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Home , Clytemnestra, Clytemnestra (Collier), Hecuba, Hecuba (play), Oresteia, Orestes (play)

AMBER BARNETT

Amber Barnett graduated in May 2015 with a degree in ancient studies. She plans to continue her study in classics at the University of Vermont, where she became a graduate student at the beginning of the fall semester in 2015. She is pursuing a Masters in Teaching in Greek and , after which she hopes to become a teacher. This work was funded, in part, through an Undergraduate Research Award from the UMBC Office of Undergraduate Education. She extends her gratitude to the , the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the UMBC Office of Undergraduate Education, and Dr. David Rosenbloom for making this research possible. She must also thank her parents and sister for listening to and proofreading it more times than she can count. THE REPRESENTATION OF AND IN FIFTH-CENTURY ANCIENT ATHENIAN AND POTTERY

I started my research when I discovered that my department had an opportunity for me to complete an honors thesis. Intrigued, I discussed the idea with my then academic advisor, Dr. Marilyn Goldberg. She encouraged me to undertake this herculean task, and I did. I began working with (now retired) Dr. Jay Freyman and reading a large selection of Greek texts (my choice of focus). Due to the retirement of Dr. Freyman, I started writing my thesis under the guidance of Professor David Rosenbloom. We discussed potential topics, and, eventually settled on a general idea of female killers in Athenian tragedy. Professor Rosenbloom helped me begin more research on this topic and also narrow the focus to Clytemnestra and Hecuba. Professor Rosenbloom also encouraged, me to apply for an undergraduate research award grant. With his assistance, I received this grant, which enabled me to review visual records of pottery pieces depicting Clytemnestra and Hecuba. Overall, I entered research because of the opportunity and curiosity in and the idea of complex women.

[LEFT] 2014. Photograph by Marlayna Demond, '11. [RIGHT] Albin O. Kuhn Library and Library Terrace, 1995, University Archives, Special Collections, University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC). UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 26 and visual representation. Vases dating from the fifth century BCE century fifth the from dating Vases representation. visual and poetry, drama, in reflected are myths ancient direct The mythology. these two women. of are the most common interpretations These withincaused by violence (Reckford degradation 1991, 30). result of violently in murder (Foley 2001, 200). Hecuba is seen as the ultimate women —thetension wrappedinthe wife mother released and of violence (Foley 2001, 200). Clytemnestra is seen as the ultimate threat ’ Athenian tragedy, —Clytemnestra inAeschylus’ these women in misogyny. Scholarshave of the portrayal interpreted Athenian whom scholarshave through the of prism interpreted these violent women War, Clytemnestraand Hecuba are examplesof the Trojanfemale murderers. As two queens onopposite sides of through violent can beseen throughout Greek myth, in particular inherently necessary, yetalsoinherentlyfeared. (Just 1991, 197). Women violence injury” and were constant threatof women there lurks the 80). As Just notes, “in the passionate nature of 2004, tomenwith twoas it was onlygranted Athenianparents(Goff considered unstable. However, women were needed citizenship,for anxiety towards women in , as their passionate natures were was 2004, always50). There a hintof polis (Just 1991, 217; Goff the life and death tied women moreclosely to nature outside of their associationwith rituals surrounding and this belief men, and 2004, 48). Women were consideredemotionallyless stable than (Goff instances often centered a woman’son These roleinritualcontexts 2004, 48). circumstances (Goff could be seen in publiccertain fifth woman BCE, married were preferably secluded, but they century the of Athens a subtler, classical In patriarchy. to defined strongly still misogyny yet flagrant from vary ancient in were the ancientworld.in about whatattitudes Opinions towards women women Scholarshipon classics has intensely examined the lives of INTRODUCTION The belief that women arethreats to society is visible in Greek belief The Scholarsbelieve that this cultural anxiety towards women Hecuba —a xmlso this cultural anxiety and underlying ,— asexamplesof andHecuba in 27 | Amber Barnett

and and Euripides’ Oresteia were not made until the reign of the not made until were in Athens Peisistratus . Instead ofInstead . backgroundin the presented being a violent as However, these visual portrayalsvisual these of However, and Hecuba Clytemnestra world. In fact, the majority ofthe In fact, world. mythology Greek survivedthat to Literary evidence modernthe authors. ageRoman to traced be can perceptionGreek ancient for the ofpractically is myths own their is only possible to separateIt non-existent. and Hecuba Clytemnestra The majority of generally from orally was down passed myth Greek generation to generation. Permanentrecords ofwritten the the for and circulated existed poems two these Yet, BCE). 561-527 (ca. Greek the throughout known well were and they before, centuries fundamental moral and religious precepts. The potteryfundamental moral and religious precepts. the allows from myth, the and Euripides diverge read how to audience to the natural is connected woman Each and emphasizes this purpose. againstcrimes the and punishes basic laws. Greek world, RECORD VISUAL THE the domestic response to war and male transgression. Aeschylus writes and male transgression.response to war domestic the Aeschylus of of sacrifice murder the for as Clytemnestra’s ,a by-product as either depictsand he murder her resulting of she inhabits her role as a scapegoatviolent world the so that of the House of sympathetic Hecuba’s Euripides uses can continue. to punish feminine victimhood male wartimetransgressions of the blindingthe ofdeath of and the sons to take his two of for his murder revenge and the Hellene son, Polydorus, her own sacrifice of her daughterPolyxena, the virgin daughter sacrificed to Thesein the differences other end of at the War. Trojan the create elements as the unique intentions, the writers’ show characters and Euripides emphasize Aeschylus a commentary in war. on a world Agamemnon is revenge for those who cannot speak for themselves, Agamemnonfor themselves, speak who cannot for those revenge is such as Iphigenia, the sacrificed daughter whose death letTrojan the Agamemnon’s by slaughtered other children and the begin, War from the sympathy on Hecuba, hand, the other evokes ancestors. she avenges Clytemnestra, Like victim. but she is no passive audience, those who have no other avenger. Specifically, Hecuba orchestrates reflect the misogynisticreflect the interpretation of and Hecuba. Clytemnestra portrayals written the contrast with in Aeschylus’ Hecuba controlling, masculine, is Clytemnestra Aeschylus’ , female murder her of play, the In of figures. one main is the and justified, and can be found in museums throughout the world, and depictmany world, the throughout found can be in museums Theseimages to an can, extent, from Athenian scenes mythology. UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 28 since few women on Attic pottery havesince few womenAttic on pottery weapons beenfoundholding transgressive, and significant weaponis a holds she that axe.fact The tosaveshown trying herlover .the vase, On shewields an Clytemnestra is moreactive violent and and jarring. In Figure 2, she is to entreatstop. herson Intwopieces the BostonMFA, from femininity, away runs even assheseems an interesting in moment of Clytemnestra, kill. to prepared dagger, the with one the is he figure; theirside. is the active focus —centered in the middle of of figures main the are Clytemnestra and Orestes Orestes. son her by Clytemnestra killingof 480-460 around BCE shows the retaliatory .from the BritishMuseumdatedto stamnos from Figure 1,a In lover as hereturns Aegisthus murder herhusbandAgamemnon the myth as it appears inHomer, in which Clytemnestra helps her transgressive woman coincides with to men.This but still inferior Aeschylus andEuripides. the creationsof from Clytemnestrainspection, Hecuba, differs upon and greatly of view This construction. myths twisting and literary without tragedian vases the famous The portray Clytemnestra form. in theiroriginal Troy’s andthe killing of Agamemnon, royal family, the murder of Troy, Priamand of thedeathof eyes can glancethedestruction nonexistent is scarce today.still or remain these On vases, modern record which the literary the vases,On scenes variousfrom myths of Aeschylus andEuripidesthroughanalyzingthevisualrecord. the tragiccharactersfrom beseparated composed by mythology of 2. FIGURE 1. FIGURE In the vase painting, Clytemnestra is shown asaviolent, was acommontheme throughoutAthenianhistory.Mythology

63.1246 fromtheMuseumofFineArtsinBoston,killingAegisthus 63.1246 1873.0820.374 fromtheBritishMuseum,killingofClytemnestra 29 | Amber Barnett 63.1246 from the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston (opposite side), the 63.1246 in Boston (opposite side), the from the Museum of Fine Arts murder of Agamemnon British Museum, the death of 1843.1103.22 from the

With the absence of absence the With literaryany pure any provide to record Hecuba remains background imagesin the 3 through in Figures consistent whenever they are portrayed, they forming whenever consistent cultural a coherent ofview image,it assembled this From mythology. from their them and later playwrights fashioned by differences the to see is possible portrayed differently. were women these two why question why must be viewed on pottery. Clytemnestra emerges as a monstrous figure, figure, ofversion monstrous oforal stories the mythos, their a and Hecuba Clytemnestra as emerges Clytemnestra pottery. on viewed be must Hecuba also remains decoration as but behind the lead male actors. ruthless, irreligious the victorious, by are victimized and her city, she, The depictionvisual of Greeks. remarkably is women two these her son as Achilles impiously drags his body. Figure 6 shows shows 6 Figure drags his body. impiously as Achilles her son Hector ofvictim pitiful as the Hecuba ofcapture the at violence she as Troy from statue the and her daughter are being ripped away ofgetGreeks the but for this punished (again sacrilegious, portrayedonly is She later). of an object as imagesand the sympathy ofemphasize more the blasphemous nature the Greeks. in Figure 2, Clytemnestra, although violent and monstrous, is not the and monstrous, although violent 2, Clytemnestra, in Figure main perpetrator is the main perpetrator. — Orestes ofas a victim 5. She is only seen as her husband usually violence, Thiskilled. is sacrilegiously image is the consistent in 3, Figure seen her mourning mournsshe where shows Priam, which her husband FIGURE 4. of two are and ( Clytemnestra These notable exceptions). the portrayalsofviolent time about the “at since prominentlyout stand imagesof War, at home or engagedPeloponnesian the women in pottery”ritual come to dominate decorated However 9). 2002, (Lewis FIGURE 3. UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 30 reassert Athenian patriarchyreassert and misogyny. Clytemnestra does more than and Tyrrell. Aeschylus’ of depiction toresemble the“ storyline the intothe city,and incorporates causing Clytemnestra’s scene clears Orestes is only completed when the court transformation the pollution. However, to purge rightful heir Orestes in aneffort this tyrant and adulteress who is killed by the to a corrupt be transgressed, the unwritten laws that should not who haspoliced the boundaries of Atreus, she is reduced from arightful regent, the House of pollution of the unwritten laws. against Agamemnon of patriarchy. Athenian to reassert Clytemnestra punishes the wrongs strong womana than that sheismore in only toberepressed rising presence in the cannot refute.husband, something that the chorus Clytemnestra’s her speechthis assumptionignoresher also accusations and against Agamemnon’s murders in hisquest for glory. the result of Furthermore, bypasses all the anguish as and emotionalstress described by the chorus misogyny characterher andthe trilogy.of Assumingthatsheisborn Clytemnestra’s creation by the playwright ignores key elements of for motivation sole the as misogyny define society.to However,the the traditional customs of who is put in herplace in orderto reassert Clytemnestra is only adisobedient womanfact, many scholars agree misogyny. In She is set to up asastrongchallenge masculine rule. Athenian Aeschylus’It is easy to accept Clytemnestra as anexample of CLYTEMNESTRA 6. FIGURE 5. FIGURE

torn fromthestatueofAthena 1867.0508.1333 fromtheBritishMuseum,HecubaandCassandraare ofHector body 63.473 fromtheMuseumofFineArtsinBoston,Achilles draggingthe Agamemnon does evoke questions, but this paper argues pharmakos complex”described by Bennett i However, continuing the 31 | Amber Barnett . 51). . . 1137- Ch . 159-60, 159-60, . Ch Ch . 159). When. 159). n, thus losing n, thus ō Ch . 242-3). even claimed claimed Apollo even 242-3). . Eum . 716-719). Scodel notes that her murder ofher murder that notes Scodel . 716-719). Eum . 13-14). As such, Roger Just mentions her as an mentions example Just Roger As such, . 13-14). Ag In the trilogy, Clytemnestra has become the worst ofworst the has become Clytemnestra trilogy, In the tyrants. Clytemnestra does in part represent a transgressive woman who partin does Clytemnestra represent woman a transgressive a woman! I’d rather die firstchildless, so help me god!” ( ( that her mother “barteredsays 8). us away” asserts Orestes sold, is pleading for her life, Clytemnestra that “I was “If she asks price I got the to which disgraced,” for then where’s so, and centers on the anxiety of female suppression (Zeitlin 1978, 162). Thechorus of ( godlessher as “that to refers woman” slaves soon appear someone and “that and prays her, hates Her daughter ( justice” exacting killers, killing the father, you, avenge such with house share my I never “May prays, Orestes 169-71). 166-8, their mother), to paternal ones (either entering the world ofto paternaltheir mother), world the entering ones (either men in the a plays Clytemnestra benefit). father’s offmarriedthe being to or polis of“myth role in the in which stories 161), 1978, (Zeitlin matriarchy” women have power, but in the end show themselves unqualified for It rests and society. for control women men to necessity the hence it, is basically unruly”female the that “deep-seatedon the conviction her asserted independence, and she is finally condemned (Foley 2001, (Foley condemned finally is she and asserted independence, her choosing her husband and by slaying “by that argues Zeitlin 229). partner…[Clytemnestra] sexual her own normssocial the shatters and As such, 161). 1978, (Zeitlin to a standstill” brings social functioning and in Children Electra Orestes perpetualshe has left childhood. from maternal care of(being taken connections to move needed by Agamemnon mimics Iphigenia’s sacrifice, and “that the use of use the human “that and sacrifice, Iphigenia’s mimics Agamemnon victims perverts sacrifice into impiety,” thus Clytemnestra open to attempts she that argues Foley 119). 1996, (Scodel later downfall by to gainto women denied usually and was maintain control that claiming justification in her acts (Foley daim the to her act connecting by in this fails ultimately 2001, However, 227). she 1999, 70-1). Clytemnestra also murdered her husband — a crime a crime her husband — murdered also Clytemnestra 70-1). 1999, “Marriage Apollo condemns, ofa thing is which greater destiny,/ ( guards it than any oath, and Justice ofthat judged her crime worthy once from my death, “Not himself…did Zeus I/ said anything…that throune have far seeing not command” ( all, an adulteress and acts masculine instead ofinstead masculine and all, an acts adulteress as showing feminine, heart hope-stiffened urges that like woman’s “…a says watchman the ( a .” ofoffate noting the danger, female of House the at her hands Atreus speech, persuasive her shifting discusses McClure 197). 1991, (Just (McClure elements and masculine both feminine contains which is controlled in order to reassert traditional gender roles. She is, after She is, in is controlled order to reassert traditional gender roles. UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 32 The chorus continues, chorus The home inglory, homeasash. instark contrast tothe men that return brothers,with their fallen sonsand rebellious. areturning Hereturns Agamemnon’s isnotwell received; the people, whohaveits paid price demands fullpayment for the loss” ( say hurled out curse They that “the citizens are talking and…every dark, says that the people aretalking and that their minds turn chorus the gods. Yetare crimes against enriched, boastfuland the as hereturns that shouldnotbe trampled. Hisactions walking onpriceless goods victory,behind himand trailinghis prize comes home boastingof others. Healso Agamemnon’s was boughtwith of the blood glory sings, chorus men.The of ageneration but attheexpenseof Hereturns, having Agamemnon. and power won — glory crimes of Aeschylus’ plays of the culturalbalancein Clytemnestra. Eventually, Clytemnestra iskilled, thereby reasserting writers, likeEuripides, Sophoclesand take moresympathetic lines on amonstrouswoman,such asthe view of her husbandsinfully for power. this Some older texts do support anyone with impunity in the city. tyrant, who killed arrogant Sheisan can be killed by is fair, This because tyrants in Athenianideology whichthe slaves andhiscity” (Rosenbloompart…, are 1995, 91). the hubristicmonsters, liberatinghimself, hissister…, his Aegisthus.and Rosenbloomdemonstrates that “Orestes arrives tokill Choephori with that,” hinting at her deal and relationshipwith Aegisthus. The you?” ( h odmaino Clytemnestra onlycomes in the latter two condemnation of The their own time see to the ones who kill so many, and the black Erinyes black the and many, so kill who ones the to see time own their Fearful, Iwait tohear whatgoes now cloaked For insecrecy. the gods in Atreus. justice, thesonsof smolders against the champions of resentment their grief All through “All some mutter tothemselves, this,” “all this for someone else’s wife.” men. packed for, urns tight with ashes that had once been dust bitterly wept Troy, for the sends loved in ones return only a heavy dust the of from fires bodies, he who loadsthe scales in the spear clash, The war of god,broker Ch dpcsEetaadtecou scpie fClytemnestra as captives Electra and the chorus depicts of . 1044-5). His response“I’mashamedtotauntyou openly (Ag . 500-5 Oresteia ) . Oresteia . Inthe (Ag . . 509-13 Agamemnon Ag ) . Odyssey 1-1.Ti lr f of glory . 518-21). This , there focus is onthe . Interestingly, later oikos f, of

33 | Amber Barnett

. . In ) Antigone . 522-34 (Ag , Clytemnestra foreshadows the foreshadows , Clytemnestra . ) . 386-93 Agamemnon (Ag . 4.4.13). The unwritten laws continued to develop develop to continued The 4.4.13). . laws unwritten , Xenophon describes the difference between written written between difference the , Xenophon describes Mem land, then they, the vanquishers, might not be vanquished in their turn.in their vanquished not be might vanquishers, the they, land, then by greed what to ravage taken them, overwhelm no unholy passion Let should be left alone. Now if only reverence they and holy shrines the city, the keep that gods the oftemples holy and shrines the city, the keep that temples conquered the swarmingaroundin all close that shades no strengthhas him, to fight left them off. of The price glory excessive peril. is excessive deliver, piecemeal, down into darkness one who thrives unjustly, grinding grinding thrivesunjustly, down one who into darkness piecemeal, deliver, is turned lifeluck until his his away around, a among the shade and he, There are several ways in which Agamemnonin which has transgressed ways Thereseveral are Clytemnestra emergesClytemnestra Agamemnonto punisher as since , and their difference from the written law (Thomas 17). law 1996, written the from difference and their , Memorabilia shrines and innocent, and the conquerors’ boasts about it do not sit do not it about boasts conquerors’ and the and innocent, shrines In the the gods. with well gods’ anger at these actions, laws (Thomas 1996, 19). The laws dealt with such matters as the as matters (Thomas such with Thedealt 19). laws 1996, laws murder of kin, the guest-host relationship, , revenge ofburial ofthe members, family be to ought bodies how bodies, treated, and so on. including its Theannihilation complete oflaws. unwritten the Troy, his all should that are divine unwritten the where laws and unwritten (Xen. keep neither and developed, laws written the while even as an idea laws unwritten the Rather, or obsolete lost prominence. became authority as the written be regarded to continued as much with originated before laws were written down, and are not directly and are not down, written were laws originated before mentioned as “unwritten” until the fifth century BCE as written laws there were (Thomasthis time, During 16). 1996, developed were long debates over the definition of the unwrittennomoi laws, called also portrayedin especially at length, argument this wish fulfillment, is a disturbance of balance provoking retribution” if(Burkert brings even that retribution, Clytemnestra 77). 1982, she, herself makes logic, the same by liable to it. he has violated the unwritten of to moral refer customs laws unwritten laws. They Greeks. Ancient the As noted briefly before, the This ill-gained gloryand arrogance not be permittedwill to continue. won having live, to Agamemnonthat They know allowed be cannot Burkertas “conquest, noted that and gloryhis wealth a way. in such UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 34 punished. , the seer who initially divined the need to sacrifice mustbe to need the divined which initially who seer Calchas,the punished. laws, theunwritten against a crime is sacrifice The Iphigeneia, of sacrifice acknowledginglaws.this,the also chorus, condemns The unwritten the against crime a is Iphigenia sacrificing that knows He ( “counted less thannothingtothebattle” for captains frenziedfor She tries recounts to plea howfor herlife, her entreaties but the chorus Troy. of duringtheirdestruction the gods wronged The analtar. is slaughtered on topof who lies there pleading andbegging, makes byis raped his concubine. her Agamemnon and , Priam, would have known.dedicated a prophetessand Cassandra,celibate, was moretoTroy’sThere desecration that Aeschylus’ audience Agamemnon, against anger decimation to evoke also describes the horrible even chorus more The TroyAgamemnon, was completelydestroyed astheHeraldrecalls, However, did notfollow this prayer. the Greek army Ordered by Ag . 262-3). Agamemnon knows it is acrime even. 262-3). Agamemnon ashedoes it, saying There There is also Agamemnon’s his daughter Iphigenia. sacrifice of daughter toquicken awar waged forawoman… his of sacrifice the into himself steeled he so And disaster. sure courting in love with cruelty, evil, madness urging of made boldinthe throes are ruthlessness. Forhe was changed, his willannealednowtomere men blast, spirituptoareckless vile and unholy, then on from his swerving necessity fast upon him, yielding whenAnd the yoke-strap he secured of maidenblood spilledatthealtar of streams house, my staining these father’s hands with child, pride of I kill my to obey, I refuse tooif and heavy either way,My fate is heavy if heavy toescape. ever her last chance inside her, still swelling stoppedher from with her unborn it, infullview, the hardbypalace, the open ahare by spear-hand, ripped the ships, black and awhite behind birdsto the kings of The king of allthatland. seed isdyingoutfrom Zeus.avenging The altars, the and too, leveled, all the and holy shrines are Troy, her broken soil up withthe just spadeof …he has harrowed (Ag . 133-8 ) . (Ag . 596-600 (Ag . 236-41 (Ag ) . . 248-59 ) . ) .

35 | Amber Barnett

. . ii . ) ) . 1074). agalma . 631-38 . Ag . 1057-61 (Ag (Eum . 169-73). There. 169-73). is . 1054-7).. admits He Ag Ag . 176-7). He also predictsalso He 176-7). . Ag . 738-63), singing that, Ag ( contains a thinly veiled condemnation of veiled contains a thinly him. Agamemnon Eumenides . 1087). Wohl describes this carpetthis describes as a sort of Wohl . 1087). Ag hauling/ his plunder offhauling/ his to lowersails his in time, be compelled,/ — he’ll stormthe He grips him/ and yardarmhis when snaps and shatters./ wrestleshe as him/ him not hear will a grip on to get who to those calls him there, see to laughter/ with god howls and the the water,/ whirling Vengeance will track you down./ The inevitable waits. waits. inevitable down./ The you will track Vengeance But the wild man, I tell you, shamelessly defiant/ in the face of justice, I tell you, then, revere…/ then, you, tell I altar ofthe in a wild it over kick don’t Justice./ forgetfulness,/ fixingyour hungrygaze/ on some briefgain beyond it./ Don’t draw draw down envy upon my path by strewing it with robes./Don’t Only the these/ as such fineries on walks who man A way./ this in honors one gods a god. Revere a man,/ not like fearfully. walks me like Agamemnon’s is not entirely forgottenis not entirely guilt throughout the Agamemnon’s All these wrongs accumulate and the breaking point is the point is breaking and the accumulate wrongs All these The Erinyesgo on, referring that the to the shipwreck in the described back trilogy, as the trilogy, and warn ofThe of Erinyes recall his sacking punishment, Troy, his excess of riches, calling it “such woven opulence that silver of silver that opulence his excess woven “such it calling riches, ( bought” of structure societal disrupts the and power his flaunts destruction Its of is face dead, in fortune the his flouts He 88). 1998, (Wohl world his gods. the of disrespects wealth and house, such the sacrifice to willing arrogance and irreverence. This scene embodies Agamemnon’s On walking over these expensive fabrics, Agamemnon flaunts as he walks into the house, never letting his feet touch the ground. the touch his feet letting never house, into the as he walks This oftypical act is an his former Priam. Agamemnon warns rival with wide mouth or grovel, a woman, me/like coddle shouldn’t “You ifas loud hurrahs,/ barbarian” some ( I were ( fineries” on trampled have would “he won had ifPriam that ofHe also notes the immorality the act, saying, vengeance vengeance for the sacrilegious sacrifice, “for wrath waits, ofkeeper rise again, wakeful an ever ready unforgetting,house, secret, the to ( child” for the vengeance its to be denied never acts are wrong. to deny that these no argument fabrics woven Agamemnoncarpet expensive tramples here scene. Iphigenia, and in harmonygoes house, royal “the that on to predict sorrow…” ( sorrow, sing these with UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 36 fthis deadman’s Atreus,a in mate,pitiless theoldand avengerof of also whowere killed with defender,no “masquerading in the image to the spirit —tying her tothe Erinyes also, avenging those children inthe belly…” ( deep for blood thisrace! Hefeeds the lust refers toit, “the triple-glutted Spirit of …” ( the twoon heirsof lamentsit, “Furious Spirit, you swoop chorus The down the onhouse, the daim Tantalus, whotried to feed his sonPelops isa to the gods. There Atreus was thehouseof child-killingthe house. in of originator The wife sought and to take the throne. isnotthe only instance of This with his brother’sthem to himafterThyestes committed adultery hisbrother fed and ) murdered thechildren of their father ate” ( and roasted, uncle their flesh the for slaughter, their for wailing are floor drenched in blood” ( kinmurdering kin,aslaughterhouse for men,akilling stories of heart describes the house as, “a house that hates the gods, one that knows by pollution from his ancestors. Cassandra crimes, it is also alreadyfull of Agamemnon’s hisdeath. thuswarrant andirreverence arrogance hisdeathmost: his wife, Clytemnestra. the one whoshouldmourn from is shattered, he isburiedwithout and mourning good-fortune then enters his home, and is killed in the bath by Clytemnestra. His victory. scene follows, carpet The He which embodies his arrogance. ( theirships” Achaeancorpses,/ of the wreckage everywhere and leaving, as the Herald recalls,by bloomedwith a storm, “the Aegean from Troy, treasure off hauled his ill-begotten his ships were destroyed he As gods. the from punishment Agamemnon’sfirst recounts This Ag 5-) oee,Aaennrtrshm n osso his . 751-2). However,boasts of homeand returns Agamemnon daim ō n , or While the House of Atreus is tarnished from Agamemnon’s from Atreusistarnished theHouseof While and now flails, by battered waves sorrows,/ rising insurmountably around cockyand body man/who’d touch him/ thing bragthat no bad could ever not easily driven out. not easilydriven there, dwelling is Eryinyes of band rioting home-brewed a recklessness, on discord,can’t this house. Yes, leave soused on humanblood toutter The choirthatsings as one, yetbrings only and sings its tunesdiscordantly unseen. unwept, Justice,/he and sinks, of up onthe reef breaks wealth him./ His lifelong ō n totheErinyes, alast ō r , connected to the house.even Cassandra connects Ag (Eum . 1247-9). Atreus (father of Agamemnon and Agamemnon . 1247-9). Atreus (father of (Ag Ag . 642-59 . 1357-62 . 1240-3). Here she knows that “children Ag . 1692-4). She even claims connection ) . Ag ) . . lines1680-2). Clytemnestra

37 | Amber Barnett . ) . 1794-8 (Ag , Clytemnestra is, like the like is, Clytemnestra , . ) Agamemnon . 1724-9). The of. 1724-9). murders the and children . 1615-23 Ag (Ag . 1630-1). Clytemnestra then accuses Agamemnonaccuses then Clytemnestra . 1630-1). of in the house, and she latches onto that connection. It connection. onto that latches and she house, in the Ag daimon Chargeanswers can weighcharge, right fromsift them, and who wrong? on his Zeus while it abides, But slain. slayer the ravaged, is ravager The does will suffer. That is law. that he who throne abides, compunction, as if it were a beast he slaughtered, plucked from a wide wide a from plucked slaughtered, ifhe as beast compunction, a were it throat child — the own child’s his slit he swarmingsheep, fattened with I carried, to charm in pain bore,— and winds of loved for what, all the from banished one you the he land in punishment the ? Why wasn’t for that foul act? Not one of with no easily, man, this when said anything against you Clytemnestra emerges as an avenger ofemerges Clytemnestra as an avenger not have who those is a connection to the universal powers of powers universal to the is a connection in the and revenge justice The chorus never is possesses. she a connection is it and now world, attempt as each claims, challenge Clytemnestra’s able to successfully They only go her, to insult and disproved. is refuted on awful, call her they cry, Yet and to lament their king. The chorus but rather goes does not respond to that , on to too words/ your outrageous, daring’s crying “Your her names, call ( cocksure” house ofbringing into the a concubine Again,chorus the his wife. does They chargeconnection her with charge her laments. but not answer to the Clytemnestra’s dialogue with the chorus after Agamemnon’s murder. murder. chorusthe with dialogue Agamemnon’s after Clytemnestra’s them, challenges she as However, repulsed. obviously are they first, At they cannot satisfactorily rebuke her. She firstcharges Agamemnon murder, with Iphigenia’s daughter Iphigenia who was sacrificed without pity, and for the children the for and pity, without sacrificed was who Iphigenia daughter in the House ofslaughtered to punish an avenger She becomes Atreus. horrendous committed and laws unwritten the acts who broke those ofofclose the At violence. the a part ofErinyes, not be where certain may laws the natural order, Thisin is evident laws. challengethese acts Agamemnon’s broken. utter destruction of property unavenged. left wrongfully were against committed crimes for the justice seeks She them. received of households for the revenge Argos while war at sons their lost that ransacked for the revenge She also seeks glory. Agamemnon received her for rape victime, for Cassandra the ofcity and desecrated Troy, manic feast, cut him down as payment, a grown man butchered for growna man butchered as payment, down him cut feast, manic ( young” butchered the UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 38 to Cassandra, in the ideaappears This folklore,characteristically are, women” again, (Just 1991, 218). of Sirens,bodies — and Charybdis,the and Sphinx Medusaand Skylla the — the Moirai, Erinyes, Greek mythology , Graiai, of figures nightmare terrifying “the that states Just why is this Perhaps 2004, 50). the and “anassociation nonhuman” with the divine” (Goff the city. Womennature, outside the realm of “an alignmentwith had eventsThese were closely linkedmysterious tothemore side of death. and marriage, tobirth, restricted, especially those pertaining rituals from whichmore closely men wereassociated with certain virgins who are wild and untamed” (Just 1991, 231). Women became was seen as “ayoke1992, (Zaidman 241). placedon Marriage literature as “untamed tooftenin mares” to , referred the city and its democracy. virginwas connected The workings of religion thanthey natureand were tothe inner these outside laws of in were thought to bemoreclosely connected to and blindvengeance thatErinyesembody. hisfamily. She rouses them to the chaotic, violent, shed the bloodof the to killOrestes Erinyes on because he has Clytemnestra who urges — phrasing Orestes in the rhythmic and characteristicsoccur inthespellon Erinyes’ binding which again personification, isocola, assonance, metaphor, style, alliteration, repetition, formulaic its deceptive use of ancientGreek curses with scene showscarpet the characteristics of Night”). McClure alsooutlines how Clytemnestra’s speech duringthe Eumenides the Erinyes later inthe for “night.” calls to mind the words This of specifically, More Night.” “Mother means fromhermotherNight!] ( Dawn be born μ Clytemnestra says, “ the blood-crazed Erinys” ( foreshadow Clytemnestra. She swears heract “by Justice…by Ruin, by the earlier references to the Erinyes clearly linked to them. Many of inthe world, horror andClytemnestra is necessary avengenature, such area crimes against askilling blood-kin. They nature. crimesagainst connected totheErinyesaspunishersof though it will leaveAgamemnon; her opento her own murder, she is Clytemnestra avenges Iphigenia’s sacrifice and punishes the crimes of ητρòς ɛύφρόνης πάρα It is fitting that Clytemnestra called upon the Erinyes, as women violent vengeance — ancient source of Erinyes—an The , their reoccurring address to“ , theirreoccurring Eumenides ɛύάγγɛλoς A eado gladness, withtheproverb, may ” [Asheraldof (McClure 1999, 80-92). In the final play,final the In 80-92). 1999, (McClure is it Ag . 1637-8). In her first words in the play, the in words first her In 1637-8). . Agamemnon μ έν , ὥσπɛρ ή παρoι ή ὥσπɛρ Ag ὦ when the chorus refers when the chorus . 264). “M μ ɛύφρόνη ᾶτɛρNύξ ητρòς ɛύφρόνης μ is a euphemism ία, ἕως γένoιτo ἕως ία, .” (“O, Mother ”

39 | Amber Barnett

. 1876, 1897), . 1876, Ag complex” described complex” described iii pharmakos patternscapegoatan innocent [where] pharmakos . ) . 1063-7 learncutting bridle/before the spirit offfoams her she to take in blood… (Ag She’s like a wild creature, fresh caught. She’s mad,/her evil mad,/her genius creature, a wild like fresh She’s caught. She’s murmuringfromcomes in her ears./She a city fresh must caught./She Clytemnestra’s transformation into a murdered- from an avenger Clytemnestra’s However, Clytemnestra’s actions as such left her open left to actions as such Clytemnestra’s However, is selected, the sins and ofthe guilt is selected, on put his head, and community the abusively unfortunatethe human driven in Ionian custom, creature, A marginal member 238). 1990, and Tyrrell (Bennett city” from the ofa complete turnedand chosen is society into a savior, the and-forgotten woman resembles the “ the resembles and-forgottenwoman Thiscommunity when the concept develops and Tyrrell. Bennett by has been defiledby some act offensive to the gods — Bennett and Tyrrell write that “the Greek ritual concerns purification of miasma They239). 1990, describe and Tyrrell (Bennet incurredmurder…” by as “the process the They follow the smell of blood on his hands, as he is still defiled even even defiled still is he ofas smell the hands, follow his Theyon blood of absolved only is He necessary. was deed his though when guilt this him and Athena incorporatestrial clears the Erinyes into Athens the out are blotted curses Clytemnestra’s end, In the Eumenides. as the and she is left forgotten. for his social and political roles” (Zeitlin 1978, 170). Electra needs Electra 170). 1978, (Zeitlin roles” for his social and political her father to marryremains a virgin. a father she her off; without ofout house their bring The must siblings Thisconfusion. this can So 171). 1978, (Zeitlin death mother’s through their achieved only be This is killed. Clytemnestra brings about her own necessity, by then Orestes. her — hunt after with associated — Erinyes and the curses, cannot rule;acceptedcannot be upon and cowardice femininity his ofthrone the The of Argos. House and Orestes near dead, is Atreus ofa state in are left and Electra as son and heir, Orestes, suspension. into transition from boyhood the him make help to a father needs from boy the “detaching as process the describes Zeitlin citizenship. his natal household and his maternal associations and retraining him revenge herself. The pollution ofherself. revenge ofHouse the continued. Atreus earlier) the and (as mentioned hounded Orestes, curses Agamemnon’s ofHouse chorus the whom Aegisthus, in confusion. left was Atreus ( to the life” coward and “A woman!” as “You insults him. He beside Clytemnestra throne with the onto his way forces As a woman closer to the domestic world and influenced moreofcrimes the by against inherently the embodies Clytemnestra nature, govern. the Erinyes vengeance chaotic UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 40 fthe of pollution and welcoming in prosperity constitute the double signifieds and blessing toAthens. Bennett andTyrrell that “driving out observe the community,which hurt but now the Eumenides bring fruitfulness tyrant and is expelled from the city. She continued the pollution, As Athens. result, avenger,a Clytemnestra, mother and once a help intoa changes to benefit of force a into kill to intended harm of Clytemnestra tries to curse Orestes,While fromaforce it morphs in Athens. Athenadescribes the blessings they will bestow on the land, blessings are broughtintoAthens. Erinyesbecome the Eumenides The removedElectra are Orestes and and childhoodof the perpetual and ( Zeus” of and fulfiller,/ the Hera, to “spit on, treatasless than nothing,/the solemn vows of one’s husband,whichdescribes Apollo as unjust, and toallow it is murdering reversal to which Bennett and Tyrrell refer. miasma of The its forceisthe thecurse and the Eumenides. reversal This reversal of the Erinyes intothe city as to incorporate the trial, Athenamanages Clytemnestra’sbreast, butsheisdenied. When curse is dispelled at Clytemnestra to Orestes tries toappeal as hismotherbyher baring status adulteress,as an Clytemnesta and loses her placeasmother. explicitly. Without these details, Orestes reinforces Clytemnstra’s the sacred virgin, are notbroughtup Cassandra, Troy andof of There is no mention that Agamemnon sacrificed her.The desecration slaughtered” but unnamed( passing, as“cruelly toin referred only is Iphigenia claims. her validate not does thus and justification, you sat at home” ( wrongs aswell, “Don’t Orestes replies him,hesuffered, you darejudge vindicated avenger. Clytemnestra asks her sontolist his father’s When while Paphlagon isexpelled. Demos’ household from hislowness intothe savior of is transformed Aristophanes’ roles. Inthe example that Bennett and Tyrrell givereversal from of Clytemnestra’s roleisreversed whenOrestes becomes the (Eum among them, make most. you most/the may purest them prosper favor people. Their seed, too,/ fail my on/ andnever you’ll and bless protect, and earth’s bountiful as time goes more and the thick/ yield swell, herds grow air/ across the land breathe out in sunlit breezes;/ blessings that make the the sky the sea, andfrom that make the the water/ of from and earth, withoutdishonor,/blessings that come from Blessings that victory bring pharmakos . 1050-8 Knights ” (BennettandTyrrell 1990,249). Ch , the Sausage Seller — a corrupt and base man — Seller — acorrupt , the Sausage 08.H ae omnino Clytemnestra’s . 1048). He makes no mention of ) . Eum . 237-9), Clytemnestra’s adultery, Ch . 275).

41 | Amber Barnett

. What. pharmakos pharmakos . 1051). Many compare the . 1051). Hec complex” described by Bennett and Tyrrell, and Tyrrell, Bennett by described complex” pharmakos . Agamemnon’s crimes andcurrent the crimes House pollution in the . Agamemnon’s It is difficult for modern audiences not to cringe at Polymestor’s Polymestor’s at cringe to not audiences modern for difficult is It While Clytemnestra’s end and the Erinyes’ fates in end and do plot the fates the Erinyes’ While Clytemnestra’s punishment. His cries offstage are unsettling, blind “a him as describes Hecuba emergesrepulsive. is tents from the but the figure that blind steps”madly with man reeling (Eur. murder of is blinding murder sons is abhorrent. young Polymestor’s his two for modern to acceptofacts as the stomachs too much a bit a sane original audience. trueperson. This not necessarily was play’s for the In fact, contrary to modern revulsion, as Segal briefly suggests and Foley points out, Hecuba was justified in her revenge, and her final transformation more than her degradation. symbolizes the death ofthe death that breaks her sanity and is the straw her son Polydorus into brutalityHer descent monster. a vengeful becomes she reason the prophecythat Hecuba will turn a into in Polymestor’s culminates fiery-eyed dog, drown, and leave behind a rock monument. Scholars agreeand guilty is Theypitiful. is Hecuba that agree Polymestor that of orchestration deservesHecuba’s that also but punishment, the a slave; once a mother, she loses all but one, who is then killed as well. as well. killed who is then one, all but loses she a mother, once a slave; modern as the sheer brutalitysee what they cringereaders over Yet, ofher who killed With the last son. against revenge her Polymestor, ofmurder oftwo last the like many modern her children, scholars, and Segal, are ofReckford, Thalmann, Abrahamson, Keyser, the so many sorrows, by down snaps; pressed opinion Hecuba just that HECUBA and horror pity from much as elicit plays in Euripides’ characters Few modernformerthe as Hecuba, audiences course In the of queen Troy. now is she but a queen, was she Once ofeverything. loses she play, the offorthto come Clytemnestra the for cause Atreus as an avenger the her open to leave crimes her own However, victims. helpless through Orestes’ only relieved pollution is and the cycle vicious same ofacquittal undergone“ the She might have her murder. of more to the character is much but there complex,” Aeschylus’ been readily accepted.Clytemnestra than has it is unclear ifunclear is it can certainlyClytemnestra a called be ofvictim more than a is Clytemnestra that is remains clear Athenian character female a strong transgressive is Clytemnestra misogyny. however, reassertsdownfall whose patriarchy; traditional Athenian the in Aeschylus’ development her character to is more than that there Oresteia resemble the “ the resemble UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 42 sent the money to support the Greek forces.sent the money tosupport Findingherpointvalid, he would nothave killed the Trojanprince duringthe war and/or the Greeks, Polymestor was indeed a friend of with any Hellene. If Trojanswere did he share the winning nor wealth taken from the act this in the trial scene, Polymestor never touched Polydorus while the However,benefit. Greeks,their the for disproves Hecuba of friend a religion: theand sacrosanctity of money.for Polymestor violated in Greek theculture mostsacredtaboo Polydorus, whowas hisguest-friend ( reckoning” terrible ( actions, “but who hasdone/shameful a manthings must pay a Hecuba’s Polymestor and lends credence to the justice and sanity of …” ( to hard certainly are you on/ inflicted been have that evils the man, in Hecuba, “Wretched the chorus wordsTheir seem to echo that of dolorosa even anoblenature, asthe pitiable conditionsdeform brutalizing society and claimsthatthe play “a corrupt portrays 1991, 30). Segal will eventuallyand leadto“herinwarddehumanization” (Reckford and loneliness...” for revenge…arises naturally enough from hergrief violence” (Keyser 2011, 114). Reckford alsowrites that “her passion similarlymonstrous of circumstances and agent cruel both victim of 1952, 121). (Abrahamson Likewise, Keyser writes that Hecuba “is beyondendurance thesufferer becomes as bestialthetormentors” torture states 153). that Hecuba“underthe pressure of Abrahamson 1993, revenge morally indistinguishable from the victim” (Thalmann injured, no matter how defensible the cause, becomes in the act of revenge and revengethat the drama, avenger, nomatter how deeply remarks that“the play revealsThalmann with clearlythe problem brutality. of an image debase, savage creature; Hecuba forms a asympathetic womanand moreof to view Hecuba asless of Polymestor, begins of these acts the pitiful and image monstrosity of for the dogs” ( banquet bloody and cruel a as mountain/ the on out flung limb,and children alsoevoke pity as Polymestor limbfrom describes them, “torn with their myself flesh and bones…?” ( women toglut here./ shouldIrush Where the stealthy movement of 9). He acts like one aswell, which shows in hiswords, “Quiet! I sense the mountain” ( and feet/ crawling like a four-footed beast of onmy hands myself beast, asarambling “I support describes himself themonstrouscyclops Polyphemus.man’s Polymestor fate to thatof e,teei eodhl tothatsentence that denies pity for Yet, second half there isa becomes a monster of vengeful hatred” (Segal 1993, 158). vengeful hatred” (Segal becomes amonsterof Hec . 1083-4). Hec Hec . 1077-8). The audience, influenced by the by influenced audience, The 1077-8). . . 184-5). Polymestor murdered Hecuba’s son xenoi . Heclaimstohave donethisas ξένoς Hec . 1070-1). His two innocent or ‘xenos,’ or ‘xenoi’), plural Hec . 1058- mater

43 | Amber Barnett . Oresteia . ) . 1196-1224 . ) (Hec . 1176-7). Hecuba’s response Hecuba’s . 1176-7). Hec . 1139-45 (Hec . 1250-2). Hec But when wewere the that signaled when But smoke and the light in the no longer your had come to who guest-friend the killed you in enemy city hands, was hearth…If haveto ought weretaken you you Achaeans, the to a friend and given are gold you the own but his, keeping, not your is say you which it out of cannot bear to let you it to them…But No, even hands now. your house. it in your still persist in keeping you your land? Whomyour will persuade of think you do you gold the that? It was How was this. me tell greed.mykilled that and your gold son…the For prospered Troy it that when embraced our city, and still our towering wall it that was triumphant, how spear alive and Hector’s Priam was when the to alive him you with and bring him or keep boy, the kill did not you Argives ifis — that had reallyman a favour?... to do this you wanted You claim that you killed my killed to save son claim that you fromAchaeans the a second You monstrous But…you ordeal and to help wretch…what Agamemnon. interestof planning you to further? wereWere keen so you Agamemnon’s a marriageto make Greek?some alliance with Or are a relative you of they really going to sail herehis?...Were and cut down cropsthe again of Thrace, and we, the Trojans’ would the and we, sufferThrace, neighbours, misery the we which endured ago. a short while I was afraid afraid ifthat I was werewould he boy the rally enemy, alive left as your Troy and colonize it again, and the Achaeans would realize that one of the living still against expedition and launch a new was sons Priam’s ’ ofplains they wouldthese Then land. plunder and waste lay Polymestor was guilty of guilty was Polymestor a terribleand his punishment crime, . 1244-6). Agamemnon . 1244-6). “Since repeats before, chorus’the words Hec disagreeable ( treatment” a man’s Yes, to Euripides’ audience. unsettling not necessarily was was destroyed, which justifies Clytemnestra’smurder inthe Agamemnon agrees for my “I do not think that it was Hecuba, with ofor that indeed/ sake a man who was killed you that Achaeans the gold the to keep house” wanted in your you No, guest-friend. your/ ( up/ with put must you deeds, hardiness to do ignoble the have you/ He also says “I have suffered all this to further this all suffered because — interest your have “I says also He Agamemnon” ( enemy, your I/ killed is eloquent and damning, 286). Polymestor’s excuse for Polydorus’ murder is, murder for Polydorus’ excuse 286). Polymestor’s Agamemnon rules in Hecuba’s favor. The trial shows Polymestor not The Polymestor trial shows favor. Agamemnon rules Hecuba’s in 2001, (Foley guilty completely is he therefore and a trueally, Greek UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 44 utf hmn arfc. oebom oe ta “f the war-dead “If demanded compensation such as Achilles’, chaos would ensue” that notes Rosenbloom sacrifice. human not conclusively justify does but Achilles, to reward necessary is sacrifice their relationship” (Rosenbloom 2010, 4-5). argues that the proposing to sacrifice , Odysseus Hecuba harms and violates who saved his life in Troy. reciprocity are transitive; by “Relations of 1994, 189). He also violates the patriotic conventions employed by Odysseus” (Synodinou and of democratic processes murder….[it] of hints atthe degeneration brutal Polyxena’s(Synodinou 1994, 194). When death is recognized as “a Odysseus” of to “question the moral-political integrity the chorus 194). He 1994, controls (Synodinou the people people-flatterer” with flattery smooth-talking, and smooth-talk, prater, and a it causes (132), “a soldiers to sacrifice callsPolyxena. Odysseus The chorus assembly of Odysseus, led into impiety by the demagogue army who persuades the the unwritten laws. Besides Polymestor, there is the Greek violation of 2001, 296). it(Foley politics and war, underthe force of are corroded and of 2001, 287-8). These the population becomes associated with its defense (Foley of this part on traditionsdesigned to protect the weak,” soit makes sense that vulnerabletochanceto abuse, and are particularly most dependent and as Antigone’s burial “Women passionateconcern. laws regulating of especially the in in Sophocles’plays, isapparent tradition.This as defenders of hispunishment. of the brutality was a great villain whose brutal the violation unwritten of laws justifies vengeance on apersonalanduniversalsupported scale, Polymestor vastfor bloody portions. AccordingtotheancientGreekculture that the Greeks were quite Also, epics, myths, the great of and audience Euripides’ dayin his comeuppance. wantedto get thevillain cheered no matter how bloody, it is quite possible that the Athenian characters inourown mediawhose deaths are the most hated of the aforementioned unwritten laws. violationwent against This honor, decency,guest-friendship” and (Reckfordties of 1991, 37). Reckford describes him as “a manwhohasbroken the most sacred as noted before, Polymestor crimesagainst done great had man intopathetic beast were unsettling (Keyser 2011, 128). However, a of the human body and the transformation True, the mutilation of πoκιλόφρων Society itself inthe Society itself Women take more religious roles inthe polis, andareportrayed (131), shifty-minded, Antigone nomoi hc eit h ees fthe unwritten , which the defense of depicts Hecuba became threatened in Euripides’ world has become corrupt due to systematic hasbecome corrupt χάρις κόπις [gratitude] he owes [gratitude] to Hecuba, , ήδυλόγος , δημοχαριστής iv xenia Like .

45 | Amber Barnett . ) and is nomoi . 798-804 749-50); Hecuba 749-50); (Hec Hecuba child. child. a , not just children betweenwrong Ifandright. corruptyou referredis it when this and you, to sacredhold gods the and dare guests their kill are what to violate who those our human lifenot punished, nothing in is safe. Well then, we then, are slaves weand perhaps Well are weak. and goods the But of principle the law that rulesarethem strong. ofbecause is It law this wethat believe and wegods in the our livescan base distinction on a clear Many scholars argue over how to reconcile her transformation reconcile to how argue over Many scholars The natural world seems to support Hecuba’s actions. Something actions. to support seems The Hecuba’s natural world The world ofThe world fundamental its has lost Hecuba and tormented woman, having suffered the worst from enemy and from enemy worst the suffered and tormented having woman, Suffering has turned a pitiable human has as they. become friend alike, being into a animal” Segalferocious (Abrahamson 128). 1952, also transformationher becoming a monster; shows claims that Hecuba’s then seemly reconstructseemly then The againonce it are winds violence. through to occur so that needs revenge until order is balanced. Hecuba’s stayed this impasse will end. predicted by ifPolymester her deeds were justified and she does not representan internal corruption. poor “the that Abrahamson says says she is revenging she is revenging says after only and on, sail cannot fleet the so winds the back holding still is (Segal blow winds do the 221). 1993, on Polymestor revenge Hecuba’s This allows time to deconstruct, through horrific violence, a of moral murder and Polydorus the of and sacrifice the Polyxena with order small help and in secret since Polymestor was a Thracian,was not a Greek, Polymestor since small help and in secret Thisand Agamemnon that he is a true believe does not ally to Hellas. — one for Polydorus, from Polymestor are taken children two why is where in line 749, explicitly this notes Hecuba and one for Polyxena. revenge referring “I could not take (when to Agammemnon) she says, ( help.” man’s this without/ children for my trampled the sacred temples in Troy. The and their leaders Achaeans in Troy. sacred temples trampled the promote a corrupted order. world corrupt against act Hecuba cannot — as a slave, core. Odysseus to the against to act an army a king with entire does she have what power with at least againstcan act she Polymestor, behind him? However, Polymestor is obviously a cur, but the second jab “dare to violate what jab “dare to violate second the but a cur, is obviously Polymestor who victors the godsthe army, Greek the for is intended hold sacred” pillaged and defiled altars,as well as that of Odysseus threatens the this, Hecuba expresses order. entire moral (Rosenbloom 2010, 5). Odysseus’ argument does not convince the convince not does argument Odysseus’ 5). 2010, (Rosenbloom of guilt The innocence. returns from his it army or as the justification UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 46 critique of apolisimmersedinwar and conquest. critique of characterstheir mythicalbecame anddeeper embodying portrayal boundaries, Clytemnestra and Hecuba move beyond the surface of the unwritten laws. against male transgression By policing these a domestic response toviolent to represent Hecuba were constructed the Trojan and Clytemnestra War, of sides either on standing figures many scholarsClytemnestra Hecuba than and have thought. As Aeschylus and Euripidesinstilled more inthe characters of CONCLUSION of culmination final dehumanization. a than more represents her end in her and justified revenge, was She monstrous. so not was Hecuba outcome, transformation final horrific a as predicted audiences modern to seems Her what Despite this. cements Erinyes. avenging the to her connect fully actions her and crimes.justified, stands Hecuba terrible them. Polymestor meets his harshfate as due recompense for his the feminine connections to the natural world, avenges andinturn in jeopardy. Asawoman,she isclosertied to these laws because of theworld are the unwritten and laws of is corrupted, her around world. worldThe increasingly corrupted an in degradation inner the world of the in position worldpermanent and withdrawalfrom thecorrupting yet necessary. vengeance who arebrutal It marks her those spirits of herwith connects fully Polymestor, after against transformation, vengeance justified final her Hecuba’s kin. killing of miasma the by those corrupted of blood constantly follow144-5). the They smell of (Aes. bloodtrail” the out can’t/sniffing that stop a “like (Keyser ErinyesinAeschylus’tragedy” 1997, 136). The notes also that “the avenging Erinyes [were] conceived as caninein He justified. as proven already vengeance a — vengeance their and He shows thatHecuba’s isassociated with the dead transformation that hedoesnotemphasizeenough. point thereisa brutalization, their vengeance” (Keyser 1997,136). the dead, and often and werecorpses connected “with the spirits of by the Greeks as eaters of He argues that dogs were thought of a dog specifically. becoming 161).Keyser Hecuba’s of 158, 1993, significance the discusses (Segal change physical her in reflected is contrast toPolyxena,in this nobility and inner Hecubaloses her uiie’Hcb osntrpeettecliaino theculminationof Euripides’ Hecubadoesnotrepresent KeyserWhile discusses as showingthis point Hecuba’s nomoi . Oresteia Eum are .

47 | Amber Barnett — how they — how bce complex” described by Bennett Bennett by complex” described , Clytemnestra stands triumphant in , Clytemnestra pharmakos Agamemnon creates a Clytemnestra that is more than a monster. In is more than a monster. that a Clytemnestra creates — but she can act againstcan act she — but damnable completely the χάρις Hecuba is cited as an example ofan example as cited is Hecuba degradation victim the — Clytemnestra has often been seen as a figure of horror, a violent violent a of horror, figure a as seen been often has Clytemnestra Oresteia broken broken againstHer acts deserved.but him are violent, Her Polymestor. of less as a fate dog is representative expected degradation her inward ofinstead but forever hounds that Erinyes — the the to a connection paintings, as she mourns and pleads for her loved ones. However, However, ones. mournsas she for her loved and pleads paintings, of is more than a product Euripides’ character corruptioninward an becomes Clytemnestra, torture like Hecuba, by caused and tumult. wrongs and who cannot speak a punisher for the for those avenger wrongs ofcannot punish the she As a slave, against natural laws. the of— their desecration and Odysseus Achaeans and Odysseus’ Troy and Tyrrell, but the matter requires further treatment. Still, Aeschylus’ furthermatter requires but the Aeschylus’ Still, treatment. and Tyrrell, goesClytemnestra portrait the beyond ofand in monster on vases a canon. the scholarly pitiful an admittedly breaking point. She becomes pushed to the Thisappears on vase Hecuba damned as such. and is pitiful monster Erinyes — those chaotic primordialof forces chaotic Erinyes — those state it is the Yet justice. her destruction.to leads which line Atreus’ Orestes leaves she in which and and adulthood, childhood between in a state are stuck and Electra In the end, the gods choose for his father. revenge seek must Orestes fall. house forgottenbe Clytemnestra rather to let a man’s let to than “ the resemble Her end may world; world; the sacrifice of Iphigenia, the defilement altars,of Troy’s the ofcountless gods the ofare all acts towards impiety and his soldiers, transgression. whose children nameless for the acts also Clytemnestra halls ofthe blood taints of Her murder house. Atreus’ Agamemnon as seen and can be againstfor crimes in response is natural laws, the justified. Her position as such is underlined with a connection to the the House of House the It is this interpretationin visual portrayals seen Atreus. ofher ax againstwields she whereas Clytemnestra, is a which men, common symbol of Aeschylus However, time. at that her character in the the trilogy’s first play Agamemnonthe end. had transgressed moral the boundaries of their prism of — nightmare ultimate the becomes she misogyny, Athenian central to those destroys whose violence wife, wild, yet the necessary, century fifth in women towards anxiety The polis. the endangered innatetheir that but essential, legitimacy the were ofand lives her with to a climax men around — comes the them near destructionand the of murder, her husband’s adultery, crimes, woman meant to be suppressed. Seeing her through the constructed the through her Seeing be suppressed. to meant woman UMBC REVIEW VOL. 17 | 48 iv. iii. ii. i. ENDNOTES breaking them. the natural laws,the andconsequences of of agents represent They avengers,are that shouldnotbetransgressed. boundaries policing pottery.contemporary on their portrayals than They became greater something less than human.Inthese plays, Clytemnestra and Hecuba male dominance. Hecubaisnotaweak female victim reduced to misogyny. Clytemnestra is not just a villainbroughtdown to assert in Euripides’ the playwrights, Clytemnestra in Aeschylus’ without consequence. Aeschylus Euripides showedand thatthese were notactionsthatwent the natural laws. WithClytemnestra and Hecuba, of transgression cancause — especially since conquest tended to lead aggression and response that male the damage that conquest; they represent of . critiques Clytemnestra andHecuba are artistic bythetime War he wrote the Peloponnesian the First of outbreaks first the of intoconquest and the beginnings men that Athens paidpressingitself conquest they seen Athens —Aeschylusit in and had saw thepriceof playwrights lived. Both Aeschylus and Euripidesknew the price of theErinyes. with theprimordialworld of menthan less with the worldof instead an avenger whoalignsherself not a pitiful victim broken down until she is less than human,but follow the

See noteiabove. For more, seeBremmer(1983). thantheyreallywere —typicallynoblemen,youngimportant virgins, etc. inmyth. andwere toitssurvival madeouttoseemmore thesocietynotnecessary members of the community “tosave itsown skin”(Bremmer, were 1983,300).They marginal istheGreek “scapegoat.” Itisapersonwhosacrificedorexiled by A pharmakos someone triestoputapriceonit.Itismeantbepriceless. such inherentvalue thatislostonce referstoanobjectorpossessionof An agalma human sacrifice, etc. unbreakable. dealtwithsuch bed, These thingsasguest-hostrelations, themarriage rightand wrongsthatseemedinnateand theancientGreeks;asetof code of religious, moral,andcultural “Unwritten laws” asIrefertothemembodythesetof sltrr osrcin sdt rtqetewrdo used to critique the world of constructions As literary the world inwhich the Both women a critique of represent miasma Oresteia Hecuba of human blood and crime.and blood human Euripides’Hecubais of andEuripides wrote eeg smr hnitrrttoso of as morethaninterpretations emerge Hecuba Oresteia during the great duringthe great andHecuba 49 | Amber Barnett

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