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JEFFREY S. SMITH

Three Generations of International Tourist in

As the world’s leading service sector, interna- tourists’ imagination. Five decades 2007). The ongoing success tional offers developing countries later has Mexico enjoys, however, masks become one of Mexico’s leading the challenges and difficulties the opportunities for lucrative business investment, sources of foreign currency along country’s tourism industry has a major source for foreign currency, and the with petroleum exports, assembly endured. A look back at the evolu- creation of jobs. Mexico’s leading position manufacturing, and remittances. tion of over the among Latin American and Caribbean interna- Since the mid-1990s over 20 mil- past 50 years reveals three distinct lion international tourists have generations of coastal tourist re- tional tourist destinations rests largely on its visited Mexico each year (ca. 90 % sorts targeted to foreign visitors. concerted efforts to capitalize on the aesthetic from U.S. and ). In 2006 appeal of its coastal locations. Over the last international tourism generated Evolution of international 50 years Mexico has witnessed three genera- US$ 12.1 billion in revenue and employed roughly one out of seaside tourism in Mexico tions of seaside resorts catering to internation- every ten workers in the country In 1927 the Mexican government al visitors. The lessons learned by the Mexican (Clancy 2001, WTO 2007). took its first step in tourism devel- government should be considered by other The transformation of Mexico’s opment when it built the “High- countries developing large-scale coastal tourism industry did not occur way of the Sun” linking Mexico by happenstance (Clancy 2001). City with the new seaside of tourism. Since 1974 most of the country’s (Nolan and Nolan 1988, tourism promotion and develop- Zaragoza and Rojas 2000). Their ment has rested in the hands of intention was to diffuse tourism s recent as the 1960s, Mexico did the federal government who away from the capital city and not rank among the world’s lead- ensures that their newest coastal redirect it toward the Pacific . ing international tourist destina- resorts are of the highest quality. Beyond this project, tourism in tions. Other than cultural heritage This has consistently ranked Mexi- Mexico prior to the 1940s can best A sites around and the co among the top ten international be described as an unplanned and in Acapulco and Ver- tourist destinations in the world largely ignored part of the national acruz, little else captured foreign over the past fifteen years (WTO economy (Gladstone 2005). In the 1930s, for example, most interna- tional tourists who visited Mexico originated in the U.S. and spent

the bulk of their time in one of lizensiert f¨urF Redaktion am 22.10.2012 the border towns. In these early years, the biggest factor impacting Mexican tourism was its proximity to the U.S. (Stronge and Redman 1982, Clancy 2001). Until 1970, over 60 % of Mexico’s foreign tourists arrived via ground trans- portation (Gladstone 2005). Following World War II, inter- national tourism in Mexico began a slow but protracted growth. With Europe heavily damaged, Mexico sought to become an alternative destination for the in- creasingly affluent U.S. and Cana- dian citizens (Nolan and Nolan 1988, Clancy 2001). Realizing that the greatest impediment to increased international tourism

Photos: J.S. Smith was the underdeveloped trans- Photo 1: zone in Ixtapa, Mexico portation infrastructure, Mexican

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Figure 1: Map of Mexico’s international tourist resorts Cartography: J.S. Smith

President Miguel Aleman Velasco foundation of places like Acapul- Greenpeace reported that Puerto (1946–1952) allocated federal co, , Mazatlán, and Vallarta emitted 49,248 cbm3 funds to build a network of roads Cozumel changed to better accom- (cubic meters) of wastewater into and airports (Zaragoza and Rojas modate foreign visitors. For exam- surrounding Banderas Bay daily 2000, Clancy 2001). When Holly- ple, with an infusion of money and fecal bacteria levels are

wood’s jet setting crowd began from domestic business investors, sixteen times higher than World lizensiert f¨urF Redaktion am 22.10.2012 arriving in the 1950s, Acapulco the calm, clear waters teaming Health Organization (WHO) became known as the first interna- with fish around Cozumel quickly standards (FNS 2007b). tional resort dependent upon air- led to Mexico’s largest island being Because of so many negative borne tourists (Turner and Ash reputed as one of the world’s top consequences associated with 1975). Furthermore, as diplomatic five scuba diving destinations. For spontaneous large-scale tourism, relations between the U.S. and the most part, there was no co- the reputation of nearly all first Cuba deteriorated in the early ordinated effort by local or federal generation resorts has been tar- 1960s, Mexico’s popularity among governments to anticipate or nished. Many of these interna- U.S. citizens increased. address issues accompanying in- tional destinations are reinventing ternational tourism development. themselves to stay competitive. As a result, by the 1970s many The island of Cozumel, for exam- Mexico’s First Generation of these first generation destina- ple, has become a leading port- resorts tions (especially Acapulco) were of-call for the cruise ship industry Blessed with spectacular scenery, suffering under the pressures of hosting 35 vessels each week a warm climate, and attractive largely unplanned and uncon- during the high season (November beaches, most of Mexico’s first trolled growth. Concerns include to January). Acapulco has re- generation international tourist intense overcrowding, inadequate sponded with dramatic renovation destinations were former fishing housing, poor infrastructure, projects. In both 2006 and 2007 (Figure 1). As local busi- severe air and water pollution, it outpaced all other Mexican ness interests realized tourism’s and extensive environmental coastal locations in tourism devel- income potential, the economic degradation. In 2007, for example, opment with most of the projects

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JEFFREY S. SMITH Three Generations of International Tourist Resorts in Mexico

featuring gated, all-inclusive Acapulco (Call 2001). Thus, begin- country’s total foreign currency that enable foreign visitors ning in the early 1970s interna- earned via tourism (Gladstone to avoid the problems that plague tional tourism in Mexico entered 2005). most of the city. Although each a new era. Unfortunately in the late 1990s of these destinations continues to Under FONATUR’s careful Cancún began experiencing some appeal to vacationers, their popu- scrutiny and using the latest in of the same unattractive qualities larity has waned. Foreign tourists, computer tourism research, that have plagued Acapulco and in particular, have turned to Cancún emerged as the first of many other first generation resorts. Mexico’s second generation of Mexico’s second generation Cancún’s unabated expansion tourist resorts. resorts (Dunphy 1972; Figure 1). became overwhelming and its in- With an initial loan of US$ 21.5 frastructure was sorely overtaxed. million from the Inter-American FONATUR responded by investing Mexico’s Second Generation Development Bank (Clancy 2001), considerable capital into cleaning resorts Cancún’s location possessed up the resort’s tarnished image In 1961 the Mexican government many of the desired qualities for with renovation and new con- established PRONAF (Programa a luxury resort. Moreover, the struction projects. Nactional Fronterizo – National Mexican government felt its place- In October 2005 however, Border Program) to improve the ment on the Yucatan Peninsula Hurricane “Wilma” stalled over seedy image of the country’s would allow it to compete with Cancún for nearly 48 hours caus- border towns (Arreola and Curtis tourism in the Caribbean. In the ing over US$ 2 billion in damages 1993). Federal funds and special mid 1970s international tourists to the resort’s infrastructure. financial incentives prompted began arriving and by 1986 FONATUR officials saw this as a public beautification projects Cancún was drawing more foreign blessing in disguise; the natural throughout the border region, but visitors annually than Acapulco disaster provided a rare opportuni- the bulk of the monies were in- (Nolan and Nolan 1988, Clancy ty to completely rebuild Cancún vested in the cities 2001). and enhance its long term interna- of , Ciudad Juarez, and As the Mexican government’s tional appeal. The Mexican gov- Nogales (Figure 1). For the first first state-planned mega-resort, ernment, for example, spent US$ time federal tourism planning every detail in Cancún was 20 million to double the width of proved to be a lucrative source painstakingly considered. Erd- the beaches as it brought back the of income for Mexico. mann Gormsen (1982) reports sand that had washed away. Re- Galvanized by PRONAF’s that in the beginning Cancún was markably, by the summer of 2006, success, in the mid-1960s Banco a planned city for both tourists the rebuilt resort was once again de Mexico () creat- and residents alike. FONATUR welcoming visitors. ed INFRATUR (Fondo de Promo- wanted workers to feel they were Cancún is only one of ción de Infraestructura Turística – an important part of Cancún’s FONATUR’s five master-planned National Fund for Promoting success so they would provide resorts intended to serve as inter- Tourism Infrastructure) and by a pleasing atmosphere for foreign national tourist “growth poles” 1968 the agency released the re- tourists (Dunphy 1972). Over throughout the country. The other

sults of its three year study which the next three decades, Cancún four mega-resorts are Ixtapa, lizensiert f¨urF Redaktion am 22.10.2012 called for a series of new resorts and neighboring Puerto Juarez Los Cabos, Huatulco Bay, and and aggressive international mar- grew from roughly 300 inhabitants Loreto (Figure 1). Although three keting (Clancy 2001, Brenner and in 1974 to approximately 300,000 of the remaining four resorts Aguilar 2002). Coincidently, the (Zaragoza and Rojas 2000). were conceived at roughly the simultaneous discovery of oil Today, local residents and interna- same time as Cancún, according provided the collateral needed to tional tourists no longer share the to David Gladstone (2005), the secure international loans that same space. Instead, Puerto Juarez Mexican government never in- would finance the construction has become the segregated bed- tended to develop them simulta- projects. On 29 December 1973, room community that houses neously. Having benefitted from INFRATUR was absorbed into a workers who fill Cancún’s service lessons learned in both Acapulco new government agency. Being needs (Torres and Momsen 2005). and Cancún, FONATUR has con- allocated substantial federal finan- Cancún has unquestionably tinually revised its plans for the cial support and unbridled author- become FONATUR’s signature remaining resorts with the inten- ity, the two-fold purpose of mega-resort. The world-class tion of maintaining their long- FONATUR (Fondo Nacional de tourist destination boasts 26,560 term appeal and economic vitality. Fomento al Turismo – National hotel rooms and receives approxi- The second resort to receive Fund for the Development of mately 6 million visitors each year FONATUR’s undivided attention Tourism) has been to develop and (The Economist 2005). By itself, it was Ixtapa. manage the country’s coastal re- accounts for nearly 20 % of all Located 160 kilometers (100 sorts and prevent the reoccurrence international tourists who visit miles) north of Acapulco, the of the mistakes made in places like Mexico and more than 30 % of the Mexican government’s initial in-

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tent in site selection for Ixtapa was to expand the Mexican Riviera tourist zone and diffuse the pres- sures of tourism throughout the state of (Brenner 1999). Construction of Ixtapa’s first high- rise hotel began in 1976, yet it was not until the mid-1980s that FONATUR began investing con- siderable money – some US$ 22 million in loans from the World Bank – into the local services and infrastructure (Nolan and Nolan 1988). Tourism officials take pride knowing that today Ixtapa has all of the requisite services and amenities expected of a world- class tourist destination (Photo 1). Despite not having the same international name recognition as Photo 2: Main in Playa del Carmen, Mexico Cancún or Los Cabos, Ixtapa averages nearly 300,000 visitors become Mexico’s most expensive Founded in 1697 by Father each year making it FONATUR’s international tourist destinations. Salvatierra as the first Catholic third most successful resort Many of the properties fall within mission community along the (FONATUR 2003, Brooke 2008). the super-luxury category with Pacific coast, Loreto served for Plus, starting in the winter of some rooms renting for as much as 132 years as the capital of Baja 2006 Ixtapa – began US$ 800 per night (Brooke 2008). California del Sur (Baird and hosting approximately 1,000 Despite the expense, Los Cabos Bairstow 2004; Figure 1). Due cruise ships each year. ranks second after Cancún as to severe aridity, extreme geo- Markedly different from Can- FONATUR’s most successful in- graphic isolation, and a catas- cún’s initial development, tourism ternational tourist resort. trophic hurricane in 1829, the seat officials employed the strictest regulations on development. With a minuscule population of 5,000 residents, Ixtapa has been closely managed to ensure a high quality experience for international visi- tors. The sister city of Zihuatanejo (population of 57,000 in 2000)

was always envisioned as the lizensiert f¨urF Redaktion am 22.10.2012 principal labor and commercial center for the area (Reynoso y Valle and de Regt 1979, INEGI 2000). Much like it has done in other second generation resorts, FONATUR has used the natural environment and man-made barriers to ensure that tourists and local residents remain segregated (see Textbox). Prior to its initial development in 1976, Los Cabos attracted mostly deep sea fishermen from the U.S. (Figure 1). Today, with foreign visitors outnumbering domestic travelers eight to one, Los Cabos is the most internation- alized of FONATUR’s five state- planned resorts (Gladstone 2005). Furthermore, Los Cabos and its sister city have Photo 3: Main street in Majahual, Mexico

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Textbox: A segregated space for tourists in Ixtapa

By the time FONATUR gave its undivid- ed attention to the development of Ixtapa, it had already learned that inte- grating tourists and local residents within a world-class resort was not opti- mal. Thus, one of the most attractive qualities of the greater Ixtapa – Zihu- atanejo area is its advantageous physi- cal setting (Figure 2). As FONATUR’s marketing brochure indicates: “Where many saw only an immense mountain range next to the sea, we saw a perfect scenario” (FONATUR 2003). Separating the luxury tourist resort of Ixtapa from the bedroom community of Zihuata- nejo is a substantial mountain ridge (Photo 4). Although only 5 kilometers separate the two communities, the physical challenge of surmounting the steep slope is more than enough to dis- courage casual, non-vehicular traffic. Figure 2: Map of Ixtapa, Mexico and vicinity The mountain serves as an effective barrier between the two communities. worker housing. In 1994, Colonia La Puerta was established at a straight- In addition to capitalizing on the local line distance of about 1.5 kilometers topography, FONATUR has taken other (0.9 miles) from Ixtapa’s main beach. more deliberate measures to ensure According to local officials, after ap- that Ixtapa remains an exclusive space proval for the new residential space was for tourists. In the late 1980s local busi- awarded by the state government, ness investors pressured the local gov- FONATUR stepped in and exercised its ernment to provide more affordable unbridled authority to ensure that local

Ixtapa Hotel Zone Cinder Block Wall Colonia La Puerta Photo 4: Mountain ridge separating Ixtapa

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residents of Colonia La Puerta would be served by their own commercial cen- ter (Cruz 2003). More importantly, FONATUR constructed a double wide cinder block wall to separate Ixtapa from Colonia La Puerta (Photo 5). Much like the mountain ridge that separates the laboring residents in Zihuatanejo from their jobs in Ixtapa, the wall is a formidable barrier between the working-class population in Colonia La Puerta and Ixtapa’s tourist space. FONATUR has employed the strictest regulations on development with the intent of ensuring a high quality tourist experience well into the future.

Photo 5: View of Ixtapa and Colonia La Puerta from mountain ridge

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of government was moved south Second, the newest resorts tend to Yucatan Peninsula south of Can- to La Paz. FONATUR should have cater to a more affluent or specifi- cún, all of the buildings are less portended the challenges it faced, cally targeted clientele. As middle- than five stories tall enabling but in 1976 the agency began class tourists and spring breakers them to blend in with the local developing the mega-resort. From have spoiled some of the mega- vegetation. This northern third of the outset, attracting business in- resorts, an increasing number of the Yucatan coast has seen the terests to invest in Loreto’s future vacationers are seeking out more greatest infusion of investment was problematic, and despite “genuine” or “alternative” experi- capital and construction activity creating a 2,065 km2 (= square ences. The current tourism litera- with the hopes that it will eventu- kilometre; app. 797 square miles) ture identifies this type of tourism ally rival Cancún as an interna- marine park in 1996, Loreto has as “niche” tourism (Meyer-Arendt tional tourist destination. become little more than a mega- 2002). The southern third of the Yu- disappointment. Today, the resort In the late 1980s, the govern- catan coast is referred to as Costa has five small hotels and features ments in Mexico, Guatemala, El Maya (Mayan Coast) – an area only 138 rooms (Gladstone 2005). Salvador, Belize, and Honduras extending from Punta Herrero to Ever since it’s opening, Loreto has envisioned creating a scenic byway the Belize border (Figure 1). Be- sat idle waiting to be discovered by for international tourists known as cause the highway has yet to reach the next foreigner on a mission. La Ruta Maya (The Mayan Route) this section of the peninsula, little After a ten year hiatus, and that would feature archaeology tourist infrastructure has been perhaps giving itself time to lick sites and nature preserves centered developed. In July of 2007 the area its wounds, in 1984 FONATUR around the ancient Mayan culture. around Majahual showed consid- began building its newest state- The shared vision was to become erable evidence of impending de- planned resort. Huatulco Bay was a perfect example of alternative velopment but it featured only one designed to spread out over nine tourism. Although little has come modern hotel, a dedicated tourist bays and numerous nearby islands, in the way of realizing La Ruta shopping area dominated by a project expected to take 34 years Maya, Mexico is creating its own kitschy stands, and some to complete (Figure 1). The Huat- scenic byway along the Caribbean small boutiques that lined the ulco Bay that hugs the Oaxacan coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. ’s sand covered main street coastline today is a scaled back Local developers and business (Photo 3). In the mid-2000s two version of FONATUR’s original investors in conjunction with the cruise lines (Carnival and Royal vision. There are 17 low-density, Mexican government are building Caribbean) helped fund the con- low-rise hotels that line two of the a four-lane highway between Can- struction of a deep sea dock that nine bays (Gladstone 2005). The cún and Chetumal. If all unfolds as would accommodate four cruise remaining seven bays and islands planned, lining the highway will be ships simultaneously. Unfortunate- have been set aside as a 29,500 upscale, all-inclusive hotels and ly, nearly everything, including hectare (73,000 acre) nature pre- exclusive clubs that will cater to their “private beach”, was de- serve intended to rival the world’s most affluent - stroyed when Hurricane “Dean” in (Zaragoza and Rojas ers. Thus far two areas along the (a category 5 storm) passed over 2000, Clancy 2001, Brenner and Yucatan coast have received de- Majahual in August of 2007. Until

Aguilar 2002). velopers’ attention. the dock is rebuilt, cruise ships lizensiert f¨urF Redaktion am 22.10.2012 With the exception of Loreto, In the north lies the Mayan will no longer stop in the area. FONATUR’s “growth pole” resorts Riviera (an area extending 130 The hope was that by 2012 Costa have become Mexico’s premier kilometers, 81 miles, from south Maya would alleviate some of destinations for international of Cancún to Tulum including Cancún’s population pressure tourists. Collectively, they receive Playa del Carmen; Figure 1). In and provide an alternative to the 40 % of all foreigners who visit the mid-1980s Playa del Carmen Mayan Riviera. Clearly, Costa Mexico and generate 54 % of the was little more than a nascent Maya has a long way to go before revenue entering the country due hotel zone with a small boat it will become a serious destina- to tourism (Brooke 2008). dock. Its raison d’etre was point tion for international tourists. In of departure for ferries that shut- 2007 federal legislation was intro- tled tourists between the main- duced to allow foreigners to own Mexico’s Third Generation land and the island of Cozumel. land within 50 kilometers of resorts Today, Playa del Carmen has Mexico’s coast (FNS 2007a). Such Mexico’s newest generation of grown into a dense complex of legislation would greatly facilitate international tourist resorts exhibit hotels, condominiums, restau- investment in places like Costa considerable diversity but share rants, strip malls, and upscale Maya. two things in common. First, they boutiques (Photo 2). In 2006 a Nestled between the Mayan are largely a reaction to the “Aca- previously undiscovered Mayan Riviera and Costa Maya is the pulcoization” and unattractive temple was unearthed and quickly Sian Ka’An Biosphere and Natural qualities that have scarred many of became a new Reserve (Figure 1). The area is the first two generations of resorts. in the area. Like the rest of the designated by the Mexican govern-

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ment for environmental protec- lime resorts that line the Gulf Cruz, G. 2003: Personal Interview, La Puerta tion, but local tour operators are of California coastline like a pearl Sales Office. 25 November Dunphy, R. 1972: Why the Computer Chose not only permitted, but encour- necklace. Cancún. New York Times, 5 March 1, pp. 1, aged, to make ecotourism forays 27–28 into the park. FNS, Frontera NorteSur on-line 2007a: The Not to be left out, FONATUR Conclusion Final Auction of Mexico’s Beaches? [email protected]; accessed 31 July 2007 has identified two new resorts As state-planned tourism increas- FNS, Frontera NorteSur on-line 2007b: Killing that will cater to ultra wealthy ingly becomes a leading model for Mexico’s Beaches. [email protected]; and elite international tourists economic development, the Mexi- accessed 4 Aug 2007 seeking solitude and sanctuary can government’s experience with FONATUR, Fondo Nacional de Fomento al Turismo 2003: Estadisticas de turismo – from the masses. Spearheaded three generations of resorts over Tourism Statistics: Ixtapa. Mexico, DF by outgoing President Vicente the past 50 years provides many Gladstone, D. 2005: From to Pack- Fox, the federal government gave lessons to share with the rest of age Tour: and Tourism in the Third a green light to Mexico’s newest the world. First, large-scale un- World. New York Gormsen, E. 1982: Tourism as a Development state-planned resort. Located planned tourism that neglects the Factor in Tropical Countries: A Case Study of 61 kilometers (38 miles) north environmental consequences of Cancún, Mexico. Applied Geography and of Puerto Vallarta, Litibú will be development can significantly limit Development 19 (1), pp. 46–63 one of the world’s most exclusive the life span of a resort. Second, INEGI, Instituto Nactional de Estadistica Geografia e Informatica 2000: XII Censo beach resorts (Figure 1). With state-planned mega-resorts domi- General de Población y Vivienda, 2000. an initial investment from the nated by high-rise hotels and www.inegi.gob.mx; accessed 11 July 2006 Mexican government of US$ 50 massive commercial development Meyer-Arendt, K. 2002: Commentary: Geo- million, the construction of a new have become less appealing to graphical Research on Tourism in Mexico. Tourism Geographies 4 (3), pp. 255–260 highway, marina, eight five-star international visitors than resorts Nolan, M. and S. Nolan 1988: The Evolution hotels, and a theme park have that blend in with the local envi- of Tourism in Twentieth-Century Mexico. already begun. By 2025, Litibú is ronment. Next, as ecotourism is Journal of the West 27 (4), pp. 14–26 expected to have six commercial supplanted by “alternative Reynoso y Valle, A. and J.P. de Regt 1979: Growing Pains: Planned Tourism Develop- areas, multiple shopping centers, tourism”, resorts need to identify ment in Ixtapa – Zihuatanejo. In: E. de Kadt and three golf courses – one de- what niche they can best fill and (ed.): Tourism – to Development: signed by Greg Norman. The low- market themselves accordingly. Perspectives on the Social and Cultural density, low-impact development Finally, thorough background re- Effects of Tourism in Developing Countries. New York, pp. 111–134 has much potential, but the costs search is needed to critically assess Stronge, W. and M. Redman 1982: U.S. of constructing the resort are con- the potential return and interna- Tourism in Mexico: An Empirical Analysis. siderable given its remote location tional popularity of a tourist desti- Annals of Tourism Research 9 (1), pp. 21–35 and distance from Puerta Vallar- nation. Not all coastal locations The Economist 2005: Battered by the Storm. 29 October, p. 38 ta’s (VIVA are a “field of dreams”. Just be- Torres, R. and J. Momsen 2005: Gringolandia: 2008). cause you build a resort with all The Construction of a New Tourist Space in The other FONATUR spon- the amenities does not mean inter- Mexico. Annals of the Association of Ameri- sored tourist destination is Esca- national tourists will come. ■ can Geographers 95 (2), pp. 314–335 Turner, L. and J. Ash 1975: The Golden Hordes: lera Nautica (Nautical Staircase; International Tourism and the Pleasure Figure 1). Modeled on the same Periphery. lizensiert f¨urF Redaktion am 22.10.2012 principle as the string of missions VIVA, Virtual Vallarta 2008: Litibú, The Presi- built by early Spanish settlers dent’s Choice Real Estate. www.virtual- vallarta.com; accessed 15 May 2008 along the Camino Real, Escalera References WTO, World Tourism Organization 2007: Nautica will be a series of luxury Arreola, D. and J. Curtis 1993: The Mexican United Nations World Tourism Organization hotels and small seaside resorts Border Cities: Landscape Anatomy and Place Barometer. Madrid ringing the Sea of Cortez in the Personality. Tucson Zaragoza, I. and M. Rojas 2000: Mexico. In: Baird, D. and L. Bairstow 2004: Frommer’s states of Norte, J. Jafari (ed.): Encyclopedia of Tourism. Mexico 2005: With the Best Beaches, Ruins, London, pp. 388–390 Sonora, and . Instead of and Resorts. Hoboken, NJ finding a resort one days walk or Brenner, L. 1999. Modelo de Evaluación de la cart ride away, the distance be- Sustentabilidad del Turismo en México con tween marinas will be one day’s Base en el Ejemplo de Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo. Investigaciones Geográficas 39, pp. 139–158 travel by boat (ca. 120 nautical Brenner, L. and A. Aguilar 2002: Luxury miles). The ultimate plan calls for Tourism and Regional Economic Develop- Author 22 marinas, golf courses, and the ment in Mexico. Professional Geographer 54 typical upscale tourist amenities. (4), pp. 500–520 Brooke, B. 2008: FONATUR: The Force Behind Jeffery S. Smith, PhD Once completed (possibly as soon Mexican Tourism. www.therealmexico.com/ Associate Professor as 2010) the government expects fonatur.htm; accessed 15 May 2008 Department of Geography, Kansas State no less than 52,000 U.S. boat Call, W. 2001: Lines in the Sand: A Tourism University, 118 Seaton Hall, Manhattan, owners to drive inland from Mexi- Debacle in Southern Mexico. Dollars & Sense KS 66506 / USA 6 (6), pp. 27–30 [email protected] cali to the marina at San Felipe Clancy, M. 2001: Exporting Paradise: Tourism (Brooke 2008) and enjoy the sub- and Development in Mexico. Amsterdam

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