in 2005. She worked as a technical translator for Alexandra Radyuk 10 years after her graduation and in 1993 Alexandra has been teaching in the Foreign she joined Aurel Vlaicu University, first as Languages Department at the Faculty of assistant lecturer, and then as lecturer and Economics of RUDN University since 2014. associate professor, teaching courses in

4 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE VOL 1 ISSUE 3 SEPTEMBER 2017

ESP and EAP for undergraduates majoring the Lehramt at the Gymnasium at the in economics. In 2004 she started teaching University of Munich. He has worked courses in English syntax and discourse in Gymnasium in Bavaria before moving analysis at the Faculty of Humanities and to Munich University and Freiburg. Social Sciences where she was appointed He is now Professor of Didactics of as Dean in 2015. Otilia is the author of English at the University of Augsburg. more than 30 publications in journals and Engelbert is the author of over 500 conferences. She has written three books papers on the methodology of English on syntax, lexicology and discourse and language teaching and is the author translated two books in the field of the of ‘Shorties’ (reviewed in TLC2). His science of materials. She has organised research interests lie in audiovisual conferences and workshops on language media, didactics literary didactics, teaching and communication and is cultural awareness and teacher training. currently involved in the project Extended Set of CEFR Illustrative Descriptors: Focus on Professor Brian Bebbington Mediation: Project of the Language Policy Brian is Director of Research and a Unit of the Education Division of the Council member of the Board of the South of Europe. Her main research interests are African Institute of Management. He English for Academic Purposes, Critical has published, broadcast, consulted, Discourse Analysis and Argumentation and lectured at MBA and post-graduate theory. level in business management for over 40 years in South Africa and Nigeria. Aryuna Ivanova Gomboevna Although now retired, he is Tutor in Aryuna is Assistant Professor of Chinese Business Strategy and International and English Languages at the Foreign Management at the Netherlands Business Languages Department at the Faculty of School. He holds a BA degree in English Economics (RUDN University). She teaches Language and Literature, a BA Hons courses in Chinese and English and her in Russian, a BA Hons in Linguistics, scientific interests cover typological and and a Masters degree in Business comparative linguistics in the Chinese and Administration. His current interests are English languages. She has published 31 the relevance to developing countries of scientific articles and a monograph. Aryuna the western model of business, and the is a member of the Business and Vocational cognitive structure of concepts. He has Foreign Languages Teachers National published critical essays on English and Association. Russian literature and analyses of English and African folk music, and published Professor Engelbert Thaler poetry in English and Afrikaans. He Engelbert is Professor of Didactics of the is currently completing a thesis on English language, literature and culture at Sappho for the degree of Doctor of the University of Augsburg and the founder Literature and Philosophy with the of Balanced Teaching. He studied English University of South Africa. and social studies from 1977 to 1982 for TLC

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 5 Introduction to ISSUE 3 Barry Tomalin Joint Managing Editor TLC

Welcome to TLC 3 and ‘Hush’, can you of CSM (case study method) and show hear the sound of silence? (apologies how it works, assessing the results of a to Simon and Garfunkel). Silence is group of students taking part in a pilot an important part of communication project in their paper on Developing and how to use it as part of Business English skills using case studies metacommunication is the subject in multilevel education. covered by Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams in their paper on Interconnectivity Continuing on the business front, in her and Metacommunication. It is an paper Teaching negotiation in a globalised important and very relevant overview world, benefits of a genre-approach, Otilia of and contribution to the applied Hutiu of Aurel Vaiclu Arad University in linguistic and cultural understanding of Romania goes beyond the traditional step- communication. by-step structure of teaching negotiation and the language associated with it to Making language learning applicable to explore how to develop and express real life while you are in the process of personal skills in the foreign language learning in the classroom is a challenge using a ‘genre approach’ based on the for teachers. Alexandra Radyuk and work of van Eemeren and Grootendorst Valentina Pankova of Moscow’s RUDN at the University of Amsterdam. University make a strong case for teaching business language using the An interesting and valuable discussion on case study method, cases that both differences between English and Chinese challenge and extend the students’ (Mandarin) is the basis of Aryuna Ivanova’s language skills by finding ways to resolve of RUDN University paper on typological real problems through case studies. They differences in morphemic-syllabic word discuss both the principle and practice structure in English and Chinese.

6 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Educational Institutions are important techniques which will be of value to in successful language learning and anyone teaching language and culture in a globalising economy proficiency as part of literary study. in languages is going to be ever more important. That is why in the next few Add to this our reviews of Michael issues we hope to publish papers on Carrier (ed.) ‘Digital Language educational institutions and why they Learning and Teaching’, Mark are successful in developing language Thompson’s ‘Enough Said’ on the learners and users. To start with, deterioration of public language Engelbert Thaler of the University of in media and politics and Patricia Augsburg in Germany analyses the Friedrich (ed.) ‘English for Diplomatic success of the German Gymnasium Purposes’ plus our new quarterly (grammar school) in developing good correspondence column. I hope you’ll language learners and users. agree we have something for all tastes and disciplines. Finally, in language and culture learning and training, we must never We are keen to receive your forget the importance of literature. contributions in the form of articles, Using the theories of Lakoff and reviews and correspondence so others, in particular, semantic please send your proposals, emails framing, value orientation theory and and book review details to myself qualia, Brian Bebbington examines or Elena at [email protected] cultural and linguistic interpretations or [email protected]. of one of the most famous and notorious classical Greek poetesses, Happy reading! TLC Sappho, and applies literary criticism

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 7 Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

The study of interpersonal communication constitutes a complete communicative touches on a range of different disciplines, interaction involves the consideration each with its own focus. This has given of these various aspects at the same rise to an apparent fragmentation in the time. Starting from the position that no literature (O’Keefe, 1993; Craig 1999; category exists in a vacuum and is part Stephen, 2014) which is manifested and parcel of a whole communicative act, in the categorisation of the various this article draws on Wilmot’s seminal components of a communicative act, and (1980) article among others and considers even the subdivision of the categories a more holistic approach to communication established. This can be seen in the study as an adjunct to the current tendency of metacommunication, which although for separation. considered an essential component of human interaction (Anderson, 2009; To illustrate this method, the article Wilmot, 1980) has been subdivided into identifies various aspects and categories a myriad of constituent parts. Whilst within the area of metacommunication and the separation of various components examines the convergence and potential permits detailed focus on different facets divergence within them. Through the case of interpersonal interaction there is a study of silence as a communicative act risk that the complementarity of the that appears to bridge various subdivisions, various facets may be underestimated this paper argues for an umbrella or even lost. Indeed to autonomise each conceptualisation that unifies rather than aspect of a communicative act may compartmentalises the various aspects not be conducive to a comprehensive of metacommunication. understanding of what happens in an interaction since all elements, verbal, KEYWORDS: metacommunication, non-verbal and contextual, to name connectivity, interpersonal communication, but a few, need to be considered and verbal communication, non-verbal interpreted simultaneously. Approaches communication, silence in communication to the study of metacommunication, whilst being multidimensional, appear INTRODUCTION to have led to fragmentation. It is our In the study of interpersonal contention that understanding what communication, the literature tends

8 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

‘Perhaps it is precisely the looseness of definition that has helped the pursuance of differing areas of investigation’ towards a fragmented treatment of the sciences. There are no rigorous communicative act taking each element definitions that limit the scope of the as a standalone phenomenon. There have field, no texts that comprehensively been discussions of how these perspectives state its foundations, and little may dialogue with each other (Craig, agreement among its practitioners about 1999) and accounts of how the influence which frameworks or methods offer of different fields have contributed to the most promise for unifying the field’. development of studies in interpersonal (Bochner,1985, in McLish, 1990, p. 299). communication (Hargie, 2011; Berger, 2014). However, the prevalence for Perhaps it is precisely the looseness of categorisation into separate areas seems to definition that has helped the pursuance have remained. The conceptual evolution of differing areas of investigation. of the term metacommunication appears to This article seeks to challenge what have privileged certain focuses over others, it perceives as arbitrary and perhaps but also engendered a consideration of it not always useful fragmentation. in a non-holistic manner. This trajectory Whilst the insights gained by such started with Bateson (1972) talking about an approach have been beneficial in codification and relationship. Yet it would improving our understanding of the appear that even he was not so wedded to various components of any single the notion of a dichotomy, rather that of a communicative act, it is our belief that continuum. This is echoed in Wilmot (1980, unless these components are considered p. 67), stating ‘Metacommunication is an as interdependent and interconnected, intriguing concept that should be and that they cannot exist as separate explored in all its manifestations’ and units, then the advantages for our Bochner in McLish (1990), who defines understanding can only be limited. For communication as ‘a vague, fragmented example the division into textual and and loosely defined subject that intersects non-textual elements may preclude all the behavioral, social and cultural insights from one perspective informing

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 9 the other. It may be that there is a tacit importance that all types of framing acceptance that all components are serve for helping people understand interdependent, but there appears to be their relationships with others. Whether a lack of explicit acknowledgement of implicitly or explicitly stated, the this in current debates. Even where the relationships between people reside at the interface between different aspects of core of the interpersonal communication communication is discussed, this tends to process’ (Wilmot, 1980, p. 65). take the form of a dialogue or juxtaposition of two elements and a resulting dialectic Below is an overview of some of the (Craig, 1999) rather than a fusion of what concepts that have informed the is now an increasingly large number of continuing discussions. constituent parts. To echo Jensen (1973) further research is needed into the study Message versus Metamessage of metacommunication as it is traditionally Perhaps one of the starting points for understood. division is the initial separation into message (the parts of a communicative act The paper will focus on the face-to-face that carry content) and metamessage (the interaction between two participants and, parts that indicate to the recipient how having reviewed the evolution of various to interpret the message) (Bateson et al. different paradigms, it will analyse the (1963); Bateson (1972); Wilmot (1980); use of silence as an illustration of why it Newman (1981); Tannen (1985); and De is important to adopt a holistic approach Vito (2000). Since Bateson (1972) this and the possible implications this may have division has framed much discussion in the for educators in the field of interpersonal literature. Subsequent subcategorisations communication. and analyses are seen through a prism of opposition and this often remains the A plurality of dualities case regardless of the disciplinary lens Much of the literature appears to view through which communication is viewed. metacommunication through the lens of Metacommunication itself has been divided dualities, which can be seen in a variety of into subcategories, sometimes linked paradigms. Wilmot (1980) suggests that to the purpose of the communication, providing as wide a range of perspectives sometimes linked to the means of delivery as possible is important to gain a better employed – hence the division into textual understanding of interaction. meaning (written discourse) and non- ‘By broadening our perspectives, we textual meaning (considering the grammar can begin to characterize the crucial and syntax of spoken discourse). Much of

10 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

‘Much of the literature appears to view metacommunication through the lens of dualities, which can be seen in a variety of paradigms’ the debate in recent literature seems to interactant. This will be discussed in greater focus on the textual aspects of interaction detail below. management, yet there has been a growing focus on the non-textual element Information versus context as being the main carrier of metamessages Having established the distinction between in fence to face interaction. This can be message and metamessage, Bateson (1951) seen in the increase of publications on furthers this division by identifying two body language, for instance. However, such levels of meaning within the metamessage: divisions can be seen as restrictive since markers that indicate how the message they can imply a separation that does not is to be interpreted and markers which take place in interaction and suggests a refer to the relationship between the possible hierarchy that is unhelpful when interlocutors and/or the context where considering the communicative act. the interaction is taking place. ‘We shall As Wilmot (1980) puts it: describe as metacommunication all ‘Both verbal and nonverbal channels exchanged cues and proposition about a) serve metacommunication and to limit codification and b) relationship about metacommunication to the nonverbal band the communicators’ (Reusch & Bateson, is both too restrictive and conceptually 1951, p.209). misleading’ (Wilmot, 1980, p.62). One could argue the validity of his point, For example, prefacing a comment with if one considers the example of an ‘Don’t take this the wrong way, but…’ orientation session at the beginning of a is a metamessage telling the interlocutor university year, where the lecturer could how the speaker wants the interlocutor introduce himself as John Smith, possibly to process the forthcoming message. The give his job title, and state what classes he same information could be given within the will be teaching, thus giving his name and intonation pattern of ‘I’ve got something to function and context. If he then goes on tell you’ and be clearly understood by the to say, ‘Just call me John’ he is establishing

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 11 a certain kind of relationship with the progressed from the simple perspective of students. Another example would be when encoding/decoding, and communication a Head of Department fixes a meeting with is no longer seen as a linear event, but a junior staff member saying ‘Come and more as a fluid, cyclical process involving see me tomorrow at 3.00 in my office’. constant reappraisal and adjustment. Here there are two levels. At the level of Communication is at times viewed from content the information is that there will the perspective of focus – is the focus more be a meeting between the two. At the level on the event/content or on the relationship of context/relationship this is a potentially that is being established between the serious event, the specification of the interactors? Metacommunicative cues venue and the precise time denote the can therefore be categorised into those hierarchy between the two interlocutors, that concern the episode and those that which may be accentuated by the tone concern the relationship (Wilmot, 1980). with which the statement is expressed. Examples of episodic expressions might This distinction can be seen in a variety be expressions such as, ‘What I mean of fields. Within psychology, the notion by this is …’ or, ‘Can you give me more of therapist metacommunication and its information about…?’ or ‘I’m here to book impact on client collaboration (Li et al. a holiday.’ and could be further divided 2016) indicates a level of understanding into expressions of clarification (both by the client that is perhaps governed by offering and requesting), purpose, and the context in which the interaction takes summarising, among others. Relationship place. In education, work on classroom expressions might include phrases of talk among young learners notes the approval, eg. ‘That’s a good idea’, positive importance of metacommunication as part or negative evaluation, eg. ‘You’re great of pedagogical strategies to enhance oral at this’ or relationship affirmation, eg. competence and possibly subject matter ‘Speaking to you as a friend…’. An knowledge (van der Veen et al. 2017). example where the two support each It is interesting to note that many articles other could be found in the statement seem to choose hierarchical relationships ‘I’m confiding in you because I trust you’. as their focus of study. Here the fact that a confidential exchange is going to take place prefaces the nature Episodic versus relationship of the content, which in turn is supported Bateson (1963) was not unique in by the declaration of trust and the explicit separating various components of the mention of the nature of the relationship communicative act. Understanding has between the two interlocutors.

12 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

However, the two categories can overlap belief that it is the non-verbal that makes and the division may not always be a message memorable. clear-cut. An expression such as, ‘This is going really well.’ could refer to both the Verbal and non-verbal: separate or event (a discussion about the progress complementary? of a meeting) and the relationship (‘I am The ongoing debate on the complementarity enjoying the interaction’). or otherwise of verbal and non-verbal communication does not seem to have lost Digital versus Analogue its intensity, nor does the literature appear A new terminology to reflect this to have come to a consensus as to how to separation was coined by Watzlawick define this division. De Vito (2000) states, (1967), who, as part of his five axioms ‘you communicate non-verbally when you of communication, divided it into digital gesture, smile, or frown, widen your eyes, and analogue – digital being synonymous move your chair closer to someone, wear with content and analogue being that jewellery, touch someone, raise your vocal which created the emotional bond. volume, or even when you say nothing’ This emphasises the duality of a message (De Vito, 2000, p. 130). with two complementary modes. The categorisation has remained (possibly This seems to echo the notion of an because of the analogy with technical and analogue mode that includes gestures and computing terminology) and appears in postures that some have found perhaps discussions of how nowadays messages more universal than others, based on are understandable to an international the assumption that the body cannot lie, audience due in part to the universality although these are open to more subjective of analogue signs (Codoban, 2013). interpretations. Just as there may be Digital is equated to text and analogue overlaps in the episodic and relationship to non-verbal communication and, as categories within text, so the division we shall see below, primacy is given between what is verbal and what is non- to the analogue, non-verbal elements, verbal metacommunication is also not since these are what are connected with clearly defined. Hargie (2011) offers emotional and emotive content and these a useful summary of the distinctions are what remain in the mind after an that can be drawn, one of the main interaction has been completed. Egolf and features being that verbal communication Chester’s (2013) assertion that analogue involves discrete packaging of sense communication is where message and into words which are often explicit and meaning merge, may also support the carry predominantly content messages.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 13 Non-verbal communication is, by bodily action, artificial codes (use of contrast, implicit and has a main focus clothing etc), meditational codes (that take on the emotional/relational aspect of place when different media are used to communication (Hargie, 2011, p. 45- enact the exchange) and contextual codes. 47). Mandal (2014) identifies categories of verbal vocal (for example, (eg. the The notion of contextual codes can be intonation pattern used to express mood, found in Egolf and Chester (2013) who opinion or intent), verbal non-vocal discuss the different behaviours and rituals (eg., sounds used to indicate reaction, that may occur in different professional hesitation etc), and non-verbal non-vocal settings, such as politics, the law and (facial expressions, gesture etc). Hargie health care as well as building on the (2011) offers a more complex range of modalities in Hargie (2011) and separate areas that make up non-verbal offering a brief overview of both communication: approaches (linguistic, psychological, ethnological, functional etc.) and sHAPTICSUSINGPHYSICALTOUCH  functions (memory, situation definition, sKINESICSMOVEMENT GESTURES POSTURE identification, relationship, emotion, facial expressions); power, territoriality). sPROXEMICSBODYDISTANCE  sVOCALICS(ARGIE  P  These different categorisations focus on the channels of transmitting messages. To these is also added information put If we are to identify points of synergy with across through physical characteristics text-based models, we need to address and through the social surroundings the functional dimension of non-verbal in which the interaction takes place. metacommunication, since text-based Contextual metacommunicative cues paradigms seem to concern themselves and interpretations that may arise from largely with the point of the utterance, them are evident in Harrison (1974) who since in face-to-face interaction there is identifies performance codes based on only one means – the voice.

‘Non-verbal communication is, by contrast, implicit and has a main focus on the emotional/relational aspect of communication’

14 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

Building on Knapp et al. (2013), and Perhaps the focus on non-verbal Burgoon et al. (1996) the following roles of communication and the interest in body non-verbal communication can be identified language per se is one of the contributors (a) as a substitute for verbal communication; to the division between verbal and (b) as an accompaniment; (c) as a modifier; non-verbal metacommunication in the (d) to indicate contradiction; (e) to manage literature. Possibly this division is further speech and interaction; (f) to express cemented in the mind by assertions that emotions; (g) to manage or negotiate in face to face interaction the majority relationships; (h) to declare identity (both of the message is carried by intonation, personal and social) and (i) to contextualise facial expression and body language, the interaction by creating a social (Watzlawick, 1967; Mehrabian, 1972; environment for the interaction. Guerrero and Floyd, 2006). While the exact proportions and percentages differed, If we take these purposes and compare there was a consensus that non-verbal them to Wilmot’s episode/relationship communication, particularly visual, model, we can see that the use of carried the bulk of the message within gestures to manage turn taking can be monolingual settings. seen as episodic, as could the conscious use of a range of cues (intonation, facial Just as the interest in non-verbal expression, gesture or a combination of communication may have contributed to a these) to indicate irony or contradiction. separation within the literature, so perhaps Gestures used to accompany content such the influence of ICT system design (Yetim as enumeration of examples or beating et al. 2005) may have contributed to the for emphasis, can similarly be considered focus on text. The apparent absence of the as episodic. Other elements are more need to address face-to-face communication obviously relationship focused, though, of necessity results in a consideration of as with all attempts to arrive at clear-cut principles from the point of view of text categorisations, some seem to fit into both alone and thus takes the debate away from camps. The choice of dress could both the notion of complementarity. make statements about identity and status as well as indicating a compliance with the Congruency versus incongruency conventions of the episode. The creation of The above-mentioned division into a context may have the effect of providing verbal and non-verbal takes on an extra an environment in which to maintain the dimension when the notion of congruency relationship as well as the background for a is at play. Congruency is defined as when successful completion of the episode itself. verbal and non-verbal elements operate

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 15 in harmony. According to Rasheed et al, speaker being ironic and will that be ‘Congruent messages are ones in which understood even when both interactants the verbal and non-verbal components share the same discourse conventions? Is relay the same message’ (Rasheed et al. the speaker simply being polite or do they 2011, p. 44). need time to reflect on the proposition? Is the speaker not given to explicit displays Consequently, and perhaps not surprisingly, of emotion? confusion arises when the non-verbal message or cue is inconsistent with the Such a need for simultaneous processing verbal one. ‘Incongruence is a type of of a range of elements is perhaps communication in which (overt) verbal paradoxically seen in Wilmot (1980). and (covert) non-verbal messages do not Although he coined the dichotomy match’ (ibid: p. 143). of episodic versus relationship, as mentioned above, he equally asserts Although this statement shows a division that these divisions do not represent the of input sources by identifying conflicting complexity of the communicative act and information, it also challenges the established emphasises the mutual existence of all dichotomy of the verbal, non-verbal divide, elements. ‘Humans send messages and since the credibility of a communicative metamessages that provide a congruent act depends on the interpretation of both package for interpretation. The message elements at the same time. content is framed and interpreted by the metacommunication, the relationship This binary approach is used by Rasheed dimension’ (Wilmot, 1980, p. 62). et al. (2011) to give credence to what is perceived as more credible when what is This view is echoed by Brooks and Heath said and how it is said appear to diverge. (1993). ‘The process by which information, ‘In circumstances of incongruence, non- meanings and feelings are shared by verbal expression assumes prominence and persons through the exchange of verbal generally is perceived as more trustworthy and non-verbal messages’ (Brooks & than the verbal content’ (ibid: p. 43). Heath, 1993, p. 7) and more recently by Stewart (2010), stating how interpersonal For example, when in response to a communication involves both verbal and statement, an interlocutor replies, ‘How non-verbal processing which together interesting’ using an intonation pattern create meaning. that does not necessarily indicate interest, this may generate uncertainty. Is the Divergence can take various forms.

16 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

‘While at a textual level it is possible to clarify, to seek clarification, and consequently renegotiate understanding, this tends to be more complicated with non-verbal communication’

As well as having been seen as the interested?’ or to declare ‘You don’t seem incongruity or noise between verbal and interested’ could expose vulnerabilities and non-verbal cues it is also manifested in result in a breakdown in, rather than a the way that interactants identify and maintenance of, the relationship. repair misunderstandings. While at a textual level it is possible to clarify, to Alternatives to Dual Paradigms seek clarification, and consequently Some scholars have gone beyond these renegotiate understanding, this tends binary paradigms to suggest different ways to be more complicated with non-verbal of approaching metacommunication. communication. From a descriptive perspective, For example, if one interlocutor expresses Shevchenko (2015) posits four categories themselves passionately and emotionally of a metadiscursive group within on an issue close to their heart and their communication: discourse processing, counterpart remains silent and is seemingly strategies and tactics; genre and stylistic emotionless, is this because they are not features; phatic metacommunication; interested? Could it be that they feel turn-taking. In doing so, she emphasises uncomfortable and don’t know how to the complementarity of message and react or that they are simply processing metamessage. the enormity of what they have just heard? If the first speaker feels that their Considering the impact of counterpart is disinterested, how might this metacommunication on interaction, mismatch between verbal and non-verbal Hoppenbrouwers and Weigand (2000) view cues impact on the relationship and what metacommunication from the perspective they might go on to say? Such a situation of breakdown and use van Reijswoud’s would be challenging to repair, since to ask (1996) model of three layers: success, directly ‘Do you care?’ or ‘Are you at all where everything is going well, discussion,

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 17 where communication requires immediate looking at silence would be to define it in repair, and discourse, where the parameters juxtaposition to sound. ‘Speech and silence of the communication itself need to be are complementary forms of communication; established. This is connected to an ante each acquires significance from the other’ (pre-empting potential misunderstanding) (Jain & Matukumalli, 2001, 3 p.248). In this and post (effecting repair after breakdown) perspective silence can only exist within a where the discourse level is likely to occur context of other acoustic information and before an interaction – such as setting its presence as a punctuating device when the conventions of a meeting or a class taken in conjunction with the context whereas discussion and success levels in which this occurs is what leads to the would typically occur during the course of creation of meaning. It is this meaning any event. Hoppenbrouwers and Weigand that is often so varied. (2000) make the assertion that the very existence of a toolkit implies the realisation We often hear comments about that breakdown will inevitably occur people who don’t talk much as being (Hoppenbrouwers & Weigand, 2000, uncommunicative, and numerous scholars p. 132), a sentiment echoed by Scollon point to a difference between a western and Scollon (2001) and found in Winogard generally negative view of silence and a and Flores (1986) who point out that positive interpretation in Asian communities the differences in discourse conventions (Jain & Matukumalli, 2013; Bailey, 2000) between interactors to a large extent and Finland (Carbaugh, 2005; Petkova, contribute to misunderstandings. They note, 2015). Yet the very fact that in English ‘Conditions of satisfaction are not objective some people qualify the nature of a silence realities, free interpretations of speaker and (unanimous silence, pregnant silence, hearer. They exist in listening, and there is companionable silence, diplomatic silence, always the potential for a difference among giving someone the silent treatment etc.) the parties. This can lead to breakdown […] indicates that silence has both positive and to a subsequent conversation about the and negative connotations, is open to a understandings of the condition’ (Winogard plurality of definitions and is understood and Flores, 1986, p. 66). in a variety of ways.

Silence There appears to be no consensus on The juxtapositions and their overlaps a definition of silence. Is it the absence described above can also be found of sound? Is it the absence of any in a consideration of silence as a communicative cue? Is it as Jaworski metacommunicative tool. One way of (1997) claims that a pause, an unanswered

18 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

‘Metacommunication is often open to interpretation and dependent on context and this is also the case with silence’ question, ignoring a greeting, avoiding a a silence can also be metacommunicative, topic of conversation or irrelevant chatter, indicating, for example the nature of the or a frozen gesture of an actor are all relationship between speakers, as the different instances of silence? examples of types of silence given above indicate. Metacommunication is often open Can it be defined by length? Does a very to interpretation and dependent on context brief, momentary pause in a conversation and this is also the case with silence. We have the same meaning as a lengthier one? can see this in expressions such as ‘Her Is there any different significance when silence spoke volumes’, showing a common we ask for a one minute or two minute understanding of a meaning clearly being silence? What are we communicating conveyed, yet the absolute precision of this when we maintain silence? The discussion meaning not being described. of the nature of meaning of silence reflects to some extent Bateson’s division As with metacommunication and non- of message and metamessage. In certain verbal communication, attempts at specific contexts silence has a precise describing silence in communication have meaning. Saville-Troike’s (1985) example of opted for a variety of different perspectives silence indicating acceptance or rejection that appear to be largely concerned with of a marriage proposal in Japanese what it is or what it does. or Igbo respectively would indicate a propositional message as would the When considering how silence is used, one frequently documented use of silence criterion is the size of the space left without to indicate disagreement but to avoid sound between interlocutors. Nakane (2007) uttering words of disagreement (Nakane, offers a summary of 7 stages from micro 2012; Matsumoto & Hwang, 2012). Yet units to macro units: (1) Intra-turn, (2)

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 19 Inter-turn, (3) Turn constituting with the multifaceted and ambiguous nature illocutionary force, (4) temporary silence of silence is what leads to the variety of of individuals who do not hold the floor in understandings and misunderstandings. interaction, (5) an individual’s total withdrawal of speech in a speech event, (6) silence of a According to Adam Jaworski (2000), group of participants as a constituent of social/ ‘Silence is an important communication religious events, (7) discourse suppressed by tool’ (Jaworski, 2000, p. 113). It allows the a dominant force at various levels of social interlocutor to arrive at certain perceptions organisation (Nakane, 2007, p. 7). about, in Wilmot’s (1980) terms, both the episode taking place and the relationship. However, a simple identification of length Accordingly it can be described as ‘an does not address the nature of silences absence of something that we expect to in the discourse. Nakane (2007) himself hear on a given occasion when we assume appears to correlate length of pause with it is there but remains unsaid’ (Jaworski, function, but, as Tannen (1985) states, the 2000, p.113). It is the expectation of a perception of the silence will vary from certain utterance that reflects Wilmot’s individual to individual and from group (1980) analysis. The occasion can be to group. How long, for example, does a seen as the episode, but for us to have silence need to be for it to be interpreted an expectation there needs to be an as a discontinuation of talk rather than understanding of the context, the role of a ‘pause’ or a ‘lull’? Then there is the the speaker and the relationship between question of what the pause or lull is for. Is them. For example in an exchange between it to reflect before answering an awkward a couple during an argument: question? Is it a period of contemplation before choosing the right term in a lecture? A: Well, are you going to do this or aren’t Is it for humorous effect? Or to indicate you? disagreement, hostility or discomfort? The precise understanding of this will inevitably B: ...... depend on other metacommunicative cues and the context and relationship The silence could be taken as meaning ‘no’ within which they occur. Silence, then, is since it would be expected that neither side a purposeful part of a discourse chain as would back down at that particular point. much as intonation, body language, syntax and context. Indeed, as Nakane (2012) Jaworski (2000) goes on to describe states, silence appears to have almost silence in broader terms, with perhaps as many functions as speech and that broader categories than Nakane’s

20 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

(2007) and suggests it is a metaphor domination and control. Gilmore’s (1985) for communication as a whole, bringing study of pupils’ behaviour in the classroom together in one concept diverse is an indication of how silence can be used linguistics, social, cultural, spiritual and as a way of regaining a form of power. The metacommunicative phenomena. use of silence as a form of defiance can be memorable and reflect Codoban’s (2013) Nakane (2007) also considers silence from view of digital metacommunication as a purely functional perspective and offers being the parts that stay in the mind. a summary of it as a whole communicative act that reflects Jaworski’s (2000) work For Braithwaite (1990) ‘Silence can be as well as parts of the models of Knapp seen as one among a range of strategies and Hall (2013): (a) cognitive, including or options that can itself constitute, or pauses, hesitations for cognitive language be part of, ‘a way of speaking’ processing; (b) discursive, including (Braithwaite, 1990, P. 321). marking boundaries of discourse: (c) social, for example negotiating and maintaining One of these strategies is its use in face social distance, maintaining power threatening or face saving behaviour. This through avoiding certain content of verbal will depend on the nature of the relation expressions and use of politeness strategies between the interactants at the moment (negative, positive, off-record); (d) affective of the communicative act. In the state of for example as a means of emotion clear, unambiguous relations, silence can management (Nakane, 2007, p. 11-12). be seen as a mark of the stability of the relationship. For example, in a situation Further to this, Watts (1997) focuses between good friends who sit overlooking on conversational analysis and looks at a view without the need to talk, this how interactional silences are part and would be an example of what the English parcel, rather than separate elements, of language describes as ‘companionable a metacommunicative act and are used silence’. However, when the interpersonal by participants to manipulate their own bond is weakened – for example after an and others’ conversational status within argument or where there is uncertainty a group, the decision to say or not to say about the roles each person is expected something, when to speak and when to adopt – , silence can be used as a to refrain from speaking can have an manipulative resource (Watts ibid.) or enervating or denigrating effect on the a serious face threat (Sifianou 1997). speaker and the listeners with respect A struggle for domination in face-to-face to their respective positions of power, interaction can involve the use of silent

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 21 pauses (Watts ibid.) silencing alternative Passenger: Why didn’t you stop? voices and points. Driver: I asked you if you wanted to get off. The use of silence as a bargaining tool is well documented (Nakane, 2007) and often Passenger: ...... in the context of business communication (Meyer, 2014; Lewis, 2006) but such Driver: It’s a request stop, you have to press examples seem to indicate that a specific the button. interpretation is possible – in the case of bargaining, silence creates embarrassment Passenger: I did press the button. and provokes a better offer from the opposite number. Such scenarios, whilst Driver: No you didn’t. possible, do not reflect the ambiguity that silence can have. Passenger: Why are you getting so angry?

The following exchange comes from the Driver: I’m not. You have to press the author’s personal experience of a bus button if you want me to stop. You didn’t journey where to request the bus to stop, and I asked you if you wanted to get off. I a passenger has pressed a button. The asked you twice and you didn’t answer me. conversation takes place between the male bus driver and a young, female passenger Passenger: ...... who has moved to the front of the bus (Someone else presses the bell for the near the door. next stop.)

Driver: Do you want to get off the bus Driver: You see, you have to press the bell. here? Passenger: ...... Passenger: ...... (The bus reaches the next stop and the passenger gets off.) Driver: Hello. Do you want to get off here? (said more loudly) In this exchange the passenger’s silence can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Initially, Passenger: ...... she may not have heard the driver. She could have been thinking of something else Driver: Oh well then… (He drives past the and simply not heard. She could also not stop and on towards the next one.) respond as she felt it was obvious that she

22 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

‘As well as being a tool of power, silence can also create involvement between communicators and, far from being a source of disquiet, it can be a means to cement a relationship’ wanted to get off at the next stop by virtue peaceful silence would be an example of of the fact that she had made her way to this. In a different environment, Jaworski the front of the bus. (2003) cites the musician and performance artist Laurie Anderson’s use of silence as The later silences appear more calculated a musical tool and for dramatic effect and as such to have a predetermined (for example indicating turn taking in communicative function. They could be a conversation to illustrate closeness or designed to show dissatisfaction or upset alienation) as well as a means of building that she has to go further to the next a bond between the performer and the stop. They could also be seen as a way of audience in that it creates extra levels of maintaining status. Also, by not entering understanding and can take on a range of into an argument, the situation is diffused. metaphorical meanings in performance. A third interpretation might be that the passenger wants to maintain her position So as we can see, silence can frequently that she did press the button, but that speak volumes as long as it is deciphered she knows it won’t change anything, or a simultaneously in conjunction with the fourth might be that she knows she was various other constituent parts of the wrong and says nothing as a strategy for complete interaction. As with other saving face. One can only make sense of elements of the metacommunicative canon, the silence if all the other elements are the messages silence can communicate, jointly taken into consideration. such as the mood of the interlocutors, or the functions that it can perform are universal. As well as being a tool of power, silence However, the precise understanding will can also create involvement between be determined by the relative conventions communicators and, far from being a within a particular language community or source of disquiet, it can be a means social group. Silence is, then both universal to cement a relationship. The image of and culturally, pragmatically, semantically an elderly couple sitting side by side in and ritualistically relative.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 23 Potential benefits of communicative between management and workforce, the literacy focus being on the complementarity of Taken from the micro back to the macro, if various elements of communication and silence can perform so many functions, the how they all correlate. list of possible uses of metacommunication in general (verbal and non-verbal) appears If communication, as has been suggested, almost endless. Likewise, the fields in which is conceived as comprising message and it can be applied can only be limited by the metamessage, then verbal cues such number of different interactions that can as prefacing a joke by ‘Don’t take this take place in face to face communication of seriously’ for example, can prevent offence any form, personal or professional: therapy, or misinterpretation. Cues can be used intercultural dialogue, mediation, conflict for clarification, damage limitation and resolution, business negotiation etc. repair. For example, ‘Just to let you know that I didn’t like the tone of what you said We have seen that functions include yesterday. Did you really mean that?’ This establishing, building and maintaining can be an overture that as well as revisiting relationships. For example in an initial a previous conversation allows for repair business meeting, the chair’s opening line to take place. However, any of these cues, may be, ‘Hi guys, we are here today to by themselves is not enough to achieve pick each other’s brains about…’. This the desired outcome. What is needed is immediately establishes an egalitarian, understanding of how the cue correlates inclusive relationship that will contain with context, relationship between sharing and mutual respect for each speakers and other various aspects of a other’s views. This could be supported communicative act already discussed. by non-verbal cues such as a soft spoken tone, eye contact with everyone, relaxed At a non-verbal level, if a lecturer sees body language and smiles, a circular students yawning and says, ‘It seems that seating arrangement of chairs at the you aren’t that interested in this so let’s same level equally spaced, the provision move on to something else’ it could be of water and soft drinks, notepads and simply that students are tired from working pens or pencils for everyone, informal or that the room is hot and stuffy. It could dress code etc. All these cues and also be a reaction to the class taking place messages help create the desired early in the morning or late in the day. atmosphere of breaking the ice, and Once more, the entire meaning can only indicate the nature of the management fully be ascertained when connected with style as well as establishing the relationship other sources of information.

24 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

At the relational level, metamessages can eye contact or lack of it, a possible pause be a tool for reinforcing good practice before imparting the content. The nature of and encouraging others to refrain from the content could be underpinned by the bad practice. For example, punctuating distance between the interlocutors as well conversation with expressions such as ‘I as the location. However, the effectiveness really like it when…’ or ‘I hate it when….’ or otherwise of such prefacing will only be or ‘you are so good at…’. Such expressions realized when considering the interaction would indicate the nature of the relationship a more macro level in conjunction with the as being sufficiently open to allow such news that follows, how it is expressed, the comments to be made without causing past relationship between the speakers, the offence. This could be reinforced by body location and time of the conversation etc. language such as frowning or smiling, by the proximity of the speakers, by the volume When applied to professional of voice, the intonation and possibly touch. environments, the gains from a holistic These cues will indicate the intensity and approach to communication are possibly degree of gravity of the situation, which more tangible. in turn could be supplemented by the location. A different understanding would In the field of conflict management, cues arise if this took place in a quiet corner of can be seen from the outset. The choice a café, in someone’s living room or across of venue (neutral or otherwise), and the a classroom. As we can see understanding choice of participants (number and status involves the simultaneous processing of of delegates for each side, third parties, information from a whole range of sources interpreters, observers etc.) send an array and perspectives. of messages. Framing the meeting as not about apportioning blame but finding If, as Bateson (1972) suggests, a common ground before seeking solutions metamessage is anything that offers a and as such placing the emphasis on context that would help interlocutors make relation building as well as the content, sense of a communication event, then combines the two elements of the content/ using expressions to mitigate bad news relationship paradigm. Equally the choice and cushion the blow such as ‘What I’m to take a distance from the content and going to say is going to come as a shock to focus on relationships, for example by to you’ or, ‘What I’m going to say will have having a welcome dinner or a museum a huge impact on your future’ frames the visit, denotes a purposeful communicative message that is being conveyed. Again this decision. Similarly the agenda, whether or can be supported by a severe tone of voice, not turn taking protocols are established

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 25 and how long each intervention by on the interaction is likely to be more whom should take as well as agreeing on conducive to achieving the purpose of content (what should and shouldn’t be the meeting. The use of inclusive registers discussed) form part of the communicative such as ‘compromise’, ‘together’, ‘joint’, context. A holistic approach to this ‘mutual’, ‘we’, ‘us’, ‘open to suggestion’, suggests an endeavor to avoid any establishes a positive relationship and potential pitfalls and enhance mutual suggests flexibility and the prospect trust and understanding. Here we see of reaching a mutually satisfactory Hoppenbrouwer and Wiegand’s discourse conclusion. This can be reinforced by level applied beyond discourse. non-verbal cues ranging from venue to body language, agenda, number and In the field of child therapy an analogue nature of participants etc. An awareness approach may often lend itself to this of cultural differences, adapting to and particular context, where the focus tends accommodating them implicitly (such to be as much on body language, silence, as catering for all dietary needs) sends pauses, eye contact, demeanour, tone the right messages about meeting and pace of delivery as it is on the digital the interlocutor half way and starts a content. There is a large body of literature relationship on the right note and has the in this field that focuses on the relational potential to further cement it. aspect of the client relationship in terms of building trust etc. so bringing together Each of the paradigms discussed above the relation and content divide into one partly promotes better understanding of communicative act. Metacommunication a communicative act. However, as Wilmot cues can also feature in the use of objects, himself suggests, it is by embracing all of pictures, games, location and colours them at the same time that we can begin of the space (what constitutes a child- to arrive at a holistic and comprehensive friendly environment). The presence or appreciation of the complexities of any otherwise of a third adult may have a interpersonal communication. This can communicative effect on the interaction be extended to include intercultural in making the child comfortable and so dimensions as set out by Garcia Jimenez more forthcoming. The use of these tools (2014) in her creation of a Pragmatic indicates the value of a conscious multi- Metamodel of Communication, bringing faceted approach to communication together culture, dialectal tensions and metacommunication. Indeed, this As a tool of negotiation, an awareness awareness may have potential benefits of the impact of metacommunication in both enhancing understanding and

26 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Interconnectivity and Metacommunication Hayet Bahri and Rob Williams

‘As a tool of negotiation, an awareness of the impact of metacommunication on the interaction is likely to be more conducive to achieving the purpose of the meeting’ in ensuring that the intended message is Above all, we addressed the role of silence the received message and that the desired as a vital meta-communicative tool which outcome of any interaction is achieved. can contain overtones of character, culture and context. As Nakane (2007) writes CONCLUSION silence can be considered a metaphor In this paper we have examined the role for communication as a whole, bringing of meta-communication in discourse from together, linguistic, social, cultural and a variety of perspectives and heard from a spiritual elements. range of expert commentators. We began by noting although meta-communication From this brief discussion, we can note is recognised as an integral part of human that to confine communication to the dual interaction its myriad influences have led paradigm of message and metamessage is to a fragmentation of the discipline as possibly in itself limiting. Similarly, it seems a standalone phenomenon. Examining that the focus on duality occurs at the the influence of just three aspects of expense of the question of functionality communication, verbal, non-verbal and of communication. The range of purposes contextual, we established that a range and sources of both the creation and of communication devices combine to interpretation of messages rather comply make up what we understand as meta- with Levinson & Holler’s (2014) concept communication. In particular, message and of communication as a multimodal metamessage, episodic and relationship phenomenon. Added to this is the notion communication, digital and analogue, that communication is no longer seen as congruency and incongruency as well as a linear event, but more as a fluid, cyclical verbal and non-verbal communication process involving constant reappraisal and are all dualities which play a part in adjustment. As such, it follows that if we communication affect the way a message are to be effective decoders we need to pay is delivered and received. continuous attention to all sources of input at

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 27 the moment of interaction. Although there turn raises the question of how to train may be variations in emphasis between such competences since it is the application textual, non-verbal and contextual elements of these features that carries with it the (noting that contextual can be viewed as potential to improve communication an actual physical location, past exposure globally. The training of communication to similar situations, the current past and could benefit from a less apparently à la future relationship between the interlocutors carte approach where different phenomena and any agenda that either party may are considered in isolation and where there have) to omit any one element could well is an apparent lack of appreciation of the compromise full understanding. This in constant interrelation of all elements.

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30 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Developing Business English skills using case studies in the framework of multilevel education

Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova

Modern language teaching practices At the same time, attention should combine traditional teacher-oriented be paid to the adequacy of business with student-oriented paradigms. Since vocabulary and dynamism of the training language is perceived as a tool that helps process, in which case appropriate teacher achieve practical goals, especially in the intervention may be necessary. Based realm of professional language studies, a on the experiment results, the students need arises to teach it as an application- representing both groups were able to oriented instrument. The paper considers achieve their communicative goals, strived the methods of communicative and task- to work in a team, support each other and based language training with a particular come to mutually beneficial decisions. focus on case studies. The commonly The authors conclude that the method accepted view holds that case studies are can be beneficial in terms of the students’ applied at advanced levels only, but the future professional activities. authors argue that they are applicable at various levels. This argument is justified KEYWORDS: English for Specific through a practical experiment carried Purposes, teaching methods, multilevel out in two groups studying English for education, case study, communicative Specific Purposes within Advanced and method, task-based language training, Pre-Intermediate courses. The article assessment describes the differences in the students’ performances, difficulties they faced, INTRODUCTION and the way their work was assessed. The communicative method, globally The authors’ conclusion is that case applied in the process of foreign language studies should be adapted to the level of teaching is implemented in the framework students’ language proficiency to help of multilevel education corresponding them naturally take on professional roles to a set of specific principles of training and use the language spontaneously. organisation. Currently, foreign language

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 31 training is carried out in accordance with (Nunan, 1989, p. 12). In contrast to the the future specialisation of students and traditional Present-Practice-Produce format, is aimed at developing the communicative the modern communicative method of and professional competencies of future foreign language teaching aims not only specialists. at having the students master the explicit rules of grammar, but at helping them In the context of the new educational develop a comprehensive ability to use the standard of the Russian Federation, language (Boersma & van Leussen, 2017; multilevel education is becoming especially Radyuk et al., 2016). Thus, from the TBLT important. It is widely used in world perspective language can be described practice and is currently gaining ground as a means of communication, allowing in the Russian community of foreign students to perform various functions while language teachers. According to Polat focusing on meaning (content), rather than (2000), multilevel education refers to the the form (structure). ‘organisation of the learning process, in which each student has the opportunity The Case Study Method (hereinafter – to master the learning process at different CSM), embodying the principles of TBLT, is levels, but not below the basic level, one of the most effective ways to conduct, depending on his abilities and individual organise and manage Business English characteristics. At the same time, the teaching. Researchers are unanimous assessment criteria used to evaluate in their opinion that case studies are a students’ activity are the efforts they make valuable pedagogic resource that should be to master this material and to use it in a used to the fullest, as they make Business creative way’ (Polat, 2000, p. 10). English and business language studies more efficient and student-centred (Breslin Another widespread method is based on & Buchanan, 2008; Hyett et al., 2014; specific task setting. Task-based Language Ryerson, 2017). Teaching (TBLT) puts the value and the communicative function of the language This research aims to find out how CSM at the forefront (Ahmadian, 2016; Bygate, works in the framework of multilevel 2016; East, 2016; Ponomarenko, 2016). education. Due to the complexity of CSM Researchers and teachers adhering to and a rather extensive volume of tasks this method proceed from the fact that incorporated in this method, CSM is language represents more than just a commonly used with advanced students. system of rules and should be viewed as a This paper sets out to find out if the skills ‘dynamic resource for creating meaning’. improved were similar among the students

32 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Developing Business English skills using case studies in the framework of multilevel education Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova of two academic groups exhibiting different Friendship University of Russia) in 2016- levels of English proficiency. The hypothesis is 2017. The first group comprised three that CSM can also be applied to train students Council of Europe Framework of Reference with lower levels of language proficiency. CEFR A2-B1 level students and five B2-C1 level students who studied the course at MATERIALS AND METHODS the Upper-Intermediate level. The second The procedure included analysis of the group was represented by six A2-B1 level performance of two groups studying ESP at students and three B2 students taking the the Faculty of Economics (RUDN Peoples’ course at the Pre-Intermediate level.

Table 1 Participants in the experiment

Group 1 Group 2 Year of study 2 3 Number of students 8 9 Course book Business Upper Business Benchmark Intermediate Pre-Intermediate

Table 2 Initial level of language proficiency

Group 1 Group 2 C1 1 - B2 4 3 B1 2 4 A2 1 2

The case study for the first group included an introductory discussion, two reading tasks, two listening tasks and final discussion – holding a meeting and reaching a decision concerning a disciplinary issue. The assessment table below summarises the skills to be trained (Table 3).

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 33 Table 3 Skills assessed in group 1

Task Skill

Discussion Students are able to participate in discussions on professional topics, express their opinions in spontaneous monologues /conversations and defend their arguments.

Listening Students are able to understand oral speech generally and in detail and formulate their own statements based on information retrieved using professional vocabulary.

Meeting Students are able to simulate a meeting on a professional topic using active speech patterns in compliance with structural and logical principles of speech organization, express proposals and agreement (disagreement), compromise and reach a mutually acceptable solution.

For the second group, the case study STUDY AND RESULTS included role cards for students to Foreign language teaching methodology use in small groups. A lower level of is commonly divided into teacher-oriented language proficiency supposes less and student-oriented approaches. The introductory information and shorter teacher-oriented approach implies that tasks. Nevertheless, the communicative the teacher is the dominant figure in the goal was similar to that in Group classroom, while students are viewed 1 – to solve a conflict and achieve as ‘empty vessels’, whose main role agreement on timely delivery. Unlike is to passively absorb the suggested Group 1 students, Group 2 participants information to be further subjected to made a prepared speech as part of testing and evaluation. The main duty their case study. Here listening skills of the teacher in this lesson model is to and spontaneous speech skills were transfer knowledge and information to excluded from the assessment. Case students. Training and assessment are study efficiency was assessed for the understood as two separate, independent whole group and individually based on activities. Students’ success is measured each student’s input. by objective test scores.

34 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Developing Business English skills using case studies in the framework of multilevel education Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova

‘Fulfilling communicative tasks presupposes active participation of students in the lesson, which makes the classes more motivating and effective’

The student-oriented method suggests that Nowadays Business English teachers tend teachers and students play an equally active to think that it is important to develop role in the learning process (Aliusta & Özer, the students’ ability to communicate 2017; Harju & Åkerblom, 2017; Malyuga, in a foreign language, and not just 2010). The teacher’s role in this case study compose grammatically correct statements involves coaching, mentoring and inspiring (Ponomarenko & Malyuga, 2012; Susam- students to master the material. Students’ Sarajeva, 2009). The focus has now progress is assessed on the basis of both shifted to training communication skills formal and informal criteria, including group through roleplays, projects, simulations, projects, student portfolios and participation and case studies. Fulfilling communicative in the lesson. Teaching and evaluation are tasks presupposes active participation of interrelated. Students’ progress is constantly students in the lesson, which makes the assessed by the teacher. classes more motivating and effective. The tasks students perform in the classroom Foreign language teachers always look are relevant to their future professional for the most efficient ways to structure, communication, which enhances their plan and conduct classes (Scott, 2007; motivation (Jones & Russell, 2008; Stewart, 2012). Interestingly, the traditional Malyuga, 2016). Present-Practice-Produce format may not be very useful in terms of boosting students’ In the experiment, both groups were motivation (due to the dominant role of the motivated and showed interest in the teacher in the lesson). Although students positive outcome of communication. The cope with grammatical exercises, they cannot performance of Group 1 students was successfully use English in real situations so generally accessed as very good, while even with several years of study, they lack the performance of Group 2 students was sufficient linguistic competence. assessed as good (Tables 4 and 5).

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 35 Table 4 Performance of Group 1 students in the case study

Proficiency level Comments Mark students C1 Dmitry Good level of business vocabulary, usage of active speech patterns. B B2 Lyubov Well-grounded arguments, ability to polemicise. B B2 Valentina Adequate spontaneous speech, insufficient usage of advanced business vocabulary. C B2 Maria Good active listening skills, usage of cooperative strategies. B B2 Valeria Good facilitator, ability to stimulate initiative in colleagues. B B1 Maxim Participation not active enough. C B1 Marina Good comprehension skills, ability to paraphrase. B A2 Paulina Lack of business vocabulary, lack of initiative. D

Table 5 Performance of Group 2 students in the case study

Proficiency level / Comments Mark students B2 Victoria Able to accept criticism. Not so active, but performed her role. C B2 Nikita Good usage of active speech patterns, communicative goal achieved. B B2 Valentin Active participation, involvement of other students. B B1 Victoria Able to work out common decisions, but missed some honorific forms. C B1Christina Chose appropriate style and degree of formality. C B1 Maria Managed to adapt to the requirements of the customer, showed flexibility. C B1 Nikolay Suggested a range of original ideas. C A2 Mahomed Needed to prepare his speech, good level of business vocabulary. C A2 Egor Needed to prepare his speech. D

36 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Developing Business English skills using case studies in the framework of multilevel education Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova

During the case study, most of the of business (meetings, presentations students used English spontaneously and and negotiations). In both groups, case naturally. This method treats language as studies allowed students to develop social a tool for solving business problems, as management skills, teamwork, decision- a means of communication in a typical making, critical thinking, problem solving business situation. It should be noted and organisational skills. For Business that in this case study, high-level linguistic English learners, case studies are a valuable requirements are imposed on the language opportunity to use their knowledge itself. The case study assumes that students in solving business problems (real or have a high enough language level to allow constructed). Most of the participants them to reflect on the situation under played the role of managers and managed study, otherwise the case study loses all to present and substantiate their point of sense. In the case of Group 1 (advanced view and offer problem solving solutions, level) students, this remains true. The as well as competing with each other case study developed for Group 2 (pre- and demonstrating their analytical and intermediate level) students was designed managerial skills. to correspond to their linguistic ability. As can be seen from Table 5, students used Some might say that the genre of enough business vocabulary and active ‘simulation’ or ‘case study’ is ‘wrong’ speech patterns to allow them to reach teaching, but the advantages of CSM are their communicative goals and work as a persuasive (Daly, 2002). Practice shows team. This is why, in the Business English that it helps inspire students towards teachers’ community, the view is spreading independent and critical thinking. Students that, at least for business, if less so for take on managerial positions. They develop language learning, a simpler version and sharpen communication skills in of English, so-called ‘Globish’ may be business situations, learn how to hold preferable.1 meetings, take part in negotiations, and make presentations. Furthermore, being put DISCUSSION in a real (or close to real) business situation, As seen from the work of these two students practise English naturally. groups, the case study format plays a leading role in the development of both The study showed that preparing and linguistic and extralinguistic competences participating in case studies, students among students, namely, communication expand and deepen their knowledge of the skills that are actualised in the context complexities and subtleties of intercultural

1. ‘Globish’, coined by Jean-Paul Nerriere, claims that a 1500-word vocabulary is adequate for normal business conversations in English. (Nerriere 2009)

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 37 communication, approaching the status of In the context of multilevel education, a citizen of the world. Since case studies the experiment demonstrated the are often very informative, students have necessity of ensuring that all students to quickly analyse the source material, find are involved in the learning process. logically completed ideas and organise to There is every reason to encourage find a solution to the problem. Students students to develop an active, interested improve their writing and communication attitude, as well as the ability to listen to skills; working in close interaction with the and respect each other’s opinions. The rest of the group, they also understand the teacher should rely on the knowledge importance of non-verbal communication. of students in the field of business. The teacher should also carefully prepare for By the end of the term, the two groups the presentation of the case study to the had developed the skills of collaborative students. It is not enough just to briefly learning and cooperation, as well as describe the conditions of the business teamworking skills. They learned to feel situation and, working online (which is and follow the team spirit, which requires very valuable), simply give a link to an the following personal qualities: the ability Internet source. to establish contacts, socialise; demonstrate friendliness and ability to cooperate, The teacher should make sure that all flexibility, the ability to adapt to changing students understand the conditions of conditions, readiness to accept criticism the case study and have an adequate and the ability to compromise. vocabulary relevant to the subject of the case study. Students should be CONCLUSION given enough time to solve the basic Practising CSM in Business English classes tasks of the case study. Practising CSM, raises a number of challenges. Often one should focus on the students’ teachers deal with situations where students business communication skills and do not have adequate business vocabulary. fluency. Possible problems with language The teacher’s task is then to motivate competence should be considered at the students to expand their vocabulary. In end of the lesson, reviewing the most addition, within the framework of TBLT, important language errors. the lexical dimension of the language is gaining increasing recognition. Mastering In the case of lower levels of proficiency, business vocabulary is a matter of primary the lesson may lose its dynamism. importance for Business English and If some of the students find the business language students. assignment is too complicated, the

38 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Developing Business English skills using case studies in the framework of multilevel education Alexandra V. Radyuk and Valentina Yu. Pankova teacher may intervene in the course of the and highlight the most creative decisions, lesson to ask questions or offer relevant thus praising students’ ability to think suggestions. independently and in an original way.

Students should be allowed to arrive at To conclude, the study showed that CSM is their own conclusions. Often students highly valuable at various levels of linguistic believe that there is just one correct competence. Case studies can be adapted answer; the teacher can express his or to the level of the students’ language her opinion and stress the importance of proficiency. The communicative skills seeking a range of answers and possible they acquire are essential to their future outcomes. The teacher should support personal and professional success.

References

Ahmadian, M. J. (2016). Task-based language in the Business English language classroom. teaching and learning. The Language Learning Internet TESL Journal, 8(11). Retrieved from http:// Journal, 44(4), 377-380. Daly, 2002/Techniques/Daly-CaseStudies/

Aliusta, G. O., & Özer, B. (2017). Student- East, M. (2016). Sustaining innovation in school centred learning (SCL): Roles changed? modern foreign language programmes: teachers’ Teachers and Teaching, 23(4), 422-435. reflections on task-based language teaching three years after initial teacher education. The Boersma, P., & van Leussen, J.-W. (2017). Language Learning Journal. Retrieved from Efficient evaluation and learning in multilevel http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09 parallel constraint grammars. Linguistic Inquiry, 571736.2016.1221440 48(3), 349-388. doi: 10.1162/ling_a_00247 Harju, A. & Åkerblom, A. (2017). Colliding Breslin, M., & Buchanan, R. (2008). On the collaboration in student-centred learning in case study method of research and teaching higher education. Studies in Higher Education, in design. Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40. doi: 42(8), 1532-1544. 10.1162/desi.2008.24.1.36 Hyett, N., Kenny, A., & Dickson-Swift, V. (2014). Bygate, M. (2016). Sources, developments and Methodology or method? A critical review of directions of task-based language teaching. The qualitative case study reports. International Language Learning Journal, 44(4), 381-400. Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 9(1). Retrieved from http://www. Daly, P. (2002). Methodology for using case studies tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/qhw.v9.23606

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 39 Jones, K. A., & Russell, S. (2008). Using case Ponomarenko, E. V., & Malyuga, E. N. (2012). method teaching and student-written cases Business English and functional linguistics: to improve students’ ability to incorporate Teaching practical English in perfect harmony theory into practice. Journal of Teaching in with theory. In Proceedings of ICERI 2012 (pp. the Addictions, 6(1), 35-47. 4524-4529). Madrid, Spain: IATED.

Malyuga, E. (2016). Exploiting the potential Radyuk, A. V., Banshchikova, M. A., Kogotkova, of ICT: Assessment of students’ knowledge. S. S., & Kazieva, I. I. (2016). Problem solving In Proceedings of the 3rd International in English for Specific Purposes teaching. In Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Proceedings of the 8th International Conference Sciences and Arts SGEM 2016, Book 1, Vol. 3 on Education and New Learning Technologies (pp. 319-326). doi: 10.5593/SGEMSOCIAL2016/ EDULEARN16 (pp. 8905-8909). Madrid, B13/S03.042 Spain: IATED.

Malyuga, E. N. (2010). Profession-oriented Ryerson, R. (2017). Creating possibilities: teaching foreign languages at the present stage. Studying the student experience. Educational Voprosy prikladnoj lingvistiki, 3, 83-97. Research, 59(3), 297-315.

Nerriere J-P & Hon D. 2009, Globish the World Scott, N. (2007). An evaluation of the effects Over, International Globish Institute of using case method on student learning outcomes in a tourism strategic planning course. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 7(2), communicative classroom. Cambridge, UK: 21-34. Cambridge University Press. Stewart, J. (2012). Multiple-case study Polat, E. S. (2000). Multilevel teaching. methods in governance-related research. Inostrannije yaziki v shkole, 6, 6-11. Public Management Review, 14(1), 67-82.

Ponomarenko, E. V. (2016). Functional Susam-Sarajeva, S. (2009). The case study properties of English discourse in terms of research method in translation studies. The linguosynergetics. In Proceedings of the Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 3(1), 37-56. 3rd International Multidisciplinary Scientific Conference on Social Sciences and Arts SGEM

2016, Book 1, Vol. 3 (pp. 355-362). TLC

40 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach

Otilia Hutiu

The paper presents a genre-based has improved the performance of MA approach to the study of negotiation students in Romania. within EAP classes and reports on results obtained using a negotiation model KEYWORDS: Negotiation, English for meant to increase students’ awareness Academic Purposes, pragma-dialectical concerning the generic features of this theory, argumentation, intercultural communicative activity. The presented communication, discourse analysis model is based on the Pragma-dialectical theory of argumentation, which offers a INTRODUCTION double perspective on the argumentation The present paper’s aim is to argue in discourse analysed, namely a descriptive favour of a genre-based approach to and normative perspective. teaching foreign languages at academic level (English for Academic Purposes) The paper, based on desk and field illustrated by a type of communicative research, aims to help business language activity which is highly important for the students improve their abilities in training of those studying for a degree argumentation and negotiation by in economics, i.e. the discourse of developing discourse skills beyond a simple negotiation. stage by stage negotiation strategy. In order to do so it examines the advantages The structure of the paper comprises an and disadvantages of traditional teaching overview of studies on negotiation with an of negotiation skills and introduces the aim to establish the type and characteristic Pragma-dialectical theory of negotiation features of the analysed discourse, followed developed by van Eemeren and by some remarks on the benefits of a genre Grootendorst (1992) at the University of approach to foreign language teaching. Amsterdam. The author demonstrates how The main part of the paper describes the the practical application of this approach way in which the author has been teaching

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 41 negotiation in English to students enrolled (including degrees of formality, showing in a masters programme on business respect for seniority etc.) administration based on a generic model inspired by the Pragma-dialectical theory of In their analyses, researchers adopting a argumentation. The paper ends with some discourse approach focus mainly on aspects conclusions concerning the benefits of the like lexical choice, turn taking design, generic approach and some remarks on sequence organisation, overall structural further research directions. organisation, social epistemology and social relations, and more and more on ways STUDIES ON NEGOTIATION – in which power and ideology surface in AN OVERVIEW the discourse. Inevitably, in international The term ‘negotiation’ used in this article negotiations issues of cultural differences refers to the institutional discourse used are also reflected in the language used in order to resolve conflicts and reach a and behaviour adopted, for example in the settlement or compromise and not in the use of direct and indirect speech to convey other sense in which it is widely used in the agreement and disagreement. literature, i.e. a discursive strategy in which meaning is negotiated by participants in the The generic approach narrows down the communicative event (Martin & Rose, 2007). analysis to forms of discourse (genres) that are specific for various communicative The discourse–based approach draws situations. This may mean the analysis of on concepts from socio-linguistics and presenting and questioning a position, is descriptive in nature, focusing on the making proposals, expressing compromise, discursive process itself through which bargaining and agreement. communication and interaction unfold, without evaluating the process as good The majority of the research work on or bad. The major points analysed are: negotiation has emerged from economics, (a) context (the situation in which the game and bargaining theory, political negotiation takes place), (b) participant science, anthropology and social roles, (c) communication rules and rituals psychology, contributing to the creation appropriate for a certain communicative of a theory of negotiation on the basis of situation (the stages of the negotiation, the linguistics which studies negotiation as a way in which the negotiation proceeds), discourse phenomenon or a genre. (d) forms of discourses (genres), (types of The rapid development of the discourse of language used) and (e) rhetorical strategies negotiation is closely related to the spread that define identities and relationships of globalisation in almost every field of

42 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘In its broadest sense negotiation can be viewed as a subset of institutional discourse which has as its key features: conflict, cooperation and talk’ human activity which brings together profession, social welfare, a court room, a people from various cultural backgrounds school or university. pursuing the same or similar goals. The term negotiation appears in numerous Institutional interaction may often involve studies in discourse analysis, pragmatics special and particular constraints on the and sociolinguistics but its meaning contributions of participants. Depending on has been used mainly metaphorically the institutional contexts, these constraints or incidentally. In its broadest sense may be stronger or weaker. Strong negotiation can be viewed as a subset of constraints govern verbal interactions in institutional discourse which has as its key the courtroom, in the classroom or during features: conflict, cooperation and talk. a medical examination. Business meetings are less constrained whereas casual INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCOURSE conversation may be described as having a In the present paper we discuss certain ‘looseness’ (Goffman, 1974). negotiation as a genre encountered in institutionalized discourse. In defining Most of the time negotiation has been this term we draw on the work of Drew studied as a formal event, with well - & Heritage (1992), Zimmerman & Boden established temporal and spatial constraints (1991) quoted in Firth (1995), Scollon linked with institutions such as unions, (1995) and Fairclough (1989,1996) for management, trade, and diplomacy. It whom institutionalised talk contains has seldom been studied as an activity discourses (both oral and written ones) pervading a multitude of social contexts characterised by a task-related dimension and interpersonal encounters. and by the fact that one or all of the participants in the interaction represent Seen as an activity, negotiation has been a formal organisation, such as a trade analysed as a communicative attempt union, management, the medical to settle potential or real differences in

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 43 interests among participants in order to early modern period (late 16th century), achieve mutually accepted results. negotiation broadened its meaning to encompass the sphere of politics, Negotiation can encompass numerous referring to the interchange between settings but what distinguishes negotiation rulers and princes. from other activity types is that ‘negotiation presupposes a particular type of Beginning with modernism and post- communication that involves an element modernism, when traditional values and of ‘bargaining’ or perhaps conflict and ways of life were questioned and discredited, meeting, an interaction between two or the concept of negotiation acquired a more social units attempting to define and significance never encountered before. The redefine the terms of their relationship. It frequency of negotiation in modern societies deliberately uses communication to change can be explained by the fact that today outcomes’ (Bell, 1995, p. 42). negotiation is seen as the main response to the crisis in the traditional ways of making Negotiation implies common though social adjustments, the most efficient mostly conflicting interests, the pursuing means of solving conflicts. Thus, modern of certain goals and the achievement of an society considers negotiation as a way of agreement or compromise. life, a modus operandi for the ever-growing number of conflicts in social life. Negotiation is therefore structured through social and linguistic interaction in social ‘Ours is an age of negotiation. The fixed settings, having the communication process positions and solid values of the past seem as one of its crucial features. to be giving way, and new rules, roles and relations have to be worked out. The hard An interest in the study of professional lines and easy cognitive recognition systems communication genres that has lately of the Cold War have first multiplied and developed has its origin in the study of then melted, revealing the necessity of genres in literature and various branches talking things over and out … Negotiation of linguistics. becomes not a transition but a way of life’ (I.V. Zartmann, quoted in Putnam & Roloff, Negotiation was initially the process of 1992, Page 1). haggling in the barter or sale of various goods in the marketplace. The restricted Globalisation, understood as the term – bargaining – is the one that best advanced development of the spread defines this early stage of concept. In the of manufacturing, distribution, financial

44 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘Negotiation was initially the process of haggling in the barter or sale of various goods in the marketplace’ and capital movements, enhanced by ICT The evolution of negotiation has influenced (information communication technologies) also the place where it originally appeared, has brought different styles of negotiation the market. Today we can witness it even together as never before. The globalisation in the sphere of economic relations where trend has brought together opposing bargaining – in its restricted meaning – was tendencies. Due to the tensions brought predominant, a change towards the more about by two opposite tendencies in general meaning of the concept, with a modern societies, the tendency towards stress on principled, reasonable settlements individualism and the tendency towards and outcomes (Fisher et al.1991). collectivism, manifest in all fields of social life, heighten the need for dialogue to When we speak of negotiations as a accommodate sometimes highly divergent communicative event, we cannot ignore points of view. The intricate connections the national dimension, the fact that each of social life generate relationships of culture has its own particularities that make dependency between individuals and themselves manifest in the respective event. social institutions, relations that are no longer imposed but are freely consented Cultural differences are important for to. Sociologists today see negotiations as the evolution of the negotiation process, one of the most efficient procedures of and this is more obvious today, when decision-making (Thuderoz, 2002). globalisation phenomena bring together people with different cultural backgrounds. Due to this new and enriched modern It is, however, difficult to establish whether meaning of negotiation, today it has the differences encountered during become a defining feature of democratic instances of negotiations are due to societies, where individual needs and rights differences in culture, to differences in the are correlated in a non-conflictual way with character of the negotiators or even due to larger collective interests. differences in political systems.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 45 Research work in cross-cultural negotiations statements may bring about oversimplified has been conducted mainly in the descriptions of cultural groups and usually field of sociology or discourse analysis are due to the focusing on individual and it has stemmed from the growing members of cultural groups whose interrelationships among nations due to characteristics are then attributed to the the phenomenon of globalisation. whole group.

People from different countries have Cross-cultural communication is a different opinions about what is correct wide domain which interests different or normal behaviour. Sociologists and categories of researchers ranging from anthropologists such as (Hall 1959, 1966, anthropologists and sociolinguists to Hofstede 1994, Trompenaars, 1993) speech communication analysts and and others have tried to explain these teachers of foreign languages. differences in cultural and behavioural patterns through some aspects of While their theoretical interests are often key cultural patterns such as: power quite different, Scollon (1995) argues distance; masculine vs feminine behavior; that they have to share at least a basic individualism vs collectivism; avoidance of set of assumptions in order to avoid uncertainty, etc. (Hofstede, 1994). stereotyping or overgeneralization. Among these assumptions Scollon (1995) lists When analysing intercultural discourse, the following four: (1) Humans are not the researcher must try to give a balanced all the same. (2) At least some of the cultural description, taking into account differences among them show culturally the full complexity of cultural topics. The or socially predictable patterns. (3) At tendency to single out one topic or to give least some of those patterns are reflected a negative or positive value to it may bring in patterns of discourse. (4) Some of about what is called cultural ideology or those differences in discourse patterns stereotyping. As Scollon (1995) defines it, lead directly to unwanted social problems ‘Ideological statement or stereotyping often such as intergroup hostility, stereotyping, arises when someone comes to believe that preferential treatment and discrimination any two cultures or social groups, or, as we (Scollon, 1995, p. 156). prefer to call them, two discourse systems, can be treated as if they were polar TEACHING NEGOTIATION – A GENERIC opposites’ (Scollon, 1995, p. 155). APPROACH Genres are different ways of using These general cultural ideological language to achieve socially and culturally

46 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘Te tendency to single out one topic or to give a negative or positive value to it may bring about what is called cultural ideology or stereotyping’ established aims. Therefore one of their in another, are revelatory of the ideology, most important characteristic features and allow us to establish it more or less that has to be taught is that they are confidently’ (Duff, 2000, p. 200). communicative activities with a well- defined purpose. They are targeted as well The various ways in which the concept of as produced by a particular community. genre has been studied in literature and linguistics reinforces Swales’s (1990) claim The study of genre is indebted to literary that a genre analysis cannot be equated criticism, to sociolinguistics, to discourse with text analysis. If literary studies are analysis, cultural anthropology and concerned mainly with issues pertaining to rhetorical studies (Swales, 1990). the formal and ideational (content) level, the linguistic approaches are focused also An important concept is to be found in on the communicative functions of the T. Todorov’s work. It is the idea that the genre, on its social implications (settings, process of institutionalization renders participants) and on the cognitive models genres as expressions of the epoch’s underlying them. All these aspects are dominant ideology (Todorov in Duff 2000). highlighted by the definition of the genre as a non-literary text type. ‘Each epoch has its own system of genres, which stands in some relation to the Teaching various genres within the dominant ideology, and so on. Like any framework of Language for Academic other institution, genres bring to light the Purposes has been one of the author’s constitutive features of the society to which constant preoccupations as a language they belong … a society chooses and codifies teacher for quite a long time The genre– the acts that correspond most closely to based approach implies teaching and its ideology; that is why the existence of analysing texts from three perspectives: certain genres in one society, their absence understanding, decoding and, finally,

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 47 production. One of the most important Since 1989, however, negotiations have achievements of teaching genres would be seen a rapid development in Romania to foster genre awareness among students. together with the introduction of democratic institutions. Studies in the literature on genre teaching indicate that genres differ widely As far as training in negotiation is depending on the academic disciplines concerned, once again the main source (Hyland, 2006). Thus genres belonging is American books on negotiation, which to the field of humanities, such as essays, have been translated into Romanian and letters, and dissertations, have a looser are widely used in academic training. structure, contain more stance items (hedges, explicit markers of evaluation and The need to teach students those genres, attitude) than those in the field of science which are part of their professional and engineering. background, has become a priority. In LAP (Language for Academic Purposes) As far as Romania is concerned, before classes the author has tried not only 1989 the use of negotiation as a means to introduce those genres which help of conflict settlement was rare, mainly students improve their knowledge, (in because in totalitarian societies the idea this case, of English) but also to enable of individuals or groups with conflicting students to understand, analyse and interests is not accepted and the social produce professional genres in the target dialogue is non-existent. However, the language. The reason for this is twofold, restricted term bargaining, was in use and firstly, to enable Romanian graduates to courses on international bargaining were obtain jobs in the international market part of the curricula in the economics where knowledge of English is a necessity faculties. These courses drew on American and secondly, to contribute to the references such as, Bill Scott’s ‘The Skills of general effort of internationalisation that Negotiating’ (1981) which was translated Romanian universities are making internally into Romanian. at present. More bachelor (BA) and masters (MA) programmes in economics, There were also diplomatic negotiations management, science and engineering conducted before 1989, but due to are being offered in English not only for the lack of information in this field, Romanian, but also foreign students. we cannot arrive at consistent, well- documented conclusions regarding A genre-based approach to teaching negotiation in that period. language or in providing courses in English

48 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘Te way the generic activity of negotiation is perceived is governed by historical and social factors and these may differ from one culture or one country to another’ has become part of this trend in Romanian the rhetorical structures that tend to recur universities. in genre-specific texts’. (Swales, 1990: 213)

Most of the students enrolled in this The study of genres seems a beneficial course have a good command of English undertaking because this way some (CEFR – Council of Europe Framework difficulties arising during intercultural of Reference- level B2 or C1). Therefore negotiations can be overcome. The way the the focus is less on vocabulary and other generic activity of negotiation is perceived linguistic aspects and more on the generic is governed by historical and social factors and argumentative aspect of negotiation and these may differ from one culture or as a communicative activity. one country to another. Negotiation itself may be perceived differently and have In spite of the great variety of positive or negative connotations. Cultural negotiation events, a genre based and generic awareness can be developed study of negotiations has its benefits. during the foreign language classes and it (a) It allows insights into the overall can result in the students noticing aspects rhetorical structure, distinguishing that are usually taken for granted and go general and special features. As a result unnoticed otherwise. the participants develop a control of the metalanguage and a critical awareness ‘There is the way the culture institutionalizes of their own negotiation skills and the pattern of discursive behaviours for abilities. (b) The organizing principles negotiators and shares a sense of whether of negotiations are better understood these can be flexibly worked out on each and more effectively used. (c) From a occasion, or must follow an unvarying pedagogic point of view, a genre analysis formula … There is the way a culture is valuable if it succeeds in ‘sensitizing develops a sense of the appropriate styles students to the rhetorical effects and to for speech acts, for example, how to do the

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 49 acts of ‘consulting’ and of ‘arranging’ and These courses focus on aspects such as: ‘deciding’ and of talking to one’s team or politeness (face saving, face-threatening to the members of the other, and so on’. strategies), negotiating styles (collaborative (Mulholland, 1995: 81) or competitive), cross- cultural differences and customs and traditions. The aspects mentioned by Mulholland (1995) above are usually left out of those A major drawback of such books is that courses, very popular in Romania and they ignore linguistic aspects and discourse probably elsewhere, which teach students analysis of the few examples given. They various skills and, of course, negotiation limit themselves to stating the rules that skills as well. In the language classroom have to be followed. No simulations or case these skills can be accompanied by generic studies of actual negotiations are available analyses and linguistic analyses which to illustrate the theoretical framework. highlight precisely those aspects that are The cases narrated are, however, useful left out of ‘how-to’ courses. as a starting point for role-playing and simulations in the classroom. SKILLS, MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY THE PRAGMA-DIALECTICAL THEORY OF Some authors such as Scott (Scott, 1981) ARGUMENTATION and Fisher (Fisher et al. 1991) adopt The methodology used in order to a prescriptive approach and present postulate a generic structure for negotiation as an activity consisting negotiations is based on the Pragma- of several well established patterns of dialectical theory of argumentation that individual behaviour that makes each aims at analysing precisely argumentative participant’s actions predictable to the texts that are dialogic in nature. other, to a certain extent. Leaders in this field are often lawyers and other In the last 20 years a group of speech practitioners who are very sceptical communication scholars of the University about the possibilities of learning much of Amsterdam (F. van Eemeren, R. from the analysis of the details of the Grootendorst, A. Feteris, P. Houtlosser) actual talk of negotiation. Some have together with some colleagues from produced extremely influential reports and other universities (S. Jackson and commentaries on general strategies of S. Jacobs of the University of Arizona) negotiation such as focusing on interests have been developing a new method for rather than on positions (Fisher et. al. the analysis of argumentative discourse 1991) or on ‘how to deal with X’. called Pragma-dialectics.

50 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘Pragma-dialecticians consider that in every form of communication and interaction, and in argumentation in particular, there is a certain normativity involved’

Pragma-dialectical theory views consensus regarding what constitutes argumentation as a dialectical process of ideal forms of human communication, problem solving and tries to capture how Habermas’s philosophical concept of ideal both participants in the process contribute speech situation can be used to evaluate to the interaction: The goal of this analysis the actual systems of beliefs and the is to achieve an analytic overview of modes of communication in order to argumentative discourse that incorporates help people to become emancipated from everything necessary for a critical their oppression and to diminish as much evaluation of the argumentative discourse. as possible the repressive character of social interaction. This new approach to argumentation uses a dialectical and a normative pragmatic For Habermas (1983) it is extremely perspective in constructing its critical important that speech should minimise the discussion model. differences in power between speakers and that ideologies be critiqued. Pragma-dialecticians consider that in every form of communication and interaction, Besides Habermas’ ideal speech situation and in argumentation in particular, there is with its validity conditions, pragma-dialectics a certain normativity involved. has also been influenced by speech acts theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1970) and A major concept that influenced the Grice’s (1981) concept of co-operative pragma-dialectical approach is the concept conversational situation. of ideal speech situation postulated by Jürgen Habermas. According to Habermas Arguments are made via speech acts and (1983), human social existence is based on they have the properties of speech acts. asymmetrical relations of power, constraint According to the Pragma-dialectical theory, and dependence. On the basis of a rational an argument is conceived of as a complex

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 51 speech act made up of some simpler advances a point of view, which then is speech acts and structured at a global level questioned by the other side. by a set of felicity conditions. In the opening stage the protagonist is A central concept of this theory is that prepared to defend his or her standpoint, of the critical discussion. The critical while the antagonist is prepared to criticise it. discussion is considered an ideal model for disagreement resolution that allows During the argumentative stage, the the analyst to examine real life disputation protagonist presents arguments meant practices critically. to support his or her standpoint, whereas the antagonist elicits further What distinguishes critical discussion from arguments if he or she is still in doubt. other disputes is the fact that the aim of The argumentative stage is the one in the critical discussion is to resolve conflict. which the complex argumentation The resolution of a conflict presupposes patterns are displayed. that both parties in the conflict are convinced that this is the only correct and The concluding stage is shaped by one justified solution. The fact that the only of the following two possibilities: the acceptable ending for this discussion is the antagonist accepts the argumentation as a resolution allows for an unlimited number resolution to the dispute, or the protagonist of opportunities to further the discussion. withdraws if the argumentation has not Another characteristic of this type of been accepted as a suitable resolution. discussion is that the participants have symmetrical status and that power does The concluding stage establishes the not influence its outcome. outcome of the discussion in the form of a resolution or of a decision that no The resolution of a dispute ideally passes resolution could be reached. through four stages which correspond to four different phases of a critical discussion Critical discussion acts as a grid against (van Eemeren & Grootendorst, 1992); (a) which actual real life disputes or discussions the confrontation stage; (b) the opening can be assessed via the above-mentioned stage; (c) the argumentative stage; (d) the rules. The deviations from the ideal model concluding stage. help the analyst identify the rationality behind the actions of the discussants and The confrontation stage is the one in which the standards of communication to which one participant in the critical discussion the discussants hold themselves.

52 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘Te fact that the only acceptable ending for this discussion is the resolution allows for an unlimited number of opportunities to further the discussion’ In negotiation, for instance, a reasonable Compared to the ideal argumentative solution is to reach a settlement through conduct, real life ordinary discourse compromise rather than to reach a decision appears as ambiguous, sometimes without through forcing the issue at stake. The explicitly stated purposes, argumentative process of bargaining assumes a strategic roles or argumentative procedures. A position on the part of the discussants dialectical reconstruction selects those because they calculate where their best features of the discourse that pertain to the interests lie under conditions of mutual argumentative structures, functions and interdependence. The end point of content, and ignores other aspects that successful bargaining is a commitment are less important from the argumentative to carry out a joint plan of action based point of view, such as repair, repetition, on the belief that this is the best both back-channeling, etc. parties can get. The analytical reconstruction of everyday A central problem in the analysis is that argumentative conversation uses the the reconstruction known by the name following operations in order to select of analytical overview should be relevant the relevant material: deletion, addition, to the normative analysis undertaken by permutation and substitution. the scholar and to the intentions and understandings of the ordinary participants Deletion removes all the material that is in the piece of discourse analysed. considered irrelevant for the argumentative character: repetitions, repairs, false starts, The principal use of the ideal model of the jokes, etc. critical discussion is to enable the analyst to perform a normative reconstruction of Through addition, the analyst makes real life argumentative discourse in order to explicit all the unexpressed steps of the evaluate it, to understand its fallacies and argumentation, rendering the material incongruities if present. maximally argumentative.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 53 Permutation refers to the fact that the simulated negotiations. For instance, material can be rearranged if necessary after a general presentation of the so as to clarify as much as possible the Pragma-dialectical theory she presents dialectical process which has led to a students with an instance of simulated certain resolution. This operation is management-union negotiation concerning especially useful in everyday conversation, the topic of a rise in salary. The students where the speech is loosely structured and are asked to take notes identifying the informal. In the more institutionalised types stages, the proposals and standpoints of discourse where formality and planning and arguments. are more obvious, the analyst won’t have to resort to permutations too often. In this particular case the negotiating parties established the agenda and Substitution attempts to recover the basic the topic in the opening stage. In underlying speech acts for each step the confrontation stage the union in the argumentation, to eliminate any representatives presented the management indirectness and thus to obtain a clear with a proposal for a rise in salary while presentation of those elements that fulfil the latter not only turned down the a dialectical function in the discourse. amount, but also responded with its own proposal. Thus, this initial exchange of The aim of such a dialectical reconstruction proposals established the disagreement is to bring the discourse in a form as close zone, which was the starting point for the as possible to the standard normative bargaining stage proper, in which both model of the critical discussion. parties presented the arguments aimed at reinforcing their initial proposals. The The discussion stages are not explicitly Union representatives used arguments from announced or completely externalised. authority (for example, there are legal acts In real life situations implicitness and that stipulate that salaries should increase indirectness are very frequent and can in line with the increase in the rate of make it difficult for the analyst to inflation), statistics (for example, comparing recognise the various stages. wages in Romania with similar occupations abroad) causal arguments (for example, During the negotiation courses run underpaid workers generating low quality with the students enrolled in a Business products). The management came up Administration MA programme the author with counterarguments and finally, with uses the concept of critical discussion and a proposal to raise the wages gradually analytical overview in order to analyse over a given period of time.

54 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

This new perspective opened another line the fact that arguments were not always of negotiation concerning the timing of the relevant and that, sometimes proposals were rises, which finally brought the negotiations rejected without any argumentative support. to an end. The concluding stage summed up the discussion, established an initial rise Based upon the structure of the critical in wages and agreed a schedule for the discussion postulated within the framework next round of negotiations. of the Pragma-dialectical theory a general format for negotiations can be suggested, One aspect observed by the students was as shown in the table below:

Table 1 Pragma-dialectical format of negotiation

Stages Moves Opening stage - establishing the issue - establishing procedure - introducing discussants

Confrontation stage - expressing opposite/different standpoints - establishing positions

Bargaining stage - advancing argumentation - requesting further argumentation - advancing proposal - accepting/rejecting proposal - advancing counterproposal

Concluding stage - summing up - establishing further steps - settlement/resort to a third party (mediation)/deadlock

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 55 Students attending the course are acknowledged an improvement in first offered a general presentation of their ability to negotiate or to conduct negotiations from a discursive and generic argumentative disputes. They also noted point of view and are then given a brief that the simulated negotiations should be course in argumentation (definition of videoed and more time should be allotted arguments, argument structures, topics, to teaching argumentation. fallacious arguments). Then this general model is applied to samples of negotiations CONCLUSION (mostly simulated ones due to the difficulty The concepts of the Pragma-dialectical of obtaining real life negotiation transcripts) theory supplemented with a generic during the course and the students are perspective can provide a suitable requested to perform an analysis and methodology for the study and teaching single out the various stages, moves and of negotiation as it offers both a critical, linguistic strategies used in order to reach evaluative approach and a descriptive a settlement. The arguments used in the one. It can be included in LAP (Language negotiation samples are also evaluated. for Academic Purposes) courses helping students not only to master a genre The analysis performed is both descriptive relevant for their degree (management, and normative, as it evaluates samples economics, business administration, etc.) of negotiations against a normative but also to improve their linguistic abilities. theoretical model of argumentation. The generic superstructure for the negotiation Among the practical consequences of proposed outlines the phases, sections and genre studies, an important place is held by moves based on the argumentation tasks the influence of the findings on the process and sub-tasks of this communicative event. of teaching the respective genres.

Having analysed several negotiation The teaching of negotiation as a samples, students then participate in distinctive communicative activity aimed simulated negotiations which are then at reaching consensus has a wide range of evaluated by their colleagues. The applications in domains such as economics, discussions following these simulations management, sociology and politics, help participants to improve their as well as in any other field in which negotiation and argumentation skills. communicative skills are required. The Pragma-dialectical theory offers by means In the questionnaires completed at the of its empirical and practical components a end of the course 70% of the students methodology for the enhancement of what

56 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

‘Among the practical consequences of genre studies, an important place is held by the influence of the findings on the process of teaching the respective genres’

Van Eeemeren and Grootendorst (1992) as second-order conditions that need to term as argumentative competence. The be mastered in order to be considered main points that have to be stressed with an effective negotiator. Thus, training respect to this concept of argumentative should refer to the identification and competence is the fact that it is relative, it evaluation of argumentation schemes, can be acquired gradually and it comprises types of arguments and their relevance various kinds of different competencies. for negotiation, and also face-to-face politeness strategies that are intended to Therefore the aim of a teaching preserve a collaborative attitude during the programme should focus on a certain negotiation process. type of competence, within the general argumentative competence, for instance, The teaching of negotiating competence a negotiating competence that can be within a programme of second language better defined and understood in the acquisition will have to lay more emphasis framework of a generic approach. This on the linguistic aspects through which the approach encompasses information generic structure becomes manifest and concerning the discursive tasks and sub- on the cultural similarities and differences tasks, the macro and microstructures, as that are mainly noticeable as differences in well as a multi-level analysis of interactional negotiation styles. moves, argument types and schemes and specific linguistic clues. The teaching of In particular, as far as international negotiating competence should therefore negotiation is concerned, it will have to expand beyond the task of the prescriptive take into account the different cultural literature (which focuses on strategies and communication styles adopted by tactics meant to bring about successful negotiators, such as the use of high or low results) to an understanding of the context communication, direct or indirect argumentation process proper as well ways of making points. The use of formality

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 57 to show respect or create distance, the use general organisation principles and values of emotion and, as previously mentioned, governing democratic institutions. the conventions regarding turn taking (interrupting or waiting). Developing generic competences such as argumentation competence The drawing up of textbooks and other or negotiation competence, even if teaching materials using the generic somewhat marginal to the tasks of a perspective will have to generate not only foreign language teacher, are important skills but a certain discussion-minded as they can make their small but attitude in individuals that will improve significant contribution to the change in not only students’ ability to use the rules institutional practices leading to greater of reasonable argumentation but also the democracy in international business second-order rules, rules that refer to more negotiation and decision-making.

References

Austin, J. L.(1962) How to Do Things with Firth, A. (ed.) (1995). The Discourse of Words. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Negotiation. Studies of Language in the Workplace. Oxford: Pergamon. Bell, D. (1995) Negotiation in the Workplace: the view from a political linguist. in Firth A. (ed.) Fisher, R & Ury, W. with Patton, B (ed.) (1991) (1995) The Discourse of Negotiation. Studies of Getting to Yes. Negotiating Agreement without Language in the Workplace, Pergamon London, Giving In, 2nd Edition, Boston/New Yorkk: pp.62-92. Houghton Mifflin.

Cody, M. J. (1994). Persuasive Communication. Goffman, E. (1974) Frame Analysis. North- San Diego: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. eastern University Press

Drew, P. & Heritage, J (ed.) (1992). Talk at Work. Grice, H. P. (1981) Presupposition and Interaction in Institutional Settings. Cambridge: conversational implicatures. In Cole P. (ed.) Cambridge University Press. Radical Pragmatics. New York: Academic Press, pp.183-98. Duff, D. (ed.) (2000). Modern Genre Theory. Harlow: Longman. Habermas, J. (1983). Moralbewusstsein und kommunicatives handeln. Frankfurt am Main: Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power. Suhrkamp Verlag. Harlow: Longman. Hall, E.T. (1959). The Silent Language: Garden Fairclough, N. (1996). Discourse and Social City, N.Y. Anchor Press/Doubleday. Structures. Harlow: Longman.

58 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 Teaching negotiation in a globalised world, benefits of a genre approach Otilia Hutiu

Hall, E.T. (1966). Hidden Dimension. Garden City, Searle, J. R. (1979). The Classification of N.Y: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Illocutionary Acts in Language in Society, 8, pp.137-151. Hofstede, G. (1994). Cultures and Organizations. Software of the Mind. London, Harper Collins. Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre Analysis. English in Academic and Research Setting, Cambridge: Hyland, K. (2006). English for Academic Cambridge University Press. Purposes An Advanced Resource Book. London, Routledge. Thuderoz, C. (2002). Negocierile. Eseu de sociologie despre liantul social. Bucharest : Hutiu, O. (2007). The Discourse of Negotiation in Stiinta Chisineu (translated from French into English and Romanian – A Contrastive Analysis. Romanian). Bucharest: Editura Universitatii Aurel Vlaicu Arad. Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. (1993). Hutiu O. (2013). Improving Writing Skills through Riding the Waves of Culture. Understanding the Use of Toulmin’s Model of Argumentation. Cultural Diversity in Business. London: Nicholas Journal of Humanistic and Social Studies, Volume Brealey Publishing. IV, No. 1(7) pp. 117-126. Van Eeemeren, H. & Grootendorst, R. (1992). Mulholland, J. (1995). The Language of Argumentation, Communication and Fallacies. Negotiation. A Handbook of Practical Strategies A Pragma-Dialectical Perspective. Hillsdale, for Improving Communication. London: (N.J.) Erlbaum. Routledge. Van Eeemeren, H. & Grootendorst, R. (ed.) Martin, J. R. & Rose, D. (2007). Working with (1994). Studies in Pragma-Dialectics, Amsterdam: discourse, Meaning Beyond the Clause. Sic Sar International Centre for the Study of London: Continuum. Argumentation.

Neuliep, W.J. (2006). Intercultural Van Eeemeren, H. & Grootendorst, R. (ed.) Communication. A Contextual Approach. (2002). Advances in Pragma-Dialectic, London: Sage Publications. Amsterdam: Sic Sar.

Putnam, L. & Roloff, M. (ed.) (1992). Van Eeemeren, H. & Grootendorst, R. (2004). Communication and Negotiation. London: A Systemic Theory of Argumentation. The Sage Publications. Pragma-Dialectical Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scollon, R & Scollon Wong, S. (1995). Intercultural Communication a Discourse Yamada, H. (1992). American and Japanese Approach. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Business Discourse: A comparison of International Styles. Norwood New York: Scott W. (1981) The Skills of Negotiating, Ablex Publishers. Gower Publishing TLC

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 59 Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese

Aryuna G. Ivanova

The article considers typological features principle – the arbitrariness of the language of morphemic-syllabic word structure in sign – in differentiating various verbal signs: the analytical English and isolating Chinese longer polysyllabic models are assigned languages. Due to the linear nature of the to denominating signs, while shorter signifying language signs, differences in the models are associated with pronominal form of denotative language units primarily and linking signs. The author also considers concern their length, i.e. their syllabic the relevancy of the functional-stylistic spread. The author makes a strong case factor. In general, the findings presented for the study of morphemic-syllabic word in the paper may prove beneficial in organisation in differentiating semiological establishing the patterns of regular word classes of words and individual parts dependence of the units of morphological of speech, and identifies the most common and phonetic segmentation, as well models of morphemic-syllabic structure as as in developing systemic typological applied to ‘words in general’, as well as to classification of languages. semiological classes of words and individual parts of speech in the languages studied. KEYWORDS: semiological word classes, Depending on the semiological function notional words proper, pronominal words, they perform, and subject to the degree form words, morphemic-syllabic structure, of their lexicality and grammaticality, analytical English, isolating Chinese. denominating words (notional words proper) are more complex and longer than INTRODUCTION their non-denominating counterparts – As is well known, ‘the essence of language deictic/pronominal (pronouns) and linking lies in its articulateness’ (Humboldt, 1985, (form) words. The paper traces the number p. 410). Primary language segmentation one principle of language signs, the linear involves making a distinction between its nature of the signifying component, two facets – the sound and the meaning – acting as a restrainer of the second major which interconnectedness sets in motion the

60 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova very process of segmentation in both areas. as on statistical methods establishing Double hierarchical segmentation revealed mainly the frequency of various (mostly by Baudouin de Courtenay (1963a) implies phonetic) elements, which are interpreted two types of segmentation – ‘morphological’ as typological characteristics of languages (or semasiologically morphological) whereby (Fenk et al., 2006, pp. 324-333). denotative units are identified within the Researchers also consider morphological content plane, and phonetic whereby features that are taken as a basis for pronounced units are affiliated with the establishing a coherent typology of acoustic dimension of language functioning languages (Bane, 2008; Anderson, 2015). (Baudouin de Courtenay, 1963a, p.184). Since the word is distinguished by the The correlation of lexical and grammatical unity of outer and inner form, this phenomena is a typical feature of any obviously implies contingency of its syllabic language: it presents its typological and morphemic structures. Due to the determinant, defines its grammatical denotative nature of morphemes, the trends, and affects the nature and degree unity of syllabic and morphemic word of differentiation of the various word organisation is primarily determined by the classes within this language. Zubkova, morphemic structure. Although syllabic 1999, pp,167-173). The mechanisms word structure does acquire a somewhat underlying the interaction of units autonomous status with the development belonging to different levels (in particular, of grammatical forms, it will always be the phonological and morphological ones) defined by the morphemic structure. are currently the focus of particularly intense scrutiny in the realm of language The correlation of the word’s morphemic studies. Yet, since the categorical nature structure and its syllabic organisation is of this interaction appears to lack targeted essential to language as a coherent system examination, its typological specifics have characterised by double hierarchical not yet been the subject of intensive study segmentation. Identifying the peculiarities (Zubkova, 2010, pp. 99-100). of this correlation in languages of different types will unravel the interaction of Modern typological research is based not phonetic and content planes, because only on the categorisation of concepts, each language produces specific models of but also largely relies on the method systematised morphemic-syllabic structure. of grammatical sentence construction and explanation of syntactic relations In addition, semiological classes of words (Kostrzewa, 2015, pp. 38-48), as well and parts of speech exploit their own sets of

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 61 ‘In this regard, successful analysis of the models of morphemic-syllabic word organisation will imply teaching students to identify word boundaries, establish the word’s part-of-speech affiliation, and define the main morphemic and syllabic models’

morphemic-syllabic models, which define the With the students of non-linguistic relevance of their typological examination universities, such practice can be useful against the backdrop of two languages in mastering linguistic competence and belonging to different types – in this case, encouraging the students to further analytical English and isolating Chinese. formalise straightforward utterances in a foreign language. This aspect also acquires importance whenever it comes to the native English MATERIAL AND METHODS or Chinese speakers studying English or Study materials include excerpts from Chinese as foreign languages. Besides, this research articles and fairy tales of similar linguistic phenomenon is of considerable volume (561-568 words per excerpt): in significance for students for whom both English – Homonyms and English Form- of these languages are foreign languages Class Analysis by S. R. Levin (1960), The (i.e. in cases when the students already Green Lady Wonder Tales by K. M. Briggs speak English and begin to study Chinese and R. L. Tongue (1965); in Chinese – 生死 as their primary foreign language). In this 恋 (The Everlasting Love) by L. Hua (1998). regard, successful analysis of the models of morphemic-syllabic word organisation will The choice of these languages proceeds imply teaching students to identify word from their typological similarity associated boundaries, establish the word’s part-of- with the agglutinate technique of speech affiliation, and define the main morpheme composition and their more or morphemic and syllabic models. less pronounced degree of analyticity.

62 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova

Research material comprised a research As pertains inflectional affixes of the article (in English) and fairy tales (in English language which had survived English and Chinese), which is mainly the decline of inflectional morphology, due to their vivid stylistic dissimilarity: cumulative affixes (multivalent, combining the scientific style uses standard codified more than one grammatical meaning) are vocabulary, while the style of fairy tales only marked by three indicators, which is largely associated with colloquial are 3rd person, singular, and the present language. Accordingly, by comparing tense of the –s indicative. ‘Inflection’ in the the data retrieved from the texts of English language refers to accidence and different genres, one can conduct a inflectional affixes. The term ‘inflection’ more in-depth typological analysis of has been retained, because along with languages and trace internal linguistic the standard means used to express patterns revealing ‘simultaneous grammatical meanings, there are also non- application of two or three morphological standard tools, which is basically common principles’ (Baudouin de Courtenay, to inflectional languages. For example, 1963b, pp. 114-115). in the inflectional category of number, singular is also expressed through the –um, The analysed texts were reduced to words -us, -on flections, and instead of resorting (word forms), and morphemes (morphs) to standard –s/-z/-iz, plural forms employ to be further subjected to quantitative- –a, -e, -en, as well as internal alternations, typological and statistical analysis. apophonies (Melchuk, 1997, p. 256; Kubryakova, 1970, p. 114). In addition to Morphemic segmentation was carried external objectively expressed morphemes out in a strictly synchronous alignment. and zero inflectional affixes, the present English words were segmented following study also considers internal flections, or in Greenberg’s (1960) quadrate method, Melchuk’s (1997) terms, ‘aphononies’. including the cases of a severely limited number of appropriate word forms, as was Morphemic segmentation of Chinese the case of English pronouns: words relied on Greenberg’s (1960) quadrate method, the method of residual who (nominative case) – whom (objective case) separability, research findings introduced by they (nominative case) – them (objective case) Solntsev (1995), and the Chinese-Russian he (nominative case) – him (objective case) Dictionary (1990). whereby the suffix of the objective case –m Syllabic segmentation of English texts is allocated (Melchuk, 2001, p. 277). was carried out in accordance with the

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 63 following dictionaries and research furtherance of Sapir’s (1993) typological works: Oxford Advanced Learner’s method. The paper also considers the Dictionary of Current English with alternated approach to the definition Chinese Translation (1993); Consonant of a word and the additional index of Cluster, Consonant Sequence and the lexical/grammatical intensity introduced Syllable (Pulgram, 1965); The Phonology in the monograph Quantitative typology of English (Hammond, 1999); Syllable of languages of Asia and Africa Structure and the Distribution of Phonemes (Kasevich & Yakhontov, 1982). in English Syllables (Kressler & Treiman, 1997); Languages of the world. Germanic Along with the morphemic (morph) languages. Celtic Languages (Semenyuk et organisation, the formula of morphemic- al., 2000). syllabic word structure (word form) comprises the length of each morpheme Since syllabic and morphemic boundaries (morph) within syllables due to the often tend to coincide, syllabic linear nature of the signifying language segmentation in Chinese is commonly a signs and the morpheme’s (morph’s) rather straightforward process. In this study, role in differentiating various types of syllable analysis relied on the following word signs. In this formula, morpheme research works: Syllable Structure in the (morph) length is indicated by the National Chinese Language (Dragunov corresponding subscript digit 0, 1, 2, & Dragunova, 1995), System of Chinese 3, 4 placed to the right of the letter Syllables (Moskalev, 1964), On the Issue symbol designating the morpheme of Syllable and Phoneme (Rumyantsev, (morph) (Zubkova, 1984, p. 38). The 1978) and Introduction to the Typology of number of these models, their structure Isolating Languages (Solntsev, 1995). and frequency of use vary not only from language to language, but also from Following Rumyantsev (1978) and Zubkova one part of speech to another, thus (1984, 1999), segmental organisation of acquiring typological significance. This morphemes and words is analysed in view significance is all the more considerable, of the acoustic-phonemic structure of the seeing that morphemic-syllabic structure Chinese language. of a word somewhat accumulates the patterns characterising this word not The quantitative-typological analysis only in terms of its expression, but also was conducted based on the method in terms of its content, which is due to of quantitative morphological indices the nature of both the words, and the proposed by Greenberg (1960) in morphemes exposing them.

64 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova

STUDY AND RESULTS model incorporates 10 and 35 words in the The English language article and in the fairy tale, respectively. Word proper English article registered 54 morphemic- The most common models found in the syllabic (morph-syllabic) word models as article and amounting to 73,0% of all the opposed to 16 models registered in the morphemic-syllabic word models found in fairy tale. This means that on average one the English article are:

Table 1 The most frequent morphemic-syllabic word models (the English article)

Morphemic-syllabic Relative frequency Example word models

R1 47.0% (long [loŋ])

R1 I(ø) 8.1% (type [taɪp])

R1S 7.9% (was [woz])

R1I0 6,2% (forms [fo:m/z])

R1D1 2.3% (wealthy [wel-θ/ɪ])

R2 2.1% (other [ʌ-∂ә])

R2 I(ø) 2.1% (differ [dɪ-fә])

P1R1D1I1 2.1% (recurrences [rɪ+k ʌ-r/әn-s/ɪz])

R1D1I(ø) 1.6% (meaning [mɪ: -n/ɪŋ])

P1R1I(ø) 1.6% (regard [re+gard])

P2R1I0 1.2% (homophones [hɒ-mә +foәn/z])

R1D1 D1 1.1% (structural [strʌk-tʃ/ә-r/әl])

P1R1I1 1.1% (discloses [dɪs+klou-z/ɪz])

P1R1 1.1% (alone [ә +loun])

*Hereinafter the following designations apply: R- root morpheme, I – inflection, Ii – inner inflection, S – suppletive form, D – derivational suffix, S* – inflectional suffix, P – prefix, (ø) – zero inflection, ‘-’ denotes morphic juncture, ‘/’ denotes syllable boundary, ‘+’ denotes inflection of morphic juncture with syllable boundary

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 65 ‘Notional words proper and pronominal words also differ in the number of morphemic-syllabic models’

Other models occur with a frequency Evidently, in both texts root models, of less than 1%. In this study, homo- is i.e. models including only root qualified as a prefix following The Oxford morpheme, head the list with the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current frequency of at least 5%, and with the

English (1993). exception of R2 in the fairy tale, these are monosyllabic models. In the article, Fairy tale analysis allowed to distinguish morphemic-syllabic models contain 9 models (with a frequency of more than up to four morphemes (morphs) 1%) covering 95.5% of all the morphemic- and up to four syllables, while the syllabic word models found in the English models found in the fairy tale comprise fairy folktale and including: up to two morphemes and no more than

Table 2 The most frequent morphemic-syllabic word models (the English fairy tale)

Morphemic-syllabic Relative frequency Example word models

R1 52.9% (now [nau])

R1I(ø) 18.9% (girl [ɡɜ:l])

R1I0 6.5% (tells [tel/s])

R2 6.0% (steady [ste-d/ɪ])

R1Ii 5.8% (took [tυ:k])

R1D1 3.4% (service [sɜ:-v/ɪs])

R1D1 1.2% (keyhole [kɪ+houl])

R1R2 1.1% (Green Lady [gri:n/leɪ-dɪ])

66 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova three syllables. These models include: root and the frequency of use registered here is models R1, R2, root model with the explicitly pretty much the same (10.2% and 9.4%). expressed non-syllabic flection R1I0, root With form words, the second most frequently model formed through stem composition used model is R1S, which is mostly presented

P1R1, suffixal models R1D1, R1S*1, R1D1D1, in form verbs (15.1% in the article and 5.2% prefix model P1R1, prefix-suffixal model in the fairy tale).

P1R1D1I1. Notably, the last two models were only found in the article. The distribution of the R1 model in both word categories reflect the typical word Notional and form words structure and the most typical syllable Notional and form words differ drastically, structure of the root morpheme and gives particularly in terms of the number of credence to the analytical nature of the models of morphemic-syllabic organisation. English language, because in this model, Notional words incorporated all of the the syllable boundaries and morpheme models found in both types of text. Form boundaries coincide. The analytical nature words incorporated 4 and 7 models in the of the English language is also highlighted article and fairy tale, respectively (these by the models R1I(ø) and R11Ii. Although were also registered among notional the R1I0 model with the explicitly expressed words). The bulk of form words is covered flection does rank among frequently by the basic model R1 (81.8% in the article registered models, its frequency of use is and 89.7% in the fairy tale). While the R1 not so great. model appears more frequently used in both form and notional words (24.2% and Notional words proper and 33.7%, respectively), it is less frequently pronominal words encountered in notional words than in Notional words proper and pronominal form words (3.4 times in the article and words also differ in the number of 2.7 times in the fairy tale). Similarly to the morphemic-syllabic models. Notional words word proper, the next most frequently proper in the article are represented by 51 encountered notional words model in both models, in the fairy tale – by 15 models; texts is R1I(ø), and the difference in frequency pronouns are represented by 7 and 6 is due to the variety of models in the article models in the article and the fairy tale, and their selectivity in the fairy tale, which respectively. The models R2 (9,2%), R1R2 is why the R1I(ø) model is 2.2 times less (2,6%), R1R1 (1.3%) found in the article, frequently used in articles as compared to as well as models R1R0 (3.2%) found in fairy tales (13.4% and 28.8%, respectively). the fairy tale, were only encountered in

The model R1I0 ranks third in the list of pronouns. The rest of the models are used in models covering notional words in both texts, notional words proper in both types of text.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 67 The R1I(ø) model revealed the greatest in other parts of speech. Such models frequency of use in both types of text found specifically in nouns include both registered in notional words proper (17.2% multi-morphemic words, where each in the article vs 38.5% in the fairy tale). morpheme is represented by a single

Pronouns most frequently resorted to the syllable (P1R1D1I1 as in utterances [ʌ+tә-r/

basic R1 root model with an approximately әn-s/ɪz]), and words of simple morphemic the same frequency of use in both types of structure containing a significant number

text (71.1% in the article vs 81.7% in the of syllables (R3I(ø) as in animal [æ-nɪ-mәl]). fairy tale). With notional words proper, the Nouns found in both texts were frequently

second place is taken up by the R1 and R1I0 deploying the R1I(ø) model: 23.1% in the models in the article (10.9% each), and the article (e.g., man [mæn]) and 56.1% in

R1 model in the fairy tale (17.6%). With the fairy tale (e.g., girl [gɜ:l]). The next pronouns, the second place is taken up by most frequent model encountered in the

the R2 model in the article (9.2%), and the article (9.9%) is P1R1D1I1 (e.g., recurrences

R1Ii model in the fairy tale (11.8%). With [rɪ+kʌ-r/әn-s/ɪz]), while the same position notional words proper, the third place is in the fairy tale (13.4%) is taken up by

taken up by the R1D1 model in the article the R1 model (e.g., harm [ha:m]). The next

(4.9%), and the R1I0 model in the fairy tale three models found in the article – R2I(ø),

(12.2%). With pronouns, the third place R1I0, R1D1I(ø) – reveal the same frequency

is taken up by the R1I0 model in the article of use of 7.4% (e.g., basis [beɪ-sɪz], forms

(7.9%), and the R1R0 model in the fairy tale [fo:m/z], morpheme [mo:-f/i:m]); in the

(3.2%). fairy tale, these are the R2 (9.2%) and

R1D1 (7,1%) models (e.g., fortune [fo:- Individual notional parts of speech tʃәn], service [sɜ:-v/ɪs]). One of the rather Individual notional parts of speech differ popular models (5.8%) registered in the

in both the total number of morphemic- article is the P2R1I0 model (e.g., homonyms syllabic models, and the number of models [hɒ-mә+nɪm/z]); in the fairy tale – models

encountered only in this part of speech, R1R2 (5,1%) and R2I(ø) (5.1%) (e.g., Green i.e. typical of this part of speech. The most Lady [ɡri:n/leɪ-dɪ], father [fa:-ðә]). indicative examples in this respect are nouns, verbs, and adjectives. According to the study, verbs generally deploy fewer models with 13 models Nouns were marked with 31 morphemic- registered in the article and only 6 models syllabic models in the article, while as little registered in the fairy tale. Seven on as 9 models were found in fairy tales. 22 of the models found in the article are only

the registered models are not encountered encountered in verbs: R1S*1 (2.8%, e.g.,

68 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova saying [sei-j/iŋ] Participle I of the verb to found in the fairy tale are only registered in say), R2D1I0 (1,4%, e.g., evidenced [e-vɪ-d/ adjectives. The adjective is the only part of ens/t] Participle II of the verb to evidence), speech in the article with the most frequent

P1R2I(ø) (6.9%, e.g., indicate [ɪn+dɪ-keɪt]), model classified as a suffixal model, rather

P1R1I0 (5,6%, e.g. assigned [ә+saɪn/d] than a root model – R1D1 (22.0%, e.g.,

Particile II of the verb to assign), P1R1S*1 wealthy [wel-θ/ɪ]). The most frequent (5.6% , e.g. depending [dɪ+pen-d/ɪŋ] model encountered in the fairy tale is the

Participle I of the verb to depend), P1R2I1 R2 model (38.6%, e.g., little [lɪ-tl̥]). The (1,4%, e.g., constituted [kәn+stɪ-tju-t/ R1 model ranks second in both types of ɪd] Participle II of the verb to constitute), text (19.5%, e.g., own [oun]; 36.4%, e.g.,

P1R2S*1 (1,4%, e.g., constituting good [gud]). Some specific models were [kәn+stɪ-tju-t/ɪŋ] Paticiple I of the verb also found in the article, among which are to constitute). the R1D1D1 model (14.6%, e.g., phonemic

[fә-n/ɪ-m/ɪk]), the R2D1D0 model (9.8%,

The most frequent model found in the e.g., identical [aɪ-den-t/ɪk/l]), the P1R1D1 article is the R1Ii model (26.3%, e.g., model (9.8%, e.g., defective [dɪ+fek-t/ɪv]). tells [tel/z]), in the fairy tale – the R1I(ø) The R1D1 was registered in the fairy tale model (50.0%, e.g., do [du]). The next (18.2%, e.g., dirty [dɜ:-t/ɪ]). most frequent model in the article is R1I(ø) (25.0%, e.g., have [hæv]), in the fairy Adverbs have 7 models in the article and 4 tale – R1I0 (29.8%, e.g., liked [laɪk/t]). models in the fairy tale, of which only one

The third place is taken up by the P1R1I(ø) model found in the article is encountered in model in the article (9.7%, e.g., approach adverbs only. This is a multi-syllabic model

[ә+proutʃ]), and the R1Ii in the fairy tale R1D1D1D0D1 (4.5%, e.g., phonemically (12.5%, e.g., came [keɪm]). In addition, [fә-n/ɪ-m/ɪk+l/ɪ]). The most frequent model more or less frequently used models is the R1 model: 45.5% in the article (e.g., encountered in the article include: P1R1I(ø) now [nau]) and 67.9% in the fairy tale

(6.9%, e.g., consider [kon+sɪ-dә]), R1I0, (e.g., far [fa:]). The next popular models are

P1R1I1, P1R1S*1 (5.6% each, e.g., tells the P1R1 model in the article (18.2%, e.g.,

[tel/z], described [dɪs+kraɪb/d], discloses perhaps [pә+hæps]), and the R2 and R1D1 [dɪs+klou-z/ɪz], occurring [ә+kɜ:-r/ɪŋ]). models in the fairy tale (14.3%, e.g., very [ve-ry], softly [sof-t/ly]). Adjectives have 13 models of morphemic- syllabic organisation in the article and 6 Numerals is the only part of speech models in the fairy tale. 6 of the models incorporating a single model – R1 – in both found in the article and 3 of the models types of text (e.g., one [wʌn], two [tu:]).

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 69 Comparing the models encountered in the syllabic models found in individual notional article, one can trace the following patterns. parts of speech is headed by the R1 model. Nouns and numerals differ from the rest of the parts of speech in the number of The main differences primarily relate the morphemic-syllabic models, as they to the number of models. Predictably, incorporate the maximum and the minimum articles incorporated more models, and set of models (31 and 1 against 13 in verbs these also turned out to be more varied. and adjectives, 7 in adverbs). The most Articles comprised 3.4 times more models frequently used models in all parts of speech as compared to the fairy tale (54 vs 16 (with the exception of adjectives) are root models). The most basic and popular model

models R11, R1I(ø) and R1Ii. (R1 model) in form words was used with the same frequency in both types of text. Adjectives are the only part of speech in In notional words, this frequency is higher

the R1D11 model, as the most frequently than in the fairy tale, which is due to the used model. diffusion of notional words structured on the basis of the most common morphemic In the fairy tale (just like in the article), organisation pattern in the fairy tale. Some all parts of speech are marked by more complex morphemic-syllabic models

the prevailing К1 root model in the were encountered in the article, and these unchangeable parts of speech, and the are ranked among the frequently used

prevailing R1I(ø) model in the changeable models (P1R1D1I1 and P1R1D1D1). basic parts of speech. The Chinese language Functional-stylistic features Word proper Both types of text reveal similar patterns in The Chinese fairy tale incorporated 12 the use of the R1 model. This is the most morphemic-syllabic (morph-syllabic) frequently used model within the main word models, with an average of 52 word classes – notional and form words. In words per one model. The most widely

both types of text, individual semiological encountered models include the R1 root

classes are differentiated by the number model, the R1R1 root model formed

of morphemic-syllabic models: while the through stem composition, R1R1S1 and R1S1 greatest number of models can be found suffixal models (Hereinafter the following in notional words proper, such models are designations apply: R- root morpheme, much less vividly represented in pronouns S – suffix, Af* – semi-affix, as such affix and form words. Both types of text are still preserves its lexical meaning, it is not similar in that the lists of morphemic- fully grammatical affix). They cover 93.1%

70 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova of words. For example, R1 – 远 yuan2 words proper and pronominal words, 1 4 ‘far’, R1R1 – 高兴 gao + xing ‘joyful’, the only difference being that notional 1 R1S1 – 孩子 hai +zi ‘child’, R1R1S1 – 知道 words proper use this model to form 了 zhi1+dao4+le ‘knew’. Obviously, these less than half of the words (45.4%), models contain up to two morphemes while pronominal words use it to form (morphs) and are no more than three over two thirds of the words (74.5%), syllables long. which is a 1.6 times higher rate of usage. The second most frequent model in

Notional and form words notional words proper is the R1R1 model

Notional and form words differ in the (32.5%), in pronouns – the R1 and R1S1 number of models of morphemic-syllabic models (9.1% each). The third place in organisation: notional words employ the notional words proper is taken up by total of 12 models, while form words are the R1R1S1 suffixal model (6.6%), while only formed using 3 models. The bulk with pronouns this place is taken up by of form words is covered by the basic the R 2 model (7.3%). Thus, among the

R1 model (84,0%), the R1R1 model was models shared by pronouns and notional registered with 13.7% of words, and words proper, the basic R1 model and the only 2.3% of words use the R1S1 model. suffixal R1S1 model prevail in pronouns,

The R1 model is most widely used in and the R1R1 model prevails in notional both notional and form words, although words proper. The R1R1S1 model, which is notional words are 1.7 times less likely quite frequently encountered in notional to use it (49.2%). The R1R1 model ranks words proper, is missing in pronouns. second (29.4%) in notional words, followed by the R1S1 and R1R1S1 models While the basic R1 model appears less (5.8% each). frequently in notional words proper as compared to other semiological classes,

Notional words proper and the R1R1 model prevails in notional words pronominal words proper as compared to form words and Notional words proper and pronominal especially pronouns. The frequency of words also differ in the number of use of the R1R1 model is reduced in the morphemic-syllabic models: notional specified sequence from 32.5% down words proper deploy 12 models, while to 13.7% and 9.1%. Obviously, among pronominal words are only formed the suffixal models, the R1R1S1 model using 4 models. The R1 model takes was only registered with notional words up the leading position in terms of the proper, and simpler R1S1 turned out more frequency of use with both notional popular with pronouns (9.1%).

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 71 2 2 Individual notional parts of speech wen +ming +de ‘famous’), R1 (28.6%, e.g., 3 3 4 Individual notional parts of speech differ 久 jiu ‘old’) and R1R1 (21.4%, 美丽 mei +li in the nature and usage of the most ‘beautiful’). commonly encountered morphemic-syllabic

models. Numerals only deploy two models: R1 3 (84.6%, e.g., 百 bai ‘hundred’) and R1R1 Among the 7 models registered in the (15.4%, e.g., 十六 shi2+liu4 ‘sixteen’). study and attributed to nouns, the most

widely used are the R1 model (40.2%, e.g., Thus, the R1 root model is equally 2 年 nian ‘year’), the R1R1 model (36.9%, frequently encountered in nouns, verbs 2 2 e.g., 男人 nan +ren ‘man’), the R1R1R1 and adverbs, but is most widely used in 1 2 model (6.7%,祝英台 zhu44-ying -tai ) numerals. The R1R1 model reveals the

‘Zhu Ying Tai – a proper name’, and the R2 highest relative frequency in adverbs model (6.1%, e.g., 东西 dong1-xi ‘thing’). followed by nouns, and an almost equal frequency in verbs and adjectives. Suffixal In verbs represented by 9 models, half of models are most widely encountered in

the words is covered by the basic R1 model associative parts of speech as compared (51.2%, e.g., 有 you1 ‘to have’), and with nouns, and both suffixal models are

many words are attributed to the R1R1 more frequently used in adjectives. The R2 model (26.4%, e.g., 喜欢 xi3+huan1 ‘to model registered in nouns and adverbs is

like’). Suffixal models R1S1 (9.6%, e.g., more typical of nouns. The models with 2 来了 lai +le ‘has arrived’) and R1R1S1 (6.4%, semi-affixes – R1Af*1, R1R1Af*1, R1S1Af*1 e.g., 提出了 ti2+chu1+le ‘has come up – were registered only with verbs, with the

with’) also make the list of more or less exception of the Af*1R1 model registered frequently used models. only with nouns.

According to the study, adverbs are covered CONCLUSION by 4 models, two of which appear the Seeing that morphemic word organisation most widely used. These models are the tends to be rather simple, the number R1 model (49.0%, e.g., / 在 zai4 ‘again’) of morphemic-syllabic models found in

and the R1R1 model (42.9%, e.g., 随便 fairy tales in both languages appears sui2+bian4 ‘free’). approximately the same: 16 models in English vs 12 models in Chinese. Adjectives represented by 4 models in the English texts of different functional text are largely attributed to the following styles tend to deploy varied models of

models: R1R1S1 (35.7%, e.g., 闻名的 morphemic organisation in the article

72 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova and, as a consequence, articles commonly syllabic and morphemic models found in incorporate 3.4 times as many models form words is approximately the same, of morphemic-syllabic organisation as while the number of morphemic-syllabic compared to fairy tales (54 models vs models found in notional words proper 16 models). by far exceeds the number of morphemic models. This obviously has to do with the In fairy tales, the number of morphemic- degree of lexical/grammatical intensity of syllabic models is approximately the same word classes, which, in turn, affects the in form words and pronouns. The least correlation of morphemic and syllabic in number were the morphemic-syllabic structures. Thus, having compared models noted in form words and pronouns notional words proper (characterising in the Chinese language – 3 and 4 models, signs), pronominal words (deictic signs) respectively. In English, the number of and form words (linking signs), we have models increases up to 7 and 6. The established that the greater the word’s quantity of morphemic-syllabic models grammatical intensity, the more likely increases with the augmentation of the are its morphs (and preeminently roots) notional component: they are represented to be expressed by a single syllable. This in greater numbers in notional words pattern works for both languages. Thus, proper as compared to pronouns and form in English and Chinese the R1 model is words (2-2.5 more in English (15 models), most widely encountered in pronouns and 3 times more in Chinese (12 models). The form words (and not in notional words English article revealed an even greater proper, although it is rather frequently used gap in the number of models – 4 models in in Chinese) performing the supportive- form words and 7 models in pronouns vs demonstrative and linking functions. 51 models in notional words. Comparing the frequency of use of the basic R1 model, we note the following: Apparently, the universal nature of the in English – 83.1%/89.7% in form connection between the function of words, 71.1%/81.7% in pronouns, and the word sign and the diversity of its 10.9%/18.0% in notional words proper; structure is manifested in the morphemic- in Chinese – 85.7% in form words, 74.5% syllabic models. Thus, form words and in pronouns, and 45.7% in notional words pronouns, presented as a more or less proper. Apparently, in terms of the number closed list, reveal a far lesser number of of models incorporating syllable-length morphemic-syllabic models as compared roots, form words override notional words to notional words proper. Notably, in in both languages, although, obviously, English the quantity of morphemic- in case of the English language the focus

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 73 is shifted to the explicit flexional trend both languages, and both the analytical implying ‘explicit differentiation of subject English and the isolating Chinese allow and dependency’, lexical and grammatical for a more or less discrete differentiation phenomena by ‘giving each of them their of word classes based on this parameter. own expression’ (Humboldt, 1984, p. 222). Despite the differences in the degree In English, the gap between notional and of word class division, both languages form words is much more pronounced as basically reveal similar trends. Models compared to the isolating Chinese, where with complex morphemic-syllabic the equivalency of the morpheme and the organisation are attributed to notional word appears to be pretty common among words proper, while models of basic notional words proper as well. structure are more often found in pronouns and form words. Differentiation of basic semiological classes does not only rely on the number of models The tendency to distinguish between in different word classes, the frequency individual notional parts of speech of models encountered in all classes, but (first of all, nouns and verbs) is pretty is also contingent upon the morphemic- much pronounced in both English and syllabic models typical of form words and/ Chinese, although it is implemented or pronouns and missing in notional words differently. English nouns are essentially proper. Such models include: in the English characterised as the most lexically

article – models R2 and R1R1 registered intensive part of speech, which is only with pronouns and form words (total why their models of morphemic-

frequency of 13.6%), model R1R2 was only syllabic organisation are rather varied. registered with pronouns (2.6%); in the Morphemic-syllabic structure of verbs is

English fairy tale – R1R0 with pronouns and less complex in both languages, which form words (total frequency of 4.2%). is due to the predicative function, Chinese form words and pronouns use which is primarily realised outside word the same models encountered in notional boundaries using form words in both words proper, the only difference being the languages. frequency. So, a less explicit differentiation of these word classes in the Chinese Thus, this study illustrates that the language can be traced in their morphemic- second principle of the sign – the linear syllabic organisation. nature of the signifying component – restricts the functioning of the Therefore, the morphemic-syllabic word first principle – arbitrariness of the structure reveals some peculiar features in language sign.

74 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Typological differences in morphemic-syllabic word structure in English and Chinese Aryuna G. Ivanova

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Anderson, S. R. (2015). Dimension Dragunov, A. A., & Dragunova, of morphological complexity. In M. E. A. (1955). Syllable structure in the Baerman, D. Brown & G. G. Corbett National Chinese Language. Sovietskoe (Eds.), Understanding and measuring Vostokovedenie 1, 57-74. morphological complexity (pp. 185-204). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof: Fenk, A., Fenk-Oczlon, G., & Fenk, L. oso/9780198723769.0030002. (2006). Syllable complexity as a function of word complexity. In Proceedings of the Bane, M. (2008). Quantifying and 8th International Conference ‘Cognitive measuring morphological complexity. Modeling in Linguistics’ (pp. 324-333). In Proceedings of the 16th West Coast Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/ Conference on Formal Linguistics (pp. publication/238664257_Syllable_complexity_ 69-76). Retrieved from http://www.lingref. as_a_function_of_word_complexity com/cpp/wccfl/26/paper1657pdf. Greenberg, J. (1960). Quantitative approach Baudouin de Courtenay, I. A. (1963a). to the morphological typology of language. Selected papers in general linguistics (Vol. 1). International Journal of American Linguistic, Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR. 26(3), 178-194.

Baudouin de Courtenay, I. A. (1963b). Hammond, M. (1999). The phonology of Selected papers in general linguistics English. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. (Vol. 2). Moscow: Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Hua, L. (Ed.). (1998). 生死恋. In L. Hua (Ed.), Ten Chinese Legendary Stories Briggs, K. M., & Tongue, R. L. (Eds.). (pp. 309-391). Henan, China: Henan (1965). The Green Lady wonder tales. In K. Publishing House. M. Briggs & R. L. Tongue (Eds.), Folktales of England (pp. 6-10). Chicago, London: The Humboldt, W. (1985). Language and philosophy University of Chicago Press. of culture. Moscow, Russia: Progress.

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TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 75 Kostrzewa, F. (2015). Linguistic typologies. Rumyantsev, M. K. (1978). On the Sovremennyie lingvisticheskie i metodiko- issue of syllable and phoneme. didakticheskie issledovaniya, 1(8), 38-48. Bulletin of Moscow State University. Vostokovedenie. 2, 33-38. Kressler, B. & Treiman, R. (1997). Syllable structure and the distribution of phonemes Sapir, E. (1993). Selected papers on in English syllables. Journal of Memory linguistics and culturology. Moscow: and Language, 37, 295–311. Progress.

Kubryakova, E. S. (1970). Morphological Semenyuk, N. N., Kalygin, V. P., & structure of a word in modern Germanic Romanova, O. I. (2000). Languages languages. Morphological structure of of the world. Germanic languages. a word in Indo-European languages, Celtic Languages. Moscow: Academia. 104-181. Solntsev, V. M. (1995). Introduction to Levin, S. R. (1965). Homonyms and English the typology of isolating languages. form-class analysis. American Speech, Moscow: Oriental Literature. 35(4), 243-251. Zubkova, L. G. (1984). Parts of speech Melchuk, I. A (1997). Course of general in phonetic and morphonological morphology (Vol. 1.). Moscow, Vienna: presentation. Moscow, RUDN Publishing. Yazyky rysskoy kultury: Progress. Zubkova, L. G. (1999). Language as Melchuk, I. A. (2001). Course of general form. Theory and history of linguistics. morphology (Vol. 4.). Moscow, Vienna: Moscow: RUDN Publishing. Yazyky rysskoy kultury: Progress. Zubkova, L. G. (2010). Sign principle in Moskalev, A. A. (1964). System of Chinese language system. Moscow: Languages syllables. Controversial Issues of Language of Slavic Culture. Structure in China and South-East Asia, 28-34. Yi, X. Z. (Ed.). (1990). Chinese-Russian Dictionary, (1990). Bejing, China. Pulgram, E. (1965). Consonant cluster, consonant sequence and the syllable. Phonetica, 13, 76-81 TLC doi:10.1159/000258473.

76 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium

Engelbert Thaler

Germany has a worldwide reputation KEYWORDS: gymnasium, grammar for language proficiency, particularly in school, English language, language English. This is in part due to the quality teaching of language education in its school system, especially Gymnasien and RESEARCH SITUATION grammar schools. To understand how The current state of research into the role a nation masters foreign languages of English as a foreign language at German it is important to understand how an Gymnasium is anything but satisfactory. education system organises itself in order There are hardly any up-to-date, valid, to deliver that quality. reliable, and representative studies on this topic. A first problem is that contributions This paper offers a survey of the present concerned with different school types and system of teaching languages, focusing educational programmes quickly go out of on English language, at German date. Then, as Germany is a federal state, grammar schools (Gymnasien). In doing there are 16 different states (Bundesländer), so it addresses institutional structures, which all have their own institutional curriculum, teaching methods, the role structures, curricula and guidelines. of media, standards and assessment results, teacher education, and future Moreover, Gymnasium being a typical perspectives. German type of school, is not such an attractive area of research for international The aim is to clarify what makes such scholars. Finally, there is a gap between schools successful in language teaching theory and practice, i.e. what official and, without encouraging imitation, as all documents state on how English should be education systems are different, identify taught (e.g. ISB 1995) is not identical with the key success factors in institutional how foreign languages are actually taught language learning in the secondary sector. and learned in the classrooms.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 77 ‘At Strassburg in 1538, John Sturm founded a school that became the model of the modern German Gymnasium’

So what we have are a few political nine-year to the eight-year Gymnasium, documents (e.g. KMK provisions), the but this trend seems to be reversed at the curricula of the Länder (e.g. www. moment, e.g. Bavaria will re-introduce the isb-gym8-lehrplan.de), one large-scale nine-year type in 2018. empirical study (DIPF 2006, Schröder, Harsch & Nold 2006), the educational The word γυμνάσιον (gymnasion) was standards discourse (Zydatiß 2005, 2006, used in Ancient Greece, meaning a place Baldus & Quarz 2006), historical surveys for both the physical and intellectual (Liebau, Mack & Scheilcke 1997, Meißner education of young men. It is derived from 1997), some teaching manuals (ISB 1995, gymnós meaning ‘naked’ because athletes Doff & Klippel 2007, Taubenböck & Mösel competed in the nude, a practice meant 2005, Thaler 2012), a limited number to encourage aesthetic appreciation of the of usually short publications on very male body and a tribute to the gods. Here specific fields of teaching at Gymnasium teachers gathered and instructed the young (e.g. Ehrenreich, 2003; Finkbeiner, people, and thus the term came to mean 1998; Flächer, 1998; Hennig, 1999; an institution of learning. House, 2001; Kugler-Euerle, 2002; Ross, 2007; Siepmann, 2003) – and personal In English the meaning of a place for experiences. physical education was retained, more familiarly in the shortened form ‘gym’ TERMINOLOGY (Turnhalle). The grammar schools in The Gymnasium (pronounced with a [g]) Britain are comparable to the German is a type of secondary school in Germany Gymnasium. Today, however, only a few providing an in-depth general education grammar schools have survived because aimed at the general higher education most of them were closed by the Labour entrance qualification (Allgemeine Party or transformed into comprehensive Hochschulreife). In almost all federal schools (Gesamtschulen). Some of the states, there has been a change from the more famous grammar schools, such as

78 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler

King Edward’s in Birmingham, did not and Latin. From the middle of the 19th want to give up the selective principle century the humanistic Gymnasium was and became independent private schools. joined by the Realgymnasium (later: Neusprachliches Gymnasium) focussing on In the United States, the Gymnasium the ‘newer languages’, which were French is similar to the college and university and English – and even later by preparatory schools, at least as far as the Oberrealschule, which emphasised curricula are concerned. They are quite natural science subjects (In the Weimar expensive, though ($10,000 to $50,000 Republic Richert’s reforms added per year), they have a very low student- the Oberschule). teacher-ratio, and offer numerous sports activities. Their school-leavers (one out of In all these types of schools, English and 100 American students) usually move on French were taught on the basis of the to the best universities in the US. grammar-translation method, which had been employed to teach the classical HISTORY languages throughout the centuries. It was The German Gymnasium has a long obsessed with the written language to the tradition (Liebau, Mack & Scheilke 1997). exclusion of speech, and concentrated its Of the double meaning of Gymnasium attention on rote learning of grammatical in ancient Greece, the one referring rules and their application to isolated (and to a locality for intellectual education often incredibly silly) sentences. persisted in German. At Strassburg in 1538, John Sturm founded a school In 1882 Wilhelm Vietor’s pamphlet that became the model of the modern Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren! German Gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian (Language teaching must start afresh) regulation decreed that all schools fiercely attacked this method and having the right to send their students introduced the direct method. At the heart to the university should bear the name of his Reform Movement’s philosophy was of Gymnasia. Wilhelm von Humboldt, the supremacy of the spoken language. intending to secure a higher level The students should hear the new of learning throughout the country, language first, spoken properly by the introduced this rule. In the first half of the teacher in the classroom, before seeing it 19th century, the traditional Latin school in its written form. The Reformers primarily (Lateinschule) was gradually replaced by aimed their appeal at the teachers in the the Humanistische Gymnasium, which Realschule, who were living in the shadow gave priority to the old languages Greek of ‘big brother’ Gymnasium – which, as

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 79 ‘Te important thing to note is that the German Gymnasium stresses the importance of both foreign and classical languages as part of the Abitur exam, which is the ‘passport’ for entry to university.’

expected, paid little heed. prepares pupils to enter a university for In the 20th century the audio-lingual advanced academic study and consists of method influenced teaching at German the lower secondary level (grades 5-9/10, Gymnasium in the 60s and 70s (for Sekundarstufe I) and upper secondary level example, leading schools to set up (10/11-12/13, Sekundarstufe II). A further language labs), before the communicative distinction is made between Unterstufe turn established Communicative Language (grades 5-7), Mittelstufe (8-10) and Teaching (CLT) as the major paradigm – Oberstufe (11-12). at least in academic discourse, if not at the actual classroom level. This meant Apart from other (compulsory) subjects that at the level of teacher education (German, maths, physics, chemistry, history, and some teacher practice, interactive geography etc.), students are required and communicative methods were at the to study at least two foreign languages. forefront of teaching. The usual combinations are English and French, or English and Latin, although STRUCTURES many schools make it possible to combine A characteristic feature of education English with another language, most often in the Federal Republic of Germany Spanish, Ancient Greek, or Russian. The is the so-called differentiated system study of the first foreign language starts (gegliedertes Schulwesen), which pupils in the fifth grade, the second language (at enter after completing the primary school G8) follows in grade 6. (Grundschule) together. Secondary education comprises Gymnasium, According to the subject profiles, there are Realschule, Mittelschule – or Gesamtschule different branches called Humanistisches (comparable to British comprehensives Gymnasium (humanities, classical or American high schools). Gymnasium languages), Neusprachliches Gymnasium

80 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler

(modern languages, students are required exam in L2 – which is mostly English. to study at least three foreign languages), The vast majority of Gymnasien are Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliches public, i.e. state-funded, and do not Gymnasium (mathematical-scientific charge tuition fees. In 2009/10, 2.5 education) plus a few others specializing million students attended a German in economic, social-scientific or musical Gymnasium, of which there are 3,000 education. all over Germany (www.destatis.de).

The order in which the languages are The important thing to note is that taught varies from state to state, e.g. in the German Gymnasium stresses the Bavaria you can study: importance of both foreign and classical languages as part of the Abitur exam, which s,ATINFROMGRADE n%NGLISHFROM n is the ‘passport’ for entry to university. French/Italian/Spanish/Russian (from 8) or CURRICULUM s%NGLISH ,ATIN n&RENCH)TALIAN A German Gymnasium is a selective Spanish/Russian (8) or school meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out s,ATIN%NGLISH n%NGLISH,ATIN n at the age of 10–12. It provides an Greek (8) intensified general education. Apart from fostering subject-related competences, There are also numerous Gymnasien it aims at developing young people who which offer three modern foreign show a high level of abstraction, self- languages, e.g. English – French – Italian/ organisation, problem-solving faculty, Spanish (or French – English – Italian/ and heuristic curiosity. Spanish). In 2003 and 2004, the Standing All German states provide the Abitur Conference of the Ministers of examinations, which complete education Education and Cultural Affairs after 12 (13) years. These final exams (Kultusministerkonferenz) adopted are centrally drafted and controlled Bildungsstandards (educational (Zentralabitur) in most states and qualify standards) for the Mittlerer students to attend any university. Foreign Schulabschluss (after grade 10) in various languages play an important role, e.g. subjects, including the first foreign in Bavaria each Gymnasium student is language (English/French). This has required to do an (oral or written) Abitur caused a change from input to output

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 81 orientation, i.e. it is not the content of the educational standards of 2012. The tasks courses but the learners’ achievements in the exam include a Textaufgabe (reading at the end of a period which determines text plus several questions/tasks), covering success. The following competences are three requirement areas (comprehension, promoted throughout the eight years at analysis and evaluation/creation), plus two Gymnasium, and are described in more language practice parts, e.g. mediation, detail in the curricula of the various Länder. listening comprehension, and speaking. This revision means that now all four (or Communicative skills five) basic skills can be tested in the Abitur s,ISTENING 6IEWINGCOMPREHENSION – whereas in contrast, the long established s2EADINGCOMPREHENSION previous system had tested only half of the s3PEAKING basic skills (reading and writing). Moreover s7RITING the traditional version (L2-L1 translation) is s-EDIATING being replaced by the more flexible form of mediation (transferring, Sprachmittlung). Using linguistic means s0RONUNCIATION METHODS s6OCABULARY The curricula prescribed by the various s'RAMMAR Länder include guidelines on the treatment s3PELLING of the topics of instruction, distribution of materials and various didactic approaches. Intercultural competences It is difficult, however, to assess how these suggestions are implemented Method competences in actual classroom practice. Basically s4EXTLITERACY Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) s-EDIALITERACY seems to be the approach generally s3TUDYSTRATEGIES accepted at German Gymnasien.

In the upper level of Gymnasium, students This was also proven by the DESI study are provided with a rather high-level (DIPF 2006, 40ff.), which brought about language training (aimed at Council of the following results for teaching at Europe Framework of Reference (CEFR) Gymnasium: B2 and even C1 levels), more intensive linguistic reflection, Literature with a capital s/FALLSCHOOLTYPES 'YMNASIUM ‘L’, and diversified intercultural encounters. places the greatest importance on Here teaching is based on the national communication.

82 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler sGymnasium also scores highest in balanced teaching, i.e. a combination accuracy. of closed, teacher-fronted instruction and open, student-centred techniques. s%NGLISHISUSUALLYTAUGHTBYUSING They regard such a balance as a fine English, and the use of L1 is lowest way to minimise the weaknesses of at Gymnasium. both approaches while maximising their respective strengths. s3TUDENTTALKINGTIME344 ISHIGHEST at Gymnasium. In an endeavour to intensify foreign language education at lower and s4HEREAREMOREANDLONGERTEACHER upper secondary level schools, bilingual student dialogues. programmes have grown increasingly important. The first were introduced at s4HEHIGHESTQUALITYLEVELISFOUNDAT Gymnasien in 1969, and today these Gymnasium. bilingual sections are run chiefly at this school type (and increasingly at Realschule). DESI also tried to find out which methods, Bilingual education involves teaching techniques and procedures are used in academic content in two languages, in a classrooms (at least a few times per month). native and secondary language (English The following statistics were reported for or French), with varying amounts of Gymnasium (DIPF, 2006, p. 38): each language used in accordance with the programme model. These additional s3MALLGROUPWORK opportunities to use the target language s$ISCUSSIONS have positive effects on the students’ language achievement, in particular their sFreiarbeit (free work): 14% communicative competence. In listening sLernzirkel (station learning): 9% comprehension at the end of grade nine, s0ROJECTWORK for example, they are two school years (!) ahead of students following a non-bilingual s0EER TUTORING method (DIPF 2006). sWochenplan (weekly plan): 5% MEDIA According to a study investigating According to a survey (DIPF 2006, 39), teaching methods at 37 schools (Thaler, Gymnasium teachers make use of the 2008), teachers at Gymnasium (and other following media and materials (at least a school types) overwhelmingly favour few times per month):

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 83 s#OURSEBOOKSAND7ORKSHEETS  (eg. Kurtz, 2010, p. 151): s.ON lCTIONALTEXTS s4YPE!STICKSTOTHEPROGRESSIONOFTHE s0HOTOS textbook completely and works through s#$S all the sections. s0ICTURES s4YPE"BASICALLYACCEPTSTHETEXTBOOK s-INDMAPS but supplements it with materials s.OTES copied from other books or produced s.OVELS DIY-wise. s$RAMAS s4YPE#DESIGNSHISORHEROWN s.ONSENSETEXTS materials or compiles them from s.OVELLAS various coursebooks. s&ABLES Although there are no reliable empirical It is no surprise that the coursebook turns studies on the relative distribution of out to be the most important medium in these types, it is generally known that Gymnasium classrooms (Thaler, 2011). As type C is hard to find. Even if textbooks a mediator between official curriculum and should only be ‘proposals for action, not individual lessons, the textbook (Lehrbuch) instructions for use’ (Harmer, 2001 p. 8) and the coursebook (Lehrwerk) play a they guide teaching at Gymnasium to a dominant role in the lower level (Sek I) of high extent. all secondary schools (also see Finkbeiner, 1998, p. 43). It is true that the criticism of The coursebook market at the lower coursebook use has a very long tradition, level of Gymnasium (Sekundarstufe I) but teachers also appreciate its numerous is dominated by the two big publishing benefits: It provides a systematic syllabus, companies Cornelsen (Access) and Klett functions as a guideline for the teacher’s (Green Line) – with Diesterweg taking and student’s work, offers a lot of enriching the third place (Camden Town). In the components, is compact, looks professional upper level (Sek II) the big three, i.e. – and saves time. Cornelsen (New Context), Klett (Green Line Oberstufe) and Schöningh (Summit), As far as the actual usage of coursebooks share the market. is concerned, one usually distinguishes between three types of teachers Regarding the development of coursebooks

84 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler

‘Although there are no reliable empirical studies on the relative distribution of these types, it is generally known that type C is hard to find’ over the last decades, one can identify the colour-marked new lexis and structures, following trends (Thaler, 2011): or a copyright-free DVD with task- accompanied scenes from feature films. s%XPANSION4HENUMBEROFCOMPONENTS has grown enormously, which can be s)NNOVATION2ECENTDEVELOPMENTSLIKE regarded as an increase of choice, but the Common European Framework, also as material overload (Doff/Klippel, national educational standards, 2007, p. 143). output and competence orientation, IT innovations, the constructivism s$IFFERENTIATION.OTONLYHASTHE debate, task-based approaches, open textbook itself integrated elements of and creative techniques, intercultural differentiation (modules, obligatory and learning etc. are (partly) reflected in the optional sections, grading of difficulty new coursebooks. etc.), but certain extra materials promote self-evaluation (portfolios), cater for s/LIGOPOLY4HECOURSEBOOKMARKET slower learners (Fördermaterial), take is dominated by a few big publishing different learner types into consideration houses. (Freiarbeitsmaterialien), take account of varying pre-knowledge (students with s-AINSTREAM4HECOURSEBOOKSBYTHE or without primary school English), or various publishers have become more allow for individual class text preparation and more similar over the decades. All (Klassenarbeitstrainer). of them try to implement a learner- centred communicative approach, s1UALITY-ANYMATERIALSCANMAKE which aims at the competences the English language teacher’s work suggested by the KMK and offers simpler, better and more rewarding, several levels of progression, yet still e.g. imaginative teachers’ manuals, a emphasizes lexical and structural teacher’s version of the textbook with progression.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 85 s2EGIONALISATION/VERTHELASTDECADE according to a six-mark system (1 = very the federal structure of Germany has good … 6 = very poor). led to a regional differentiation of coursebooks. At the second level, the introduction of national educational standards s-ULTIMEDIA4ODAYSCOURSEBOOKSCOME and the establishment of the Institute with film DVDs, practice software, and for Educational Progress (Institut zur links to the publisher’s website. The tool Qualitätsentwicklung im Bildungswesen: of the future may be a digital teacher’s IQB), marking the beginning of a platform (online or offline) which enables paradigm shift towards an output- central access to all components of the oriented control of educational coursebook (Thaler, 2011). Students as assessment, has given rise to various well may profit from their own electronic measures for developing the quality of platform – a lot of German Gymnasien school education. Among others, in order are already making use of MOODLE. to ensure the comparability of the pupils’ performances, comparative tests take The use of new media is growing place in the Länder at regular intervals. increasingly important, access to The results of these Vergleichsarbeiten electronic networks is now granted at have revealed that there are striking all schools, and the future will show differences between different Länder, whether the interactive whiteboard within one state, between city and becomes as popular as it is in British countryside, within one city, and even schools. within the same Gymnasium.

EVALUATION At the third level, the results of The evaluation of Gymnasium students’ international comparative studies of progress takes place at three levels. At students’ achievements are considered. the classroom level, the assessment of If one differentiates PISA results according a given pupil’s performance is based to school type, the German Gymnasium on all the written and oral work he or turns out to be the most successful she has done in connection with the school type in the world (PISA I tested class in question, with class tests being mathematics, reading, and natural spread evenly over the school year. The sciences, not foreign languages, though). requirements in this work are gauged The DESI study (Deutsch-Englisch- to meet the standards laid down in the Schülerleistungen International), which curricula, and performance is assessed tested students’ performances in German

86 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler

‘Te use of new media is growing increasingly important, access to electronic networks is now granted at all schools, and the future will show whether the interactive whiteboard becomes as popular as it is in British schools’ and English in grade 9, has proven that Gymnasium teacher education is divided Gymnasien both have the highest quality into two stages. The first period is a level and the lowest spectrum, i.e. a vast course of higher education at university majority show a high competence level in and includes: English. The percentage of students who are beyond level C (with levels ranging sASPECIALISTCOMPONENTINCLUDING from A to D) is ca. 10% (DESI 2006). English didactics) with the study of at least two subjects (English plus TEACHER EDUCATION French/German/History etc.); in The education of teachers at Gymnasium English, students cover the five areas (and other types of schools) is governed by of language practice, literary studies, Länder legislation. The relevant statutory linguistics, cultural studies and TEFL provisions include laws and regulations (didactics). for teacher training, Studienordnungen (study regulations) for teacher sANEDUCATIONALSCIENCECOMPONENT training courses, Prüfungsordnungen with compulsory study of educational (examination regulations) for the Erste theory and psychology plus a choice Staatsprüfung (First State Examination), of additional study areas (the so-called Ausbildungsordnungen (training Bildungswissenschaften). regulations) for the Vorbereitungsdienst (preparatory service) and examination sTEACHINGPRACTICE SOMETIMESOFSEVERAL regulations for the Zweite Staatsprüfung weeks’ duration, accompanying (Second State Examination). courses of study.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 87 The second stage comprises practical which is to be seen in conjunction pedagogic training in the form of a with quality development in the school Vorbereitungsdienst (preparatory service), sector (Standards für die Lehrerbildung which takes place in teacher training in den Bildungswissenschaften institutes (Studienseminare) and training (2004), Ländergemeinsame inhaltliche schools. It is intended to provide future Anforderungen für die Fachwissenschaften teachers with the ability to plan and und Fachdidaktiken in der Lehrerbildung structure English lessons, deal with (2008). The competences which are complex teaching situations, promote aimed at, according to these regulations, sustainable learning, and manage are subdivided into four areas: teaching, performance assessment. education, assessment, and innovation.

The basic entry requirement for In spite of all these reform attempts, there teacher education is passing the are still things left to be desired: Abitur examination. Some universities additionally have a placement test, sASTRONGERFOCUSON4%&,4EACHING which at some places has a special entry English as a Foreign Language) condition, i.e. you can only start your teacher education if you have passed sAMOREEXTENSIVEPRACTICALORIENTATION the test or achieved a certain grade during teacher training made up of the test and the Abitur achievement. After finishing the Second sINTENSIlCATIONOFTHERELATIONSBETWEEN State Examination, you also need a the theoretical and practical stages certain grade to qualify to become a (phases I and II) state system teacher. This depends on the present demand and supply situation, sPARTICULARSIGNIlCANCEOFTHEINDUCTION and unfortunately varies greatly from period for newly qualified teachers. year to year. PERSPECTIVES The present reform of teacher training The German Gymnasium can look includes the implementation of a back upon a long tradition and has consecutive structure of study courses proved to be a successful school form. with Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees The Bundesdirektorenkonferenz der (BA/MA). The Länder have also initiated Gymnasien (BDK, 2011), which may reform measures relating to the not adopt an utterly unbiased stance, increase of professionalism in teaching, even hails it as die erfolgreichste

88 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE English and foreign language teaching in the German Gymnasium Engelbert Thaler

‘Above all, we recognize that as world language No. 1, English will continue to play a vital role in future Gymnasien’

deutsche Schulform, die Vorbild für die methodology, assessment and teacher schulpolitische Entwicklung in vielen education on raising language learning anderen Staaten der Welt war und ist standards and identified the key factors (the most successful German school of curriculum, methodology, teacher type, which has been a model for the education and the use of media and educational development in lots of other Interactive Communications Technologies countries). This organisation, which (ICT) in contributed to its success. represents more than 2200 Gymnasien in Germany, is trying to reform the The German education system recognises secondary school sector (Otto, 2011), as the importance of languages and media the existence of more than 70 different literacy as fundamentals of a well-rounded secondary schools makes the system education. We have also noted that anything but transparent. It is pleading although both classical modern foreign for a second pillar (called Oberschule) languages are represented in secondary alongside the Gymnasium, and a two- education up to Abitur, English language tier system seems to have broad support teaching remains the first priority. We in most Länder. With more and more also recognize that although much has children opting for the Gymnasium, this been done, much still remains to be school type, however, will also become done and we have identified the factors more heterogeneous in the future. where German language education in the Gymnasium system needs to improve. In this paper we have examined the factors that have raised the level of the Above all, we recognize that as world Gymnasium type school to the level of a language No. 1, English will continue language learning leader in the secondary to play a vital role in future Gymnasien. sector. We have assessed the influence Yet, present trends such as growing of education structure, curriculum, globalisation (EIL: English as an

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 89 International Language), increasing lingua- as a gateway to languages) will transform franca contacts (question of norm) and the status of English and other languages multilingualism and pluriculturalism (English at German Gymnasien as well.

References

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BDK. (2011). Berliner Erklärung der Harmer, J.(2001). Coursebooks: A Human, Bundesdirektorenkonferenz der Cultural and Linguistic Disaster? Modern Gymnasien. 02.04.11. www.bdk- English Teacher 2001-3: 5-10. gymnasien.de/?action=entschluss&id=46. DIPF. (2006). Unterricht und Hennig, U. (1999) Wann endlich wird das Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch. Läuten diese Qual beenden? Anmerkungen Zentrale Befunde der Studie Deutsch zur Lehrwerksituation im Fach Englisch Englisch Schülerleistungen International am Gymnasium in den beiden ersten Frankfurt: (DESI). Lernjahren. Praxis des neusprachlichen Unterrichts 4: 403-412. Doff, S. & Klippel, F. (2007). Englischdidaktik. Berlin: Cornelsen. House, J. (2001). Zur Rolle expliziten Sprachwissens beim Lehren und Lernen Ehrenreich, S. (2003). Glück gehabt des Englischen: eine Pilotstudie. in im Referendariat? Ein Plädoyer für Aguado, K & Riemer, C. (Hrsg.). Wege eine ganzheitlich professionalisierende und Ziele. Zur Theorie, Empirie und Praxis Fremdsprachenlehrerausbildung. Englisch des Deutschen als Fremdsprache (und 1: 16-21. anderer Fremdsprachen). Baltmannsweiler: Schneider: 189-200.

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ISB (Institut für Schulqualität und Ross, I. (2007). Sustainable Bildungsforschung) (1995). Handreichung Developments in English? Wohin für den Englischunterricht am Gymnasium: treibt (uns) der Englischunterricht in Anregungen für die Gestaltung des der Gymnasialen Oberstufe? Praxis Unterrichts nach dem neuen Lehrplan. Fremdsprachenunterricht 2007-5: 2-7. Donauwörth: Auer, Schröder, K., Harsch, C. & Nold, G. Kugler-Euerle, G. (2002). Gingerfarbene (2006). DESI – Die sprachpraktischen Katzen, giftgrüne Schildkröten und andere Kompetenzen unserer Schülerinnen Monster: Der gymnasiale Englischunterricht und Schüler im Bereich Englisch. in Klasse 5 – heute und morgen Lehren Zentrale Befunde Neusprachliche und Lernen 3: 32-37. Mitteilungen aus Wissenschaft und Praxis 3: 11-32. Kurtz, J. (2010). Zum Umgang mit dem Lehrwerk im Englischunterricht. In: Fuchs, Siepmann, D. (2003) Schreiben auf E., Kahlert, J. & Sandfuchs, U, (Hrsg.). der gymnasialen Oberstufe: acht (2010) in Schulbuch konkret. Kontexte – Thesen zur bestehenden Praxis im Produktion – Unterricht. Bad Heilbrunn: Englischunterricht und Vorschläge Klinkhardt: 149-163. für einen Teillehrplan. Neusprachliche Mitteilungen aus Wissenschaft und Liebau, E., Mack, W. & Scheilke, C. (Hrsg.). Praxis 1: 24-31. (1997). Das Gymnasium: Alltag, Reform, Geschichte, Theorie. München: Juventa. Thaler, E. ed. (2010). Summit. Paderborn: Schöningh Meißner, F-J. (1997). Gymnasialer Fremdsprachenunterricht in Nordrhein- Thaler, E. (2008). Offene Westfalen im Lichte der Statistik Lernarrangements im (1965-1990) in Zeitschrift für Englischunterricht. München: Fremdsprachenforschung 1997-1: 1-25. Langenscheidt

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TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 91 Thornbury, S. & Meddings, L. (2002). Using www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/ a Coursebook the Dogme Style. Modern destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/ English Teacher 2002 -1: 36-40. BildungForschungKultur/Schulen/Tabellen/ Content75/AllgemeinbildendeSchulenSchul Trenz, G. & Wedel, M. (2006). arten,templateId=renderPrint. Eine schulartübergreifende Fremdsprachenkonzeption: Das Beispiel. www.isb-gym8-lehrplan.de/ Baden-Württemberg Neusprachliche contentserv/3.1.neu/g8.de/index. Mitteilungen aus Wissenschaft und Praxis php?StoryID=26331 2006-2: 45-52. www.km.bayern.de/eltern/schularten/ Taubenböck, A. & Mösel, K. (2005). gymnasium.html Schluss mit maulfaul – Mündlichkeit im Fremdsprachenunterricht am Gymnasium. www.kmk.org/dokumentation/das- Mitteilung des Fachverbands Moderne bildungswesen-in-der-bundesrepublik- Fremdsprachen (FMF), Landesverband deutschland/dossier-englisch/publikation- Bayern: 53-60. zum-download.html

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92 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington

The single word ‘love’, by which the three as demonstrated by the poetry of terms of Ancient Greek are translated Sappho. Although theoretically a poet’s into English, is radically incommensurate communication is accessible to readers with them. All three terms nominate through a shared language, authors’ and concepts that as metaphors, entail source readers’ experiences of that language are domains which are rooted in socially, embedded in phenomena which, at their culturally, and historically located value most intensely personal level, are mutually orientations and in highly idiosyncratic irreconcilable. The research results suggest qualia. Further distortion is caused by further investigation into the cognitive authors’ and readers’ hypostatisations of structure of concepts. reality and by the continuing mediated framing of Sappho’s persona. Sappho’s KEYWORDS: Sappho, qualia, communication is therefore eviscerated. categorisation, metaphor, value Since all concepts are subject to these four orientations, communications, semanting conditions, true communication between framing, cognitive linguistics authors and readers is not possible. The remedy lies in an idealised deep-structure SAPPHO, LAKOFF, AND PRESIDENT TRUMP alignment of experiential categories. Sappho was a Greek poetess who flourished in the 7th Century BCE on the The premise of the research is that poets island of Lesbos. From that time to the strive in their communications to convey present she has enjoyed an unbroken meanings that are intensely personal popularity, as much for her homoerotic to themselves, in language which is lifestyle as for her ‘supreme lyric talent’ communal. The concept of love was chosen (Hallett 1999, p.125) as the first female as exemplar as this is perhaps the most poetess of Western antiquity. She was human of emotions, universal in experience called the ‘Tenth Muse’ by Plato, a and traditionally supposed therefore reputation that has been upheld by the to be so in language. The research aim finding in 2014 of a new poem. was to indicate the discontinuities that exist within cognition of the concept, In the present paper I shall be exploring however, synchronically and diachronically the structure of her cognitive model of

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 93 ‘Te theory holds that at the centre of human thinking and reasoning is the human propensity for categorisation’

the concept of love as this is realised in world in terms of various classes of material her work. As a backdrop I shall employ phenomena known through experience, the theory of linguistics developed by such as Air, Fire, and Mist, to which were Lakoff, which addresses the human imputed transcendental properties of cognitive processes of thinking, knowing, Order, Hierarchy, Consciousness, Control, understanding, and of generally making etc (Burnett 1932, Freeman 1949). These sense of personal experience (Lakoff properties were then reified. Lakoff’s thesis 1987, 1993, 2016). The theory stands is that the way in which we categorise in radical contrast to the traditional phenomena is determined by our direct assumption that cognition is grounded in experiences of those phenomena, and a reality that is external to the self, and not by some so-called objective properties that therefore the putative reality of an which they are supposed to share. By author is recovered whenever a reader experience is meant perception, motor engages with a literary text. Instead, the movement, the ‘internal genetically theory shows that the reader’s cognition acquired make-up of the human organism’ supervenes radically. (Lakoff 1987: xv) and the nature of its interaction in and with all its environments, The theory holds that at the centre of cultural, personal, economic, historical, human thinking and reasoning is the religious, etc – of special significance is human propensity for categorisation. human interaction relative to the physical This is the tendency to group phenomena and social environments. together according to certain criteria, what Kövecses called the ‘correlations Lakoff holds that most of the words of particulars’ (Kövecses, 2006, p. 368). and concepts we use do not designate In the Western intellectual tradition the individuals (such as ‘Sappho’) or particular practice predates Aristotle: the Pre- things (as in ‘all poets are romantics’) but socratics of the 6th and 5th centuries conglomerate segments of experience BCE, were concerned to understand the nominated by linguistic symbols. We

94 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington then use these constructs, categories, as in life. A family member who does not metaphors with which we talk about, prosper is an indication that he or she is fantasise about, lie about, wish about, and not disciplined, is therefore not a moral geneally compose our lives. Lakoff (2016) being, and thus deserves such poverty. has shown, for instance, that deliberate ‘This reasoning shows up in conservative categorisation of the American President politics,’ says Lakoff, ‘in which the poor are as a Father Figure directly underlay Trump’s seen as lazy and undeserving, and the rich success in the 2017 elections. as deserving their wealth’ (Lakoff, 2016, p. 2). Responsibility is seen to be personal, Lakoff avers that the American public not social, so that one’s achievements and understands itself metaphorically in terms failures are entirely up to oneself alone. of the human family: the country has its Responsibility concerns only the Self; ‘founding fathers’, ‘homeland security’, Others are responsible for themselves. it proudly sends its children off to war to protect its ‘assets’ and ‘family values’. Even Linguistically framing Trump as the Father the contradictions within party politics and Figure, strict, and beyond accounting between political parties, says Lakoff, is for his behaviour, allows him to be explicable in terms of the metaphors THE contradictory in speech and action, and NURTURANT PARENT FAMILY and THE thereby to appeal to different, even STRICT FATHER FAMILY. By these figures antagonistic, recipient communities. of speech, social issues and politics are He is therefore cast in the category of related to the concrete human political authoritative beings, who can exert constituencies because human beings are a significant and dangerous force on initially governed within families, and are humans. Such a category, traditionally thus socialised to understand institutions of expressed as metaphors of the divine, of government and to function under them. forces of nature like Poseidon or Aphrodite, has its basis in human experience. And Strict familes operate under the rubric since such beings are to be propitiated or father knows best, i.e., that he knows avoided in order to preserve one’s well- what is right and wrong, and has the being, the category embodies details of authority to ensure by all and any means appropriate behaviour and correct attitude that his children and spouse obey him toward itself. The mental construct, that without question on pain of punishment. is, has implications which are both social Physical force is supposed to make family and personal. Such implications are part members disciplined and the family itself of the meaning of the words that express internally strong, and thus prosperous the constructs. At a superordinate level

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 95 of generality, a person’s inventory of for the individual, is unitary relational categories collectively represents that (e.g., ‘father’ and ‘trustworthiness’ are person’s worldview and the modes of experienced together). action appropriate to it. Literary, and political, themes constitute FRAMING SAPPHO cognitive categories of mediated Frame Semantic Theory holds that every contiguity, set up by their instigators. They word in a given intended meaning evokes function as cognitive domains because a particular frame, which constitutes they structure experiential data in particular exactly the structure of knowledge ways (Brinker 1993, p. 31). Trump is necessary for the understanding of that constructed as presidential. Sappho word (Narayanan et al. 2002, P. 2). has throughout history been variously A frame is a detail-rich, social and cultural constructed in literature as a poet, a singer, network which is constructed dynamically a musician, a prostitute, the leader of a throughout a person’s life. As such, its women’s circle, a priestess of Aphrodite, contents of categories and sub-constructs the principal of a girls’ academy, a sexual overlap, i.e. share various features deviant, an uninhibited female, a figure of (acoustic, phonological, grammatical, myth, and a representative of women’s lot, semantic, prosodic, thematic, linguistic, with all of the prejudices, behaviours, and etc.), continuously and to varying degrees. attitudes which such categories provoke in Things categorised as Father Figures, her readers. The 50 most popular portraits overlap with categories of things that are of Sappho produced between 1820 and dependable, trustworthy, and disciplinary. 1920 similarly depict her in an erotic Such categories can be considered as context – in a provocative or seductive associated by contiguity in semantic space, pose, or embracing or kissing an amante – based on the principle that experience, or as a writer or musician.

Erotic Writer Musician Neutral N 48% 6% 8% 30% N=50

Pose Embrace Kissing 62% 23% 15% N=24

Table 1: Sappho’s Themes, 1820-1920

96 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington

‘By changing overlapping categories, mediated contiguity changes receivers’ cognitions and behaviours’ The overlapping categories include human problems for which all peoples, sumptuous bedrooms, secluded arbours, at all times, must find some solution; partial unclothing, deep chiaroscuro, and intimate audiences. A large number of 2) the solutions of all the problems are pictures show her neutrally, with no overt similarly limited in number and are not categorial associations, thereby forcing random; viewers to supply their own; the sources of them include the list above and personal, 3) all solutions are present in all societies private experience. A similar situation and all subcultures, at all times, but are obtains with portraits from antiquity. differentially preferred;

The important point is that it is not 4) awareness of the Self is a universal Sappho who is communicated by such ground for the development of all constructs but, especially in the period orientations. reviewed, abstract images of prurience and voyeurism mediated by instigators who The problems and their solutions – promote their own agendas in order to collectively, values – together have direct misinform, obfuscate, or lie outright. By effects on both the concrete behaviour changing overlapping categories, mediated and the abstract reasoning of the people contiguity changes receivers’ cognitions who hold them. Like Lakoff’s categories, and behaviours. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s values have ethical and behavioural implications. Six VALUE ORIENTATIONS THEORY general problems have been suggested: Dangerous things, in the sense that the relationships which human beings they influence human beings for good have with each other, with time, space, or ill, include what the anthropologists and nature (including the supernatural); Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) called with the basic human modalities value orientations. The theory holds that: of being, becoming, or doing; and with the nature of Human Nature as 1) there is a limited number of common illustrated in Table 2.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 97 Value Orientation Description Relationship with Others: ‘What is the best form of social organisation?’ Linearity Society is hierarchical. Leaders make decisions. The individual must defer to authority. Collaterality Society is egalitarian. An extended group of equals make decisions. Authority is vested in the collective. Individualism Individual members or families make decisions independently of the Others. Human Nature: ‘What are people like, basically?’ Evil The Other is wicked, harmful, dangerous, not to be trusted. Neutral People are neither good nor bad, but some combination of both. Good People are good by nature. Nature: ‘What is the human being’s appropriate relationship to Nature?’ Subordinate Life is controlled by external forces, higher power(s) beyond the influence of humans. Harmonious People live in balance with the natural world. Dominant The human challenge is to control the natural (and the supernatural) world. Activity: ‘What is the best mode of being-in-the-world?’ Being Motivation is personal: internal and self-sufficient. The valuation by Others is not necessary for self-worth. Becoming Motivation comprises personal growth and self-actualisation. Valuation by others is not required. Doing Motivation is in personal achievement, which determines social worth Time: ‘How is time be conceived of?’ Past Society focuses on the time before now and on the honouring, maintenance, and preservation of taditional mores, values, beliefs Present Society focuses on the present moment, without concern for the future. Future Society focuses on the time to come, goal-setting, and changing (‘improving’) society.

Space: ‘How is space experienced?’ The area around the body into which other people may be allowed to intrude. It is determined by the individual’s mood, the degree of closeness between Self and Other, and the nature of the relationship, and by cultural norms. It is experienced on a continuum between Private, an intimate space (0 - ½ metre from ego) or personal (½ - 1½), and Public, social (1½ - 4) or communal (4+).

Table 2: Summary of Value Orientations

98 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington

Neither the problems nor the solutions what Sappho meant by each of the three are isolated. They always occur in patterns terms cannot be accurately rendered, either that are cohesive, which can identify not by comparison with her contemporaries’ only societies but also their members. or predecessors’ usage of the terms, or by Both Lakoff’s categories and Kluckhohn any simplistic modern translation of them. and Strodbeck’s value orientations are The degree to which they differ is non- analytical constructs. But, mutatis mutandis trivial, since that degree exactly reflects the for different members of a society, they distribution of her attention, over domains allow the systematisation of phenomena of experience, which were salient to her. observable in human behaviour, and its Sappho’s categories are unique to herself and results. This includes Trump’s tweets and must be taken into consideration when trying Sappho’s poetry. to understand the meaning of her words.

SAPPHO’S CONCEPTUAL The Greek terms are similar in that they all STRUCTURATIONS denote the experiences and behaviour of As all the poets tell us, love is a force that one person, the subject, in relation to an is significant and dangerous. The modern object, which in Sappho’s case is mainly English word love loosely translates what but not exclusively human. Philía is used for the early Greeks carefully distinguished people, agápé exclusively so; éros is mainly by three terms, éros, philía, and agápé. an abstract force. By contrast, the single term These are more than mere words. They English collocates with animals and non- represent different though related cognitive animate objects such as things, occurrences, domains of human experience, which and food: we say, ‘I love flamingos/the are characterised in specific ways. Their movies/thunderstorms/dry wine’. phonological difference is the most obvious pointer to their cognitive and semantic The Greek terms differ from each other distinctions. The words and the concepts significantly in respect of the concept which they designate are categories in of care, which has to do with being just the way outlined above. Importantly: concerned about something or someone. the structure of these categories differs It is used extensively by Sappho’s significantly from that designated by predecessor Homer (c. 9th century BCE), the modern term. Equally, Sappho’s under many synonyms, and is called categorisations differ from those of her méléma (‘an object of care’) by Sappho. predecessors and her contemporaries. It was called therapeía by Socrates, for whom it meant the ‘good and welfare’ of This entails that to an appreciable degree, an object (Euthyphro 13b8). More recently

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 99 ‘As the definition of care suggests, there is an intuitive correlation between the concept and the value orientations of a society and its members’

it has been called heed by Ryle, where High Low it includes ‘being conscious of,’ ‘paying High attention to’ something, and ‘maintaining a vivid consciousness of relevant features philía éros of a situation and of one’s own activity with respect to it’ (Ryle 1990: 130ff). Sorge

For Heidegger, care was the basis of Being- agápé melancholikós in-the-world. He distinguishes three kinds (Inwood 1999: s.vv.): Sorge, the worry or Low anxiety arising from apprehension about Fürsorgen one’s own future; Besorgen, the concern, worry or being troubled about something; Figure 1: Generic Semantic Space and Fürsorgen, the active caring about another person. Sorge relates to Being A distinction must be drawn between the itself; Besorgen to its activities in the concept of care and the words used to world; and Fürsorgen to its being with designate it. As a conceptual category it others. The concept of care is a basic-level is one of the most fundamental human element of the categories of éros, philía, concepts. Such concepts, says Lakoff, are and agápé. This means that it is a universal what ‘people around the world use in phenomenon, existing among all people at thought ... spontaneously, automatically, all times. As such it provides a method of effortlessly, and often’ (Lakoff, 1987, p.55). illustrating, for Sappho, the semantic and Prototypical concepts like this are usually cognitive spaces of the three terms, plus coded directly into the grammar of a a fourth term, melancholikós, defined by language. That is, the concept of care is absence shown in Figure 1. ‘contained in’ or directly implied by the

100 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Linguistic and functional cognitive peculiarities of media language as the basis of interpretations in the communicative sphere - Olga D. Vishnyakova and Natalia V. Polyakova concepts of éros, philía, agápé, and orientation. In general she follows Homer melancholikós. The concept is a central in the usage of philía, but her belief in it member of the latter four categories. as a suitable metaphor is more intense. The words for care, by contrast, are She is interested in the partners to the reserved for characterising care which is relationship having an equal share of noncentral. For example when Sappho pleasure; her poem regarding walking says ‘I love Cleis’ (Fr. 130; all references and talking with her amante Gongyla to Edmonds 1958), under normal (Edmonds 1958: Fr. 46) shows this, as circumstances she would not need to say it suggests her conception of space as ‘I love and I take care of Cleis.’ However, private and intimate. People are good, when his servant tells Odysseus that the capable of conferring honour on her, women of the house do not look after and of treating her with gentleness. his faithful dog, there is no implication of This is indicated by her claim to a gentle affection between the women and the disposition in the address to her brother, dog (Odyssey 17.319). Care was therefore by her invocation to the ‘soft Graces and a central member of the four categories lovely-tressed Muses,’ (Edmonds 1958: in both Homer’s time (b. ?850) and Fr. 101) and by her sharp sensitivity to Sappho’s. As a property of the categories, personal hurts. Love entails admiration for furthermore, care is an interactional others, but it also entails an openness to property, ‘the result of our interactions their slings and arrows. as part of our physical, and cultural environments, given our bodies and our Sappho’s modality of activity is being in cognitive apparatus’ (Lakoff 1987: 51). the world. Her temporal focus is largely As the definition of care suggests, there with the present although she does refer is an intuitive correlation between the with regret to the past. This is a major concept and the value orientations of a divergence from Homer, for whom philía society and its members. Kluckhohn and implies the present and future while Strodtbeck’s values in effect constitute a the past is an element of éros. Sappho’s network of (sub)categories which interact relationship to Nature and the Other is with the concept in a relationship that is her most significant difference from the in part mutually implicative. earlier poet. Her relationships are ruled by harmony. Her metaphors are taken Philía is the category or metaphor mainly from the variegation of nature which Sappho uses most to describe itself, and secondly from the social world. her conception of love. It is therefore The natural world as a comment on the her dominant, or first-order, value world of man has a literary history that in

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 101 ‘Te concept of space is both private and public, as is suggested by the institution of marriage as simultaneously a ceremony that is communal and an erotic celebration which is intimate’

Sappho’s cultural mindset goes back to the of men, the Hell of cities’ (Aeschylus 458 Iliad and Odyssey of Homer and the Hymns BCE: Agamemnon, 689). There is some of Hesiod in the century before hers. indication that Helen was motivated in Sappho not by éros, the mania of love, but This historical dimension is the general by philía, its more complex cousin – which erotic connection of love and Nature. is often translated by the barely adequate Sappho was the first poet to connect word ‘friendship’. Nature and love through philía, through care about the natural world. Philía, for her, Sappho’s éros is, in general, not as represents a fusion of Heidegger’s Besorgen exploitative as it is in Homer but has the and Fürsorgen. Nature is not simply a innocence of childhood and the sharing background to her main theme, as it was that that period implies. Nature is not for predecessors and contemporararies, but subjugated but, as with philía, is an active a rich source of cognitive and experiential partner in a universal life-force. As an metaphors which she appropriated. energy of its own it has all the positive and negative power of Nature itself. Its Sappho’s most interesting usage of the strongest natural power is its connection term concerns Helen of Troy. Helen is with fire, deriving from the ‘desire of without doubt one of the most fascinating the sunlight’. (Edmonds 1958: Fr. 118) women in history: the archetypal adulteress Sappho accuses éros of burning her; who left her child, parents, husband, home and it can make her heart ‘flame up’. It and homeland for another man, thereby is both fire and fever or disease, and as precipitating a war that destroyed one of such is related to pain. In an apparent the most illustrious habitations of all the contradiction however, people and place known world. She was the woman upon are held in honour. It confers on mortals whose name the playwright Aeschylus the mode of both being and activity. made perhaps his most damning word- Temporal focus is the present. The concept play: ‘Helen, the Hell of ships, the Hell of space is both private and public, as is

102 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington suggested by the institution of marriage position vis-à-vis the exclusive coterie of as simultaneously a ceremony that is young women which, from antiquity until communal and an erotic celebration the present, she is thought to have headed. which is intimate. She scolds and chastises them, quoting to them proverbs and sententiae and the rules Eros is used most strikingly in her address of etiquette. The Other is not dominated to her amante Anactoria, demonstrating as in Homer, albeit with kindness, but is that the best thing in the world is treated with affectionate condescension. one’s beloved. Anactoria is fairer, says The modality of activity which this implies is Sappho (Edmonds 1958: Fr. 38), than being, and its temporal focus is completely an army of foot soldiers, a fleet of ships, in the present. The conception of space is a field of chariots, and all of the armed universalist. Compared to philía, in which forces of the land of Lydia. These are care is defined as paying attention to the images of concentrated power that contextualisation of one’s actions, Sappho’s call up excitement and aggressiveness agápé is devoid of self. on a massive scale, like the films and photographs of Leni Riefenstahl. Such The category of melancholikós in for Sappho was the overwhelming Sappho’s thinking is not simply a negation force of a physical attraction. It struck of the previous categories, but is a her without warning, like Poseidon’s complex of its own. In antiquity it was whirlwind rushing down a mountain-side associated with ill-temper, incontinence, (Edmonds 1958: Fr. 54). impetuousness, insanity, gitation, fits, madness, and blindness. Today it is known The category of love as agápé is as psychological depression. Sappho says nominated only in Sappho’s poem to her the feeling is bestowed by Aphrodite. Its daughter Cleis (Edmonds 1958: Fr. 130). essential psychodynamics include a deep The parental affection she displays there sense of loss of what is loved or valued, parallels that in Homer, where agápé and a conflict of mixed feeling of love is similarly a human and not a divine and hate toward those people or things. emotion. Sappho’s term has a wider The most famous poem in this regard is scope however, embracing all Nature, Odi et amo (‘I hate you and I love you’) from flowers to her own ‘lovely [island by the later Latin poet Catullus (Catullus, of] Lesbos’ and to all of Lydia. Sappho’s 1990: 130-131) , although Sappho does attitude to children generally bears out admit in one fragment to being in ‘two her conception of agápé. Her relationship minds’. (Edmonds 1958: Fr.52) Her longing as mother to her child is not unlike her and yearning occur often, as in such

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 103 ‘Time is conceived of as present hurts which stem from past events and the actions of others’

anthology pieces as ‘The moon is down’ salient experiences; nor does she withdraw (Edmonds 1958: Fr.111), with its complaint from them. Space is metaphorised as of insomnia. The loss of friends is also a nature, which is the force separating her major theme. All such feelings have for from her beloved, as the sea separates her Sappho both a general and a specific from Atthis. focus: generally they concern the frequent departure of her amantes to be married, QUALIA AND THE HYPOSTATISATION and more specifically they mourn her OF REALITY separation from two in particular, Anactoria The third influence, and the one which and Gongyla. The categorical relationship arguably has the most profound effect on of general to specific is metonymic. the Self’s category-formation are qualia, the accumulated aspects of an experience The category reveals that Sappho’s which are the most deeply subjective and, conception of the Other is one of betrayal therefore, unique to the individual. They – human nature is fickle, as is shown by comprise the Self’s perceptual information her brother Charaxtus’ behaviour over stored in long-term memory, and although a prostitute, and the falsity of certain usually included in semantic memory, it is amantes. Her friends sometimes contract information that ‘is not (and in some cases ‘unstable relationships’ (Edmonds, 1958: cannot be) encoded in words’. (Colman, Fr.92) with women who are no better 2003: 544) than provincial ingénues (Edmonds, 1958: Fr.98); and whoever one loves most will do Qualia concern physical sensations such as most injury (Edmonds, 1958: Fr.13). Time is the smell of fresh bread, the taste of a lemon, conceived of as present hurts which stem the pain of a pinprick, the redness of roses, from past events and the actions of others. or the memory of someone’s face, which Her modality of action is being-in-the-world we are aware of instantly and before being to the extent that her pain and anguish are conscious of them. They are the attempts

104 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington to contain the ontology of the world by the ancient metaphors differ in profound and phenomenology of language, in an intimate significant ways from those employed and highly personal way. (Dews, 1988: 115) in modern languages. Insofar as their Qualia are part of the source domains of mappings from source to target domains a speaker’s and hearer’s metaphoric sets. are determined by culture, all metaphors They are irrevocable, indubitable, explicit, in modern languages are historically immutable, automatic, and invariant in discrete; insofar as they are determined by construction, design, and function (see the individual’s life experiences (cf. Lakoff, Ramachandran and Hubbard, 2001). 1987:281f), all mappings are idiosyncratic in the same way (and for the same reason) as Qualia are quintessentially private and are qualia. They are personal constructs. ineffable; language is par excellance public and intersubjective. The epistemological Mappings that are most intensely personal, paradox dissolves when the research focus such as Sappho’s, may be considered is shifted from philosophy and linguistics ‘poetic’. (Lakoff ,1993: 27) But reductively to neurobiology, from where, contra- translating the Greek terms as ‘love’ Wittgenstein, people are seen as cognitive is more than simple shorthand for an beings who possess real information emotion considered to be universal and about their inner states but are unable to timeless. Intellectual reduction is an communicate it to other equally cognitive example of hermeneutic Verstehen, the beings. (Loorits, 2014) Sappho herself was mode of conceptualisation considered aware of the dilemma: ‘My words are of necessary to understand contemporary air’, she wrote – they have no substance, human affairs. A speaker’s Verstehen is his like qualia – , ‘but they are necessary for or her understanding of everyday social well-being’ for herself and her audience. phenomena such as rituals and activities, (Edmonds, 1958: Fr.1a) In another permissions and prohibitions, rights and fragment she says that extracting meaning obligations, and the individual’s feelings is like pressing honey (Edmonds, 1959: and beliefs which are related thereto. 439): something is left behind. It includes also the positivist faith in the steady progress of mankind. But such The effect of qualia on Sappho’s understanding is pernicious when applied communication is that, in using the retrospectively because it is both misleading relevant words, she and her readers are and an obfuscation, projecting the writers invoking fundamentally different constructs of ancient Greece, for instance, as lacking for encoding and decoding the message. in expressive precision despite a vocabulary This is because the construction of the which is at least equally as precise as any

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 105 modern word-hoard. Sappho’s emotions directly determines the behaviour of are therefore seen as primitive in some communicating participants. Failure of the way: curious but not engaging. first type entails a curtailed, incomplete interpretation of Sappho’s message, which Since metaphorical conceptualisation is ensures an inability to sound the depths not only a way of talking about something of her terror when she says, for instance, but also of thinking and reasoning about it ‘love shattered my heart’. (Edmonds, (Lakoff, 1993:3), Sappho’s target domain 1958: E.54) The second type closes of love was conceptualised differently than understanding between author and reader it is at present because it was experienced exactly as does mis-taking in conversation, differently and is in essence therefore ensuring the entire message is false. different from what we call ‘love’. This is so because we have known for a long But the reception of Sappho’s time that ‘experience and reality come communication in the beneficient way to the same thing’: our knowledge of in which she intended it is rendered sensible reality is made ‘inside the tissue impossible not only by the inaccessibility of experience’. (William James, 1912: of qualia to direct enquiry. Qualia are 171, 169-170) Love as experienced by any underlaid by a more generalised bias, person therefore cannot, except in the a cognitively motivated distortion of grossest of terms, be universal. Although reality that is described by Watzlawick the emotion itself seems to be so, its et al as the ‘very deep-seated propensity particular instances are unique, and thus to hypostatise reality’. (Watzlawick incommensurable. et al., 2011: 259) This is a peculiarly human proneness to appropriate reality The result is a failure of communication as essentially a benevolent friend or between Sappho and her readers. It a malevolent foe. It is a transfiguring is manifest as failure in two ways: of idealisation, the abstracting, internalising, Fauconnier’s access principle, which holds and divinising of an object such that it that ‘an expression that names or describes ‘serves a private mythology’ (Bonnecase, an element in one mental space can be 2006: 101), akin to those of Poseidon, used to access [or identify] a counterpart Aphrodite, and American Presidents. The of that element in another mental space’ dimensions of the mythology are one’s (Fauconnier, 2006: 41, 108); and of the value orientations. As a dichotomous axiom of punctuation (Watzlawick et hypostatisation it is an ancient and al, 2011: 54f), whereby the perceived cross-cultural phenomenon, attested linguistic structuring of information to in modern theories of childhood

106 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington development (Holmes, 2010) and in ancient Chinese theology (Slingerland, 2014). Value

Orientation Qualia In the theory of Watzlawick et al, Set hypostatisation is structured as a hierarchy. At the lowest level is the knowledge that Hypostatisation something exists; second is the knowledge that what exists has meaning in terms of human well-being. The third level consists PRELEXICAL STRUCTURE of the individual’s premises about the relationships between things and their LEXICAL STRUCTURE meanings; this is the level at which the individual constructs a unified view and a set of beliefs and values about ‘reality’, Figure 2: Generic Semantic Structure with concomitant behaviours. At the fourth level the individual is able to question all For both sender and receiver of a or parts of this construct. Distortion of message,a word comprises lexical the individual structure so instantiated is and prelexical components. Prelexical motivated by what Crawshay-Williams structure comprises the socially and (2011) calls the comforts of unreason, culturally ordered set of value orientations the ‘natural preference’ for unreason to and the contingently ordered qualia prevail over reason as a self-protective cloud. The VO matrix is indexed by mechanism. (Crawshay-Williams, 2011: reality hypostatisation. Lexical structure 136) The analyses of Watzlawick et al and comprises the term’s surface structure of Crawshay-Williams suggest that, as information. Prelexical structure cannot personal constructs, idiosyncratic to the be transmitted during communication. individual, concepts such as éros, philía, The total picture appears in Figure 3. and agápé, melanckolikós and ‘love’ are radically unrelated. At the most general A mapping of Sappho’s value level of human verbal communication, orientations into éros, philía, agápé, and therefore, meaning is not a transferable melancholikós. The vertical axis represents phenomenon because all conceptions of the degree of concern a person may sender and receiver are contaminated by have for the Self (Sorge). The horizontal qualia. Word-structure is illustrated axis represents Fürsorgen, caring about in Figure 2. the Other. Both scales are continua,

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 107 High Low High philía éros

Others Modality Others Modality Equality Being Attraction Being Admiration Friendship Doing Vulnerability Mutual pleasure Innocent Child-like

Human Nature Time Human Nature Time Good Present Honourable Present Gentle Past Attractive Honourable Dangerous

Nature Space Nature Space Harmony Private Partnership Intimate Omnipresent Intimate Universal power Communal Variegated Conflagrational Self agápé melancholikós

Others Modality Others Modality Selfless Being Betrayal Being Yearning Mixed

Human Nature Time Human Nature Time Affectionate Present Fickle Present Insincere Past

Nature Space Nature Space Child-like Universalist Submission to Public force Low Other Figure 3: Semantic Space of Love in Sappho

of unknown extension, represented Agápé is concerned with the Other to the arbitrarily as High and Low. Eros Other exclusion of the self. The fourth quadrant, comprises (relatively) high concern with low concern with both oneself and other Self and low concern with Other. Philía people, corresponds to psychological comprises high concern with the Other depression and was known to antiquity in relation to one’s own selfishness. as melancholikós.

108 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Sappho’s Missed Communications Brian Bebbington

The domains of experience are clearly motivating cognitions of the poet. Poets different, for even today we feel differently themselve encourage and demand such about, and behave differently toward, an understanding, by the sheer effort our spouses or significant others, our of writing poetry. Their cognitions are children, and our friends. But as the Figure at least partially recoverable through a shows, the intensely personal nature of multi-disciplined convergence of Lakoff’s all experience causes a failure in domain- theory of metaphor, Kluckhohn and mapping that is bridged only superficially, Strodtbeck’s early theories of socially- and at surface structure level, by recourse to culturally-determined reasoning, and constructing categories and metaphors. Watzlawick et al’s thoughts on experiential That is, by using language tout court. conditioning. The results offer to students What is needed is the kind of deep- of literature a methodology for a finer structure alignment of experience that understanding of the processes of why Sappho tried with all her art to invoke. and how and what writers write and readers read. Students of language may CONCLUSION be better equipped to decode usage at Of all the communicants who choose a level below the conscious, where both writing as their medium, none are so meaning and misunderstanding originate. concerned to transmit their message to To students of culture is made available a the finest degree of understanding as methodology for bridging the relativities of are poets. The objective of this study culture and for reconciling the differences was to point up the fracture between they cause. But what is needed first is a poetic intent and an understanding detailed knowledge of how we structure compromised by failing to consider the our thoughts at their deepest level.

References

Aeschylus, (1983). Agamemnon. in Burnett, J. (1932). Greek Philosophy: Thales to Aeschylus 11. Translated by Weir Smith, Plato. London. Macmillan and Co. H. and edited by Lloyd-Jones, H. London, William Heinemann. Catullus (1990) The Complete Poems. Translated by Lee. G. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Bonnecase, D. (2006). The First Generation Poets. in Procházka M. (ed.). After History. Colman, A.M. (2003). Oxford Dictionary of Prague. Litteraria Pragensia. Psychology. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Brinker, M. (1993). Theme and Interpretation. Crawshay-Williams, R. (2011). The Comforts In W. Sollers (ed.). The Return of Thematic of Unreason. A Study of the Motives Behind Criticism. Cambridge. Harvard University Irrational Thought. Westport, Conn., Praeger, Press. Greenwood Press. Reprint.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 109 Dews, P. (1988). Logics of Disintegration. Lloyd-Jones, H. (1983) Aeschylus II. London . London, Verso. William Heinemann.

Edmonds, J.M. (1958). Lyra Graeca I. London. Loorits, K. (2014). Structural qualia: a solution William Heinemann. to the hard problem of consciousness. Frontiers in Psychology. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00237. Edmonds, J.M. (1959). Lyra Graeca III. London, Accessed 27/08/2017. William Heinemann. Narayanan, S., Fillmore, C.J., Baker, C.F., & Fauconnier, G. (2006). Mappings in Thought and Petruk, M.R.L. (2002). FrameNet Meets the Language. New York. Cambridge University Press. Semantic Web. https://link.springer.com/ chapter/10.1007/978-3-540-39718-2_49. Freeman, K. (1949). The Pre-Socratic Accessed 31/08/2017. Philosophers. A Companion to Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker. Oxford. Basil Blackwell. Obbink, D. (2015). Provenance, Authenticity, and Text of the New Sappho Papyri. Paper Hallett, J.P. (1999). Sappho and Her Social read at the ‘Society for Classical Studies’ Panel: Context: Sense and Sensibility. In Greene G. (ed.). ‘New Fragments of Sappho’, New Orleans, Reading Sappho: Contemporary Approaches. 9 January 2015. Berkeley, University of California Press. http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/Fragments/SCS. Sappho.2015.Obbink.paper.pdf. Holmes, J. (2010). The Search for the Secure Accessed 21/08/2017. Base: Attachment theory and psychoanalysis. London. Routledge. Plato. (1987). The Collected Dialogues. Eds., Hamilton, E. & Cairns, H. Princeton. Princeton Homer. (2007). The Odyssey of Homer. Trans. University Press. Lattimore, R. New York, Harper and Row. Plato 283 BC Euthyphro Translated by Benjamin Inwood, M. (1999). A Heidegger Dictionary. Jowett source: http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/ Oxford, Blackwell. euthyfro.html

James, W. (1912). The Philosophy of William Ramachandran, V.S. & Hubbard, E.M. James. New York, Modern Library. (2001). Synaesthesia – a window into perception, thought, and language. Kluckhohn, F.R. & Strodtbeck, F.L. (1961). Journal of Consciousness, 8, 3-34. Variations in Value Orientations. New York, Peterson Publishing. Ryle, G. (1990). The Concept of Mind. Harmondsworth. Penguin Books. Kövecses, Z. (2006). Language, Mind, Culture. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Sappho (1958) The Poems of Sappho. In Edmonds, 1958. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Slingerland, E. (2014). The Paradox of Wu-Wei. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. http://edge.org/conversation/the-paradox-of-wu- wei. Accessed 11/08/2017. Lakoff, G. (1993). The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. [email protected]. Accessed Watzlawick, P., Bavelas, J.B., & Jackson, D.D. 07/03/2006. (2011). Pragmatics of Human Communication. New York. Norton and Company. Lakoff, G. (2016). Understanding Trump. George Lakoff’s Blog. July 23, 2016. https://georgelakoff. com/2016/07/23/understanding-trump-2/ TLC

110 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Reviews Digital Language Learning and Teaching: Research, Theory and Practice

Edited by Michael Carrier, Ryan M. Damerow and Kathleen M. Bailey Routledge (2017) Reviewed by Paul Rogers, Little Bridge

For many reasons, from purely economic to research into a wide variety of topics. frankly reactionary, education struggles to Inevitably, given that these studies cover keep up with technological developments. such different areas and often have a But with new recruits to the teaching very specific focus, each chapter appears profession growing up – for the first time – self contained and independent. One, as digital natives, we can expect things to for example, about a group of Chinese change. This book of 20 chapters presents students learning English, examines a range of recent research as well as a the development of a tailored self-help number of articles offering an overview of digital resource to address the needs of the key developments in digital learning that particular group. Another, whilst from a pedagogical perspective. pointing out the downside of the use of digital technology for university students, Most people interested in the field, highlights the value that access to media whether students, teachers, academics or and messaging can bring to their language software developers, will, I suspect, treat learning. If the price of the ubiquitous it like a box of chocolates and go for the smart phone is that some students’ chapters that particularly interest them attention to the teacher is diminished, rather than work their way through it. Yet, there is, it argues, little doubt that this if we are interested in learning, there is disadvantage is outweighed by everything an argument for sampling precisely those else that internet access offers. areas that we know less about or feel less drawn to. From that point of view, this Of course, what all the chapters do have in collection is well judged in terms both common is that they address some aspect of scope and of length of article and it of the transformational impact of digital successfully avoids becoming either too technology. A chapter on open educational technical or too theoretical. resources, free for teachers to reuse and remix, takes the example of FLAX, a corpus- After a concise introduction to the field of based extracting tool, now available in the digital learning, the first half of the book digital commons, and potentially of use not presents 10 chapters based on doctoral only in English for specific academic purposes

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 111 Reviews

but in the K-12 sector too. I would encourage students to develop their own learning readers not interested in the specifics of such path to suit their personal preferences research to nonetheless read the conclusions and interests. and policy implications of a chapter like this. Two studies highlight the importance Another example of this is the article on of good training when new technology ‘Attitudes towards Blended Learning’. This is introduced. One examines the focuses on a study where blended learning underutilisation of interactive whiteboards (in the primary sense of a combination of amongst a small sample of TESOL teacher digital and traditional teaching methods) educators in a South Korean University. had been introduced for the first time to Whatever reservations some may have a group of doctoral students in China. about the IWB’s tendency to reinforce the Whilst its context is too specific to afford model of a teacher-fronted class, most any significant, general conclusions, its practitioners would probably acknowledge observations about the cultural difficulties their usefulness. The need for appropriate of Chinese students adapting to such training to be put in place to encourage practices as mutual criticism in an open teachers to use them – particularly in discussion forum are fascinating. such institutions where their use is not commonplace – may seem obvious but is A persuasive chapter deals with the use clearly easy to overlook. of the flipped classroom with Japanese university students. Whilst highlighting The other case study that underlines the the benefits of this model, the article also importance of training is that of the African usefully identifies some of its practical Storybook pilot in a Ugandan primary challenges for both teachers and learners. school. Insufficient training, or limited The key role of technology in enabling access to digital resources, can end up the flipped classroom to reach its full making technology more of a hindrance potential is well illustrated, not least in than a help, and so squander or discredit the opportunities for communication and its immense potential. In this project the discussion that it offers students prior to key piece of equipment was the projector, face-to-face time in class. which enabled pictures to be shared with the class and so bring stories to life – an Other chapters present the value of interesting illustration that it is not only combining audio with text feedback in the most advanced technology that can asynchronous online courses and the use transform teaching! of a bilingual platform to promote writing. The latter illustrates the flexibility of digital The last of the research-based chapters spaces as opposed to linear textbooks shows how the use – and particularly and the way that online systems enable creation of – digital stories can hugely

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increase students’ personal investment in could finally see, after thousands of years language learning, bringing, as it does, of dominance, the place of the physical so much of their own experience as well classroom finally being challenged.’ as a creative challenge to the acquisition of linguistic skills. Learning the new skills An excellent chapter investigates what of, for example, voice, music and image is required to combine good user editing clearly broadened the interest experience (what makes a product easy of the task. Indeed, the study provides and enjoyable to use) with good learner convincing evidence of how a ‘multimodal’ experience (what makes it an effective or ‘multiliteracies’ approach , involving a way of learning). The lucid and jargon-free range of technology tools and demanding analysis of what makes for good ‘learner creative and critical thinking, can achieve experience design’ is interesting not only far more than a conventional approach for people making choices about digital to language learning. To a considerable educational resources but also for anyone extent, this is because the task itself curious about what makes for an effective stimulates genuine discussion, requests for learning experience with technology, help, and sharing of ideas and opinions whether they are themselves involved in (themselves all enabled by technology) developing products or not. on something that quickly comes to matter to students personally. Blended learning almost certainly comes into these considerations. In his chapter, The second half of the book presents Pete Sharma identifies the challenges and a range of current thinking on digital potential benefits of this methodology, learning in ELT. There is no doubt that and concludes that a) the term is technology is going to impact here as necessarily broad in meaning and that b) it in every other of area education. I have remains open to further developments in long believed that this will be a positive technology, including – but not limited to – change, providing educators are given mobile and adaptive learning. As he hints at the support they need (most students will one point, it is most probable that the term need no persuading!) The first chapter on will become superfluous once the use of synchronous online teaching offers useful online material becomes an accepted and practical advice on how to prepare students inevitable part of language learning. for as well as how to manage and give feedback on online sessions. It ends with On another note, Russell Stannard offers the following bold statement: an insightful exposition of the advantages ‘With the development and integration of using screen capture software to give of these new technologies and a greater feedback on written work. These include understanding of the way students and not only the scope to make feedback teachers interact and develop online, we more engaging, precise and nuanced

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– above all, more human – than purely knowledge and skills, and identify areas written feedback, but also its tendency and concepts in which they need training. to make students more likely to respond It is indeed all too easy, given the way that to it and actually take note of it. The online technology has evolved, to assume author, speaking from ample experience, that teachers will be familiar with the is pleasantly undogmatic, recognising the latest developments, but one read of this variety of circumstances that may apply, book will show most readers how far that and gives useful, practical advice, making a is from the truth! This chapter underlines powerful case for this kind of feedback. that even those au fait with the technology (and there are many teachers who are In considering advances in digital not and who even fear it!) have not assessment, including adaptive testing and necessarily taken the next steps towards the potential of machine learning, Nick understanding the pedagogy of digital Saville emphasises how developments learning, and that this is something that in technology can enhance the needs to be consciously addressed. interrelationship between assessment and learning by adapting both testing It is invaluable to see examples of some of itself and feedback to the individual. these ideas being put into practice. Plan ‘Learning-oriented assessment’ thereby Ceibal in Uruguay is a well-established becomes more personalised for the learner and successful project which uses video and of greater planning value to the conferencing to bring an experienced teacher, as well as saving valuable time. English teacher into classrooms where the Saville also points at ways in which new teacher knows little or no English. It has digital developments will enable accurate built up and refined, over a number of assessment of the productive skills of years, a system that enables the remote speaking and writing – two areas which teacher, often in another country, to work at the moment still generally have to be closely with the class teacher in a way assessed in the ‘old-fashioned’ way. which, at first sight, many would probably be sceptical about, not least because The chapter by Michael Carrier and Andrew of the additional technical coordination Nye targets the often overlooked area of and skills required by both parties. I was teachers’ own skills in relation to technology fortunate enough to be able to witness and describes how, in order to address this, this myself in Montevideo some years the Cambridge English Digital Framework ago. A study quoted by the author of this Research was developed to complement the piece, Graham Stanley, underlines the existing Teacher Competence Framework. importance of good practical organisation This, as its name implies, provides a structure and support to the project’s success, to help assess (and auto-assess) teachers’ saying that ‘no amount of guidance can

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substitute for the actual practice.’ The educators who will need to shape and quote made me hungry to see examples design how it is exploited. The final of this in action and left a lurking chapter confronts the possibility that suspicion that there may be some irony simultaneous speech-based translation in a book trying to capture a panorama may render it as unnecessary to learn of digital learning. other languages as the telephone made it unnecessary to meet someone face- Nevertheless, the final chapters of to-face in order to have a conversation. the book offer useful insights on the But for the time being, the challenge implications of future technology is predominantly how to integrate the for teaching and learning. Here we new so-called ‘affordances’ into the confront the latest, really challenging practice of teaching. Blended learning and potentially transformational and flipped learning both represent a developments in the field. The power move in this direction, while adaptive of technology to democratise learning, learning and machine learning offer to overcome barriers of time and place, what some traditional teachers may and make education available at low see as more of a threat, namely the or no cost, is beyond doubt, though in ability to tailor a learning path to every practice this still has a long way to go. individual’s needs and tastes. These Teachers will have to adapt and will changes promise to be with us sooner probably have to accept that they have rather than later. a less centre stage role, becoming more facilitators, supporters and guides – and, No one involved in language teaching of course, motivators and inspirers! can afford to ignore the huge range of opportunities and challenges opened up The penultimate chapter explores the by technology. How effectively these are potential of virtual reality, through its exploited will depend on many factors, ability to bring imagined situations some beyond the direct influence of to life and to offer fully convincing educators. But it is educators whose interactions as rich and personally input – from painstaking research to responsive as those in real life. Given creative inspiration – is essential in that arguably the greatest obstacle to order to realise those possibilities. This language learning is that the student collection of articles, taking examples is not where they really need to be – in from all over the world, vividly illustrates a place where people are really using how exciting and transformational the the language around them – this is future of language learning can be. obviously an immense opportunity. But as with all such advances, it is TLC

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 115 Reviews

Enough Said Mark Thompson Vintage Books (2017) Reviewed by Barry Tomalin

Mark Thompson has had a stellar career of ‘Enough Said’ but far more important in media journalism and administration, as is the argument and philosophy behind former Executive Director of Channel 4, in the book. ‘Enough Said’ is about the art the BBC as Director General and currently of rhetoric, the ability to persuade your the New York Times, where he serves as listeners and readers through the power Chief Executive Officer. His journalistic of language. ‘It is through an effective career has encompassed the huge public language that average citizens acceleration of news through the can both understand and contribute to introduction of the 24-hour news cycle important questions and issues of the with the speeding up of communication state. It is for this reason that rhetoric was through the Internet and the explosion considered so important in both Greek of outlets with the proliferation of news and Roman cultures’ (Thompson, 2016, channels via satellite and the emergence p.25). Rhetoric can be defined as the of blogs, vlogs and other online language of explanation and persuasion. communications. This acceleration has It enables collective decision making to actually affected the style of language take place and the mastery of public and how it is presented. Headlines are language creates power, as the great shortened to fit the rolling footer at the political orators, such as Churchill have base of your newscasting TV screen. If a demonstrated. concept can be presented in two words so that it communicates well on Twitter then For Thompson the originator of rhetoric it may be used to create an impact even if as a political art was Aristotle. In the it oversimplifies or even falsifies the story it ‘Art of Rhetoric’ Aristotle distinguished is intended to present. between two forms of discourse, Dialectic (argument) and antistrophos Practical insights into how journalism and (Rhetoric). Aristotle divided rhetoric into media work is one of the valuable lessons three core qualities:

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1. LOGOS (pure argument) As an example of how Aristotle’s three qualities work Thompson cites the 2. ETHOS (the social standing of the former British Prime Minister, Margaret speaker) Thatcher, nicknamed ‘the Iron Lady’. According to Thompson, Mrs Thatcher 3. PATHOS (the ability of the speaker to as a trained lawyer was excellent on connect with the audience) LOGOS (argument) but was perceived to lack ETHOS (empathy). She saw her As part of pathos Aristotle also ‘Iron Lady’ image as a strength. In fact, introduced one more quality AUXEXIS, according to Thompson, it was a flaw defined as Amplification, the ability to in rhetoric. heighten or exaggerate what you say for effect. As a broadcaster, Thompson is especially interesting on how language and media Thompson’s thesis, as indeed was interact. Broadcasters look for what are Thucydides on ancient Athens and called ‘sync-bites’ (US - ‘soundbites’), Callust on ancient Rome, is that the short sequences with sound and decline in the quality of public language vision. These are short snappy extracts in the media in politics leads to distrust from a speech, one which is headline between the citizenry and its leaders grabbing and one more substantive. and to the decline of democracy His comparison of UK and UK news through a descent into demagoguery. requirements is revealing (he worked ‘A healthy public language,’ he writes as a news broadcast producer in both ‘knits public and political leaders countries). US news broadcasts tend to together and precisely because it be shorter, tend to focus more on double succeeds in drawing ordinary citizens shots than single focus on the speaker, into the debate, ultimately leads to would use one soundbite per speaker better and more widely supported rather than up to three for the British and policy decisions. When public language would run shorter sequences of thirty to loses its power to explain and engage, forty-five seconds rather than a minute or it threatens the broader bond between more in the UK. This leads to shortened people and politicians’ (Thompson, and simplified news and compressed and 2016, p.18). intensified information. The effect is to

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achieve immediacy and relevance but at The latest development in news the possible cost of superficiality, distortion manipulation in the 21st century is and error as TV coverage is compressed the use of big data to obtain statistical into seconds. information derived from social psychology and behavioural economics The emergence of the 24 hour news to drive policy presentation. In other and 24/7 news updates introduced by words to manipulate the way in CNN in the 1980s and spread worldwide which new policies are put forward to through the Internet in the 90s means match what the public would like to that the language of news broadcasting hear (algorithmically selected) rather has increasingly permeated how we than what actually needs to be said. write and speak about world events in Nothing new here, you may say, but the press in the media and in ‘citizen what Thompson emphasises is that the journalism.’ 24-hour news cycle, the huge choice of media made available by digital A further development in news technology and the acceleration of manipulation is the development of news access via the Internet has led to ’spin’. Spin was originally an American a political language characterized by English media term used to describe an the briefest of soundbites, the bluntest off-the-record briefing by government of posters and delivering only the or management. Now it is used as a way broadest of messages. As Thompson of manipulating news or even burying says, silicon valley engineers see news bad news by publishing it in the shadow as organic. They think consumers of a major news story. One of the most want headlines and summaries put egregious examples of this was an email together from different sources and sent by a British Labour government prioritized by algorithms, sometimes adviser who, on the day of the attack but not always tempered by editorial on the twin towers in New York, judgement. remembered worldwide as 9/11, sent an email saying, ‘It is now a very good day Returning to Aristotle, in Thompson’s to get anything out we want to bury.’ view public language has moved from Needless to say, she did not continue LOGOS (the facts and the argument) long in her post. to ETHOS (the personality of the news

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giver) and PATHOS (the ability to tell move around a bit but always remember the public what it wants to hear rather the shotlist – where you are supposed than the truth). Presidents Reagan and to stand so that the viewing audience Clinton, in Thompson’s view, were past can see that there is an audience you masters at ethos and pathos, as is to are addressing. It is an environment some extent Donald Trump. Not only in which ethos and pathos act against the UK and the US but other countries logos. The British will not forget the as well also involve themselves in the advice of the Brexiteers leading up to same strategies to publicise news. the decision to leave the European Union in June 2016. ‘Don’t listen to the One of the most interesting debates experts’; the denial of logos. around the use of ethos and pathos as the most effective conveyors of Is there an answer? Thompson feels information and adaptation of language that there is an urgent need to balance to convey is the issue of ‘authenticism’, the three Aristotelian qualities of looking and sounding as if you really logos, ethos and pathos and to let mean what you say even if you don’t. the facts speak and the issues to be The Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler is cited argued. He points to the culture of as an example of a speaker who suspicion, if not mistrust, which extends fused ethos and pathos to give his towards politicians and, to a degree, speeches an image of authenticism. the media. But there are dangers. As Most dangerous is the concept of Thompson puts it, ‘Argument without ‘manufactured authenticism’, the character is lifeless. The crowds drift image of the speaker manipulated away. Character without argument is to give credence to his or her words. dangerous’ (Thompson, 2016, p.161). Using narratives about ‘our community’ An audience needs to use both its and ‘my struggle is your struggle’ are logical and emotional faculties to tactics used, and Thompson, amusingly accept an argument. but worryingly cites the spin doctor’s playbook on how to relax in front of a So what advice does Thompson offer TV camera. Roll up your sleeves, lose presenters and especially politicians? the tie (if you’re a man), show visible First, is to be aware that emotive concern, sometimes a flash of anger, problems, buried for ideological reasons

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tend to recur, such as immigration, for explanation. Third, using BEXBOS inequality and cultural differences. (brief expositions of background to a Second is to watch spin. When it was story ) to explain situations is fine but nameless it was useful but now it can always distinguish clearly between be tracked back to you and your spin objective news reporting, features and can rebound to your disadvantage. opinion pieces. Finally avoid ‘accidie or Third, your audience needs to feel that sloth, losing grip on the real meaning you are human. Always try to look and of words and actions and tailoring to sound like a real person. Polished, what the audience expects. There is a disciplined control may be counter danger that the language of reporting productive. Fourth, amplification has become ‘marketing speak’ (Aristotle’s auxexis) may be useful, according to Thompson. especially to provide clarity, crispness and short news headlines. Fifth, think This review has focused primarily pathos. Think of your audience. Many on Thompson’s analysis and views successful presenters are able to ‘read on how to improve media literacy, the sea ahead’ and recognize the needs an important field of language and of their audience on the day. Above communication study but the book all, he advises, hold on to investigative also contains fascinating information reporting. It is expensive and time on the development of basic English, consuming but properly done it exposes including writer and broadcaster, injustice and can improve lives. George Orwell’s criticisms of the use of English and a highly enjoyable This imposes responsibilities on today’s and informative review of advertising media and press. First, it is important language, including ‘Don’t sell the to reject perspectivism, the reliance steak, sell the sizzle’ from a 1937 book on a single point of view. Report on advertising by Elmer Wheeler and facts and avoid both conscious and his phrase that sold a million gallons unconscious bias in reporting and of gasoline back in the day, ‘Shall I interviewing. Second, in interviewing fill it up?’ don’t just be inquisitorial. Allow space TLC

120 TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Reviews

English for Diplomatic Purposes

Patricia Friedrich ed. Multilingual Matters (2016) Reviewed by Barry Tomalin

At first sight the title of the book seems a classes with adult learners. It is a thoughtful bit of a misnomer. It sounds like an English and practical commentary on the language teaching manual for diplomatic staff. In all of us probably use from time to time fact it is far more than that, it is more and how to humanise our use of language a series of academic research essays on and make it more compassionate. using language diplomatically and is useful for business people, teachers of general The book progresses from a discussion English and, yes, teachers of diplomats and of how to soften language used to avoid members of international organisations. creating opposition to the role and purpose In doing so it discusses important issues of World Englishes and English as a lingua in language use, such as ‘non-killing franca and ends with articles on the linguistics’, ‘peace linguistics’, negotiations teaching on language for international and how to combine ‘force and grace’ in diplomats and organisations. Although the making your intentions clear, ‘the iron fist focus is on diplomats and international in the velvet glove’ as one author, Bilyana organisations the principles and practice Scott, memorably describes it. activities in the book are also adaptable for English for business communication and As well as offering her own contributions, general English CEFR B2-C1 level and even editor Patricia Friedrich, has brought for native speakers. together the research and experience of a group of academics from around the world, In the opening essay, ‘Towards a non-killing including Professor Emeritus Gomes de linguistics’ Friedrich and Gomes de Matos Matos, a leader in the international peace demonstrate how much language uses movement. The eight essays in the book violent words and expressions to present contain discussions of applied linguistics ideas and opinions. A ‘killer fact’ is really theory but also practical activities that can just a conclusive or convincing fact. In their be used in language and communication article the authors cite many examples in

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Vol.1 (3), 2017 121 Reviews

daily use, such as ‘making a killing on in her article on using ‘compassionate the stockmarket’, ‘I’m dying for a cup of English.’ In doing so LeBlanc also coffee’, or ‘I’d kill for a cup of tea’, ‘the analyses the process of NVC (Non-Violent politician was stabbed in the back by his Communication) developed by the party’ or ‘a blonde bombshell’ (sexist as psychologist Marshall Rosenberg and well as violent). Also, they point out, we shows how it can be used in class. regularly refer to the ‘battle between the sexes’ or ‘the war of words’. The middle of the book focuses much more on the use of English as a lingua The argument is that at school and in franca worldwide, focusing initially on business and politics we do better to the use of English as the official language teach students to wean themselves of ASEAN (Association of South East away from such language and to choose Asian Nations) and the growing use of more positive words and expressions, English as an international language in a movement they term, ‘non-killing business and politics in the region. This linguistics’ or ‘peace linguistics’. In making then extends to a discussion of English their case cogently and clearly they argue as a world language and reinforces the for two core principles. First, ‘language concept of ‘Englishes’ as opposed to ‘ is a system for communicating in non- one English language’ using Braj Kachru’s killing ways’ and second ‘ Language analysis of world Englishes and his users should have the right to learn to observation that many more people use communicate non-killingly for the good English as a second or foreign language of humankind’. A feature of each article is than as a native language. This leads that, as well as explaining the principles, on to an extended discussion of the the authors also suggest activities that language of negotiation, especially in the teacher can use in class to put the ideas field of international diplomacy, where into practice. For example, Noriko Ishihara Danton Ford and Kim Luksetich explore shows how to disagree defiantly and by in detail the language involved at each contrast, agreeably and gives examples stage of negotiation from introductions, of what she describes as ‘mitigated objectives and agenda setting, to disagreement’ by showing respect for stating positions and asking questions the person you disagree with. This is an making proposals and concessions and argument developed by Josette LeBlanc reaching agreement. They also address

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the language of dealing with difficult asking him the same direct question a situations and managing different types of dozen times. Howard later explained conflict resolution. Once again a valuable that Paxman had to fill in time because part of this article is the suggested his next studio guest hadn’t turned up. activities to put different processes of Nevertheless, his repeated direct question negotiation into action and how to reflect gave Howard no ‘face time’ to formulate on results. The material is useful both and present his answer in an appropriate for diplomats and other professional way. Scott provides activities for illustrating environments and in spite of examples both ‘force’ and ‘grace’ strategies and using the English language, the principles how to combine the two and she are readily adaptable to other languages. concludes with a case study of Sir Jeremy Greenstock, the UK former ambassador The two final chapters in the book focus to the UN and how he employed both mainly on training diplomats. strategies in debate.

Bilyana Scott in ‘Force and Grace’ explains In conclusion, Professor Gomes de the language of making your point Matos describes 20 activities aimed at through logical thinking, clear definition encouraging what he describes as a of terms and reasoned argument. That is ‘positive pedagogy’ by teachers. force, ‘the iron fist’. She then explains the importance of grace, acknowledgement It is encouraging that it is clear from of the other party, showing respect for internal references that the contributors their position, authority and expertise to this book have taken the opportunity and what she describes as ‘face space’, to read and refer to the other authors, giving the other person choice and space not a common feature of edited volumes to answer by the type of questions you containing separately commissioned papers ask. This is ‘the velvet glove’. She gives around a theme. To end this review where examples using Nigel Farage of UKIP and it started, don’t think this is just a valuable former MEP (Member of the European guide for language teachers working in Parliament) in the EU parliament and the the field of diplomacy and international BBC interviewer Jeremy Paxman’s famous relations. It also has value in other interrogation of the then Home Office professional areas as well. Secretary of State, Michael Howard, TLC

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 123 RUDN University News

By Elena N. Malyuga, RUDN University and Joint Managing Editor TLC

RUDN University hosts meetings of International Advisory Board and International Research Council On September 19-21, 2017 RUDN University hosted regular meetings of the International Advisory Board (IAB) and the International Research Council (IRC) on focus areas to assess the deliverables and growth prospects in the framework of the University’s participation in the national 5-100 Project, launched to boost the prestige and competitive capacity of Russian higher educational institutions among the world’s leading research and training centres.

The meeting was held in the format of expert sessions, public lectures, discussions featuring international and Russian scholars, specialists representing leading international universities and research organisations operating within the areas of RUDN University’s development trajectory.

The IAB meeting provided a forum for experts to analyse the output of projects implemented as part of the University’s project roadmap in the first half of 2017, and present the new roadmap of RUDN University covering the period up to the year 2020.

The IRC meeting looked into two key agendas, which were (1) discussing the output of the University’s research centres (labs) covering the period of 2016 up to the first half of 2017, and (2) summarising the results of competitive tendering supporting research and R&D projects in 2018.

During their stay in Moscow, members of the International Advisory Board also interacted with RUDN University’s students, faculty and staff in the format of lectures delivered in English.

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Russian-Korean Dialogue The Republic of Korea (the city of Seoul) hosted the forum titled ‘Russian-Korean Dialogue’ on July 24-28, 2017. The forum was attended by the Rector of RUDN University Prof. Vladimir Phillipov speaking in the capacity of co-supervisor of the Youth Dialogue working group.

On July 27, Prof. Phillipov attended the third seminar on youth policy in the National Assembly of the Republic of Korea to make a report on ‘The adolescent period in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Korea – family welfare, demographic and housing issues’.

‘I think you will agree that with the establishment of the Russian-Korean dialogue on youth policy, young people residing in Russia and the Republic of Korea get an excellent opportunity to consolidate their energy, interests and facilities to build bridges between our countries. Today, the key issue on the agenda is associated with the development of strategies to ensure young people’s transition to adulthood, and these strategies need to be developed at the level of public administration in the framework of cooperation between Russia and the Republic of Korea,’ noted Prof. Phillipov.

During their visit to Seoul, the delegation of RUDN University signed an agreement with the University of Foreign Languages (HUFS) on cooperation in the field of research and education. The priority areas are modern languages, political science and business management. The initial seminar will allow experts to discuss modern languages and exchange research experience.

This year will see the launch of a pilot programme of academic exchange for BA students majoring in legal studies. The programme is intended for the students of Law institute studying Korean, as well as the students of RUDN University coming from the Republic of Korea.

Following the meeting with Chon Kusan, the Rector of Sungkyunkwan University and head of the Education and Science working group, the two parties defined the areas of cooperation in the framework of joint educational programmes. A cooperation agreement to be signed in September will provide for free training for students majoring in international law and management.

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Dean of the Faculty of Economics Prof. Yuri Moseykin held a PhD Viva session Dean of the Faculty of Economics Professor Yuri Moseykin held a PhD viva session by invitation of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain). The session took place on July 10, 2017 at the Faculty of Economics, Entrepreneurship and Tourism.

Irina Nesterova, a graduate of Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, has successfully defended her dissertation on ‘The presence of Soviet interest in the Canary Islands from the termination of the Franco era up to the period of the establishment of the Russian Federation: Possible impact on the Islands’ tourism economy’.

Prof. Moseykin also attended meetings with the administrative staff of the Faculty of Economics, Entrepreneurship and Tourism to discuss possible cooperation trajectories, students’ and teachers’ mobility, the development of joint programmes.

Conference: ‘World Economy in the Twenty-First Century: Globalisation and Regionalisation’ On May 18, 2017 the Faculty of Economics of RUDN University held the conference on ‘World Economy in the Twenty-First Century: Globalisation and Regionalisation’, organised by the department of Regional Economics and Geography.

The conference was attended by 72 registered participants and covered 26 reports with 14 reports delivered in the course of the meeting. The speakers represented RUDN University, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow Academy of Entrepreneurship under the Government of Moscow, Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration under the auspices of the President of Russian Federation, National Research University – Higher School of Economics. Further information is available at http://agora.guru.ru/rudn_globalXXI.

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Future without cash Dean of the Faculty of Economics Prof. Yuri Moseykin took part in a TV talk show on the NTV channel titled ‘We and the Science, the Science and Us’ to discuss the future without cash.

Eurasian Week International Forum The Republic of Kazakhstan (the city of Astana) held the International forum Eurasian Week on August 24-26, 2017 in the framework of EXPO 2017. The forum was attended by the head of RUDN University’s Customs department, D.Sc. in Economics Prof. Saurenko.

Eurasian Week is a yearly exhibition forum organised by the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union and the Eurasian Economic Commission. The forum was launched in 2015 following a resolution of the Prime Ministers of the EEU states.

The forum aims to become an effective platform for cooperative dialogue intended for business people and experts to discuss topical issues of economic development in the face of global challenges and to further jointly develop strategic solutions to these problems.

In the framework of this year’s Eurasian Week, the representatives of business and government agencies discussed applied issues associated with the development of competitive products and their introduction to the external market in the context of dynamic changes in technology, production and logistic processes, as well as changing product requirements.

The forum exhibited presentations of export-oriented companies representing five countries, provided an opportunity to establish business contacts and conduct B2B meetings between the Union states and the representatives TLC of third countries.

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 127 ICC News By Michael Carrier ICC board member

CoMoViWo update ICC Board member Rob Williams reports that the EU CoMoViWo Project ICC has been working on has now been successfully completed.

CoMoViWo was designed to define the skills needed in virtual and mobile work in a multicultural environment; to reflect shared communication literacy required from managers and employees; to integrate a comprehensive view of communication, cultures, new technology, as well as virtual and mobile work life; and to develop joint training modules for higher education students and business representatives. These will soon be available for public use.

ICC Conference 2017 Overall, the 24th annual ICC Conference was a great experience hosted for ICC delegates by the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe (ECML – http:// www.ecml.at/ ) in the heart of Graz.

The Conference focused on ways to achieve genuine intercultural communication using the Internet, how the Open University in the UK organises its programmes and supports learners and how e-learning can be made interactive and motivating through e-books.

In addition there were highly engaging presentations on automated speech recognition and the use of video games as a learning tool. There were wider perspectives from the worlds of testing and publishing and discussions on language as a soft power tool.

One session was dedicated to being virtually intercultural in the classroom. This was followed by a session on language, culture, and influence – how virtual language and culture training can support national profile.

Throughout, the underlying theme of what ‘New Media’ might mean for teachers and teacher education was what drove the two days.

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ICC EUROLTA members enlightened the delegates with various topics: Eurolta Blended – Teaching Languages in Americas; a session on ‘Becoming a Great Online Teacher’ and from ‘Dreams to Reality with Eurolta’.

Our speakers were: Ursula Stickler, Robert O’Dowd, Eva Groestenberger, Ian McMaster, Thomas Kelly, Barry Tomalin, Rob Williams, Michael Carrier, Claudia Schuhbeck and Salvador Galindo and Marjo Joshi.

Full details, along with slides and the gallery are available on ICC website: http://www.icc-languages.eu/conferences/24th-icc-annual-conference-2017-graz

ICC Conference 2018 Next year’s ICC Conference will be hosted by Ifigenia Georgiadou in Santorini, Greece, from May 4-6, 2018. Our theme will be ‘Migration, Communication and Culture’.

The Great Migration Debate – the role of Language and Culture One of greatest challenges that Europe faces is language and cultural engagement with the huge increase in economic and refugee migration, with heart-rending drama of migrants crossing the Mediterranean from North Africa and the Middle East to find security and a new life.

The numbers of migrants have caused problems at political, economic, housing and security levels and in some countries fuelled internal political unrest.

Our concern as Europe’s International Language Association is language learning and cultural integration. What are the most successful projects for migrant culture and language integration? What kind of society do we want to achieve? Is ‘Multiculturalism’ dead? If so, what can replace it to avoid sectarianism and internal strife?

Language and cultural policy and best practice are the questions we will address in our Annual Conference on ‘Migration, Communication and Culture’ on the beautiful island of Santorini from May 4-6, 2018.

We will be able to stay in local hotels at low costs, and take advantage of the beaches and tavernas of this beautiful Greek island.

Call for Papers Send us your proposals for papers and visit www.icc-languages.eu/ conference to sign up. Alternatively, contact Ozlem Yuges at: [email protected]

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 129 Eurolta News EUROLTA and cultural literacy By Myriam Fischer Callus, EUROLTA Co-ordinator

One of the content areas explored in language and a cultural programme for EUROLTA is ‘Language and Culture’. adults who want to learn Greek and get acquainted with the rich Greek culture. Learning a language is not only learning vocabulary or grammar but it is also Ifigenia Georgiadou, the Director of HCC, learning the behavior of the society and firmly believes that the teaching of a foreign its cultural customs. As such, teaching language is essentially an invitation to adult a language should always have explicit students to learn not only the language but reference to the culture of that society. also the culture of that country. Many argue that language is culture and culture is language. We cannot understand The Greek language programme is a culture without having direct access to its supplemented by a parallel programme of language and vice-versa. educational and cultural activities. EUROLTA trainers organize several cultural events: The overall aims of Language and Culture in traditional Greek dance lessons and Greek EUROLTA is to help trainees to become aware songs, visits to local farms, ceramics and of the issues involved in teaching a language cooking lessons, guided tours to vineyards and its culture in an adult education context. or to churches are some of the cultural Teachers learn how language and culture activities https://www.youtube.com/ relate. They become aware of the socio- watch?v=s9DsDIaqJgQ . cultural issues involved in language use and language learning. They develop sensitivity Culture is an essential part of our language. towards cultural differences and learn But how do we teach it? EUROLTA trainees how to foster communication strategies in learn how they can integrate culture- intercultural interactions. specific information in a general lesson on language. They learn WHAT and HOW The values and customs in the country we culture can be taught. grow up in shape the way in which we think to a certain extent. This has been These are some of the key issues explored the philosophy of the EUROLTA Centre in in EUROLTA teaching programme: Santorini, Greece. The Hellenic Culture What is culture? How can we define it? Centre (HCC) www.hcc.edu.gr organizes a What role does it play in our lives, in our combination of teaching Greek as a foreign society, in our country?

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What is the relationship between language Trainees experience a series of practical and culture? Can I teach one without hands-on classroom activities designed to the other? increase cultural sensitivity. What ‘culture’ do I teach? What are the dangers of stereotyping? In today’s world, navigating different What positive and negative consequences cultural contexts has become an essential of stereotypes have you seen in your work, life skill. EUROLTA helps teachers improve your life and your community? What can the intercultural capability of their students. you do to challenge stereotypes? How does body language influence ‘If culture was a house, then communication? language was the key to the front What does culture mean in an increasingly door, to all the rooms inside.’ globalized, connected world? Khaled Housseini

For non-ICC members the following Subscriptions terms and conditions apply: Library subscription to TLC – 4 issues per year, €100 TLC is published four times a year online and is included in your Individual subscription membership subscription. – 4 issues per year, €60

Individuals: €50 Individual issues – per issue, €20 Single institutes (refers to schools or training centres established and operating SPECIAL OFFER! You can get our from single premises): €250 first four issues free of charge as a non-member. Simply send an email to Groups of institutes (refers to schools or [email protected] to receive training centres established and operating your free copies of Issues 1 to 4. from multiple premises): €500 Print copies: Organisations not eligible under the above If you would prefer print copy please points may become associate members. contact Mark Rivlin at Create Services, They have no vote in the general who will advise on print and postage: assembly: €250 [email protected]

TRAINING LANGUAGE AND CULTURE 131 Training Language and Culture

The quarterly journal of

ICC (The International Language Association)

and The quarterly journal of RUDN University ICC - the international language(Peoples’ association Friendship and UniversityRUDN - Peoples’ of Russia) Friendship University of Russia