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Chapter 19 The Trojan Saga and the

THE CHILDREN OF LEDA

LEDA [lee'da], wife of [tin-dar'e-us], king of , bore four children to Zeus, who appeared to her in the form of a swan. Polydeuces and Helen (who were immortal) were born from one egg, Castor and Clytemnestra (who were mortal) from the other.

Castor and Polydeuces. CASTOR [kas'tor], or KASTOR, and POLYDEUCES [pol-i-dou'seez], or POLYDEUKES, whose Roman name is POLLUX [pol'luks], were not part of the Trojan saga. They are known as the DIOSCURI [deye-os'kou-ree], or DIOSKOUROI (“sons of Zeus”) and Tyndaridae (“sons of Tyndareus”). Castor died in a quarrel with the sons of Aphareus, [eye'das] and LYNCEUS [lin'se-us], but Zeus allowed Polydeuces to share his immortality so that each brother was on Olympus or in Hades on alternate days. Castor was a horseman, Polydeuces a boxer. As gods they helped sailors, and they were especially honored at Sparta and at Rome.

Helen and . The most beautiful of women, HELEN had many suitors. She chose MENELAÜS [men-e-lay'us], or MENELAOS, as husband and bore HERMIONE [her-meye'o-nee] to him. The other suitors swore to help Menelaüs in time of need.

PARIS (also called ALEXANDER or ALEXANDROS), son of and Hecabe (), rulers of , seduced Helen and took her to Troy. To recover her and vindicate Menelaüs, the (Mycenaean ) raised an expedition to be led by . Another version says that Helen went to Egypt and spent the ten years of the there, while her phantom went to Troy.

The Judgment of Paris. Paris took Helen as a reward for judging Aphrodite to be more beautiful than Hera and Athena. All the Olympian gods, except ERIS [er'is], “discord,” were invited to the wedding of and (see MLS, Chapter 19). Eris appeared and threw on the table an apple inscribed with “For the most beautiful,” which was claimed by all three goddesses. They were brought by to Paris on Mt. Ida, where each promised him a reward if he judged her to be the most beautiful.

TROY AND ITS LEADERS AND ALLIES

Apollo and Poseidon built the walls of Troy for King LAOMEDON [lay-om'e-don], who cheated them of their reward. To punish him, sent a plague, and Poseidon a sea monster. Laomedon, obeying an oracle, exposed his daughter, [hee-seye'on-ee], to the monster, but she was saved by (see MLS, Chapter 22), whom Laomedon also cheated of his reward. Heracles attacked Troy with an army: he killed Laomedon and gave Hesione as wife to .

Priam and Hecuba. Laomedon’s son, , became king of Troy, changing his name to PRIAM [preye'am]. He had fifty sons and twelve daughters, nineteen of the children by his wife and queen, HECABE [he'ka-bee], whose Romans name is HECUBA [he'kyou-ba]. Of these, Paris and were the most important.

Paris and Oenone. Before the birth of Paris, Hecabe dreamed that she had given birth to a firebrand that consumed Troy. She exposed Paris on Mt. Ida, where he survived and became a shepherd. There he was loved by the nymph OENONE [ee-noh'nee], who had the gift of healing. Paris returned to Troy and was recognized by Priam as his son. In the Trojan War he was saved by Aphrodite from death in single combat with Menelaüs, and he killed by shooting him in the heel with an arrow. Years later, when Paris was mortally wounded, Oenone refused to heal him, and after his death she killed herself in remorse.

Hector, , and . HECTOR [hek'tor] was the leading Trojan warrior, inferior only to Achilles, who killed him in single combat. His wife was ANDROMACHE [an-drom'a-kee], who bore him a son, ASTYANAX [as-teye'a-naks]. and Deïphobus. Two other sons of Priam were HELENUS [hel'e-nus], or HELENOS, and DEÏPHOBUS [dee-if'oh-bus], or DEÏPHOBOS. Helenus was a seer, who was captured by the Greeks and spared by them. He married Andromache after Hector’s death and went with her to Epirus. Deïphobus married Helen after the death of Paris and was killed in the sack of Troy.

Cassandra and . Two of Priam’s daughters were [kas-sand'ra], or KASSANDRA, and POLYXENA [po-lik'se-na]. Cassandra was given the gift of prophecy by Apollo (see MLS, Chapter 11), who punished her for her refusal of his love with the fate that her prophecies would never be believed. She warned the Trojans in vain of the city’s fall and of the deception of the . She went to as part of Agamemnon’s spoils and there was killed by Clytemnestra (see MLS, Chapter 18). Polyxena was sacrificed at the tomb of Achilles after the fall of Troy.

Aeneas and . Other who were not sons of Priam were [ee- nee'as], or AINEIAS, and ANTENOR [an-teen'or]. Aeneas was son of Aphrodite and (see MLS, Chapter 9) and was saved by Poseidon from death in single combat with Achilles. He survived the war and led a band of survivors to Italy (for his saga, see MLS, Chapter 26). Antenor, brother of Hecabe (Hecuba), advised the Trojans to give Helen back to the Greeks. He and his wife, , were spared at the sack and eventually came to Italy.

Leading Allies of the Trojans. These were the Lycian princes, GLAUCUS [glaw'kus], or GLAUKOS, and SARPEDON [sar-pee'don]. Glaucus, son of Hippolochus, exchanged his golden armor for the bronze armor of and was eventually killed by Ajax. Sarpedon was son of Zeus, who could not save him from death at the hands of . Zeus honored Sarpedon by raining drops of blood and ordering Sleep and Death to transport his corpse back to Lycia. Late in the war the Ethiopians, led by MEMNON [mem'non], came to assist the Trojans, as did the Thracians, led by [ree'sus], or RHESOS, and the Amazons, led by [pen- thes-i-lee'a], or PENTHESILEIA.

THE

Agamemnon and Menelaüs. AGAMEMNON [ag-a-mem'non], “lord of men,” was the leader of the expedition. He was a lesser warrior than Achilles and less good in council than , but he was greater than both in prestige. His brother, MENELAÜS [men-e-lay'us], or MENELAOS, had less prestige and prowess, although he would have killed Paris in single combat if Aphrodite had not saved Paris.

Diomedes. Greater than Agamemnon and Menelaüs as a warrior was DIOMEDES [deye-o- mee'deez], son of and king of Argos. Diomedes was favored by Athena, who enabled him to wound even and Aphrodite in battle. With Odysseus he fetched Achilles from Scyros, before the expedition, and from Lemnos towards the end of the war. He accompanied Odysseus in the night raid that led to the deaths of and Rhesus and the theft from Troy of the Palladium (a statue of Athena that Zeus had cast down from Olympus: it was the guarantee of the city’s survival).

Ajax the Great, or Greater. AJAX [ay'jaks], or AIAS, son of TELAMON [tel'a-mon], was prince of Salamis and the most stalwart warrior after Achilles. He was the bravest defender of the ships against Hector’s onslaught, and he defended the corpse of Patroclus. He accompanied Odysseus and on the embassy to Achilles and competed with Odysseus in the funeral games for Patroclus and in the claim to the armor of Achilles.

Ajax the Less, or Lesser. AJAX [ay'jaks] or AIAS, son of [o-il'e-us], was prince of and a leading warrior whose chief role in the saga occurred in the sack of Troy, when he violated Cassandra, who had taken refuge at the altar of Athena. He died during the return home, having offended both Athena and Poseidon.

Idomeneus, King of . IDOMENEUS [eye-dom'en-e-us] was a friend of Menelaüs and was a leading warrior and counselor. His principal legend occurs after the fall of Troy.

Nestor, King of . Two leaders were especially prominent in the councils of war, Odysseus and [nes'tor], son of and king of Pylos, who had become king after Heracles had sacked Pylos (see MLS, Chapter 22). Nestor appears in the Iliad as an old and very experienced warrior whose advice, usually given at some length, was greatly valued by the younger leaders. His son, , was killed by Memnon, but Nestor himself survived the war.

Odysseus, King of Ithaca. The second great councilor and orator was ODYSSEUS [oh-dis'se-us] (ULYSSES), son of LAËRTES [lay-er'teez]. When the expedition was being gathered, he tried to avoid service by pretending to be mad, a ruse that was uncovered by [pal-a- mee'deez]. He rallied the Achaeans in Book 2 of the Iliad to stay and finish the war, and he asserted the status of the Achaean leaders by beating the sardonic [ther-seye'teez], who had spoken bluntly but inappropriately in the council of war. He led the embassy to Achilles, and he undertook the night expedition with Diomedes to take the Palladium from the Trojans. Important as he is in council and in fighting, his major legends concern the fall of Troy and his return home.

Achilles. Greatest of all the heroes on either side was ACHILLES [a-kil'leez], or ACHILLEUS, son of Peleus and Thetis and leader of the . He was the swiftest and most handsome of the warriors, invincible in battle and eloquent in council. His passionate nature caused him to withdraw, which did great harm to the Achaeans, and when he returned he turned the tide of the war in the Greeks’ favor. His mother had dipped him in the waters of the river Styx to make him invulnerable, so that only his heel (by which she held him) was vulnerable. The centaur [keye'ron] educated Achilles. Thetis tried to keep her son from going to a war, in which she knew he would die young, by hiding him, disguised as a girl, among the daughters of LYCOMEDES [leye- ko-mee'deez], or LYKOMEDES, king of the island of Scyros. His disguise was revealed by Odysseus and Diomedes, and he joined the expedition. On Scyros he loved DEIDAMIA [dee-i-da-meye'a], or DEIDAMEIA, by whom he was the father of .

Phoenix and Patroclus. Achilles had as friend and tutor PHOENIX [fee'niks] or PHOINIX (one of the envoys sent by Agamemnon to persuade Achilles to relent), and his closest friend was PATROCLUS [pa-tro'klus], or PATROKLOS, son of Menoiteus, who had been his companion as a boy. The death of Patroclus in single combat with Hector was the turning point in the events of the Iliad.

Neoptolemus. Achilles’ son, NEOPTOLEMUS [ne-op-tol'e-mus], or NEOPTOLEMOS (known also as PYRRHUS [pir'rus], or PYRRHOS), joined the Achaeans at Troy after the death of Achilles and played an important and brutal role in the sack of Troy.

THE GATHERING AT AND THE ARRIVAL AT TROY

The Achaeans gathered at AULIS [aw'lis], where contrary winds kept them from sailing. The prophet [kal'kas], or KALCHAS, said that Artemis had caused the unfavorable weather and could be appeased only by the sacrifice of [if-i-je-neye'a or if-i-je-nee'a], or IPHIGENEIA. Agamemnon sacrificed her, favorable winds blew, and the fleet set sail (see MLS, Chapter 18). At Aulis, Calchas interpreted two omens: an eagle devouring a pregnant hare—an omen symbolic of Agamemnon’s violence—and a snake devouring a bird and her eight fledglings—an omen meaning that the Achaeans would fight for nine years before capturing Troy in the tenth year.

Philoctetes. At the island of Chryse, during the voyage, PHILOCTETES [fi-lok-tee'teez], or PHILOKTETES, was bitten in the foot by a snake. The wound festered, and the Achaeans abandoned him on Lemnos. Philoctetes was son of Poeas, who had inherited the bow of Heracles, which was necessary (so the Trojan prisoner, Helenus, told the Greeks) for the capture of Troy. In the last year of the war, Odysseus and Diomedes fetched Philoctetes and his wound was healed by the sons of , and . With the bow, Philoctetes shot and killed Paris.

Telephus. The Greeks also landed in Mysia (an area of Asia Minor), where Achilles wounded the king, TELEPHUS [tel'e-fus], or TELEPHOS, son of Heracles. Advised by the Delphic oracle, Telephus went in disguise to the Greek camp at Troy, and there the wound was healed by scrapings from the spear of Achilles for, said the oracle, “he that wounded shall heal.”

Protesilaüs and Laodamia. The first Greek to leap ashore at Troy was PROTESILAÜS [proh-te-si- lay'us], or PROTESILAOS, who was killed by Hector. Hermes brought back Protesilaüs from the Underworld to his wife, LAODAMIA [lay-oh-da-meye'a], or LAODAMEIA, and when he had to return, she killed herself.

THE ILIAD

The events of the first nine years of the war were narrated in epic poems that are no longer extant. The Iliad is concerned with part of the tenth year. Its theme is “The Wrath of Achilles” (the first words in the poem), and its events start with the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the first book and end with the ransoming of Hector’s corpse by Priam and his burial in the twenty- fourth book.

The Quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon. The quarrel broke out over division of the spoils from raids on cities in Asia Minor. When Agamemnon had to give back his prisoner, CHRYSEÏS [kreye-see'is], because of the anger of Apollo (whose priest was the father of Chryseïs), he took BRISEÏS [breye-see'is], the prisoner of Achilles, in her place, thus insulting and devaluing Achilles in the eyes of the Achaeans. Achilles withdrew from the fighting, and his mother, Thetis, persuaded Zeus to honor Achilles by allowing the Trojans to be victorious in his absence.

The Role of the Gods. The gods have a prominent role in the The Anger of Achilles by J.-L. Iliad. Apollo (the first to appear) favors the Trojans; he helps David (1748-1825). This is the Hector kill Patroclus and later refreshes the corpse of Hector after moment where Agamemnon it has been dragged behind the chariot of Achilles. Athena and (R) shows his true intention to Hera support the Greeks, and Athena assists Achilles in his final Achilles (L), who draws his combat with Hector. Aphrodite protects Paris and compels Helen to sword in anger to strike make love to him after Aphrodite had saved him from death at the Agamemnon. hands of Menelaüs. Thetis comforts her son Achilles after his humiliation by Agamemnon and again after the death of Patroclus, when she obtains new armor for her son from Hephaestus. She brings the order from Zeus to Achilles to desist from desecrating Hector’s corpse and to give it back to Priam. Hermes escorts Priam through the Achaean camp. On two occasions the gods fight on the battlefield among themselves, and even are wounded (see above, under Diomedes).

The Role of Zeus. Supreme among the gods is Zeus. While he is constantly opposed by Hera (who deceives him into making love at one point, so that while he is asleep the Greeks may be successful), his will is supreme. He honors Achilles in response to the complaint of Thetis, and he resists the importuning of Athena and Hera, who are impatient at the continued success of the Trojans.

Hector and Andromache. In Book 6 Hector returns to Troy from the battlefield and there meets with Hecabe (Hecuba), with Helen and Paris, and finally with Andromache and their son, Astyanax. His parting from Andromache brings into sharp focus the loss that the survivors in the defeated city must bear, and it foreshadows his death and the mourning of Andromache in the last books of the poem.

The Embassy to Achilles. In despair at the Trojan successes, Agamemnon sends Odysseus, Ajax (son of Telamon), and Phoenix to offer gifts and honor to Achilles in restitution for the dishonor done to him, if he will return to the fighting. But Achilles refuses.

The Death of Patroclus. The friend of Achilles, Patroclus, persuades Achilles to let him fight in Achilles’ armor as the Trojans reach the Greek ships. He is victorious at first, killing Sarpedon, son of Zeus, but eventually is killed by Hector, with the help of Apollo. Hector strips the corpse of the armor of Achilles and puts it on.

The Return of Achilles to Battle. The death of Patroclus drives Achilles to relent; Thetis brings him new armor made by Hephaestus, including a splendidly decorated shield. He ends the quarrel with Agamemnon and returns to battle. Achilles kills countless Trojans and even fights the river-god Scamander, whose flooding waters are quenched by Hephaestus. Eventually the Trojans are penned into the city. Achilles and Hector. The two heroes are left to fight in single combat. Zeus weighs the fate of each in his golden scales, and Hector is doomed. Achilles kills him with a spear thrust in his throat. Each day for twelve days Achilles dragged Hector’s corpse behind his chariot round the tomb of Patroclus. He celebrated funeral games in honor of his dead friend and relented only when Zeus ordered him, through Thetis, to give up his wrath against Hector and to his body.

Priam and Achilles. Escorted by Hermes, Priam makes his way to the hut of Achilles and there ransoms Hector. The mutilation of Hector's corpse is perhaps the most extreme example of the passionate and violent nature of Achilles. Yet Achilles relents with magnanimity in relinquishing the corpse to Priam, who returns to Troy, and the Iliad ends with the lamentations of Andromache and Helen and the burial of Hector.

THE FALL OF TROY

Events after the end of the Iliad were narrated in epics (now lost) whose summaries survive in tragedies and in vase-paintings. Book 2 of Vergil’s Aeneid is the major source for the sack of Troy itself.

Achilles against Penthesilea and Memnon. Achilles killed the leaders of contingents that came to assist the Trojans—the Amazons, led by Penthesilea, and the Ethiopians, led by Memnon, son of Eos (Aurora, “dawn”).

The Death of Achilles. Achilles himself was fatally wounded in the heel by Paris. His corpse was recovered by Ajax (son of Telamon), and Thetis and her nymphs attended the funeral on the promontory of Sigeum. The ghost of Achilles conversed with Odysseus when he visited the Underworld. Achilles’ ghost demanded the sacrifice of Polyxena, daughter of Priam, at the tomb. Achilles (so some say) had loved her and was killed when meeting with her.

The Contest for the Armor of Achilles. Odysseus and the Greater Ajax, son of Telamon, each claimed the armor of Achilles, speaking to an assembly of Achaeans presided over by Athena. Trojan prisoners said that Odysseus had done them more harm, and he was awarded the armor. In shame, Ajax killed himself, and from his blood sprang a flower with AI on its petals (his name in Greek is Aias).

The Arrival of Neoptolemus and Philoctetes. Odysseus captured Helenus (the seer and son of Priam), who advised the Achaeans to summon Neoptolemus and Philoctetes (see above).

The Wooden Horse. The Achaeans left a wooden horse, built by Epeus, outside the walls of Troy and sailed away to Tenedos. Inside the horse were the leading warriors. Deceived by the Greek [seye'non], the Trojans pulled down part of the city wall to admit the horse, and then at night Sinon let the Achaean warriors out. Meanwhile the other Greeks sailed back and entered the city. Cassandra had warned against admitting the horse and was not believed. The priest of Apollo, LAOCOÖN [lay-o'koh-on], son of Antenor, hurled his spear at the horse and said it should be destroyed. The Trojans ignored his warning also, and watched as two serpents came from the sea and throttled Laocoön and his two sons.

The Fall of Troy. The Greeks sacked the city and killed its male inhabitants. Of the Trojan leaders, Antenor was spared, and Aeneas escaped. Priam was butchered by Neoptolemus, and Hector’s infant son, Astyanax, was thrown from the walls. Andromache became the slave of Neoptolemus (see above, and MLS, Chapter 18). Cassandra was raped by the Lesser Ajax, son of Oileus, in the temple of Athena, where she had sought the protection of the goddess, and was given as a slave to Agamemnon, who took her back to Mycenae, where she was killed by Clytemnestra (see MLS, Chapter 18).

The Fate of Hecabe (Hecuba). Hecabe began the voyage back to Greece as the slave of Odysseus. On the way she landed in Thrace and found the corpse of her son, Polydorus [po-li- dor'us], murdered by the local king, POLYMESTOR [pol-i-mes'tor]. She revenged herself by luring Polymestor and his children into her tent, where she murdered the children and blinded the king. She turned into a bitch, and her burial place (in Thrace) was called Cynossema, “the dog’s tomb.” The Flight of Aeneas. Aeneas, protected by his mother, Aphrodite, escaped, taking with him his son, ASCANIUS [as-kan'i-us], or ASKANIOS (IULUS), and his father, ANCHISES [an-keye'seez]. His wife, CREUSA [kre-ou'sa], or KREOUSA, disappeared in the escape. He led a group of survivors, men and women, on the voyage away from Asia, eventually reaching Italy, where he established himself and made possible the eventual founding of Rome (see MLS, Chapter 26).

Chapter 20 The Returns and the

The returns from Troy of the Achaean heroes, other than Odysseus, were narrated in a lost epic called Nostoi [nos'toy], “Returns.” The return of Odysseus is the subject of ’s Odyssey.

THE NOSTOI (RETURNS)

Ajax the Lesser (Son of Oileus) and Agamemnon. Athena raised a storm in the Aegean in anger at the sacrilege of Ajax, son of Oileus, during the sack of Troy (see MLS, Chapter 19). The storm wrecked much of Agamemnon’s fleet (with which Ajax was sailing), and Ajax, who boasted of his escape from drowning, was killed by Poseidon with his trident. A second storm struck the fleet, wrecking many more ships on the coast of . Agamemnon finally reached Mycenae, where he was murdered by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus (see MLS, Chapter 18).

Menelaüs. Menelaüs reached Egypt after losing five ships in another storm. The sea-god Proteus told him how to appease the gods and sail back safely to Greece. The visit of Menelaüs to Egypt fits with the legend (see MLS, Chapter 19) that Helen spent the years of the war in Egypt, while her phantom went to Troy. Seven years after the fall of Troy, Menelaüs and Helen reached Sparta safely and resumed their life together. At his death Menelaüs was transported to Elysium (rather than Hades), because, as the husband of the immortal Helen, he was the son-in-law of Zeus.

Nestor, Diomedes, and Philoctetes. Of the other Peloponnesian leaders, Nestor returned to Pylos safely. Diomedes, who had wounded Aphrodite at Troy, returned to Argos to find that the goddess had caused his wife, Aegialia, to be unfaithful. He left Argos and came to Italy, where he founded several cities. Philoctetes returned to Thessaly and also was driven out by his people. He too went to Italy and founded several cities. The stories of Diomedes, Idomeneus, and Philoctetes seem to be connected with the foundation of Greek colonies in Italy (the first at Cumae in 732 B.C.).

Idomeneus. Idomeneus returned to Crete to find that his wife, , had been unfaithful with , who then murdered her and her daughter and made himself king over ten cities. Leucus drove out Idomeneus, who went to Italy. Another story of the exile of Idomeneus is that he vowed to Poseidon that he would sacrifice the first living thing that came to meet him if he returned home safely. His son was the first to meet him, and Idomeneus sacrificed him. In punishment for the killing, the gods sent a plague on the Cretans, who drove Idomeneus out.

Neoptolemus. Neoptolemus went by land back to with Helenus and Andromache (see MLS, Chapters 18 and 19). With them and his wife, Hermione, he went to Epirus as king of the Molossi. He was killed at and was honored there with a hero-cult.

THE RETURN OF ODYSSEUS (, BOOKS 1–12)

The return of Odysseus (Ulysses) is narrated in the Odyssey. It was delayed for ten years by the anger of Poseidon. When, after many adventures, he reached his home, he found his wife, PENELOPE [pe-nel'oh-pee], hard pressed by many suitors, who were ruining his property and plotting to kill his son, TELEMACHUS [te-lem'a-kus], or TELEMACHOS. Odysseus killed them all and was reunited with Penelope, resuming his rule over Ithaca.

The Mini-Odyssey of Telemachus. In the first four books of the Odyssey Telemachus, helped by Athena, went to Pylos and Sparta to find out news of Odysseus from Nestor, Menelaüs, and Helen. On his return he avoided an ambush set by the suitors. Calypso. Odysseus, meanwhile, had been living for seven years on the island of Ogygia with the nymph CALYPSO [ka-lip'soh], or KALYPSO, daughter of Atlas. He refused her offer to make him immortal, and she was ordered by Zeus, through his messenger, Hermes, to release him. She helped him build a raft, and he sailed away towards Ithaca.

The Phaeacians and Princess Nausicaä. The raft of Odysseus was wrecked by Poseidon near the island of Scheria, home of the PHAEACIANS [fee-ay'shi-anz], or PHAIAKIANS. Helped by Leucothea (a sea-goddess, once the Theban princess Ino), he reached land, where he was helped by the princess NAUSICAÄ [naw-sik'a-a], daughter of King ALCINOÜS [al-sin'o-us], or ALKINOOS, and Queen Arete. The Phaeacians were seafarers living a peaceful and prosperous life, and the splendid palace of Alcinoüs was equipped with gold and silver guard-dogs (made by Hephaestus) and with fifty golden torch-bearers in human form. The women were skilled weavers, and outside the palace were beautiful gardens and orchards. Odysseus appealed to Arete for help, and Alcinoüs honored him with a banquet at which the bard, DEMODOCUS [de-mod'o-kus], or DEMODOKOS, sang of the love of Ares and Aphrodite and the revenge of Hephaestus (see MLS, Chapter 5). Then he sang of the wooden horse and the sack of Troy, at which Odysseus wept. Invited by Alcinoüs, he told his story.

Maron of Ismarus. When Odysseus and his companions left Troy, they sacked the Thracian city of Ismarus, or Ismaros, sparing the priest of Apollo, Maron, who gave them twelve jars of wine.

The Lotus-Eaters. Then the Greeks sailed to the land of the lotus-eaters, where whoever ate of the fruit of the lotus forgot everything else and only wished to stay, eating lotus-fruit. Yet Odysseus managed to leave with his men.

The Cyclopes and Polyphemus. They sailed to the island of the CYCLOPES [seye-kloh'peez], or KYKLOPES, one-eyed giant herdsmen living in caves. Odysseus and twelve companions waited in the cave of the CYCLOPS [seye'klops], or KYKLOPS, POLYPHEMUS [po-li-fee'mus], or POLYPHEMOS, son of Poseidon, who returned from his herding in the evening and ate two of Odysseus’ men; he ate four more the next day. Odysseus gave Polyphemus some of Maron’s wine and said that his name was “Nobody” (in Greek, Outis). Then, while Polyphemus lay in a drunken sleep, Odysseus and his companions drove a heated wooden pole into his eye. When the other Cyclopes, hearing the cries of Polyphemus, came to the cave (which was closed by a huge rock) to ask what was wrong, he cried out, “Nobody is killing me,” and they left. Next morning Odysseus tied each man to the undersides of three sheep and himself clung to the belly of the biggest ram. Thus, as the blinded Cyclops felt the sheep when he let them out of the cave (having removed the rock), he could not discover the men, and so they escaped and went back to their ship. As they sailed away, Odysseus shouted out his real name, and Polyphemus tore off part of a mountain and threw it, nearly wrecking the ship. He prayed to Poseidon for vengeance on Odysseus, asking that if he did return home it would be after many years, alone, in distress, and upon another’s ship, and that he would find trouble at home. This was the source of the anger of Poseidon, who granted his son's prayer.

Aeolus. Odysseus sailed to the island of AEOLUS [ee'o-lus], or AIOLOS, who gave him a bag holding all the winds and showed him how to release the wind favorable for his return. But just as he was in sight of Ithaca, he fell asleep, and his men opened the bag. All the winds rushed out and blew them back to Aeolus, who refused to help them any more.

The Laestrygonians. Next they came to the land of the LAESTRYGONIANS [les-tri-goh'ni-anz], or LAISTRYGONIANS, who sank all the ships except one and ate the crews.

Circe. With the surviving ship, Odysseus sailed to Aeaea, home of CIRCE [sir'see], or KIRKE, daughter of Helius, the Sun. She transformed Odysseus’ crew into pigs, but Odysseus himself, warned by Hermes, used the herb moly as an antidote to Circe’s charms and forced her to change his men into human form once more. He lived with Circe for one year and she bore him a son, TELEGONUS [te-leg'o-nus], or TELEGONOS. Circe eventually let him go, and he sailed to the Underworld, to consult Tiresias.

The Book of the Dead. The Book of the Dead (Book 11 of the Odyssey) tells how Odysseus went to the entrance to the Underworld and there talked with many spirits of the dead, primarily with Tiresias, who foretold the difficulties yet remaining on his journey and at his return, and foretold also the events of the rest of his life and the manner of his death. Odysseus spoke with Agamemnon, Achilles, Ajax (son of Telamon), and his mother, [an-ti-klay'a or an-ti- kleye'a], or ANTIKLEIA, and he saw many other heroines.

The Sirens. Having returned to Aeaea, Odysseus sailed to meet the dangers of which Circe warned him. First were the Sirens, winged monsters with women’s heads, who by their song lured sailors onto the rocks. Odysseus sailed past them by stuffing his men’s ears with wax and having himself lashed to the mast.

The Planctae and Scylla and Charybdis. Then he avoided the PLANCTAE [plank'tee], or PLANKTAI (“wandering rocks”), by sailing close to CHARYBDIS [ka-rib'dis], who sucked in the water of the strait three times daily and spouted it up again, and to SCYLLA [sil'la], or SKYLLA (daughter of Phorcys), who snatched six sailors and ate them. Scylla had been changed into a monster through the jealousy of Poseidon’s wife, Amphitrite (see MLS, Chapter 7).

The Cattle of Helius. Odysseus next sailed to Thrinacia, where Helius pastured his cattle. Again he fell asleep, and his men disobeyed his orders not to touch the cattle and killed some of them for food. In response to Helius’ complaint, Zeus raised a storm that sank the ship, leaving Odysseus as the sole survivor. Once again escaping the dangers of Charybdis, Odysseus drifted to Ogygia.

The Phaeacians Bring Odysseus to Ithaca. After he had related his adventures to the Phaeacians, Odysseus was conveyed by them to Ithaca, where they put him on shore asleep, with the gifts they had given him. To punish the Phaeacians for helping Odysseus, Poseidon turned their ship into stone as it entered the harbor at Scheria.

THE HOMECOMING OF ODYSSEUS (THE ODYSSEY, BOOKS 13–24)

The second half of the Odyssey (Books 13–24) narrates how Odysseus returned to his palace, killed the suitors, and was recognized and reunited with Penelope, and how he resumed his rule over Ithaca.

Eumaeus, Telemachus, and Irus. Athena helped Odysseus when he woke up after being put ashore. He was recognized by the swineherd EUMAEUS [you-mee'us], or EUMAIOS, and by Telemachus. Together they devised the plan for his entry, disguised as a beggar, into the palace, where he was insulted by the suitors and challenged to a fight (which he won) by the beggar IRUS [eye'rus], or IROS.

Penelope’s Web. Penelope was on the verge of having to choose a suitor as husband, for the suitors had discovered the ruse by which she had put off her choice. By day she would work on weaving a cloak to be a burial shroud for Laërtes, father of Odysseus, and by night she would unravel her work.

Penelope and the Beggar Odysseus. After the fight with Irus, she spoke with Odysseus (still in disguise), who gave an exact description of himself. Encouraged by this, Penelope told him of her plan to give herself next day to the man who could string the bow of Odysseus and shoot it through twelve ax heads.

Euryclea. Odysseus was bathed by his nurse, EURYCLEA [you-ri-klee'a], or EURYKLEIA, who recognized him from a scar caused by a boar’s tusk, but he prevented her from revealing his identity to Penelope.

The Contest of the Bow and the Battle in the Hall. Next day, when the suitors had failed even to string the bow, Odysseus did it effortlessly and shot an arrow through the ax heads. Then, helped by Telemachus and Eumaeus, he killed all the suitors after a battle in the hall, and he hanged the twelve maidservants who had been the suitors’ lovers.

Penelope and Odysseus Reunited. Still Penelope would not admit to recognizing him, until he revealed the secret of the construction of their bed, known only to him and Penelope. Then they were reunited in love and told each other of their patience and adventures over the twenty years of his absence. The Triumph of Odysseus. The next day, Odysseus made himself known to his father Laërtes, and Athena brought peace between him and the families of the dead suitors, whose spirits went to the Underworld and there talked with Agamemnon’s ghost.

ODYSSEUS’ FURTHER TRAVELS AND DEATH

Tiresias foretold the rest of Odysseus’ life. He had to leave Ithaca once more, carrying an oar, traveling until he came to a people who did not know of the sea or ships. When a man would say that he had a winnowing-fan on his shoulder, he was to plant the oar in the ground and offer a sacrifice to Poseidon and all the gods. Then he would return to Ithaca, and death would come to him easily from the sea in his old age. All this came to pass. Odysseus appeased Poseidon and lived out his life in Ithaca. Years later he was accidentally killed by Telegonus, who had come to Ithaca in search of his father.