Annotated Bibliography Primary Sources
"1946 Washington Redskins." Pro-Football-Reference.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013.
This chart will back up my thesis because it is the record of the 1946 season of the Washington Redskins, 16 years before the team integrated its players, it will show how the team did before they integrated their players. Finishing third in NFL East Division with a record of 5-5-1 it proves that they did not do so well with their team segregated.
"1966 Washington Redskins." Pro-Football-Reference.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2013.
This chart will also back up my thesis because it is the record of the 1969 season of the Washington Redskins seven years after the team integrated its players. I am using this primary source because it proves that the team did better after they integrated. Finishing second in the NFL Capital Division with a record of 7-5-2 proves that African Americans were beneficial to the team.
Career Stats of Tony Dungy (http://www.profootballhof.com/enshrinement/2014-semifinalist-profile-tony-dungy.aspx)
This source will support my thesis since Tony Dungy was the first African American to win a superbowl, showing the effects of integrating the sport. He has been qualified for the semifinalists class of 2014 and was the head coach of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Indianapolis Colts. Under his coaching the Buccaneers became the NFC Central Division Champs in 1999, from 2003-2005, under his coaching, became the AFC South Division champs, and in 2006 the Colts became the AFC South Division, AFC, and the Super Bowl XLI champs. He used his experience and put his personal opinions aside for the benefit of the team.
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This source will support my thesis through showing that Bill Willis was commended on breaking the color barrier and was acknowledged for the improvement of the team. He was one of four players in 1946 to “break the barrier” and is credited for it since he is the only survivor of the four. He was able to do this one year before Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in the MLB and this was a time period of discrimination against African Americans.
George Preston Marshall . Digital image. Vintage Football Card Gallery. Nearmint's Vintage Football Cards, n.d. Web. 28 May 2014. <
This image was used to display who George Preston Marshall was on our timeline when he introduced the unofficial ban in the NFL.
Joe Lillard . Digital image. Professional Football Hall of Fame. Professional Football Hall of Fame, n.d. Web. 28 May 2014. <
This photograph was used to provide a visual to show who Joe Lillard was in our timeline. Joe Lillard was one of the last African American football players in the NFL.
Michael Richman. Digital image. Redskin Historian. Michael Richman, n.d. Web. 28 May 2014.
Michael Richman is a historian that specializes in the history of the Washington Redskins whom we interviewed to get more insight on our project topic. This image was used as a profile photograph to show who he is.
Nat Northington. 1965. Photograph. University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.
I chose this photograph because it is a photograph of it is a picture of Nat Northington and he was one of the players that broke the color barrier and helped his team to a great season. Nat Northington was like the Bill Willis or Jackie Robinson of college football. He was one of the few players in the college league that broke the color barrier. This will support my research in showing when and how African American athletes were integrated into football teams.
Passing of National Football League Games. 1949. Photograph. Audio Visual Collection, n.p.
This photo shows how the president and government were ok with the segregation at that time but, that all changed when JFK came into office. He threatened George Preston Marshall if he didn't integrate his team. President Eisenhower was ok with the unofficial ban made by George Preston Marshall and other team owners in 1934. But when JFK came into office, he did all he can to make sure that all teams in the NFL were integrated and all players were treated fairly. This supports my research in showing that George Preston Marshall was on the same terms as President Eisenhower and was not stopped in his discrimination against African American players.
Pro Football Hall of Fame. Al Blozis (7 of 30).0). n.d. Photograph. Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton. NFL. Web. 4 December 2013.
This source will support my thesis by showing the publicity around the game between the Washington Redskins and NY Giants which was one of the major factors contributing to the team’s integration. Every game that the Giants and Redskins played, the Giants would destroy the Redskins and they would enjoy playing the Redskins because they would beat them every time. The people liked to see the Giants play the Redskins because the Redskins would get humiliated, especially in New York.
Pro Football Hall of Fame. Bobby Mitchell . 1962. Photograph. Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton, Ohio.
This photograph is important because he is one of the players that broke the color barrier in college football. This player along with Nat Northington were two of the few who broke the color barrier. He did not have as much as an impact as Nat Northington, but he still did have an impact on college football and the color barrier.
Pro Football Hall of Fame. Kenny Washington-Los Angeles Rams-File Photos (8 of 13). 1948. Photograph. Pro Football Hall of Fame, Canton. NFL. Web. 2 December 2013.
This photograph depicts African American football player Kenny Washington of the Los Angeles Rams on field during the team’s 31-14 win over the Pittsburgh Steelers. Washington (number 13) is running with the football in order to make a down and he is being tackled by number 55, a white player, of the Steelers. This signifies the integration of the NFL in the year 1946 when Kenny washington broke the color barrier as he signed with the Los Angeles Rams. The photographer is not named specifically, however the photo was taken by the Pro Football Hall of Fame. This influences the context of the photograph since the photographer captured Washington in medias res almost being brought down by a player on the opposing team. The image shows him in action representing that African American players have made it into the league and are helping lead their teams to victory. This is biased since it only shows one specific african american athlete that had become famous at the time, but it does not depict how other players are stuck on the benches or any other players on the field. Also, the Pro Football Hall of Fame wanted to promote the fact that it had become integrated, so this photographer supports the integration as opposed to supporting the segregated teams. This photograph will support my thesis by showing that african american players improved the teams and increased their popularity among fans. The photo was taken because it pertained to the contemporary interests occurring at this time. Therefore, it shows the support for African American players integrating into the league. by further examining this information I can connect this photograph to my thesis.
Pro Football Hall of Fame. Fritz Pollard-Akron Pros-File Photos (6 of 13). 1916. Photograph. Pro Football Hall of Fame,Canton. NFL. Web. 3 December 2013.
This photograph is of Frederick Douglass “Fritz” Pollard, one of the first two african american players drafted into the NFL in 1920 to the Akron Pros. In the photo Pollard is posing as though he is going to throw the football as a quarterback in the starting position. This was captured while he was still enrolled in Brown University in the year 1916. It is now housed in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in honour of Fritz Pollard’s achievements throughout his career. After being deemed “co-coach” by the Pros, Pollard became the first African American head coach for professional football and coached for the Pros. The football that he is holding is exemplary of the time period that this photo was taken. Notice that the ball is abnormally round for a football since there were no regulations on the equipment of the game yet. The bias of this photo is in its intended use for the promotion of african american players into college football and also promoting the team’s new players. The photographer had Pollard pose in an active stance as opposed to sitting on a bench or going over plays with his coach. This photograph will support my thesis by showing that african american players were capable of playing alongside athletes of other ethnicities. Also, this shows as evidence that african americans were successfully playing on NFL teams before the league was segregated in 1933.
Ray Kemp. Digital image. Pittsburgh Sports Report . Pittsburgh Sports Report, n.d. Web. 28 May 2014.
This photograph was used to provide a visual to show who Ray Kemp was in our timeline. Ray Kemp was one of the last African American football players in the NFL.
Returning Hall of Famers Press Conference Transcript (http://www.profootballhof.com/story/2008/8/1/2784/)
This source will support my thesis by showing the views of some of the returning hall of famers including one of the head coach’s of the Redskins and African American players. It talks about their views on the team right now and how having colored players on the team has had a major impact.
Sam, Michael. "Michael Sam Extended Conversation." Interview by Chris Connelly. ESPN Outside the Lines. ESPN Internet Ventures, 10 Feb. 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2014.
In this interview, senior college football player Michael Sam is being questioned by Reporter Chris Connelly about coming out as an openly gay football player. He discusses how he will join any team that drafts him despite its owner’s beliefs on gay rights. He also explains that he wants to own his truth before the media comes out and takes it over. Michael Sam previously came out to his college teammates and they accepted him despite the fact that he was gay. This source will aid in our research by displaying that there is still discrimination in football today although the terms of the discrimination is not based on skin color. This source help us to show the discrimination today as a contemporary connection.
The meeting was held in the Hupmobile auto showroom of Canton Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay, which was located in the Odd Fellows Building - http://www.profootballhof.com/history/2005/1/1/nfl-founded-in-canton/#sthash.3PpBeIMo.dpu f. Digital image. Professional Football Hall of Fame. Professional Football Hall of Fame, n.d. Web. 28 May 2014.
This photograph was used to display the building in which the NFL was created.
Secondary Sources
Antonik, John. "Former Football Coach Gene Corum Was Responsible for Integrating WVU Football."WVUToday. West Virginia University, 5 Jan. 2010. Web. 12 Jan. 2014.
In this article John Antonik tells that Coach Gene Corum of West Virginia University was a major role in integrating the school’s football team. He started recruiting African American players and once he was sure that two of them were coming he told the school to start doing aa press release to notify the public. This shows how the coach took responsibility for the integration of his team and how he upheld this responsibility through recruitment.
Basen, Ryan. "Fifty Years Ago, Last Outpost of Segregation in N.F.L. Fell." The New York Times. The New Yorork Timimes Companany, 6 Octct. 22. 012. Webeb. 3 Oct. 2013.3.
Cate, Alan. "Chronicle of Bear Bryant, Joe Namath and Alabama Football Also Shines Light on Issues of Race in the 1960s." Cleveland.com. Northeast Ohio Media Group LLC, 13 Aug. 2013.Web. 13 Dec. 2013.
This source will enhance my research because it shows that people of the mid 1900s were not fond of African Americans in the southern states. It also shows how owners and colleges rejected African American players to play on the team even though they would prove to be beneficial to the team and other team members.
Coates, Ta-Nehisi. "A History of Segregation in the NFL." The Atlantic. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Oct. 2013.
In this article written by Ta-Nehisi Coates, I learned that white NFL players, especially in the south, would go to the extremes to physically disable the African Americans so they would not be able to play. The white players would do anything to keep from playing with the African Americans. I also found that the league owners banned blacks so secretively that no one confessed to doing it. NFL owners had to be there most desperate to pick up Blacks because that was their last possible choice because the “public did not have a good eye for those blacks”.
George Allen (continued).” Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pro Football Hall of Fame, n.d. Web. 13 Jan. 2014.
This source shows the style of coaching by George Allen of the Washington Redskins and how he treated all his players equally despite their ethnicity, showing the responsibility of being a coach by putting his job over if and personal issues unlike George Preston Marshall, who did not allow any African Americans on his team at anytime when he was in his position.
Folsom, Burt. "What Caused Pro Football to Integrate?" Burt Folsom RSS . N.p., 4 Nov. 2011. Web. 04 Oct. 2013.
This article mainly focuses on two major African American athletes by the name of Bill Willis and Marion Motley. Both players were part of the Cleveland Browns under Coach Paul Browns whose main focus was create a winning team not to discriminate against potential competitors. After the success of these two African American players became nationally known other teams realized how much better they could be if they included everyone on their teams, supporting my thesis.
Kahn, Lawrence M. "The Effects of Race on Professional Football Players' Compensation." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 45.2 (1992): 295-310. JSTOR.. Web. 1 Oct. 2013.
Team owners are willing to pay more to players who because of their race will attract a bigger audience and it will therefore bring in a greater revenue. I also found that the salary advantage of white veterans is 4% greater than that of the black veterans and the salary of white rookies is 0.1% greater than the black rookies. This source will support my research by showing the discrimination between players as evident in their salaries.
Levy, Alan H. Tackling Jim Crow: Racial Segregation in Professional Football . Jefferson, NC: McFarland &, 2003. Print.
In the book Tackling Jim Crow: Racial Segregation in Professional Football by Alan Howard Levy readers can learn about the NFL’s discrimination towards multiple minority groups. My main focus from this source was on chapter ten titled “The Walls Come Tumbling Down” describing the slow integration of black and white players on the field. Team owners refused to integrate their players until the NFL threatened to take away their stadium facilities if they did not comply with the new rules. Before then, even the finest players weren’t drafted into the league if they didn’t have the right “ethnic persuasion.”
"Los Angeles Rams (1946-1994)." Los Angeles Rams (1946-1994). N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Jan. 2014.
This website showed the responsibility of team owners to obey commissioners and do whats best for the team. The commissioner said that the Los Angeles Rams would have to integrates its players with at least one African American in order to lease the Coliseum, which they did. The new Los Angeles Rams signed halfback Kenny Washington, and Wide Receiver Woody Strode. The two became the first black players to play in the NFL since the NFL instituted a ban on black players in 1932.
Mastro, Victor, and John Hogrogian. "Bronx, Blacks, and the NFL." The Coffin Corner 15.1 (1993): 1--. Professional Football Researchers Association. Web. 3 Oct. 2013.
From the article “Bronx, Blacks, and the NFL” by Victor Mastro I chose to focus on section IV “The Integration of the NFL.” Although the overall integration of the NFL was appointed to the year 1946, the last team to integrate their players didn’t comply with the new orders until 1962. This team was the Washington Redskins who were the first team to declare that they would not allow African American players on their team. The team reluctantly integrated its players after pressure from fans, protesters, the government, and a 53-0 loss to the NY Giants in 1961. This source will be used to show how hard it was to integrate the Redskins even after all of the other teams were forced to integrate.
McKenna, Dave. "Fight for New Dixie Fifty Years Ago, a Washington-Baltimore Preseason Game Sparked Protests over the Redskins' Segregation Policy." Washington City Paper. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Jan. 2014.
This article shows that even though the Redskins were becoming very popular in the 1960s, they weren't do that well so, the owners and the coaches took the responsibility to do what is right for the team and they integrated their players for better publicity and better games. This source also talks about how when George Preston Marshall was the owner of the Redskins, it was the time of the civil rights movement so there were pressures to integrate the players. People such as Sam Lacy, Joe Jordan, James Farmer, and the president John F. Kennedy were all people that pressured the Redskins to integrate.
Newgent, Mark. "The Integration, Segregation, and Reintegration of Pro-Football." EExxaammiinneerr..ccoomm. NN..pp.., nn..dd. WWeebb. 005 OOcctt. 22001133..
This article describes the three stages of Black in Pro-Football, the integration, the segregation, and the reintegration of pro-football. Blacks were allowed to play in NFL with no issue but, as the NFL became more popular the number of African Americans that played decreased. During the Great Depression, mostly due to racial fears the owners of the NFL made an unofficial ban of African Americans playing in 1934. Also, when Joe Lillard was playing on the Chicago Cardinals he was reported to have an attitude problem, he often missed practices, and when he heard racial slurs he was quick to retaliate. The owners took this into consideration and used this as the example of an African American player would act, and since then no African American would play professional football until 1946.
"NFL History by Decade." NFL History by Decade. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Mar. 2014.
This timeline helps backs up my thesis because it summarizes the major events that happened in that particular year. IT shows events from the creation of the NFL, to the segregation, to the integration, all the way up to present day but, my partner and i will only be using the timeline up to 1970.
Patmas, Michael. "Who Broke the NFL Pro Football Color Barrier? Browns." Bleacher Report .NN ..pp..,11 8FF eebb.22 001133.WW eebb..004OO cctt.22 001133..
This slideshow presents key African American players who broke the color barrier of the NFL. The position of linebacker was molded around the playing styles of Bill Willis who played for the Cleveland Browns from 1946 to 1953. Another player who joined Willis in his five consecutive championships was Marion Motley. The other two players that were mentioned were Kenny Washington who was the first player to sign an official contract with the NFL and Woody Strode who lead a short NFL career and transitioned through to acting. This source will be used to show how the NFL integrated their teams and players.
Petchesky, Barry. "Was NFL Racial Pioneer Cut Because He Got Caught With A White Woman?" Deadspin. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2014.
This article talks about how a player on the Washington Redskins was kicked off the team because he was found with a white woman in his hotel room. He was the first black on the Redskins since they integrated but, he wasn’t on the team that long. He believed that he was kicked off the team because he was found with a white woman in a hotel room. Even though it was very common he was cut from the team showing that there was still a bit of racism on the integrated team. Povich 1, Shirley. "George Preston Marshall." Redskins a History of Washington's Team. Washington: Washington Post,n.d. 16-36. Print.
This section of the article focuses on the Redskins’ owner George Preston Marshall. The author states both views on Marshall, not just focusing on his prejudice side. Despite the fact that he is infamous for his failure to accept African American players onto his team,Marshall was very well known for his extravagant performances and advertisements. He hosted overgenerous halftime shows and created the first radio shows. However, Marshall was obsessed with creating the football team of the Confederates. Marshall’s strive for perfection affected his whole team. As soon as his head coaches messed up, they were gone for. This source will prove evident in our project as it shows that George Preston Marshall refused to integrate his team.
Povich 2, Shirley. "Slingin' Sammy Baugh: The Magic of Number 33." Redskins a History of Washington's Team. Washington: Washington Post, n.d. 37-41. Print.
Mr. Shirley Povich is a respected journalist who began writing for the Washington Post while still earning a degree in law at Georgetown University. This section of the book focuses on one specific player’s impact on the entire team. Sammy Baugh joined the Washington Redskins in 1937 and soon became the center of much NFL attention. He is most famously known for his forward pass which at this time was reserved for a desperate attempt to complete a down on third and not considered for any other plays. Baugh played professional football for sixteen years and he stunned the crowds with his innovative plays and precise passing skill. As graduate from Texas Christian University, Sammy Baugh was deemed the teams “cowboy” by George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins. Although this was just a public relations stunt in order to attract more press, the new ideal Baugh began to earn around $15,000 per year plus money and endorsements from Hollywood. Despite the amazing passing skills of this Redskins’ quarter back, Baugh was actually entered in TCU with a baseball scholarship where he played as a shortstop. The first time he actually got his hands on a professional football was a thirty yard opening punt return at Griffith Stadium against the NY Giants. This source will show how hard it was for African American players to actually get to play in the football games.
"Race in NFL History." Shmoop. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2013.
This article describes how the Washington Redskins owner, George Preston Marshall who was the most influential leader in the NFL executives, was very racist and cajoled the leagues other owners no make an unofficial ban and from 1933-1946 not African Americans were in the NFL roster. Even when the African Americans began to enter the league George Marshall’s Redskins remained pure white until 1962. This source will prove evident in our project as it shows that George Preston Marshall refused to integrate his team.
Rittenberg, Adam. "Spartans Blended Race In 1960s." ESPN. ESPN Internet Ventures, n.d. Web. 12 JaJan. 20201414.
This article is going to back up my thesis because it talks about how not only was there segregation in the Professional Football league but also in the MLB and in college football. It includes major players that broke the color barrier in college football. This article also shows how not only was there segregation in football but also in baseball and each of them had key players that broke the color barrier. It also says that in 1967 Bubba Smith was the number one overall pick in the 1967 NFL draft, a black player, was now the number one pick in the NFL draft.
Roberts, Randy, and Ed Krzemienski. "Mama Called." Rising Tide: Bear Bryant, Joe Namath, and Dixie's Last Quarter. New York: Twelve, 2013. 1924-931. Print.
This source shows Bear Bryant’s responsibility as a coach and how he treated all of his players equally despite their race. It also shows the other responsibilities the coach took on when choosing to coach the Crimson Tide team. Bear Bryant was hired to turn this losing college team around and he did so by accepting and removing players based on their playing ability and commitment to the game. This source also shows the point of view of some of the college students who had previously joined the team and the change they observed once the new coaching staff was enacted.
Ross, Charles Kenyatta. Outside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League. New York: New York UP, 1999. Print.
African American NFL player, Joe Lillard, felt that the sole reason for him being released from the NFL was the racism he received. NFL owners used Joe Lillards volatile or changing personality, as an excuse to ban all the other black athletes that would like to join the NFL. Two African American NFL players Ray Kemp and Joe Lillard were the last blacks to play during the 1933 NFL season. This source will be used to show the end of the original integration of the NFL and the beginning of it’s segregation.
Sailes, Gary Alan., ed. African Americans in Sport: Contemporary Themes. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1998. Print. This source analyzes the roles of African Americans in sports from past to present. The author explains that sports has become part of African American society and they often perform in the same positions on teams, knocking out white players from the fields with their abilities. A quotation that the author uses by Charles Farrell was, "Athletics is to the black community what technology is to the Japanese and what oil is to the Arabs. We're allowing the commodity to be exploited...We really need to turn it around...if those schools cannot do for us what we need done, i.e., provide an education for the next generation, then we should be looking to steer clear of those institutions." The author writes that the African American male is no longer ignored or denied by the media or franchises as he once was. This source can be used as contemporary connections and it helped us show the evolution of the treatment of African American players in sports.
Schexnayder, C.J. "The Integration of Football in the Southeastern Conference - Team Speed KKiillllss.." TTeeaam SSppeeeed KKiillllss. NN..pp.., nn..dd. WWeebb. 6 JJaann. 22001144..
This article is going to back up my thesis because this article talks about the impact of having African Americans on college football teams. Nat Northington played on the field for the Wildcats and it was the game that represented the first Southeast Conference game, even though he only played for about 3 minutes due to a dislocated shoulder. And 5 years later, every team in the Southeast Conference would have a black player on their roster. Nat Northington was the man that broke the color barrier for college football even though in his first game he only player for 3 minutes.
Smith, Thomas G. "Civil Rights on the Gridiron: The Kennedy Administration and the Desegregation of the Washington Redskins." Journal of Sport History 14.2 (1987): 189-208. Print.
This article analyzed the owner of the Redskins, George Preston Marshall, who was one of the founding fathers of the NFL. From his early years Preston showed prestige as a businessman, taking over the family business in 1919: Palace Laundry. He also owned a basketball team, but soon moved on to professional football. There were no laws declaring that an employer could not discriminate against prospective employees so when the Kennedy administration threatened to jail him if he did not cooperate he countered with a letter stating his attorneys were now in charge of the matter. This source will be used to show the roots of George Preston Marshall discrimination and how/why he decided to integrate his team. Smith, Thomas G. "Outside the Pale: The Exclusion of Blacks from the National Football League,1934-1946." Journal of Sport History 15.3 (1988): 255-281. Web. 20 Sept. 2013.
In the article “Outside the Pale: The Exclusion of Blacks from the National Football League, 1934-1946” Thomas G. Smith describes the struggles that African American athletes faced when trying to enter the National Football League. At first there were several active and major black athletes, but they were soon kicked of their teams; after the year 1933 there were nono more African Americans allowed in the NFL. Many team owners stated that they would not accept players from “minorities” and soon other football leagues began to form to compete against the NFL, leagues that accepted all players. This source helped us in the beginning of our research to establish a basis off of which we could expand our project.
Wolf, Alexander. "The Nfl's Jackie Robinson." NFL's Jackie Robinson. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2014.
This article is also going to back up my thesis because this article talks about the Chicago Cardinal’s player Joe Lillard and how he was one of the “Jackie Robinson’s of the NFL” and how he and other players broke the color barrier. Joe Lillard played for the Chicago Cardinals under coach Paul Schissler, and Schissler realized how well Lillard played but he had to let Lillard go in the interests of the club, the players, and the public. By doing so we can see that the public and some of the players did not smile upon having a black player on their team no matter how good they were. In other words, this source shows us an insight on the public’s view of the situation.