Research Areas in Tropical Forestry

Compiled from the TFH author’s contributions

Contents:

1. Species research 2. Climate Change 3. Remote Sensing 4. Forest genetics 5. Silviculture 6. Logging 7. Forestry Management Planning 8. Vulnerability and Risk Management 9. Agroforestry 10. Roads 11. Harvesting 12. Economy 13. Forestry Extension 14. Indigenous Peoples 15. Ecosystem services and landscape restoration 16. Governance, economics, trade and markets 17. Policy processes and national and international organizations 18. Optimizing the transfer of scientific knowledge into international forest policy

Species Research

For research orientation in tropical forestry, the first step should be the establishment of an initial master list of the most relevant tree species per region. The identification of these species must follow selection criteria such as economic, biological, conser- vation, social, and economic values of the species. A first rough estimate of the number of this initial master list looks as follows:

– Africa ca. 1350 tree-species – South and South-East Asia ca. 1500 tree-species

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016 3593 L. Pancel, M. Köhl (eds.), Tropical Forestry Handbook, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3 3594 Research Areas in Tropical Forestry

– Oceania ca. 1000 tree-species – Latin America ca. 1400 tree species

Once the research on these species is completed, the research has to be extended to all forest-forming species. The research subjects proposed regarding this initial master list of species is recommended as follows:

– Site requirements regarding bedrock, soils/chemistry, precipitation amounts and regimes, temperature, wind circulation patterns, solar irradiance, altitude (m.a.s.l.) – Site requirements regarding anthropogenic influences on species composition – Plasticity regarding site requirements – Practice-oriented site assessment methodologies/tools – Growth and yield and respective modeling for each individual species as single trees and within the stand of its forest type – Biological production cycle: phenology, complete life cycle, fruiting habits – Silvicultural characteristics: appearance, light requirements, how it competes within the area of distribution, mixture behavior in plantations – Nursery: seed characteristics, treatment of seeds, nursery techniques – Rehabilitation value: competition, tolerance to adverse conditions – Urban plantation value: amenity value, air and soil pollution resistance – Timber characteristics: density, natural durability, preservation, sawing, season- ing, fissile, decorative – Timber characteristics: wood structure and anatomy – Pests and deseases – Fire (land-use fires, wildfires) – Utilization of species: sawn timber, fuelwood, pulp and paper, fodder, resins, ornamental nontimber forestry products

Climate Change

– Research of the climate change impact on vitality and growth performance of planted forests – Research on conservation of genetically diverse forest resources – Research on how to monitor, measure, and model greenhouse gas fluxes between forests and the atmosphere in order to support climate change mitigation strategies – Research on the effect of agroforestry and silviculture on local meso/microcli- mate and hydrology – Research on how tropical forest ecosystems respond to climate variability and climate change with regard to changing fire regimes – Tree migration, adaptation, and resilience of tree species in the tree lines worldwide Research Areas in Tropical Forestry 3595

– Effect of elevated CO2 on wood formation and fruit development

Remote Sensing

– Active remote sensing technologies: RADAR and LiDAR data for direct biomass change detection – Multivariate alteration detection for change detection of forest cover – Combination of hitherto with new technologies: future capabilities using the Sentinel Family

Forest Genetics

– Research on the effect of thinning/removal of males of dioecious species on seed production – The tendency of plagiotropic growth of grafted plants and cuttings – Aspects of environmental impact on pollination limited fruiting and seeding, e.g., pollinator, receptivity and inbreeding – Research on critical maturation stage of recalcitrant seed with direct correlation to their weight increase and moisture content – Methods to prolong viability of desiccation sensitive seed e.g., by desiccation rate – Comparative incompatibility/inbreeding barriers among different levels of rela- tives e.g., clones, full siblings, half siblings, parent-offspring, cussins – Investigate the effects of forest fragmentation and logging on mating system, gene flow, spatial genetic structure, genetic diversity, inbreeding, and effective population size on the new generation of tropical trees. – Investigate how to decrease the reproductive isolation of small forest fragments, promote the exchange of material between forest fragments, create forest corri- dors, maintain isolated trees or small forest fragments between large fragments to act as stepping stones – Investigate logging rules that guarantee sustainable forest logging of economi- cally important tropical tree species. What is the specific combination of mini- mum cutting diameter for logging, intensity of logging above this minimum cutting diameter, and how long must be the cutting cycles for each species? How much seed trees must retain per hectare in the logged areas? Investigate the importance that such seed trees must present straight stem form, no diseases, and good growth vigor. – Investigate how to do a tree breeding within natural tropical forest, combining improvement of economical traits with high genetic variability. – Investigate the potential of new tropical tree species for breeding programs, monospecific plantations, and multispecific plantations. – Development of specific genetic markers, as SNIPs for timber tracking of eco- nomically important tropical tree species. 3596 Research Areas in Tropical Forestry

Silviculture

– Silvicultural interventions need to be more widely applied and tested at opera- tional scales because it is essential to: enable assessments of the financial costs and benefits of treatments at a relevant scale for forest management operations; enable training assessment needs for personnel field, for the successful treatment application that requires identification of noncommercial species and the selec- tion of potential crop trees as a subset of commercially valuable individuals; and enable full understanding of the effects of treatments on the regeneration of timber species, biodiversity, and biomass production. – It is necessary to develop criteria for landscape-scale planning of intervention in order to optimize biodiversity conservation in large forest management units, or in clusters of small ones. This work would allow, as in the management of nontropical forests using clear-cuts, the identification and mapping of areas to be logged, receive treatment, and then be conserved. Maps should be in forest management plans and compliance ensured. – The use of silvicultural interventions as a component of sustainable forest man- agement would probably require the development and execution of a communi- cation plan. Logging of tropical forests already is perceived negatively by important sectors of the public. The elimination by silvicultural treatment of some trees in order to favor others would inevitably be perceived as additional degradation of forests, and the carbon emissions produced, even if the biomass eliminated is later recovered, would cause concern. The widespread use of silvicultural interventions would need to be facilitated by effective communica- tion of the place of this approach to forest management in a green development scenario. – Prioritize the provision of inventory systems and techniques commensurate with the level of expertise and resources available at specific locations (including needs-based frameworks for capacity development and replication) – Determine under what conditions polycyclic management of natural forests is sustainable – Research of parameters determining timber quality and timber value in relation to rotation age and target diameters

Logging

– In natural forests, evaluate felling methods to reduce tree damage – In natural forests on steep terrain, identify cable systems suitable for individual tree selection – In planted forests on steep terrain, evaluate the physical feasibility, environmental impacts, and economy of tethered feller bunchers, tethered harvesters, and teth- ered forwarders Research Areas in Tropical Forestry 3597

Forestry Management Planning

– Locally/regionally adapted forest management planning (FMPL) procedures and protocols. – Practice-oriented forest function analysis and mapping, forest stratification routines, – Means to translate FMP provisions into operational designs (e.g., thinning, selective harvesting, selection of future crop trees, etc.). – Research on how we can derive the target standing stock of a forest area managed by a Forest Management Unit and how we derive the mean annual increment, both at present at a target stocking based on forest inventory data. – The correction factors applied in AAC calculation (i.e., damage factor, exploita- tion factors, factor for inoperable areas) are so far best estimates. There should be systematic applied research to derive more realistic figures. A lot of effort is set on measuring accurate standing stock information based on field inventory, but when calculating the AAC, accurate figures are multiplied with (rough) estimates, which results of course in an estimate of the same accuracy.

Vulnerability and Risk Management

– Research to quantify and qualify the impact of biotic and abiotic hazards on wood production, the local forest industry, and the related value chain, as well as the whole range of ecosystem services. – Develop coherent and comprehensible predictive models to improve risk assess- ment and to assess the effect of global environmental change. Use this informa- tion to develop innovative risk-related forest management methods. – Research on insurance systems specific to different forest types/plantation forests, productivity types. – Research to quantify and identify the impact of silviculture and agroforestry on natural ecosystems.

Agroforestry

Based on the fundamental importance of using locally adapted, productive, and nutritious tree and crop species that can be associated in mutually beneficial ways, greater importance should be given to expand the species characterization beyond the standard botanical and agronomic attributes of crops and trees (cf. Section Information to be Added to Crop and Trees Databases in Agroforestry Chapter of this Handbook). To facilitate the identification of the most appropriate crops and trees for designing climate-smart agroforestry systems, i.e., systems with minimal requirements for (unsustainable) external inputs (see Section 5.1), the passport information for each species should be expanded by relevant attributes (preferably in quantitative terms 3598 Research Areas in Tropical Forestry translated to easily understandable categories for farmers and practitioners), including the following:

– Shade tolerance (at least in four categories: <25 %, 26–50 %, 51–75 %, >75 %) – Drought tolerance (months without rain, seasonal minimum water requirement) – Sensitivity to nutrient deficiency (including Ca, P, K) – Heat tolerance (preferred range, tolerated range) – Wind tolerance (with an indication of strength, at least in three categories: not, moderate, strong) – Water logging tolerance (days, weeks) – Protective role of forests against land degradation and soil erosion – Resprouting capacity after inundation (to identify fast-start crops after environ- mental disasters) – Soil pH preference and tolerance (preferred range, tolerated range) –“Antierosion effectivity”: capacity of its root system to retain soil on slopes (at least three categories: weak, moderate, strong, extreme, e.g., bamboo) – Productivity of edible parts (kg/plant/year.) – Nutrient and micronutrient profile (including Fe, Zn, and Vitamin A content) – Space requirement per plant (m2) – Shelf life and storability – Ease of preparation and transformation as human food (energy and time requirements) – Water use efficiency (l water/kg edible product) – Compatibility with other crops or trees (e.g., highly compatible with species A, B, C; not compatible with D, E) – Ease of reproduction under tropical conditions (including number of seeds and storability) – Potential invasiveness – Tree growth and nutrient supply – Salt tolerance (in absolute units EC (ds/m) or relative (High, moderate, low ...) – Fire tolerance – Allelopathy – Effect of trees on pest and diseases e.g., as intermediate/alternative hosts for pest and pathogens or their enemies

Particular attention should be given to systematically study how to manage soil health for better crop health and reduced pest incidence by learning about the effects of soil fauna on plant growth and soil microorganisms, including fungi, actinomy- cetes, and bacteria.

– Research how to optimize the system design and management for maximum resource use efficiency. – Research on how to create climate-smart and pest-suppressive landscapes. – Work has to be done also on biophysical research methods and improved exper- imental design. Research Areas in Tropical Forestry 3599

Roads

– Evaluate use of alternative methods of subgrade stabilization to overcome lack of suitable rock surfacing materials – Evaluate substitution of hydraulic excavators for bulldozers in road construction to minimize soil disturbance and landslides – Evaluate use of reduced tire inflation to improve road and vehicle performance – Evaluate methods to control road access, trespass, and illegal logging in natural forest – Forest roads network – Transportation planning inside projects and in the access routes to processing units

Harvesting

– Analysis of wood harvesting systems and transportation logistics – Forest biomass, new technologies, production and control systems – Overall evaluation of wood harvesting systems, transportation, yard, forest bio- mass, and forestry practices employed – Analysis of the management process – Analysis of the technical processes employed, devices, and level of mechanization – Harvesting, transport, and timber yard systems; collection, chipping, and trans- port of forest biomass; implementation and maintenance of forests – Microplanning of forest operations in plot and block level (from wood planting to harvesting) – Survey and analysis of the efficiency of forestry machinery and equipment – Planning the compliance and construction of roads to the current rotation and the following forest cycle, with emphasis on guarantee of supply and soil conservation – Identification of operational restrictions within the plots – Definition of the machinery productivity goals

Economy

– Management of natural forests, including benefit-cost analysis of timber stand improvements (e.g., thinning and vine removal) and reduced-impact logging – Forest management by community forest enterprises and smallholders, including how legality and sustainability certification systems affect their financial viability – Assessment of economic viability of community forestry and household-based forestry – Economic viability of REDD+ for local communities and forest-adjacent/ dependent people – Impacts of alternative legal and tenure arrangements for timber production on deforestation or conservation of the forest landscape 3600 Research Areas in Tropical Forestry

– Impact of different methods of log payment on tree utilization and wood conservation – Improved methods for establishing chain of custody – Land use change (e.g., drivers of deforestation, forest degradation, use of fire and wildfires in tropical forests and other vegetation types) and implementation of REDD (reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) – Design of effective conservation policies for forests under different tenure arrangements (e.g., forest management concessions, protected areas, and PES – payments for ecosystem services); community-based forest management and community-based fire management) – Returns to natural forest vs. plantations for small-scale producers and for outgrowers, including issues of market access and “fair” prices – Nontimber forest products, local communities and traditional uses, local markets and sustainability – Implementation of jurisdictional REDD+ in developing countries – Value chain development for NTFP and, more specifically, for wood energy as a renewable and potentially carbon-neutral source of energy

Forestry Extension

– Participatory forestry extension and its contribution to sustainable forestry management – Economic analysis of participatory forestry extension, under a sustainable devel- opment perspective – How to measure the quality of forestry extension

Indigenous Peoples

– Traditional practices that contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and the mitigation of the effects of climate change. – How can ecotourism enhance indigenous identity and contribute toward the mitigation of the effects of climate change? – Best practices in indigenous conservation, under a gender perspective.

Ecosystem Services and Landscape Restoration

– Research to design and develop resilient mixed species and/or complex structured planted forest types that meet societal and environmental demands. – Develop better definitions and concepts for the valuation of and payment for ecosystem services to provide quantified evidence of the range of ecosystem services and to facilitate cross-disciplinary discussion and the link to policy development. Research Areas in Tropical Forestry 3601

– The demand for certain ecosystem services has been largely under-researched; most research has focused on the supply side. Investigate in greater depth the expectations of buyers, users, or local communities from ecosystem services. – Develop methods for integrated and participatory land use planning at a land- scape level. – Develop new and innovative products from planted forests (e.g., biorefineries, nanotechnology). – Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and forest ecosystem services.

Governance, Economics, Trade, and Markets

– Research on how to develop and strengthen governance frameworks and institu- tional support structures for the forestry sector and the associated ecosystem services in tropical countries. – Global resource assessments to improve the available data and information on supply of wood and nonwood forest products from planted forests and trees outside forests. – Develop a better understanding of the capacity and needs of small landowners in planted forest management and develop simple and flexible forest management standards and normative guidelines that take into account small-scale forestry, specific regional characteristics, and local community needs. – Investigate whether the costs incurred by forest owners, including small farmers, for engaging in forest certification schemes are sufficiently rewarded by the price premium paid for products from sustainably managed forests. – Research on the institutional, socioeconomic, and environmental impacts of investments into planted forests, including the disclosure of ensuing costs and revenues, and the required changes in governance and policy.

Policy Processes and National and International Organizations

– Reform of state forest organizations – Optimizing regulative, economic, and informational policy instruments – Political drivers of FLEGT and REDD+ – Cross-sector coordination – Multilevel governance – Optimizing international forest regimes – Regional forest regimes – Participation of local minorities – Information and involvement of civil society – Research on how effectively to integrate forest management and conservation concerns, and safeguards in the design of government macropolicies and policies in other sectors that have an important impact on forests 3602 Research Areas in Tropical Forestry

– Investigate practical ways to ensure that illegal activities can be rapidly detected and controlled. Research on how to design procedures to reduce or eliminate corruption in the management of public forests

Optimizing the Transfer of Scientific Knowledge into International Forest Policy

– Science/policy interface on international level – Optimizing research institutions for the science/policy interface on international level – Enhancing forest research policy in developing countries – Integrating science and tacit knowledge – Procedures for responsible science in international forestry issues – Enhancing innovation by scientific research Index

A A. simsii, 1242 Abandonment of highland pasture, 2241–2243 A. tortilis, 1243 Abatia parviflora, 1230 A. torulosa, 1244 Abiotically induced wood, 2781 Acacia spp., 1480 Aborigines of Australia Access Rights, 3487–3488 sacred places, 3326–3327 Access roads, 2309 territory, 3325–3326 Accuracy, 773, 829 traditional knowledge, 3326 Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, 1245 Above-ground biomass (AGB), destructive Active sensors, 551, 561–565 assessment Actor, 2120, 2125–2128 biomass expansion factors, 848 Adaptation, 2061, 2080 biomass functions, 853 Administrative organization and structure, 3434 compartments of tree, 850 Adult learning, 3346–3351 dendrometric variable measurement, 849 participatory workshops, 3349–3351 felling of trees, 849 training lecture, 3347–3351 grouping of tree species, 848 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer height, thickness, diameter of tree, 854–856 (AVHRR), 555–556 randomized branch sampling, 850–851 Aerial/canopy cover, 1972 remote sensing and terrestrial laser Aerial photography, 572–574 scanning, 856–858 Aerial reconnaissance, 2312 sample treatment in laboratory, 853 Aerial sowing, 1480–1481 sample tree selection, 848–849 Aerobic capacity (AC), 2553, 3226 weighing, 851–852 Affluence, 2179 wood sample selection, 852 Afforestation and reforestation, 3060, 3062 Above-ground biomass (AGB) pool, 843 Africa, 3504–3508 Above-ground NPP (ANPP), 495 African Human Rights system, 3458–3459 Acacia African lions, 2191–2192 A. auriculiformis, 1231 African wildlife, 2153–2159 A. crassicarpa, 1231–1232 Agathis dammara, 1246 A. cyclops, 1232–1233 Agricultural policies, 3408–3409 A. decurrens, 1233–1234 Agricultural tractors, 2422 A. mangium, 1162, 1234–1235 Agrobiodiversity, 2061 A. mearnsii, 1179, 1235–1236 Agroecology, 2017, 2035 A. melanoxylon, 1236–1237 Agroforestry, 414, 418, 420, 1848 A. nilotica, 1237–1238 for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem A. rothii, 1238–1239 services, 2072–2075 A. salicina, 1239–1240 to climate-smart and multifunctional A. saligna, 1240–1241 agriculture, 2075–2080 A. senegal, 1241–1242 definition and classification, 2019–2020

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016 3603 L. Pancel, M. Köhl (eds.), Tropical Forestry Handbook, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3 3604 Index

Agroforestry (cont.) Annual equivalent value (AEV), 2883 design and modeling, 2080–2090 Annual mean precipitation, 434 distribution, 2042–2044 Annual operation plan (AOP), 3350 evolution of, 2018–2021 Annual planting area, 1450 plant selection for, 2056–2070 Anthropocene, 472 practices and systems, 2021 impacts, 473–474 roles and potential uses, 2044–2056 Apple scab, 2593 Airborne laser scanning (ALS), 564, 857 Araucaria Air humidity, 393 A. angustifolia, 1257 Air layering, 1106 A. cunninghamii, 1258 Air penetration, 2766–2767 A. hunsteinii, 1259 Air temperature, 347–352, 439 Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, 1038 Albizia Arid climate type, 411–412 A. guachapele, 1247 Arid tropical soils A. lebbeck, 1248 calcisols, 193 A. saman, 1249 durisols, 193–199 Alienation Rights, 3489, 3501 gypsisols, 191–193 Alley cropping, 2025–2028 solonchaks, 185–189 Allocasuarina decaisneana, 1250 solonetz, 189–191 Alnus Armillaria infection, 2575 A. acuminata, 1163, 1251 Asean-Korea Environmental Cooperation A. glutinosa, 1127 Project (AKECOP), 3562, 3565 A. nepalensis, 1252, 1480 Asia, 3508–3510 Alstonia spectabilis, 1253 Asian Forest Cooperation Organization Alternative wildstock-livestock scenarios, 2228 (AFoCO), 3567 Altitude, 1210 Asian wildlife, 2159–2164 Altitudinal gradient, 385–389 Asia Pacific Association of Forest Research Amazon, 3541 Institutions (APAFRI), 3568 Amended Lacey Act, 3548 Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study, American national standard, 3183 3202, 3205 Amplitude, 3289 Assessing Limb Scars on Stems, 2816–2817 Anacardium Association Technique Internationale des A. excelsum, 1254 Bois Tropicaux (ATIBT), A. occidentale, 1255–1256 2765, 3171 Anaerobic threshold, 3230 grading rules, 3174 Anamorphs, 2565 log-grading rules, 3174–3175 Andira inermis, 1256–1257 Atmosphere–ocean general circulation models Angle count. See Point sampling (AOGCM), 432 Angle point sampling, 815 Atmosphere Animal dispersal, 894 correction, 550 Animal husbandry, 2031, 2085 scattering, 550 Animal production, 1988–1995 windows, 550, 553 Annual accounting rates of return, 2944–2945 Aucoumea klaineana, 1260 Annual Allowable Cut (AAC), 1804 Auditing certificate holders, 3583–3587 data compilation, 1813–1814 Australian Illegal Logging Prohibition Act DIPSIM harvesting simulation, 1816 (ILPA), 3419–3420 formula methods, 1814–1815 Automated measurements, 2792 justification, 1818 Azadirachta indica, 1261 preliminary, 1816 scheduling, 1818 verification and allocation, 1816–1818 B Vietnam yield regulation, 1819–1822 Babesia leo, 2191 Annual change rates, tropical forest 9 Bacteria, 2584–2586 Index 3605

Bambusa by region and subregion, 844 B. bambos, 1262–1263 remeasurements, 876 B. blumeana, 1263–1264 sampling errors, 846 Bandaging the trunk, 2769 standard operating procedures, 876 Bareroot plants, 1057 tier methods, 847 Bare-root seedlings, 1484 upscaling procedures, 874–875 Bark thickness, 717–718 Biotic impoverishment and ecosystem Basal burls, 2848 function, 509 Base course, 2308 Biotically induced wood, 2778 Batwa Bird-friendly coffee, 2036, 2074, 2082 beliefs and culturally important places, Birdlife International (BI), 2213 3319–3320 Blind conks, 2806, 2812–2820 care of environment, 3320 Blue and green water fluxes, 1920–1923 forest related activities, 3318–3319 B-needs, 2557 totem, 3319 Borer Beach, 3194 mahogany shoot, 2643, 2645 Below-ground biomass (BGB) sal heartwood, 2624 direct methods shoot and cone, 2616–2618 core sampling, 861 shot hole, 2626 excavation of roots, 860–861 wood, 2618 indirect methods Boron, 1145 allometric regression equations, 863 Bowen Ratio, 414 root to shoot ratios, 862–863 Brachychiton populneus, 1264 Bending tension, 2786 Brazil, 3157 Benefit-cost analysis (BCA), 2883, 2895 Brazilian Forest Enterprise, 2512–2516 Bhutan’s protected area network, 2206 Breonia chinensis, 1265–1266 Bilateral ODA, 3423 Bridges, 2351–2352 Bilby and hairy-nosed wombat, 2231 and culverts, 2360 Bill of lading, 3191–3192 Bridled nailtail wallaby, 2230 BioCarbon Fund, 3426 Broadcasting, 1986 Biochar, 2047, 2050, 2057, 2075 Broadcast sowing, 1479 Biodiversity, 1719, 1769, 2149–2150 Brown chipping, 2468 conservation, 11, 2072–2075 Brown rot fungi, 2581–2584 primary forest, 28 Browse plants, 1997 Biodiversity identification, 2262–2265 intake, 1997–1998 conservation priority-setting, 2267–2268 Brugmansia pittieri, 1266–1267 data requirements, 2266 Brushtailed bettong, 2231 KBAs identification, 2268 Bucking, 2397 species nomenclature, 2265–2266 Budding, 1108–1109 Biointensive agriculture, 2067, 2088 Buffer effect, 418–427 Biological control, 2034, 2038, 2596, Buncher harvesting, 2429 2637–2641 Burls, 2841, 2843–2844, 2846 Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragmentation Bursaphelenchus coccophilus, 2587 Project (BDFFP), 1623 Bushmeat, 2736–2737 Biomass, 726, 1615–1617, 1716, 1718 Business-as-usual (BAU) reference AGB (see Above-ground biomass (AGB)) level, 2880 BGB (see Below-ground biomass (BGB)) changes over time, 846 DOM (see Dead organic matter (DOM)) C field crews, 876 Cable yarding systems, 2430–2431 functions, 858–859 Cacao, 2018, 2034–2035, 2056, 2060, pools, 844–845 2072, 2080 quality assurance and control, 875 Caesalpinia violacea, 1267 3606 Index

Calamus Certificate of origin, 3191 C. caesius, 1268, 1488 Certification, 2036, 2039, 2074 C. manan, 1269 programs, 2033 C. trachycoleus, 1270 Certified emission reductions (CERs), 3059 Calcium deficiency, 1144 temporaty, 3062 Calibration, 772 CGTM, 3203 California Air Resources Board (CARB), 3184 Chain of Custody (CoC) standards, 3578, 3580 Calliandra calothyrsus, 1271–1272 Chaining, 1465 Callitris columellaris, 1272–1273 Change detection, 641 Calophyllum Change of ownership concept, 3578 C. brasiliense var. antillanum, 1273 Chemical control, 2596–2598 C. utile, 1274 Chemical cycling, 1953 Calycophyllum candidissimum, 1274–1275 Chemotropism, 2590 Campnosperma brevipetiolatum, 1275–1276 Chernobyl disaster, 2185 Canopy, 2790, 2797, 2801, 2825 China, 2243 Canopy base height (CBH), 651 China’s wood-processing sector, 3131 Canopy bulk density (CBD), 651 Chinese mustache, 2814 Canopy cover (CC), 650 Chipper, 2431–2432 Cape Verde storms, 317 CITES permit, 3192 Capital budgeting approach, 2878, 2882–2884 Clambunk skidder, 2424 Capital costs, 2495 Clean development mechanism (CDM), 3020, Capybara, 2166 3135, 3425–3426 Carbohydrates, transport and storage, 535–536 afforestation and reforestation, 3060 Carbon, 493–496 hydropower projects, 2245 financing, 3425–3429 revitalise, 3062–3063 sequestration, 2049, 2073, 2078–2080, 2098 statistics, 3059–3060 Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen (CHN) Clearcut harvesting system, 2454–2455 analyzer, 866 Cleistopholis glauca, 1281 Cardiac frequency, 3226 Climate change, 32, 1728–1729, 2189–2191 Cargo invoices, 3191 adaption, 515–516 Cariniana pyriformis, 1276 mitigation, 515–516 Carnivores and trophic cascades, 507 safeguards for species selection, 1216 Cash flow table, 2881 Climate sensors, 446 Casuarina equisetifolia L, 1277–1278 Climate-smart landscape, 2075–2080 Catastrophic environmental events, 2600 Climate warming. See Forest canopies Catchment Area Advisory Committees Climatic ecozones 5 (CAAC), 1903 Climax, 1956 Catchment Management Strategies approach, 1976 (CMS), 1903 grassland, 1944 Cattle population, 1988 Cloudiness, 364–372 Cattle, feeding requirements of, 1992 Clouds, 364–372 CDM. See Clean development Clusia moaensis, 1282 mechanism (CDM) Cluster sampling Cedrela advantages and disadvantages, 795–796 C. mexicana, 1479 estimation procedure, 794–795 C. odorata, 1163 example, 793 C. odorata L., 1278–1279 forest inventories, 793–794 Cedrus deodara, 1279 two-stage, 796–798 Ceiba pentandra, 1280 CO2 emissions, 1785–1786 Cellular structure, wood, 523–530 Coarse woody debris (CWD), 867 CELOS management system, 1627 Coastal dynamics, 1732 Central Africa, 3541–3542 Coastal protection, 1729, 1742, 1745, 1750 Central limit theorem (CLT), 786 Coconut coir, 1014 Index 3607

Cocos nucifera L., 1282–1283 Conservation Coffee, 2018, 2020, 2029, 2034–2035, biodiversity, 11 2049–2050, 2054, 2060 forestry, 1847 Cold air Intrusions, 356 Conservation payments (CP), 1783–1784 Cold Tongue Index (CTI), 323 Conservation and recreation forestry, 1852 Cold trade, 358 Container Cold tropics, 286, 354–355 characteristics affecting plant development, Coleoptera, 2623–2626 1020–1021 Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF), economic and operational factors, 1021–1023 3430–3431, 3562 plants, 1057 Colophospermum mopane, 1283 polybags and polytubes, 1023–1024 Colubrina arborescens, 1284–1285 seedling, 1484–1485 Co-management, 1733, 1746 Continuous forest inventory (CFI), 822–824 Comisión Nacional Forestal (CONAFOR), 2925 Continuous-time bioeconomic models Commercial contracts, 3193 applications of, 2906–2909 Commercial forestry projects, 2878 dynamics of system, 2905–2906 Committee for Earth Observing Satellites objective function and constraints, (CEOS), 565 2900–2902 Communication and information access, optimal stocking of tropical timber, 2750–2751 2916–2918 Community-based fire management, 2690 principle, 2902–2903 Community-based forest enterprises (CFEs) stationary solution examination, 2903–2905 objective, 2952 Controlled-release fertilizers, 1033 potential uses of results, 2955–2956 Convention on Biological Diversity tool development, 2952 (CBD), 3456 Community forestry, 2119–2121, including Cartagena Protocol on 3370–3372 Biosafety, 63 actor classification, 2125–2128 Convention on International Trade in institutions, 2121–2123 Endangered Species of Wild Fauna outcome analysis, 2123–2125 and Flora (CITES), 2201, 3119, Community forestry enterprises (CFEs) 3420, 3547 economic analysis process, 2925 Conventional logging (CL), 1626, 1770, 2367 Community forestry projects, 2878 bioeconomic models, 2980–2981 Community weighted mean (CWM), 1611 operations, 2969 Compensation payments side-by-side comparisons, 2973–2979 definition, 3020 Cool system, 2461 ecosystem services, 3023 Copper, 1145 environmental compensation schemes, Cordia alliodora, 1164, 1286 3021–3022 Corporate landuse shift (CLUS), 2233–2235 limitations, 3023 Corrective Action Requests (CARs), 3586 marketability, 3022–3023 Corrective maintenance, 2497 Compensation payment schemes Corymbia economic valuation, 3028–3031 C. citriodora, 1287 enabling conditions, 3032–3034 C. maculata, 1288–1289 financial vehicles, 3034–3035 C. stockeri, 1289 Competition, 1550 Cost(s), 2879 Competitive reduction, 1550 Cost and freight (CFR), 3195 Compost, 1014 Cost and profits, 2941–2944 COMTRADE, 3200 Cost and profit functions, timber production Condensation, 372 annual accounting rates of return, Condition ratings, 1977 2944–2945 Conical cut, 2788 forest harvesting, 2936–2939 Conocarpus lancifolius, 1285 forest management, 2930–2933 3608 Index

Cost and profit functions, timber production type of, 868 (cont.) wood density, 868, 872 methods, 2925–2927 Debarking, 2398 sawmills, 2939–2941 harvester, 2404–2408 statistical functions, 2927–2929 manual, 2399 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA). See Benefit-cost processor head, 2411–2412 analysis (BCA) Decentralization, 3434 Cost, insurance and freight (CIF), 3195 Decomposition and nutrient cycling, 507 Crack forms, 2781 Dedicated grant mechanism (DGM), 3087 Crescents, 1474 Deficiency symptoms, 2766 Cronartium fusiforme, 2581 Defoliator, 2614–2616 Crookedness, 2789–2792 Deforestation, 1572, 1607, 1779–1781, 2179 Crop growth phases, 1064 definition, 1562 Crop monitor, 1067 Deforestation and forest degradation (REDD), Cross slope, 2309 49, 3020 Crown illumination, 1621 Deforestation, reviewing literature on, Crown thinnings, 1500 2993–2995 Cryptomeria japonica, 1290 Degradation Cumulus clouds, 365–367 of canopy layer, 1575, 1577 Cunninghamia lanceolata, 1291, 1506 diffuse stage, 1577–1578 Cupressus of understory, 1575 C. arizonica, 1292 Degraded forest land, definition, 1562 C. lusitanica, 1293–1294 Delimbing, 2397 C. macrocarpa, 1294–1295 harvester, 2404–2408 C. torulosa, 1295–1296 manual, 2399 Curly, 2831–2834 stroke delimber, 2409–2411 grain, 2831, 2833–2834 Delonix regia, 1298–1299 Customary tenure systems, 3492 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 3461 Cuttings, 1101 Dendro-archeo-morphology, 2824 Cut-to length system, 2462, 2464 Dendrocalamus giganteu, 1299 Cylindrocladium shoot blights, 2579 Denuded/destroyed forest land (deforestation), 1572 Depreciation costs, 2494–2495 D Desert shrublands, 1948–1949 Dalbergia Desiccation, 1073 D. nigra, 1296 sensitive seed, 963, 973, 982, 998 D. sissoo, 1297–1298 Design, for agroforestry systems, 2088–2090 Damping-off disease, 2566 Design-dependent approach, 806–807 Databases, 3200 Design Effect, 763 Dead organic matter (DOM) Destruction of tropical forests, 3390–3393 deadwood, 866, 872 Deterrents, 1994–1995 litter, 872, 873 DFV-1, 3183 Deadwood, 738 Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated coarse and fine woody debris, 867 System (DRIS), 1160–1162 decay classes, 868–869 Diagnostic sampling, 1627 full census, 870 Diameter at breast height (dbh), 702–704 line intersect sampling (LIS) method, Dieback diseases, 2573 869–870 Digital elevation models (DEM), 558, 563 lying and standing deadwood, 868 Digital orthophoto quadrangles (DOQ), 555 measurement of lying deadwood, 871 Direct drilling, 1998 sampling and measuring standing Direct sowing deadwood, 871 aerial, 1480–1481 stumps, 871 disadvantages, 1476–1478 Index 3609

favoring factors, 1475–1476 E methods, 1479 East Usambara Mts. (Tanzania), 1934–1937 vs. planting, 1481 Easterly waves, 311–313 seed pre-treatment, 1478 Eccentric Growth, 2797–2801 site preparation, 1478–1479 Eccentric piths, 2799, 2800 timing, 1479 Ecological Disaster, 422–427 and biological corridors, 2275–2276 Discount rate, 2884–2885 control, 2641 Discrete-time bioeconomic models theory, 698 applications, 2913–2914 Economic analysis, 2877 constraints, 2910–2912 Economic stimulus-related policies, 3131 objective function, 2909–2910 Economic values, 1732, 1748 optimal solution, 2912 Economic viability, 2001 Disease Eco-physiological approach, 296 bacteria, 2584–2586 Ecosystem causes, 2562 concept and components, 1950–1952 definition, 2562–2563 functioning, 1952–1953 epidemiology and population dynamics, services, 1726, 1732, 1749, 2589–2593 2072–2075, 3023 fungi (see Fungi) stability and grazing, 1960–1961 nematodes, 2587–2588 Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, 1038 parasitic higher plants and algae, Edible leaves, roots and shoots, 2735 2588–2589 Elaeagnus angustifolia L., 1300 symptoms and signs, 2563–2564 Elaeis guineensis, 1301 virus, 2586–2587 Elephant Trade Information System Disorders, 2599–2600 (ETIS), 2204 Ditch and culvert maintenance, 2356 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 320–329 Diurnal rainfall distribution, 372–375 Employment, 17–18 Diurnal versus seasonal thermal Empty forests, 508 climate, 297 Enabling conditions, 3032, 3035 Diversification, 2056, 2069, 2083 Endlap, 554 Diversified Forest Rehabilitation, Northeast Energy, 493–496 Thailand, 1862–1864 balance, 414–415 Dodders, 2588 calculation, 1991 Doldrums, 306 content, 1990–1991 Dormancy, 950–952 Enrichment planting, 1598 Dothistroma needle blight, pines, 2576 ENSO, 431 Downpour, 420, 424–425 Entandrophragma utile, 1302 Drill seeding, 1986 Enterolobium cyclocarpum, 1303 Droughts, 383 Environmental Mapping and Analysis Dry bulb temperature (DBT), 3252 Program (EnMAP), 561 Dry crack, 2867–2868, 2870 Environmental protection, 1901 Dry season, 1212 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 3184 Dry tropical and subtropical forests, 1572 Environmental-related policies, 3129–3130 degradation of canopy layer, 1575–1577 Environmental services concept, 1906–1907, degradation of understory, 1575 2073, 2086 diffuse degradation, 1577–1578 lake Naivasha watershed, 1909 primary forest, 1574–1575 payment for, 1907–1908 Ducks Unlimited, 2211 Envisat, 563 Dust, 372 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay abatement, 2357 (ELISA), 2587 Dyes and tannins, 2740–2742 Epiphytes, 372, 416–417, 2854–2858 Dysgenic selection, 926 Equipment efficiency, 2501 3610 Index

Ergonomics, 3213 European guidelines, 3185 definition, 2551 European standard(s), 3181–3182 forest workers, nutrition and energetic European Standard EN 1912, 3179 consumption of, 2554–2555 European Standard EN 14081, 3179 working capacity and workload, European Technical Assessment (ETA), 3180 2552–2554 European Timber Regulation (EUTR), 84–85, working conditions and human needs, 3126, 3590–3591 2555–2557 European Union (EU) Research and Ericoid mycorrhizal (ERM) fungi, 1038 Innovation program, 3561 Erythrophleum chlorostachys, 1304 Eurostat, 3200 Escallonia Evaporation, 399–403 E. myrtilloides, 1305 Evapotranspiration, 399–403, 492 E. paniculata, 1305 ex situ gene conservation, 908–909 Esteem, 2557 Exchange rate movements, 3143 Estimation, 779 Exclusion Rights, 3489 Ethylene gas, 1088 Exotic species, 932 Eucalypts, 1459 Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Eucalypt plantation, 2478–2482 Peoples (EMRIP), 3453 Eucalyptus External influences, 1215–1216 E. bicolor, 1306 Extinguishability, 3490 E. botryoides, 1307 Extinguishability of Rights, 3499 E. brassiana, 1308 Extraction, seed, 973–976 E. brockwayi, 1309–1310 Ex works (EXW), 3193 E. camaldulensis, 1310–1311 E. cladocalyx, 1311 E. cloeziana, 1312 F E. crebra, 1313 Facilitation, 1550 E. dalrympleana, 1314 Facilities schedules, 1069–1070 E. deglupta, 1315–1316 Faidherbia albida, 1335–1336 E. delegatensis, 1316–1317 Falcataria moluccana, 1336 E. fastigata, 1317–1318 False forks, 2793–2795 E. globulus Labill., 1318–1319 FAO/ECE system, 2491 E. globulus sbsp. maidenii, 1319 FAO/ITTO Initiative on Forest Law E. gomphocephala, 1320 Compliance and Governance, 3548 E. grandis, 1140, 1321 FAOSTAT, 3200 E. intertexta, 1322 FAO Voluntary Guidelines, 3453–3454 E. melliodora, 1323 Feasibility study, 1449, 3109 E. microcorys, 1324 Federation of Associations for Hunting and E. paniculata, 1325 Conservation of the European E. regnans, 1326 Union, 2211 E. robusta, 1327–1328 Felling E. saligna, 1328–1329 damage, 2849 E. salmonophloia, 1329 feller buncher, 2408–2409, 2479 E. tereticornis, 1330–1331 harvester, 2404, 2408 E. tetrodonta, 1331 harvester head, 2411 E. urophylla, 1332 manual, 2399 E. viminalis, 1333 mechanized, 2403 Eucalyptus spp., 1141–1143 processor head, 2411 Euphorbia tirucalli L., 1334 techniques, 2545 EuroFire Competency Standards and Training Fertilization, 934, 945, 1983–1984 Materials, 2693 economics of, 1181–1182 European Committee for Standardization experimental design, 1169 (CEN), 3171 method of, 1170–1171 Index 3611

mountain tropical forests, 1180–1181 Flanges, 2801–2805 for Plantations, 1176–1179 FLEGT. See Forest Law Enforcement, rates of nutrient application, 1171–1172 Governance and Trade (FLEGT) time of, 1169–1170 Flitch cut, 2788 tropical lowland forests, 1179–1180 Floaters, 2381 type of fertilizer, 1172–1173 Flood risk management, 1878–1880 Fertilizer, 1031, 1034 Floristics, 482 Fiber compressions, 2862–2865 Flower differentiation, 943 Fiber fractures, 2862–2865 Flowering, 935, 943 Fiddleback, 2831–2836 Flutes, 2801–2804 Field soil, 1016 Fodder, trees and shrubs, 1995–2002 Field testing, 1059–1060 Foehns, 360 Financial analysis, 2876 Fog, 364–372 Financing problem and burden sharing, Foliage disease, 2568, 2570 3421–3422 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Fine woody debris (FWD), 867 2523, 3562 Finnish calliper, 709 Food security, 2061, 2100 Fire climax, 2663, 2669, 2676 Forage intake, animals, 1991 Fire management Forage production, 1969 fire exclusion, 2682 Foreign exchange policies, 3407–3408 fire suppression, 2690–2693 Foreign direct investment (FDI), 3143 firebreaks, 2685–2686 Foresight and scenario planning, 3204–3205 fuelbreaks with agricultural crops, 2686 Forest(s), 481–482, 778, 1950 guidelines, 2680 Forest area, 740–742, 767–769 integrated, 2682 Forests Asia Summit, 3563 pastoral and silvopastoral fuelbreaks, Forest biomass/carbon pools, 845 2686–2687 Forest canopies, 418 policy and organization, 2702–2704 regional climate warming, 418–420 prescribed burning, 2682, 2693–2699, 2702 soil erosion and runoff, 422–427 rural population, 2687–2690 Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, safety, 2702 3084–3086, 3427 standing forest, 2687 Forest certification, 3554 uncontrolled wildfire occurrence, 2682 Forest certification schemes Fire protection, 2671, 2682 auditing certificate holders, 3583–3587 Fire regimes, 2660 objectives and institutional framework, environmental impacts, 2677–2678 3572–3575 evergreen equatorial rain forest standard-setting procedures, 3575–3582 ecosystems, 2664–2668 Forest climate, 416 fire climax pine forests, 2671–2673 Forest Cover Mapping, 679–681 savannas and open woodlands, 2673–2676 Forest crime seasonal forests, 2668–2669 categorizations, 3528–3531 tropical planted forests, 2676–2677 causes, 3532–3535 Fire suppression, 2690–2693 conflict timber, 3527 First-aid training, 2550–2551 forest sector law compliance, 3550–3556 Fixed area sampling units, 808–812 illegal logging, 3535–3537 Fixed costs, 2491 law enforcement and governance, capital costs, 2495 3537–3546, 3550 depreciation costs, 2494–2495 rosewood and ebony theft, 3527–3528 insurance costs, 2495–2496 Forest degradation labor costs, 2496–2497 in America and Asia, 1563 property costs, 2493 causes of deforestation and, 1563 purchase costs, 2493–2494 definition, 1562, 1564 Fixed vertebrae, 3264 dynamics relevant to, 1565 3612 Index

Forest degradation (cont.) Forest management standards (FM standards), and forest destruction, 1563 3573 stages, 1566 Forest monitoring, 665–666, 675, 681, Forest ecosystems, 1613 3436–3437 Forest estate, tropical countries 9 Forest plantation. See Tropical forest plantation Forest fires, 11–12, 32, 2661, 2666, 2678, 2685, and nutrition 2687, 2703 Forest policies, ineffectiveness of, 3431–3433 Forest fragmentation, 903 Forest Principles, 753 Forest function mapping, 1799–1800 document, 62 Forest growth and development, 1707 Forest reference emission level (REL), Forest harvesting, cost and profit functions, 3075, 3076 2936–2937, 2939 Forest Resources Assessment (FRA), 756 Forest hydrology, 1918–1919 Forest Rights of Indigenous peoples, Forest Industries Feasibility Study (FIFS), 758 3459–3466 Forest inventory, 466, 470, 750 Forest road, 2377–2379 Forest Investment Programme (FIP), design objectives, 2304 3086–3087, 3427–3428 equipment and machinery, 2358 Forest land use planning, 1839 Forest stand, 729–730 Forest Law Enforcement And Governance Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 3587–3588 (FLEG) principles, 1608 Amazon, 3541 Forest trade restriction policies, 3404–3406 Central Africa, 3541–3542 Forest use policies and regulations, Mesoamerica, 3542–3543 3400–3404 policies, 3537–3540 Forestry extension participatory approach program, 3417, 3547 adult learning, 3346–3350 role of actors, 3546–3550 planning and organization, 3351–3356 Southeast Asia, 3543–3546 teaching materials, 3356–3359 West Africa, 3542 Forestry extension Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and vs. agricultural extension, 3364–3365 Trade (FLEGT), 78–80, 3094, approaches, 3365, 3367 3417–3418, 3548 awareness and exploration, 3378–3379 action plan, 3125 community forestry, 3370–3372 license, 3192–3193 equipment, 3380 Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and forest management, 3372–3374 Trade Voluntary Partnership forestry policies, 3378 Agreement (FLEGT-VPAs), 3466 fourth generation, 3381–3384 Forest Law Reforms, 3466–3467 infrastructure, 3379 Forest management, 3372–3374 mobilization, 3379–3380 cost and profit functions, 2930, 2933 profile of, 3369 production, 15 public and nongovernmental policies, 3378 zoning, 1800–1801 success factors, 3368–3369 Forest Management Planning (FMP) visibility, 3380 aboveground biomass stock, 1797 work teams, 3377–3378 average annual increment in aboveground Forestry land evaluation, 1860–1866 biomass, 1798 Forestry land use factors, 1796 human factor, 1844–1845 forest function mapping, 1799–1800 surveys and inventories, 1842 forest management zoning, 1800–1801 types, 1845–1847 generic structure, 1826–1827 Forestry management, multiple-use, 1847 guiding principles, 1824 Forestry project management map preparation, 1802–1803 description, 3102–3103 multifunctional zoning, 1801–1802 project evaluation, 3115–3116 yield regulations (see Yield regulations) project implementation, 3111–3114 Index 3613

project planning, 3105–3111 Fungi result management, 3103–3105 classification, 2565 Forestry Research Network for Sub-Saharan damping-off disease, 2566 Africa (FORNESSA), 3562 diseases of flowers and cones, 2578 Forestry research host-specific foliage disease, 2568–2571 challenges in, 3564–3568 root decay, 2572–2575 in developing countries, 3560 root diseases, 2572 in Europe, 3561 seedling blight, 2568 forestry students, training for, 3564 stem diseases, 2570–2571 human and institutional research, 3564 systemic diseases, 2582–2584 landscape approach, 3563 woody stem diseases, 2578–2582 public funding for, 3565 Furniture standards, 3185–3186 in South Africa, 3561 Fused trunks, 2793 in Southeast Asia, 3562 transdisciplinary approaches, 3563 Forestry vs. range development, 2001–2002 G Forest-sector models, 3203–3204 Gallant rules, 693–694 definition, 1562 Galls, 2840–2846 Forking, 2793–2796 Gap analysis, 2261–2262 Form factor, 718 Gap disturbance regimes, 1612 Form quotient, 719 Geissanthus andinus, 1337 Formaldehyde emission standards, 3184 Gene conservation, 908–909 Formal system, 1001 Gene flow, 505–506, 888–896 Forwarder, 2425 General trait-based model, 1621 Forwarding, 2420 Genetic alterations, 2766 Frame error, 831 Genetic conservation, seed collection, Framework conventions, forestry, 52 971–972 Free alongside ship (FAS), 3194 Genetic predisposition, 2789, 2804, 2833 Free on board (FOB), 3194 Genetic seed quality, 923–926, 934–936 French SPOT programme, 558 Genetic variation, 925, 932–933 Freshwater Geographic Information Systems availability, 1870 (GIS), 2312 vs. cycles, human livelihood and Geometric principle, 712 ecosystems, 1871 German Agency for International Development demand, 1898 (GIZ), 3105 Friends of the Earth International (FoEI), 2213 Germination, 939, 948–953 Frost crack, 2870 environmental factors, 1089–1090 Fruit development, 945–946 overcome seed dormancy and enhance, Fruits and nuts, 2734 1085–1089 Fruit types, 938, 948 stimulators, 1088 Fuel costs, 2502 viability test and, 987 Fuel management Ghana standards, 3182 firebreaks, 2685–2686 Giant Panda conservation, 2243 fuelbreaks with agricultural crops, 2686 Gibberellic acid, 1088 pastoral and silvopastoral fuelbreaks, Gliricidia sepium, 1338 2686–2687 Global economic risk assessments, standing forest, 2687 3202–3203 Full tree harvesting system, 2464–2465 Global Environment Facility, 3428–3429 Fully controlled environments, 1009–1010 Global Forest Information Service Fumigant chemicals, 2597 (GFIS), 3568 Functional trait diversity (FTD), 1611 Global Forest Observations Initiative Functional traits approach, 1619 (GFOI), 565 Functional variety index, 1611 Global Forest Products Model (GFPM), 3203 3614 Index

Global Forest Resources Assessments Grevillea (GFRAs), 51 G. heliosperma, 1339 Global Historical Climatology Network–Daily G. pteridifolia, 1340 and Monthly (GHCN), 447 G. robusta, 1341 Global hydrosphere, 393 Grinder, 2433 Global land cover, 668 Ground vegetation, 1457–1468 Global Positioning System (GPS), 732 Group selection system, 2457 Global radiation budget, 337–342 Growing media Glyphosate, 1467–1468 biological properties of, 1012–1013 Gmelina arborea, 1164–1165, chemical properties of, 1012 1338–1339, 1510 developing and mixing, Goats, feeding requirements of, 1993 1016–1017 Gorilla tourism, 2154 ingredients, 1013–1016 Government commitment, 3435–3436 physical properties of, 1011–1012 Government Procurement Agreement testing, 1018–1019 (GPA), 3172 treating ingredients, 1017 Grade standing timber, 2763 Growing stock, 10 Grading felled timber, 2763 Growth movements, 2768 Grading of African sawn timber, 3178 Growth and production functions, Grading rules for tropical timber logs and 2879–2881 sawn timbers, 3176 Growth regulation, 1967–1968 Gradonis, 1472–1473 Growth rings, 521–523 Grafting, 1108–1109 Growth Zones, 2820–2824 Grain orientation, 2804, 2806–2826, 2831 Guadua angustifolia, 1342 Grapplesaw, 2412 Guaiacum officinale, 1343 Gross domestic product (GDP) growth, 3140–3143 Gross primary productivity (GPP), 494 H Grass species, revegetation, 1594–1595 Hadley circulation, 305 Grass stratum, 1963–1965 Hakea salicifolia, 1344 Grasses, growth characteristics of, 1968 Handling, 1072–1073 Grassland(s), 1944–1945 Hand sowing, 1479 clearing, 1465–1466 Hand watering, 1028 Gravel, 2338 Hardening, 1064 Gray informal sector, 2534 Hardwood cuttings, 1097–1099 Grazing, 1961 harmonised European standard choice of, 1979–1980 (hEN), 3180 classification, 1979 Harvester, 2404–2408 effects of, 1969 Harvesting, 1069–1071 management and stocking rate, cost planning, 2372–2374 1977–1981 description, 2365 plant reproduction, 1970 environmental considerations, 2374 range plants, 1969 forest roads, 2377–2379 systems, 1978–1979 issues, 2366 Great apes, 2246–2249 native forests, 2366–2368 Green chipping, 2468 planning levels, 2371 Greenness index, 384 planted forests, 2368–2369 Greenpeace, 2210 process steps, 2365 Green Value tool, 2953–2955 soil compaction, 2376 application, 2956–2957 soil erosion, 2374–2375 for financial analysis, 2954 waterbody protection, 2375 mixed cooperative of Tapajós National wood transport, 2379–2383 Forest, 2959–2966 wood utilization, 2376 Index 3615

Harvesting costing Herringbone system, 1474 assets, 2504–2505 Hevea brasiliensis, 1345 basic requirements, 2490 Hieronyma alchorneoides, 1346–1347 case study, 2512–2516 Hillside route, 2318 economic analysis, 2505–2507 Holistic pest management, 1038–1039 fixed costs, 2491–2497 Homegardens, 2036–2038 machine and equipment costs, 2507–2509 Hopea seminis, 1347 machine and equipment information, 2491 Hot system, 2461 operation, 2509 Hottest ecozone, 344 reference period, 2509–2512 HP-1, 3183 variable costs, 2497, 2503 Huber’s equation, 693 Harvesting system Human induced disturbances, forest, 12 clearcut, 2454–2455 Human performance, 2535 combination process, 2458–2460 Human population growth, 2178 cool system, 2461 Human pressures, 1695 cut-to length system, 2462–2464 Human resource management economic aspects, 2452 controlling, 2526 environmental considerations, 2449–2451 directing/leading, 2526 eucalypt plantation, 2478–2482 organization, 2526 full tree system, 2464–2465 planning, 2525–2526 group selection system, 2457 staffing, 2527–2529 hot system, 2461 training and motivation, 2529–2532 infield wood chipping, 2467–2469 Human-wildlife conflict, 2189 legal and administrative aspects, 2451–2452 Humid climate type, 406–409 native forest, 2470–2478 Hunter and fisher organizations, 2211 operational aspects, 2452–2453 Hydraulic conductivity, 534 seed tree system, 2457 Hydrological cycle, 393–399 shelterwood system, 2457 Hydrological Ecosystem Services single tree selection, 2456–2457 (HES), 1907 thinnings, 2455–2456 Hydrology, 1729, 1738–1739, 1741 tree length, 2466–2467 Hydromorphic soils whole tree, 2469–2470 fluvisols, 227–231 wood utilization, 2451 gleysols, 231–234 Harwarder, 2426–2427 histosols, 234–237 Hauling, 2398 planosols, 237–240 Hauling damage, 2849 retisols, 244–248 Haustoria, 2570, 2591 stagnosols, 240–244 Hazel Growth, 2831–2836 Hygiene control, 2595–2596 H/D ratio, 2786–2787 Hygrothermal Altitudinal Belts, 298–301 Heart rate monitor, 3226 Hyper-accumulators, 1595 Heat Hypersensitivity, 2592 budget, 341–342 crack, 2870 equator, 344 I isolation, 978 ICCA Consortium, 3463 stroke, 3247 Illegal logging, 73–77, 3535–3537 Heavily degraded forest, 1569–1571 Image interpretation, 639 Heavy crown thinning, 1500 Immobilization, 1131 Helicopter logging, 2429–2430 Imperata cylindrica, 1465 Hemiepiphytes, 2856 Improved fallows, 2025 Hemiptera, 2610–2613 In situ conservation, 2260–2261 Herbicides, 1495 In situ gene conservation, 908 Herbivory, 506–507 Inbreeding, 933, 941 3616 Index

Incentive systems, for tree plantations. See Tree Inter-American Development Bank plantation incentive system (IDB), 3424 Incoming radiation, 341 Inter-American human rights system, INCOTERMS, 3178 3456–3458 Increment, 1804, 1807–1812, 1822 Intercept ditch, 2309 information, 1508 Interference, 639 zones, 2801, 2811, 2824–2826 Intergovernmental Forum on Forests Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), 320 (1997–2000), 67–68 Indian rab method, 1478 Intergovernmental Panel on Forests Indigenous languages, 3315 (1995–1997), 67 Indigenous peoples Intermediary organisations, 3051 Aborigines of Australia, 3325–3328 Intermediate seeds, 1083 Batwa, 3318–3320 Internal rate of return (IRR), 2001, definition, 3312–3314 2505, 2884 distinctive features, 3314–3317 International Accreditation Forum (IAF), 3575 Juan Melillanca Naguian Indigenous Park, International basin commissions, 1874 3334–3337 International Center for Research in Karen, 3320–3322 Agroforestry, 859 local community conserved territories and International Convention on the Elimination of areas, 3329–3334 all Forms of Racial Discrimination Mapuche-Williche, 3322–3325 (ICERD), 3455 recommendations for fieldwork, International conventions, 57 3337–3341 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 3456 REDD initiatives, 3328–3329 International Covenant on Civil and Political Indonesian forest law, 3465 Rights (ICCPR), 3455 Indonesia, tree plantation incentive systems International Covenant on Economic, Social in, 1536 and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), 3455 INDUFOR’s analysis, 1443 International Finance Corporation (IFC), 3424 Industrial roundwood (logs), 3149–3153 International Institute for Environment and Infield wood chipping, 2467–2469 Development (IIED), 2249 Information and knowledge management International Labor Organization (ILO), 2532 (IKM), 3114 Convention No. 169, 3451–3452 Infrastructure policies, 3409–3410 Internationally–traded tropical NTFPs, 2724 Ingrowth, 818 International Organization for Standardization Injury, wood, 2776–2778 (ISO), 3171 Inland water systems, 2181 International processes, tropical forestry, Innertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), 57–73 288, 380 International standard ISO 12465, 3184 Insects, 2737 International standard ISO 24294\:2013 Institute of Chartered Foresters (ICF), 3562 Timber–Round and Institutional and legislative framework, 3032 sawntimber–Vocabulary, 3173 Institutionalization, 3381 International standard ISO 2426–2, 3184 Insurance costs, 2495–2496 International Timber Trade Organization Integrated pest management (ITTO), 2969 case studies, 2642 Statistics Database, 3200 description, 2641 International thematic monitoring programs, eucalyptus gall wasp, 2646–2648 2202–2203 mahogany shoot bores, 2643, 2646 International tropical forest policy Integrated Water Resources Management Australian Illegal Logging Prohibition Act (IWRM), 1874–1876, 1898 (ILPA), 3419–3420 Interagency backing, 3440 CITES, 3420 Inter agency coordination, 3434 deforestation and forest degradation, Inter-Agency Support Group (IASG), 3453 3413–3416 Index 3617

FLEG program, 3417 K FLEGT, 3417–3418 Kangaroo harvest, 2229 law enforcement initiatives, 3416 Karen US Lacey Act, 3418 burning, 3322 International Tropical Timber forest products, 3322 Organization, 1607 land use, 3321–3322 International Tropical Timber Trade Agreement Kenya Forest Service (KFS), 1903 (ITTA), 2250 Key biodiversity areas International Union for Conservation of criteria and thresholds, 2265 Nature (IUCN), 3460 definition, 2264 International Union of Forest Research identification, 2268 Organizations (IUFRO), Khaya 3562, 3568 K. ivorensis, 1350–1351 International Wood Products Association K. senegalensis, 1351–1352 (IWPA)’s Lumber Products Koala Problem, 2251 Committee, 3176 Korea Forest Service (KFS), 3566 Interseeding, 1987 Köppen–Geiger map, 295 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), Kruger National Park, 2207–2208 304–307 Kyoto Protocol, 3059 Intertropical front (ITF), 384 Intervention logic, 3110 Intervertebral discs, 3264 L Invasive plant species, 2182 Labor costs, 2496–2497 Invasive species, 12, 932 Labor legislation, 2451 Inventory maps, 2314 Lacey Act, 3126 IPF/IFF processes, 68 The Land expectation value (LEV), 2883 Iron pans, 1487 Land and property rights, 2226 Irrigation, 1027–1030 Land characteristics, 1849–1850 ISO Technical Committee (TC) Land conversion, 420 218, 3171 Land-cover inventories, 757 Isoperimetric deficit, 691 Land-cover maps, 2314–2315 Isoptera, 2609–2610 Land evaluation study, 1859 ITTO. See International Timber Trade Land expectation value (LEV), 2928 Organization (ITTO) Land Law Reform Processes, 3467 IUFRO Special Programme for Developing Land productivity, 1900 Countries (IUFRO–SPDC), 3562 LANDSAT, 574–577, 580–581, 590 IWPA Procurement standard, 3183 images, 577, 581–583 and MODIS, 577, 581–583 Landsat 8 (LDCM), 557 J Land Suitability Assessment for Tree Species, Jacaranda Bangladesh, 1865–1866 J. arborea, 1348 Land tenure, 2004–2005, 3032 J. copaia, 1348–1349 Land-use J. mimosifolia, 1349–1350 amplifier, 3071 Japanese deer hunting culture, 2232 decisions of, 1837 Japanese guidelines, 3184–3185 defined, 1838–1839 Japanese standards, 3182 environmental, social and economic Japan’s residential housing, 3145 analysis, 1854–1855 Joint Forest Management (JFM) agreements evaluation for forestry, 1840–1859 in India, 3492 forestry, 1838 Juan Melillanca Naguian Indigenous Park, inventories, 757 3334–3337 Land-use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) Juvenile selection effect, 1624 sector, 3059 3618 Index

Land-use (cont.) Low water crossings, 2349–2351 matching and physical suitability Lubricant costs, 2502 classification, 1852–1854 Lying and standing deadwood, 868 model, 1782–1783 Lysiloma latisiliquum, 1354–1355 planning, 1837, 1839, 1859 requirements, 1848–1849 selection, 1857–1859 M Lane pruning, 1505 Machine stress grading, 3179 LANWRUA, 1912 Macropores, 1012 Laterites, 1487 Maesopsis eminii, 1355–1356 Lateritic materials, 2338 Main forest roads, 2309 Latin America, 3503–3504 Malaysian Grading Rules (MGR), 3176 Latitude, 1210 Malaysian Standard (MS 228) Plywood- Law Enforcement Assistance for Forests Specification, 3181 (LEAF), 3548 Management Layering, 1106–1108 definition, 2524 Leaf area index (LAI), 650–651 hierarchical structure, 2524 Learn-curve, 2532 (see also Human resource Legal management rights, 3491, 3495–3498 management) Legal regulations, 1001 plan preparation, 1826–1832 Lepidoptera, 2614–2619 rights, 16, 3488 Leucaena leucocephala, 1352–1353 Mangrove management, 1745–1747 Lianas, 1623, 1630 afforestation, 1744–1745 Liberation thinning, 1629 conservation, 1732–1734 Light and temperature, 1010–1011 economic assessment and valuation, Light crown thinning, 1500 1748–1750 Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR), integrated planning for, 1727–1728 564–565, 641–642, 653, 2313 monitoring, 1750–1752 application, 648–654 planting, 1734–1735 costs, 653–654 reforestation, 1735–1736 data processing, 642–648 rehabilitation, 1737–1739 Light intensity, 1967 restoration, 1739–1744 Lightly degraded forest, 1567–1568 site assessment, 1737 Limbiness, 2806–2812 Mangroves Limb Scars, 2806, 2812–2819 damage, 1707 Line Intersect Sampling (LIS) method, replacement, 1715, 1720 869–870 structure, 1704, 1707, 1717 Line seeding, 1479 Manilkara, 2740 Lipids, transport and storage, 535–536 Manual bucking, 2400 Liquid fertilizer, 1033 Manual hauling, 2413 Liquidambar styraciflua, 1353–1354 Manual weeding, 1494–1495 Livelihood improvement, 1901–1902 Mapuche-Williche Livestock connection with nature, 3323 nutrition and feeding of, 1989–1995 forest and biodiversity, 3324 water and salt, 1987–1988 water and soil, 3324–3325 Living fences, 2030 Marakina Watershed Reservation, Philippines, Loading 1860–1862 manual, 2435–2438 Market demand crisis management, mechanized, 2438–2439 3205–3206 primary forests, 1624–1626 Market intelligence, 3200 Long-distance water transport, 531–534 Maslow’s theory, 2556–2557 Long-term CERs (lCERs), 3062 Mating system, 901–902 Low-profile hacked forests (deforestation), 1571 tropical tree species, 897–903 Index 3619

Mature soils Mineral nutrients, 1031–1032 acrisols, 177–180 Mini skidders, 2421 alisols, 180–183 Minimally controlled environments, ferralsols, 167–172 1007–1008 lixisols, 180–183 Minimum area requirements nitisols, 172–177 ecological and biological corridors, plinthosols, 163–167 2275–2276 Maturity indices, 964 fragmentation and edge effects, McLeod, 3253 2272–2275 Mean annual increments (MAIs), 2880 minimum ecosystem sizes, 2270–2271 Mean annual precipitation, 1211 species survival requirements, Measurement errors, 830–831 2269–2270 Mechanical availability, 2512 Mining, 2183–2184 Mechanical stress, 2774 oil and gas policies, 3410–3411 Mechanical support, 534–535 Mining area rehabilitation, 1588–1596 Mechanical thinning, 1499–1500 for topsoil, 1591 Mechanical weeding, 1495 revegetation options, 1594–1596 Mechanization, 1456, 2456 site analysis, 1590–1591 Mechanized loading, 2438–2439 site preparation, 1592–1594 Medium degraded forest, 1568–1569 steps for, 1597 Melaleuca leucadendra, 1356–1357 vegetative/bioremediation measures, Melia azedarach, 1357–1358 1591–1592 Mesoamerica, 3542–3543 Mirror reflection method, 820 Mesquite tree, 2183 Mistletoes, 2588 Meta analysis, on tropical forestry Mitigation, 2073, 2075–2076, 2078 bivariate probit model, 3007–3008 Mixed pixel, 552 coding the data, 2998–3001 Mixed tree plantations consensus–building over time, 3002–3003 definitions, 1550–1551 correlation matrix, 3006 high value species, 1552–1554 histograms of highly significant variables principal species, 1552 from, 3011 principal steps, 1552 multinomial logit model, 3003–3007 spacing and mixture regimes, problem definition, 2995–2996 1555–1558 publication bias, 3001–3002 species selection, 1554–1555 research synthesis, 2990–2993 Model-based estimation, 780 reviewing literature on deforestation, Model-dependent approach, 806–807 2993–2995 Modeling agroforestry systems, 2088–2090 search protocol, 2997 Moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer selecting observations, 2997–2998 (MODIS), 556, 575–577, variable of interest, 3001 580–583, 595 Microclimate improvement, 2045–2046 LANDSAT and, 577, 581 Microirrigation, 1030 satellite images, 581 Microorganisms, 2767 Moderator, 3353–3354 beneficial, 1035–1038 Modoki, 320 Micropores, 1012 Moisture content, 977–986 Microscale planning, 2389–2390 Molybdenum, 1145 Milicia excelsa, 1358–1359 Monitoring, 1103–1105, 1750–1752, 2637 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 66 Monocultures, 2015–2018, 2370 Mineral deficiency and toxicity Monogenic resistance, 2592 causes and occurrence of, 1136–1137 Monsoon, 383 deficiency symptom identification guides, system, 306–311 1140–1145 Morella pubescens, 1359–1360 symptoms of, 1137–1140 Motor manual bucking, 2402–2403 3620 Index

Motor manual debarking, 2402 Natural forests Motor manual delimbing, 2401 biodiversity, 1769–1770 Motor manual felling, 2401–2402 carbon retained, 1769 Mouldings, 2801–2804, 2826 economics, 1771–1775 Movable vertebrae, 3264 land-use categories, 1766–1767 Mudholes, 2357 logging, 1770–1771 Mulching, 1488 timber yield, 1768 Multifunctional agriculture, 2075–2080 Natural growth, 2778 Multilateral financing, 3423–3425 Natural pruning, 1504 Multiple-use forestry management, 1847 Natural regeneration process, 1617–1618 Multipurpose trees, 2022 Natural world heritage, 2260 Multipurpose tree species (MPTS), 926 Nauclea diderrichii, 1362–1363 Multi-trunk trees, 2793 NCEP/NCAR data set, 449 Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI), 323 Necroses, 2840–2846 Muntingia calabura, 1360–1361 Neglected underutilized species (NUS), 2092 Musanga cecropioides, 1361–1362 Nematodes, 2587–2588 Mushrooms, 2735–2736 Neonicotinoids, 2185 Mycorrhizae, 2049, 2056, 2060, 2066 Net ecosystem exchange (NEE), 496 Mycorrhizal fungi, 1037–1038 Net ecosystem production, 496 Mycosphaerella leaf spot, 2578 Net present value (NPV), 2506–2507, 2882–2883, 2928 Net primary productivity (NPP), 494 N Newton’s formula, 693 N fixation, 2050, 2097 Neyman allocation, 800 Narco-traffic control, 3411 NGOs, 2210 Narrow valley bottoms, 2318 Nitrogen, 498–499, 1984 National forest inventory (NFI), 756 cycling, 1953 National Hardwood Lumber Association deficiency, 1144 (NHLA), 3176 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 1036–1037 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Noise-induced hearing loss, 3282 Administration (NOAA), 447 Non-carbon payments, 3429–3430 National Plant Protection Organizations Non-host resistance, 2591 (NPPO), 2594 Nonrooted cuttings, 1057 National reforestation program, 1544 Non-sampling errors, 828 National seed centres, 999–1000 Non-sampling inventory errors, 830–832 National tropical forest policy and legislation Non-timber forest products (NTFPs), 514 deforestation and maintenance of biocultural approach, 2747–2748 property, 3394 definition, 2716 forest ownership and utilization rights, dyes and tannins, 2740–2742 3394–3398 ecological values, 2725–2726 forest protection regulations, 3399–3400 economic values, 2720 forest use policies and regulations, food, 2737 3400–3404 forest management and conservation, functional classification, 3398–3399 2728–2733 National Water Resources Management governance of, 2743–2746 Strategy (NWRMS), 1903 gums, resins and latexes, 2739–2740 Nations Framework Convention on Climate international trade, 2724 Change (UNFCCC), 63 local livelihoods, 2722–2724 Native forest management planning, management practices, 2727–2728 2383–2388 medicines, 2737–2739 Native forests, 2366–2368 re-emergence of, 2718–2720 Natural disasters, 12 socio-cultural and nutritional values, Natural disturbance regime, 1612 2724–2725 Index 3621

subsistence, 2721–2722 Ovality, 2797–2798, 2801 training and education, 2747 Overgrazing, 1981 working definition, 2717 Overhead irrigation, 1030 Non-wood forest products removal, 15 Ownership, 16, 2228–2229 North American guidelines, 3184 of genetic material, 1001 Nursery management, 1045, 1060 Nursery site selection, 1049 Nutrient cycling, 2031, 2046, 2049–2050, 2054 P Nutrient use efficiency (NUE), Pachira quinata, 1365–1366 1124–1125 Packing and shipping, 1071 Nutrients immobilization, 1131 Pagos por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) Nutrients/nutrition, 2087, 3218 programme, 3042 costs, 1134 Palatability rating, 1976 NUE, 1124–1125 Pan European Forest Certification Council rainfall and tissues leaching, 1126 (PEFC Council), 3587–3589 residues mineralization, 1131 Parinari soil weathering, 1128 P. excelsa, 1366–1367 translocation of, 1125–1126 P. nonda, 1367–1368 Parkia biglobosa, 1368–1369 Parkinsonia aculeata, 1369–1370 O Participatory forestry extension approach, 3366 Objectively verifiable indicators Passive sensors, 551 (OVI), 3104 Passive systems, 856 Oceanic tropical islands, 2168–2170 Pastoralism, 2180 Ochroma pyramidale, 1363–1364 Paulownia tomentosa, 1370–1371 Octomeles sumatrana, 1364–1365 Payments for ecosystem services (PES), 2098 Official development assistance (ODA), 2878 additionality, 3052 Offsets, 1108 Costa Rican programme, 3049–3050 Oil exploration, 2184 definition, 3040 Oligogenic resistance, 2592 implementation essentials, 3043–3049 Ongrowth, 818 lessons-learnt, 3052–3054 Operational costs lake Naivasha watershed, Kenya, 1909 on monthly base, 2511 challenges, 1913 per hour, 2511–2512 impact/achievements, 1913 on yearly base, 2510–2511 implementation phase, 1912 Operational planning, 2371, 2385–2386, 3111 monitoring aspect, 1912 Operational /work plan, 3112 scale-up phase, 1912 Optical callipers, 708 scoping and feasibility study, 1909 Optical forks, 705 watershed description, 1909 Optical sensors, 554–561 participation, 3051–3052 Optical systems, 857 payments, 3050–3051 Optimization, 766 Piloting Forest, 3048 Optimized land–use diversification, 1780 principle, 3040 Optimum stocking rate, 2003–2004 Vittel water brand, 3044 Optoelectronic scanners, 2788 Peat moss, 1013 Organic fertilizers, 1031–1033 Peltophorum pterocarpum, 1371–1372 Organic production, 2036, 2088, 2093 Performance, 3020 Organic reserves, 1961 Pericopsis elata, 1372–1373 Orthodox seed, 977–978, 980, 1084 Periodicity, 935–936, 943 dormancy, 1084 Perlite, 1015 Outcrossing, 933, 941–942 Permanence, 3033–3034 Out-of-Roundness, 2797–2798 Permanent forest estate (PFE), 13 Outplanting window, 1058 Personal protective equipment (PPE), 2538–2539 3622 Index

PES. See Payments for ecosystem services (PES) Plantation species, in tropics, 1222 Pests, 12, 932, 952–953 Plantation-crop, 2034–2036 Pest-suppressive landscapes, 2094–2095 Planted forests, 2368–2369 Phosphorus, 498, 1984 deforestation, 1779–1781 deficiency, 1144 economic attractiveness, 1776–1779 Photographs, 1975 Plant exudates, 2851 Photo interpretation, 608–619 Plant functional types, 296 Photoperiod, 1968 Planting, 1728–1745 Phyllostachys edulis, 1373–1374 out young plants, 1998–1999 Physical flow tables, 2881 pits, 1471–1472 Physiological functions, wood, 530–536 Plant material collection, 456–459 Physiological needs, 2556 Plant nutrition and fertilization, 1030–1035 Physiological seed quality, 934 Plant nutrition, tropical forest. See Tropical Phytophthora cinnamomi, 2572 forest plantation and nutrition Phytoplasma, 2584 Plant retrogression, 1957–1960 Phytosanitary certificate, 1001, 3191 Plants and grazing, morphology of, 1968 Pigouvian approach, 3094 Plant spacing and density, 1999 Pillage of agriculture, 2180–2181 Plot expansion factor, 810 Pine wilt disease, 2587 Plotless cruising. See Point sampling Pink disease, 2579 Plywood, 3156–3157 Pinus, 1143–1144 Podocarpus milanjianus, 1397–1398 P. ayacahuite, 1374 Point sampling P. canariensis, 1375–1376 vs. fixed area plots, 817–818 P. caribaea, 1163–1164, 1376–1377 at forest edge, 818–820 P. caribaea var. bahamensis, 1377–1378 geometrical principle, 813–814 P. caribaea var. hondurensis, 1378–1379 instruments for, 816–817 P. cubensis, 1379–1380 tree selection, 815 P. devoniana, 1380–1381 Polarization, 638 P. elliottii, 1381–1382 Pollen dispersal, 888–893 P. greggii, 1382–1383 Pollination, 504–505 P. kesiya, 1383–1384 Polycyclic silviculture, 1618, 1628, 1630 P. latteri, 1384–1385 Polycyclic systems, 1652–1653, 1658–1665 P. merkusii, 1385–1386 Population, 778–780 P. montezumae, 1386–1387 Populus deltoides, 1398–1399 P. occidentalis, 1387–1388 POSDCoRB, 2525 P. oocarpa, 1388–1389 Post-stratification approach, 801–802 P. patul, 1506 Post-UNCED processes, 66–67 P. patula, 1389–1390, 1501, 1511 Potassium, 1984 P. pinaster, 1390–1391 deficiency, 1144 P. pseudostrobus, 1391–1392 hydroxide, 1088 P. radiata, 1392–1393 Potential evapotranspiration (PET), 399 P. roxburghii, 1393–1394 Potential Fuelwood Productivity, P. strobus, 1394–1395 Kenya, 1864 P. tecunumanii, 1395–1396 Poverty, 2179, 2225 Pioneer plowing, 1471 Power-driven borers, 1485 Pioneer species, 1619 Precipitation, 363–389, 396, 402, 442 Pitch pockets, 2867 climatology, 375 Pithecellobium dulce, 1396–1397 Precision, 772, 828 Plantation Pre-harvest inventory, 2367 management, 1999–2000 Preliminary cut, 2800 objectives and corresponding species Preplanting harrowing, 1471 profiles, 1206–1209 Prescribed burning, 2682, 2693–2699, 2702 species utilized in tropics, 1204–1205 Pre-stressing of wood, 2769 Index 3623

Preventive maintenance, 2497 qualifying areas for conservation, 2276–2277 Price trends, 3162 tools and approaches, 2277–2280 Primary forests, 10–11 Protective functions, tropical forests, 16 dry tropical and subtropical forests, 1574 Proteins, transport and storage, 535–536 tropical rain forest, 1567 Provenance, 924, 926–932 Primates, 2246 test, 905–907 Principal point, 554 Pruning Private mechanisms, 3035–3036 methods, 1505–1506 Probability sampling, 780–781 natural, 1504 Product quality standards, 3186 types, 1504–1505 Product safety standards, 3185 Prunus cerasoides, 1402–1403 Production forestry, 1846–1647, Psidium guajava, 1403–1404 1850–1852 Pterocarpus Production forests management, 39–42 P. dalbergioides, 1404–1405 Progeny test, 907–908 P. indicus, wilt of, 2585 Progress reporting, 3114 Public administration, 3436 Project cycle management (PCM), 3099 Public expenditure and revenue Project investment analyses collection, 17 activities and timing, 2878–2879 Public mechanisms, 3035 benefit-cost analysis, 2895 Public-private mechanisms, 3036 cost estimation, 2881 Pulmonary ventilation, 3224 data collection on production functions, Pulpwood transport, 2381 2879–2881 Pumice and cinder, 1015 discount rate, 2884–2885 Purchase costs, 2493 implementation, 2894–2895 Pure pixel, 552 monitoring, 2894–2895 Purity analysis, 985 physical and cash flow tables, 2881 Pyramid, 2796 project objectives and components, 2877 qualitative factors, 2889 quantitative capital budgeting criteria, Q 2882, 2884 Quality assurance (QA), 770–775 risk, 2889 Quality control (QC), 770–775 sensitivity analyses, 2889–2894 Quality declared seed (QDS), 1001 uncertainty, 2889 Queensland thinning method, 1500 yerba mate plantation, 2886–2889 Quercus spp., 2571 Propagation by cuttings, 1999 environments, 1007–1011 R protocol, 1062 Radarsat-2, 563 techniques, 1998 Radar systems, 857 Propagule collection, 1081–1082 SAR P-, L-, C-band, 562–563 Propagules, 1063 spectral characteristics, 561 Property costs, 2493 TerraSAR-X/TanDEM-X, 563–564 Proportional allocation, 800 RADAR Prosopis application in tropical forestry, 639–641 P. cineraria, 1399–1400 biomass saturation level, 640 P. juliflora, 1400–1401 change detection, 641 P. tamarugo, 1401–1402 image interpretation, 639 Protectants, 2597 interference, 639 Protected areas systems polarization, 638 conservation costs, 2281–2284 scattering, 638 in situ conservation, 2260–2263 side-looking, 637 management effectiveness, 2281 synthetic aperture, 637 3624 Index

Radiation, 372, 388 side-by-side comparisons, 2973–2979 turnover, 419 steps, 2970 Radiometric resolution, 552 Reducing emissions, 3020 Rail transport, 3187 Reducing emissions from deforestation and Railway transport, 2382 forest degradation (REDD), Raindrop, 381 2243–2246, 3066, 3094, 3456 Rainfall, 373, 1211 benefit-sharing, 3082 Rainfall distribution Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, diurnal, 373 3084, 3086 seasonal, 372–375 forest carbon, 3068–3072 spatial, 375 Forest Investment Programme, 3086–3087 Rainfalls, 372–375, 381, 386 leakage, 3082 altitudinal gradients, 385–389 measuring, reporting and verification, distribution of diurnal and seasonal, 3073–3075 372–375 permanence, 3083 intensities, 381–385 policy and strategy, 3072 Ramsar Convention, 2202 reference level, 3075, 3078 Range development projects, 2005 safeguards, 3078–3079 Range finders, 708 UN-REDD, 3087 Rangeland voluntary carbon market, 3088–3089 appraisals, 1971 Regional development banks, 3424–3425 and climax vegetation, tropical, 1957 Regional forest inventories, 757 condition, 1975–1976 Regional Integrated Silvopastoral Ecosystem development in tropics, 2002–2006 Management Project, 3046 ecology, 1950–1965 Regional processes, 71 improvement, 1981–1988 Regional volume functions, 724 inventory, 1971–1972 Rehabilitation, 1737–1739, 1741 management, 1971–1981 definition, 1562–1563 productivity, 1965–1971 of degraded forest sites, 1597–1598 types, 1943–1950 enrichment planting, 1598 Range plants forest degradation, 1568 grazing, 1969 mining areas, 1588–1597 phenology, 1966–1967 of mining sites, 1598–1601 physiology, 1966 plantation, 1569–1571 Range potential, 1976 recommended tree species, 1602 Rank proximity criterion, 808 re-seeding, 1572 Rattan plantation, 1487 tropical forests, 1578–1587 Reaction wood, 2790, 2796, 2797, 2799, 2806, Relascope, 707 2809, 2811 Relative humidity, 392–393 Readiness package, 3085 Remote sensing, 447, 572–576, 637, 1975 Recalcitrant seed, 965, 977–980, 1083 active sensors, 561–565 Receptive forestry extension approach, 3366 atmospheric scattering, 550 Reconnaissance inventories, 758 data acquisition, 547 Record keeping, 1073–1074 data analysis, 547 Recreation and tourism, forestry for, 1847 definition, 546 REDD. See Deforestation and forest electromagentic radiation and degradation (REDD) electromagnetic spectrum, 548–549 REDD initiatives, 3328–3329 missions and sensors, 565–566 REDD+ programs, 3413–3416 optical sensors, 554–561 Reduced impact logging (RIL), 512, 1626, passive and active sensors, 551 1770, 2365, 2449 photogrammetry, 609–610 bioeconomic models, 2980–2981 photographic interpretation, 610–619 financial comparison, 2971–2979 principal applications of, 566 Index 3625

radiometric resolution, 552 Runoff, 422–427 spatial resolution, 552 generation processes, 1927–1930 spectral resolution, 552 Ruts and gullies, 2356–2357 spectral response of vegetation, 550–551 temporal resolution, 552 Remuneration, 2528 S Representative Concentration Pathways Saffir-Simpson Scale (SSHS), 316 (RCPs), 432 Sample plots, 1974–1975 Reproduction, 934, 941 Sampling errors, 828 Reproductive strategy, 941–942 Sampling, seed, 984–985 Republic of Korea (ROK), 3562 Sampling with partial replacement, 824–828 Reseeding, 1984–1987 Sand, 1016 Resonance, 3291 Sandalwoods, 2589 Response patterns, 550 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Restoration, 1739–1744 (SPS), 3172 definition, 1562–1563 Sap feeder, 2633 Result chain concept, 3108–3109 Sarawak, 2179 Retrogression Sasumua dam watershed, 1891–1893 causes, 1957 Satellite images, 574–576 plant, 1957 availability, 576–577 secondary succession, 1959–1960 MODIS, 581–583 Revealed preference (RP) methods, 3031 Passive Sensors, 583–597 Revegetation, 1594–1597, 1985 Satellite images processing Rice hulls, 1015 supervised and unsupervised classification, Ridge crest, 2319 628–630 Rights and Resources Initiative (RRI), 3450 decision tree-based classification, 630–633 Ring shake, 2869 deterministic method classification Rio Declaration, Environment and algorithm, 625–626 Development, 62 object-based classification, 633–634 River transport, 3187 probability method classification algorithm, Road infrastructure, 2370 626–630 Road maintenance, 2361 training samples and spectral signatures, Road networks of Ecuador, 437 620–625 Road ransport, 2379–2380 Saturation, 640 Roadside ditch, 2309 Savannas, 482, 1945–1947 Road structure, 2334 Savanna woodlands, 1949 Root biomass. See Below–ground Sawdust, 1014 biomass (BGB) Sawmills, cost and profit functions, 2939–2941 Root climbers, 2857 Sawnwood, 3153–3155 Root cuttings, 1106 grading of, 3175 Rooted cuttings, 1058 non-structural, 3175 Rooting cuttings, 1016 structural, 3175 Rooting Sawnwood grading rules, structural, 3178 hormones, 1102 Scarification, 1086 types, 1100–1101 chemical, 1087 Root reserves, 1961 heat, 1087 Rootstock, 1058 Scattering, 638 Roseodendron donnell-smithii, 1405–1406 Schefflera morototoni, 1406–1407 Round cut, 2788, 2800 Schilfer shake, 2867 Roundwood and primary processed products Schinus molle L, 1407–1408 standards, 3172–3180 Schizolobium parahyba, 1408–1409 Roundwood transport, 2380 Sciages Avivés Tropicaux Africains (SATA) Royal Chitwan National Park, 2187–2188 grading rules, 3176 3626 Index

Score cards, 1976–1977 Shelterbelts, 2029–2030 Seasonal rainfall distribution, 372–375 Shelterwood systems, 2457 Seasonal timing of transport, 2307–2308 Shipment, 997 Seasonality, 935–936 Shipping Season costs, 3189 dry, 372, 384 documentation, 3191 wet, 373 methods, 3189 Secondary forests Shoot/stem cuttings, 1097–1099 definition, 1562–1563 Shorea roads, 2309 S. leprosula, 1412 silviculture, 1665–1667 S. parvifolia, 1413–1414 Secondary processed wood products (SPWPs), S. robusta, 1414–1415 3160–3162 S. smithiana, 1415–1416 Seed-borne pests, 952–953 Shoulder, 2308 Seed(s), 1055 Shovel logger, 2427–2428 cleaning, 976–977, 1085 Shrub woodlands, 1949 coverings (Mulch), 1094–1096 Shrublands, 1947–1948 dispersal, 505, 893–895, 945–948 desert, 1948 documentation, 970 Shuttle Radar Topography Mission dormancy and enhance germination, (SRTM), 563 1085–1089 Sidelap, 554 lot, 966, 971, 984 Silvicultural systems orchards, 925–926, 933, 943–944 applied, 1688–1691 predation, 506 arboricides, 1675–1676 propagation, 1016, 1082–1085 desired tree species, 1677–1678 sources, 923–934 diagnostic assessments, 1641–1647 supply system, 999 economic aspects, 1687–1688 testing, 961, 983–991 future crop trees, 1678–1679 trade, 996–1001 liana elimination, 1675 transfer, 996–1001 minimum harvestable diameter, 1674 weight, 985–986 potential crop trees, 1678–1679 Seed collection, 961 practices, 1684–1688 documentation, 970–971 tree marking procedure, 1679, 1684 genetic conservation, 971–972 tropical dry forests (see Tropical dry forests) planning, 962–967 tropical moist forests (see Tropical moist techniques, 967–970 forests) Seedling blight, 2568 in tropical secondary forests, 1665–1667 Seed production area (SPA), 924 undesirable tree species, 1675 Selective thinning, 1499 Silviculture, 1133–1135 Self-actualization, 2557 interventions, 2970 Self-regulation, 2217 management, 2453–2457 Semi-arid tropical soils. See Arid tropical soils: Silviculture in natural tropical forest Semicontrolled environments, 1009 (SNTF), 1606 Semihardwood cuttings, 1099 definition, 1606 Semi-humid climate type, 409–410 ecological basis, 1610–1624 Senna siamea, 1409–1410 goals, 1610 Sensory responses and palatability, 1993 sustainable management, 1624–1630 Sesbania Silvopastoral systems, 2031–2033 S. bispinosa, 1410–1411 Simarouba amara, 1416–1417 S. grandiflora, 1411–1412 Simple random sampling Shade management, 2082 advantages and disadvantages, 791 Shade-tolerant species, 1620 coefficient of variation, 786 Shelter wood system, 1655–1658 confidence interval, 786–787 Index 3627

population mean, 785 gravitation and relief, 113–114 proportions and percentages, 788–789 human activity, 117–121 ratio estimates, 789–790 igneous rocks and their minerals, 100–101 sample size, 790–791 metamorphic rocks and their minerals, standard deviation, 785 101–108 standard error, 786 sedimentary rocks and their minerals, 101 types, 784 time, 121 variance, 785 water, 114 Single Administrative Document (SAD), 3192 Soil formation processes, 123 Single species plantations, 1551 clay formation, 126–130 Single tree selection, 2456–2457 hydromorphic features, 151–154 Sinkers, 2382 lessivation, 143–147 Site assessment, 1737 litter decomposition, humification and Site-source matching, 926 carbon stocks, 133–138 Skidder, 2423–2424 oxide and hydroxide formation, 130–133 clambunk, 2424–2425 podzolization, 147–151 mini, 2421 salinization, calcification, sodification and Skidding operation, 2473 silification, 141–143 Skid roads, 2309 soil erosion, 156–158 Skid trails, 2309 soil structure, 158–160 Slash bundler, 2434 turbation, 139–141 SLIMF certification, 3582 weathering, 123–126 Sloping terrain, 812 Soil health, 2093–2094 Smalian’s formular, 693 Soil moisture, 352, 1967 Small and medium-sized enterprises Soil nutrients, 496–498 (SMEs), 3148 Soil organic carbon (SOC) assessment Small pilot nursery, 1048–1049 techniques Smoke, 1088 bulk density, 865 Snedding, 2401 concentration in soil sample, 866 Soaking, 1087–1088 needs and approaches, 863–864 Social institutions, 3315–3316 soil carbon density, 864 Social needs, 2557 soil carbon inventories, 865 Socio-economic environment, 2005 Soil sterilants, 2598 Sodium arsenite, 1467 Soil survey, 259, 263 Softwood cuttings, 1099 Soil weathering, 1128 Soil and foliar analysis Soil-drill tractor, 1477 correlation analysis, 1157 Solar radiation, 334–335 critical level approach, 1158–1160 Southeast Asia, 3543–3546 DRIS system, 1160, 1162 South-east monsoon, 311 plot selection, size and description, 1147–1149 Southern Ecuador, 438 possibilities and limitations, 1145–1147 Sowing sampling and analysis, 1150–1156 direct, 1091–1092 site and soil description, 1149–1150 germinants, 1092–1093 Soil and water conservation, 1899 seeds, 1090–1091 Soil compaction, 2376, 2450–2451 Spathodea campanulata, 1417–1418 Soil conditions, 1214 Spatial genetic structure, 896–897 Soil conservation, 2038–2040 Spatial resolution, 552 Soil degradation, 2016 Species extinction, 2256, 2263–2264 Soil erosion, 422–427, 2374–2375, 2449–2450 Species files, 1228 Soil fertility, 2046–2049 Species identification process, 452 Soil formation factors equipments for field work, 453–456 biotic factors, 114–117 forest inventory, 466–470 climate, 108–110 lab work, 461–463 3628 Index

Species identification process (cont.) Striking, 1103–1105 material collection, 456–459 Strip cleaning, 1462 Species master list, 1222–1223 Strip pruning, 1505 Species selection, 1597–1602 Stroke delimber, 2409–2411 climate change, safeguards for, 1216–1217 Stumpage, 2881 experiences, 1205–1206 Stumping, 1463 plantation species utilized in tropics, Sub-Catchment Management Plans 1204–1205 (SCMP), 1903 process, 1206–1219 Subdrains, 2309 selection process, 1205 Subgrade, 2308 Species survival requirements, 2269–2270 Subirrigation, 1030 Spectral reflectance curve, 550 Sub-soiling, 1471 Spectral resolution, 552 Succession Spirituality and belief systems, 3315 definition, 1954–1955 Stacked wood, 695–698 primary, 1955–1956 Staffing, 2526 secondary, 1956 definition, 2527 Succulents, 380 remuneration, 2528 Sulphur deficiency, 1144 training benefits, 2527–2528 Summer monsoons, 306 Stakeholder identification and Surface and Soil Temperature, 352–354 engagement, 1882 Surface course, 2309 Standard performance, 3235 Surrogate species concepts, 2267 Standards Sustainable forest management, 63–64 formaldehyde emission, 3184–3185 and conventions, 65–67 furniture, 3185–3186 criteria and indicators, 71–73 in international context, 3171–3172 Sustainable forest management (SFM), 50, 512, principles, 3170–3171 546, 1608 roundwood and primary processed definition, 1765 products, 3172–3173 financial viability, 1765 technical and environmental, natural forests, 1766–1776 3170–3186 planted forests, 1776–1781 veneer and plywood, 3180–3181 tropical forests, 1782, 1789 Stand climate. See also Microclimate, 415 Sustainable intensification, 2082–2086 Stand-replacing disturbance regimes, 1612 Sustainable land management (SLM), 1900 Standing stem harvesting, 2429 environmental protection, 1901 Stated preference (SP) methods, 3030 land productivity, 1900–1901 Statistical approach, sampling livelihood improvement, 1901–1902 designs, 809 Sustainable management, 754 Stem burls, 2848 Sustainable timber plantations, 514–515 Steppe soils, 248–249 Swietenia Steppe vegetation. See Shrublands S. macrophylla, 1165, 1418–1419, 1479 Sterilant chemicals, 2597 S. mahagoni, 1419–1420 Stick-type angle gauge, 813 Symbionts, 2066–2067 Stockholm Conference, 57 Synovial joints, 3262 Stocking rate, 1977–1981 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 562, 637 economic returns, 1980–1981 Synthetic fertilizers, 1032 livestock production, 1980 Systematic sampling Stocks, carbon, 24–27 advantages and disadvantages, 793 Strategic planning, 2371 description, 791–792 Strategic Research and Innovation estimation procedures, 792 Agenda, 3561 Systematic thinning, 1499, 2455 Stratus clouds, 368–369, 371 Systemic diseases, 2582, 2586 Stress crack, 2867–2872 Syzygium cumini, 1420–1421 Index 3629

T Tidal wetlands, 1707, 1718–1719 Tabebuia Tie-ridging, 1478 T. heterophylla, 1421–1422 Tiger conservation, 2246 T. rosea, 1422–1423 Timber Legality Assurance Systems (TLAS), Tamarindus indica L., 1423–1424 82, 84 Tamarix aphylla, 1424–1425 Timber production, 35–38 Tannins, 1994, 2740–2742 Timber quality, 693 Tapajós National Forest, 2959–2961 Timber specifications, 3191 Taper, 2786–2789, 2792 Titrimetric determination method, 866 functions, 719 Toona ciliata, 1434–1435 Target moisture content, 986 Topography, 734, 2369 Target population, 770 LiDAR system, 641 Task planning, 2371 Total cost (TC), 2927 Taungya, 2033–2034 Total economic value, 3029–3030 Taungya plantation system, 1463 Total revenue (TR), 2928 Taxodium distichum, 1425–1426 Tourism industry, 2187 Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), 3172 Trade and market forecasting, 3202–3205 Tecoma stans (L.), 1426–1427 Trade wind, 371–373 Tectona grandis, 1144–1145, 1165–1166 Trade winds, 304 Tectona grandis, 1496, 1510 Trading mechanisms, 3037 Tectona grandis L.f., 1427–1428 Training materials, 2087 Teleomorph, 2565 Transit services, 3188 Tele-relascope, 707–708 Transition zone, 287 Temperature, 1210, 1967 Transpiration, 399–403, 493 Temporal resolution, 552 Transplanting, 1016, 1103–1105 Temporary CERs (tCERs), 3062 Transplanting emergents, 1093–1094 Temporary deforestation, 420 Transport, 997–998 Tendrils, 2857 direction, 2303 Tenure regimes, 3493–3495 Transportation, and illegal trade, 3195–3196 Terminal control points, 2319 Transportion, wood products Terminalia cost of, 3186 T. amazonia, 1428–1429 export services and methods of, 3186–3187 T. brassii, 1429–1430 Travel way, 2308 T. catappa L., 1430–1431 Tree breeding, 904–908 T. ivorensis, 1431–1432 Tree climbing, 963–964, 970 T. superba, 1432–1433 Tree domestication, 2057–2060 Terra nullius, 2227 Tree length harvesting system, 2466–2467 Terracing, 1472 Tree marking, 1679–1684 Terrestrial laser scanners (TLS), 858 Tree plantation incentive system Texture, 2796 environment, 1540 Therapeutants, 2597 financing, 1539–1540 Thermal seasons, 291 identifying regions for, 1543 Thermoisopleths, 349–354 Indonesia, 1536–1538 Thigmotropism, 2590 investment, 1533–1534 Thinning issues hindering in, 1539–1540 decision for, 1498–1499 laws, policies, and national forestry objectives, 1497–1498 strategies, 1543–1544 operation, 1500–1504 market policies, 1539 selective, 1499–1500 national objectives of, 1542 systematic, 1499 national reforestation program, 1544 Thunderstorms, 313, 380, 389 philosophy of, 1532–1533 Thyrsostachys siamensis, 1433–1434 policy, 1539 Tidal forests, 1698, 1702 principles of, 1533 3630 Index

Tree plantation incentive system (cont.) savannas and open woodlands, 2673–2676 reforestation incentive program, 1544–1545 seasonal forests, 2668–2671 requirements for, 1542 short-term climate oscillations, 2661 success factors, 1538–1539 tropical planted forests, 2676–2677 in Uruguay, 1535–1536 Tropical forest(s) Tree plantations, in tropics allometric models, 846 area design, 1450 altitude, 485–486 characteristics, forestation activities, animals, ecological role, 504 1510–1519 annual change rates, 9–10 demand for forest plantations, 1444–1446 biogeography, 486 direct sowing, 1475–1481 change in area, 19–23 ecological effects, 1519–1520 classification, 481 field layout, 1454–1455 classifications, 480 forestation area, 1443–1444 climate and soils, 484–485 increment information, 1508 CO2 emissions, conservation costs and food map scales, 1450–1452 production, 1785–1786 mechanization, 1456 disturbance history, 483–484 operations, 1482–1492 drainage, 485–486 planning procedure, 1446–1449 ecological restoration, 515 site preparation, 1457, 1475 ecology, 475 spacing, 1452–1454 extent, 6–10 success project factors, 1519 farm-level consideration, 1787–1788 tending operations, 1492, 1508 forest dynamics, 486–487 wildling utilization, 1481 forest plantation, 2388–2391 Tree ring, 2791, 2799, 2801, 2804, 2811, fragility, 516 2820–2826, 2831 growing stock, 10 Tree species diversity, 1613–1615 hydrological impacts of clearance and Trigonometric principle, 713 conversion in, 1930–1931 Triloader, 3242, 3300 inundation, 485–486 Triplochiton scleroxylon, 1435–1436 land-use model, 1782–1783 Tropical boundaries, 289 phenology, 483 Tropical climate, 285–288 physiognomy, 483 classification systems, 294–297 protective functions, 16 climate change, 429–443 rainfalls, seasonal distribution, 7 Tropical cyclones, 313–320 rehabilitation, 1578–1587 Tropical deciduous forests, 1566 simulated land–use distribution, 1783–1785 Tropical dry forests trade-offs, 1786–1787 composition, structure, dynamics and topography, 485–486 economic value, 1668–1669 tropical ecology, 512 coppice systems, 1672–1673 tropical regions, 5, 7–8 restoration measures, 1671 types, 1566 silvicultural objectives, 1670 Tropical forest market silvicultural tasks, 1670 carbon markets, 3135–3136 site, 1667–1668 certified products, 3133–3134 tree species, 1669–1670 climate and energy policies, 3127–3129 Tropical fire ecology consumer market trends and drivers, charcoal layers, 2660 3140–3149 climatic fluctuations, 2661 economic stimulus–related policies, environmental impacts, 2677–2679 3130–3131 evergreen equatorial rain forest ecosystems, environmental–related policies, 2664–2668 3129–3130 fire climax pine forests, 2671–2673 production, consumption and trade trends, lightning, 2662 3149–3163 Index 3631

society participation, 3164–3166 Tropics, climatic characteristics, 1923 trade-related policies, 3118–3127 Truck, 3187 wood energy, 3132 True forks, 2793, 2795 Tropical forest plantation and nutrition Twiners, 2857 amelioration, 1166–1168 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic, acid, 1467 burning vegetation and residues, 1131–1133 Two-phase sampling ecological stages, plantation age and with regression estimators, 803–806 plantation density, 1122 stratification, 805–806 fertilization (see Fertilization) Two-stage cluster sampling, 796–798 microorganisms, effect of, 1127–1128 mineral deficiency and toxicity (see Mineral deficiency and toxicity) U NUE, 1124–1125 UNCTAD, 3190 nutrient translocation, 1125–1126 UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous nutritional constraints and ecosystems peoples (UNDRIP), 3450, modification, 1116–1117 3452–3453 residue accumulation, 1128 UN Earth Summit, 3587 residues mineralization, 1128–1130 United Nations Conference on Environment silvicultural implications, 1133–1135 and Development (UNCED), soil and foliar analysis (see Soil and foliar 51, 1872, 1898 analysis) The United Nations Convention to Combat soil litter deposition, 1123–1124 Desertification (UNCCD), 63 soil quality, 1119–1120 United Nations Environment Programme tree species, 1120–1122 (UNEP), 61 understory vegetation, 1122 United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), 68 Tropical hardwoods, 3145–3146 United Nations Framework Convention on Tropical hardwood logs grading, 3173–3175 Climate Change (UNFCCC), 3456 Tropical hardwood machined lumber products United Nations Human Rights System, grading rules 1987, 3176 3454–3456 Tropical hardwood sawnwood grading, United Nations Millennium Development 3175–3180 Goals, 3566 Tropical moist forests United Nations Permanent Forum for primary forests, 1648–1649 Indigenous Issues (UBPFII), 2218 silvicultural goals, 1652 United Nations Programme on REDD silvicultural systems, 1652–1664 (UN-REDD), 3087 site, 1648 United Nations REDD+ Programme, 3426 tree species, 1649–1651 Universal Declaration of Human Rights Tropical montane cloud forests (TCMF), (UDHR), 3454 1931–1934 UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues Tropical mountains, 298 (UNPFII), 3453 Tropical nursery, planning, 1045–1060 Urban agriculture, 2067 Tropical rain forests, 1566 Urbanisation, 2183 in Chagres Panama, 1567 Uruguay, tree plantation incentive systemin, denuded/destroyed forest land 1535–1536 (deforestation), 1572 USA Lacey Act, 3418–3419 heavily degraded forest, 1569–1571 US Forest Products Module lightly degraded forest, 1567–1568 (USFPM), 3204 low-profile hacked forests (deforestation), 1571–1572 medium degraded forest, 1568–1569 V primary forest, 1567 Variable costs, 2497 Tropical tree species, 466. See also Species fuel costs, 2501–2502 identification process lubricant costs, 2502 3632 Index

Variable costs (cont.) Watershed, theoretical scheme of, 1920 maintenance and repair costs, 2497, Watershed assessment, 1883–1887 2499–2501 planning process, 1887–1888 tire and track maintenance costs, 2502–2503 Watershed management, 1898–1900 Variable plot cruising. See Point sampling in Africa, 1907–1908 Vegetation continuous fields (VCF), 675–677 environmental services concept, 1906–1907 Vegetation financing programmes, 1880–1881 fire, 2660, 2678 forest management in, 1878 indices, 664–666 in Kenya, 1903–1904, 1905 inventory, 1972 livelihoods and, 1877–1878 Vegetative propagation, 1096–1097 in Tanzania, 1904, 1906 Vehicle design, 2303–2304 monitoring and evaluation program, Veneer and plywood standards, 3180–3181 1889–1891 Ventilatory threshold, 3230 participatory, 1876–1877 Veranillo del Niño, 360 planning process, 1873, 1881–1882, Verbal communication, 3283 1888–1889 Verified emission reductions (VERs), 3088 policies, legal and institutional Vermiculite, 1015 framework, 1902 Vertex altimeter, 715 process, 1883–1884 Viability Sasumua watershed, Kenya, 1891–1893 estimation, 988–990 strategies and interventions, 1887–1888 and germination test, 987–988 Waterway transport, 2381–2383 seed maintainance, 973–974 Web networks, 2215–2216 Vines (lianas), 2856 Weeds, 1492 Virus diseases, 2586–2587 Weight/biomass, 1972 Visual grading, 3178 Weinmannia tomentosa, 1436 Viviparous seeds, 1083 West Africa, 3542 Voluntary carbon market (VCM), 3088–3089 Wet bulb temperature (WBT), 3252 Voluntary partnership agreements (VPAs), Wet digestion method, 866 81–83, 3125–3126 White chipping, 2468 White finger phenomenon, 3292 White rot fungi, 2580–2581 W Whole tree system, 2469–2470 Walker circulation system, 320–329 Wilde valley bottom, 2318 Warfare, 2185 Wildfire, 2664, 2665, 2673, 2677, 2682, 2690, Warm tropics, 286 2692, 2698, 2704 Warming, 429 Wildings, 1057 Warsaw Framework, 3067 Wildland fire, 2662, 2668, 2685, 2687, 2690, Washboarding, 2356 2693, 2702, 2704–2707 Water, 492–493 Wildlife charities, 2210 Waterbody protection, 2450 Wildlife management Water balance(s), 393, 395–399, in Africa, 2153–2159 406, 1212–1214 in Asia, 2159–2164 Water conservation, 1987 biodiversity, 2149–2150 Water cycle elements of, 2148–2149 of forests, 1919 firearms, 2151 tropical forests, 1923–1927 global change, 2150–2151 Water quality, 1024–1026 neotropics, 2164–2168 Water Resources Users Associations non timber forest product, 2150 (WRUA), 1903 oceanic tropical islands, 2168–2170 Watering, 1486 Wildlife Premium Market Initiative, 2245 Water scarcity, 1898 Wildlife trade, 2187–2189 Water Service Trust Fund (WSTF), 1908 Winches, 2421 Index 3633

Windbreaks, 2029–2030 manual and motor manual harvesting Wind dispersal, 893 operations, 2543–2548 Windrowing, 1465 PPE, 2538–2541 Witches’ broom, 2842, 2844–2846, 2848 safety features, 2539, 2542–2543 Withdrawal Rights, 3488 World Bank Group, 3423 Wood anatomy and hydraulic properties, 533 World Meteorology Organization, 446 Wood-based panels, 3156–3157 World Summit on Sustainable Development Wood characteristics, 2785–2836 (WSSD), 1899 Wood density, 725–726, 859 World Trade Atlas, 3200 Wood energy, 3132–3133 World Wide Fund for Nature Wood extraction (WWF), 3573 animal assisted extraction, 2417–2420 World Wildlife Day, 2212 bogies, trolleys and sulkies, 2416–2417 Wuyishan Biosphere Reserve, 2161–2162 gravity, 2413, 2415–2416 machines, 2423–2428 manual, 2413 X motor-manual extraction, Xylem-limited bacteria, 2585–2586 2420–2423 Woodpulp, 3157–3160 Wood removals, 13 Y Wood utilization, 2376 Yangambi classification, 1947 Woodlands, 482, 1950 Yanomani people, 2219 savanna, 1949 Yard in forest, 3193 shrub, 1949 Yerba mate plantation, 2886, 2887 Woody debris. See Deadwood Yield(s), 2000 Woody strata, 1963 Yield regulations Work motivation, 2530 data requirements, 1807 Working safety definitions, 1805–1806 cause analysis and prevention of accidents, lowland tropical forest, 1808, 1824 2535–2536 steps, 1807 decision taking, 2534 working circles, 1806–1807 employer and employees, responsibilities of, 2535 first aid, 2550–2551 Z forest harvesting operations, training in, Zanthoxylum rhodoxylum, 1437 2536–2538 Zinc, 1145 machines and equipment, maintenance of, Ziziphus spina-christi, 1437 2548–2550 Zoonotic disease management, 2204