Volume 4 Number 1 Summer 2006 “The Bridge between Eastern and Western Cultures” In This Issue From the Editor • Boris Il’ich Marshak (1933-2006) • Rock Art in the Altai of Mongolia • The Origins of the Great Wall This year Mongolia celebrates the extolling the natural beauties of • Report on the Tamir Excavation of 800th anniversary of the kuriltai the country, the warm hospitality 2005 which marked the founding of the of its people, or the mixed • Chinese Lacquerware in Xiongnu Mongolian Empire under its leader successes in facing the challenges Graves newly designated as Chingis Khan. of economic and political transition • Two Han Mirrors Found in the Tamir Under Chingis and his successors during the post-communist period. th Cemetery Mongolia in the 13 century was In a previous number of The Silk for a time indeed at the ‘center of Road (Vol. 2, no. 1) Prof. Morris • The Ethnicity of the Xiongnu Confederacy the world.’ As students of Inner Rossabi, who has spent so much Asian history know, at several of his career enlightening us about • Archaeology of the Mongolian earlier times in its history too, the country’s earlier history, period Mongolia had been the center of provided an eye-opening overview • An Interview with Dorjpagma nomadic polities which encom- of those challenges and the Navaan passed large portions of Inner Asia disappoinments of the last decade • The Francke-Körber Collection in and played a major role in the lives and a half, which he analyzes in Munich of their nomadic and sedentary some detail in his most recent neighbors. It is appropriate book. His observations were Next Issue therefore that we devote much of reinforced for me last year in this issue of The Silk Road to Bayan Ölgiy, a town of some A focus on Afghanistan and Bactria: Mongolia. 20,000 in Mongolia’s far west, • Nicholas Sims-Williams on new where what little manufacturing discoveries of Bactrian documents I feel fortunate to have spent there had been collapsed with the some six weeks in Mongolia last end of socialist subsidies, and the • Richard Salomon and Stefan Baums on new discoveries at Termez summer, initially as a lecturer and town was without electricity for participant in the archaeological much of the day due to its inability • contributions by Thomas Barfield, expedition co-sponsored by the to pay its electric bill. Our visit to Zemarlayai Tarzi, François Louis, and much more.... Silkroad Foundation and the the local museum was a curious Mongolian National University, and post-socialist experience of then doing independent touring to viewing displays still glorifying About view petroglyphs in the Altai heroic workers and revolutionaries, Mountains of Mongolia’s far west. which we could see only because The Silk Road is a semi-annual publi- This was my third and longest visit we had brought our flashlights. cation of the Silkroad Foundation. The Silk Road can also be viewed on-line there, one made the more at
2 raison d’être of the Great Wall. That the nomads acquired considerable wealth was further supported by the fragments we found, suggesting that they dressed their dead with gold jewelry and imported beads. So far we can only hypothesize that the Xiongnu of Tamir clothed their dead in silks and fine woolen fabrics, but the evidence of better- preserved Xiongnu burials provides
a reasonable basis for such an 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh assumption. These may not have Fig. 3. A portion of the vast ruins of Karabalghasun, the Uighur capital of been royal tombs, but they were the 9th century, located in the Orkhon valley just north of Karakorum. tombs of those who lived well. The essay below detailing finds from certain of its peoples were valued the State Historical Museum in the recent Russian excavations because of their prowess at Moscow later in the summer. The headed by Dr. Miniaev in Buriatia, agriculture? Can we ever know? objects there were mid-14th just north of the Mongolian border, To what degree is it possible to century finds from the territory of gives an idea of the riches of what determine ethnicity from grave the Golden Horde (the western likely was a royal tomb. goods? part of the Mongol Empire), further evidence for the vast scope of the Any excavation leaves us with The richness of Mongolia’s past cultural interchange which took more questions than answers, is yet little explored, despite place across Eurasia in the Mongol among the more interesting ones important excavations by Mon- period. being that of the ethnic golian archaeologists and their composition of the Xiongnu. Dr. colleagues from a number of This rich panorama of Mongolia Batsaikhan’s interesting specu- countries. In recent years, as we is, of course, only part of the larger lations on that question in this learn below from Prof. Tumen and history of Eurasian culture and issue will need to be tested by her colleagues, the Department of exchange. As a reminder of the further analysis and the Anthropology and Archaeology at rest, we include in this issue news accumulation of much more data the Mongolian National University of a still poorly known collection than we currently have, but most has been laying the basis for what of Khotan antiquities in Munich, scholars today would probably may emerge as a ‘Golden Age’ of which is being carefully catalogued agree that the nomadic Mongolian archaeology, by carrying by Dr. Jäger. Our next issue will confederations such as the Xiongnu out extensive survey work and shift focus to the west, when we were certainly multi-ethnic. Of undertaking excavations in new will have several articles devoted particular interest for me in this areas with striking results. Among to Bactria and Afghanistan. connection is the issue of the the most impressive finds are degree to which agriculture may those of the Chingisid burials near It is unfortunate to have to have played a significant role in the border with the Inner conclude here on sad note. As we their lives. There is a variety of Mongolian Autonomous Region in were finalizing this number, the interesting evidence that even China. One of the highlights of last news came from Panjikent that we somewhat farther to the north, summer for me was a meeting we have lost an inspirational scholar growing and processing of grains had with Dr. Navaan, whose and true friend, Dr. Boris Marshak. was important for the Xiongnu, and interview about his new finds is in His contributions to our knowledge in later centuries, we have an Arab this issue. We were in the of the Silk Road were im- traveler’s account of Kara- classroom/museum of his measurable. A short appreciation balghasun (Fig. 3), the Uighur department at the University, follows, and we hope to publish a capital located in the heart of the surrounded by display cases of longer one in the future. Orkhon Valley, which suggests it some of the remarkable finds from was surrounded by productive their expeditions. He brought out Daniel Waugh fields and villages. It is hard to a few of the artifacts from his most History Department know, of course, whether such an recent season — among them the The University of Washington indication conflates what he saw gold vajra and the gold filigree hat Seattle in Mongolia with what he may have decoration with its inlay which we [email protected] seen much farther west in the show below. I was very much oases along the way. Are we reminded of the latter when dealing with a society in which viewing similarly crafted pieces at
3 Boris Il’ich Marshak July 9, 1933-July 28, 2006 membership in the Academies of a colleague, ‘still had a lot of things many countries and visiting to say.’ professorships and fellowships at prestigious universities around the I regret having met him only world. Those who have benefited once, when in his quiet way he from his wisdom and scholarship charmed an audience here in describe him as a teacher par Seattle and stimulated colleagues excellence, ‘one of the greatest and friends in conversations during archaeologists’ of modern times, social occasions. When he left, our and ‘the last of a great generation.’ first thought was when we could hope to have him return and stay Few scholars have acquired the longer, since even that visit of a breadth of knowledge he few days so enriched our lives and possessed of the cultural programs. interactions across Central Asia in We share our deep sense of loss Photo courtesy of the State Hermitage Museum the first millennium of the with his family: his wife Valentina Boris Il’ich Marshak, one of the Common Era. He was known for Ivanovna Raspopova, a dis- preeminent scholars of Central his advocacy of a distinct Sogdian tinguished archaeologist who Asian culture, died in Panjikent, culture within the larger world of worked alongside him at Panjikent, Tajikistan, on July 28, 2006, and Iranian culture; he contributed to his daughter Maria who works in was buried the following day just the understanding of relations the Hermitage Museum, and his outside the walls of that important between Central Asia and China. grandson. Sogdian city to whose excavation His Sogdian Silver (1971), which Daniel Waugh he had devoted his life’s work. He he gave us permission to post on was 73 years old. Silk Road Seattle shortly before he left for his summer’s excavation, Since 1979 Dr. Marshak had remains the authoritative study of been the Head of the Central Asian the subject. His Legends, Tales and and Caucasus Section of the Fables in the Art of Sogdiana Oriental Division of the State (2002) offers an evocative Hermitage Museum in St. interpretation of the striking Petersburg, Russia. This year murals uncovered by the Panjikent marked the twenty-eighth expeditions, sketches from which anniversary of his assuming the frame this page. As he wrote in direction of the important the conclusion to that publication excavations at Panjikent, where he of the Ehsan Yarshater Lectures he began his career in archaeology in delivered at the University of 1954. The highlights of his London, ‘I foresee the criticism distinguished career and that my imagination has been too publications may be found vivid at times.’ His death has elsewhere (in the Russian deprived us of a man who Wikipedia and in the Festschrift felicitously combined rigorous and Eran ud Aneran [Transoxiana cautious scholarship with a vivid 2003]). He was honored by imagination, and, in the words of The single example of surviving The Rock Art of Mongolia painted rock art in northwestern Mongolia is that of the Khoid Tsenkir Cave, in Khovd aimag. Esther Jacobson-Tepfer Located in the flat, arid steppe to the east of the Altai range and University of Oregon, Eugene (USA) southwest of the large lake, Khar Uss, this cave has been known to local herders for thousands of Within a region — North Asia — only one or a few images, or to a years and to scholars for several remarkably rich in rock art sites, ‘site’––characterized by a decades. The cave was first Mongolia represents one of the significant concentration of published in 1972 by the Russian finest concentrations. As of 1998, imagery. In cases where the rock archaeologist, A. P. Okladnikov, approximately 75 rock art sites art is extensive and integrated with who reproduced the painted had been identified across other surface archaeology, it is images within the cave in drawings Mongolia. It is safe to estimate appropriate to speak of a and colored facsimiles (Okladnikov that in the intervening years, that ‘complex.’ Within Mongolia, most 1972). Most scholars agree that number has grown significantly. To rock art occurs within the context some of the paintings there may date, however, relatively few of of sites, but there are also go back to the late Paleolithic these sites have been carefully or extensive complexes where rock period; such a date is suggested thoroughly documented and art has been integrated with other by the possible representations of almost none have received the surface archaeology. This is ostriches, a mammoth, and a kind of cultural attention they certainly the case within the (wild) camel. Unfortunately, both deserve on the national level or Mongolian Altai. during and since the original within the community of scholars documentation of the cave, the and management and preser- Pictographic imagery is found original imagery has been either vation specialists. The following scattered throughout the central effectively obliterated or else so comments are intended to and western regions of Mongolia. repainted that it is impossible to introduce the subject of Mongolian In most cases, however, it has only judge the quality or the chronology rock art, and particularly that of poorly survived millennia of of the original paintings. At this northwestern Mongolia, to indicate weather and human intervention. time it is not possible to tell what the source of rock art’s cultural Existing examples of this tradition is original and what is not; and the value, and to alert serious from northern and central Mongolia over-painting and other intrusive observers of rock art to the threats indicate motifs associated with the and repeated attempts to ‘clarify’ that cultural tradition now faces. Transbaikal tradition exemplified the imagery assures that the oldest by rock art along the Selenga River images cannot provide any reliable A few preliminary words are (Okladnikov and Zaparozhskaia means for their dating — either by appropriate to set the stage for 1969). Motifs include frontal radiocarbon dating or by re- this discussion. Rock art is found figures that appear to morph into ferences to technique and style. both within caves — where it is large winged birds, enclosures known as ‘parietal’ art — and in filled with dots, and horses along Given the information regarding the open air; in the latter case it ‘trails.’ Well-known examples of rock paintings in the northern can be executed on bedrock or on this tradition are found at Tol’zhgiin Chinese Altai recently offered by boulders. There are two kinds of Boomyn and Bichigt Bulagiin, both Wang Binghua in this journal, it is rock art known in Mongolia (just in Hövsgöl aimag, and at Gachurt quite possible that there were once as there are around the world). and Ikh Tengeriin-am, both in the many more pictographic sites in Pictographs are made by painting vicinity of Ulaanbaatar. Although western Mongolia, as well as or inking directly on stone there is no agreement regarding elsewhere across the country. If surfaces. Petroglyphs are exe- the dating of the Transbaikal rock they did once exist, it is probable cuted by percussive blows on or art tradition, it is probably safe to that all have been destroyed by engravings into the hardened case associate it with the early Iron Age exposure to time and weather. By of a stone surface. Although and with peoples who depended for contrast, the petroglyphs — i.e., imagery may be found in the form their livelihood on animal imagery pecked or engraved into of individual markings on a single husbandry. At Doloon Uul, in a rock surface — are much more stone surface, within Mongolia it Ömnögovi aimag and close to the persistent; this tradition is conse- is much more typical to find Chinese border, are found quently far better known. concentrations of such imagery. paintings of masks and hands (?) Scattered sites in the Gobi region We may distinguish the extent of that are reminiscent of a tradition reflect pictorial traditions of the those concentrations by referring known more widely in the Yinshan Bronze and Iron Ages, with to a ‘point,’ i.e. where one finds Mountains of China (Chen 1988). naturalistic scenes of hunting,
5 herding, individual animals and of the petroglyphic tradition of from the high mountain ridge. That human figures. Unquestionably, Mongolia: though much is already material, however, is generally of the sites that have been published known, it is certain that many sites poor quality, its internal core to date (e.g., Tseveendorzh, have yet to be identified and tending to soften and its external, Batchuluun, Batbold 2004; studied. This is particularly true in coarse-grained layers tending to Tseveendorzh, Batbold 2005), the case of the Altai mountain exfoliate over time. For that reason represent only a small number of region of western Mongolia. Within one frequently finds that the outer those that remain to be identified, that region, the largest and richest layers of worked granitic boulders surveyed, and documented. Larger concentrations of rock art are — such as those scattered across concentrations of petroglyphs have found in mountainous Bayan Ölgiy the valleys of the Ikh and Baga been found further to the north, aimag (see map). These sites and Khatugiin Gol — have simply fallen along the Chuluut River valley; complexes are located within the away, leaving only ‘ghosts’ of the many of these have been valleys that descend from the high original imagery. The vast majority published, albeit incompletely and ridge separating Mongolia from of surviving rock in the moun- generally inadequately (Oklad- Russia and northern China, along tainous region has been pecked nikov 1981; Novgorodova 1984, the shores of the great lakes into the sandstone (metagrey- 1989). The Chuluut petroglyphs Khurgan and Khoton Nuur, as well wacke) characteristic of bedrock in are of particular interest since they as within valleys further to the the high Altai. Expressed primarily include images of an archaic ‘bird- east: around Ölgiy, the sacred in the form of outcroppings and woman’ type that is otherwise well mountain Tsengel’ Khairkhan, and secondarily in the form of boulders, known only through the petro- scattered along the valleys of the this sandstone has been hardened glyphs of Kalbak-Tash, in the Sagsay and Khargantin Gol by the long process of mountain Russian Altai Republic (Kubarev, drainages. building characteristic of the Altai Jacobson 1996). Range and subsequently polished Ancient artists sometimes used and scraped by the glaciers that Unquestionably we have only the granitic boulders that are filled the high valleys until begun to develop an understanding heaped up on moraines descending approximately 16,000 years ago.
6 The resulting surfaces are fine or coarse frequently smooth and textured by pointed, just as it is the movement of glaciers. Their possible to de- color is highly varied, ranging from termine artistic green-blue, to a rich tawny hue, quality in the to a coloration that is almost black, working of the stone and to deep reds or rose tonalities. surface. This varied discoloration of the surface — what is usually referred In approaching to as patina — results from the the rock art of dynamic interaction of the rock Mongolia (or, for substrate’s mineral character and that matter, of any the nature of air or water borne other region of the Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh substances. The particular beauty world), one should Fig. 1. Present-day winter dwelling on south-facing of the Altai sandstone’s coloration bear in mind that slope in the Baga Oigor valley near a major group of in combination with the textured the images were petroglyphs. traces of glacial movement has originally white and created surfaces that are, in effect, would have been far more visible, surface, and the nature of the elegant ‘canvases.’ The beauty of even from a distance, than is the immediate environment all qualify this material may help to explain case today. That white coloration the rapidity with which a pecked the extraordinary abundance of results from the crushing of the image could become repatinated. rock art imagery throughout the surface rock crystals as a result of high Mongolian Altai. direct or indirect blows. A Within the mountainous region considerable period of time has to of northwestern Mongolia, Petroglyphs were typically elapse before the white coloration petroglyphs are often found in executed by either a direct or of the pecked images begins to small concentrations that coincide indirect method. ‘Direct’ pecking darken down. Judging by style and with the present-day winter refers to the use of a single, hand- subject, we can estimate that dwellings of local herders. This held instrument to strike directly within the Altai region of Bayan coincidence indicates that on the rock surface. ‘Indirect’ Ölgiy it takes approximately 3000 protected places, nestled into the pecking refers to a two-handed years for imagery to begin to lose slopes and draws of mountains, method, whereby a ‘hammer its white coloration. Extremely old have been used for temporary stone’ is used to strike a second images may become as dark as the habitations for thousands of years. pecking instrument made from surrounding hardened ‘skin’ of the A particularly striking example of stone or metal. The apparent use stone. In this respect the patina this is found in the Khar Yamaa of the direct method of pecking is (discoloration) of the images may valley (Tseveendorj, Jacobson, frequently seen in both the oldest indicate age; but that is only one Kubarev 1997) where present-day petroglyphs in northwest Mongolia clue, among many, regarding the winter dwellings coincide with and in those of a relatively recent chronology of the rock art and has concentrations of imagery dating period. The tell-tale signs of such to be used with considerable back to the Bronze and early Iron a pecking technique include large, caution. The mineral character of Ages (for an analogous example, irregular pits in the stone surface the substrate, the pitch of the see Fig. 1). The rock art in this and rough contour lines. Indirect pecking generally offers greater control and was certainly the method of choice in the case of all finely textured and contoured images. Since within the Altai region the landscape is almost literally paved with stones, the identification of the instruments used for pecking the imagery would be difficult if not impossible. With the wearing out of one hammer or pecking stone it would have been very simple to find others. Judging from the texture of contours and silhouettes, however, it is possible to determine 2005 Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh if the percussive instrument was Fig. 2. Circular altars in Baga Oigor valley, below a hillside with a concen- tration of petroglyphs.
7 valley typically includes realistic or engraved on the outcroppings that and moose (Alces alces), executed stylized animals, hunting and occur across the face of the slopes. in a style of monumental realism, herding scenes, as well as a few The imagery is generally denser indicate the early Holocene scenes of combat between archers. close to the valley floor, but it development of forests sufficient Along the valley floor are many continues up the slopes on the to support this species. A few surface structures typical of what north side of the rivers for a images of bear, also, and many of one finds throughout this distance of several hundred aurochs, horses, and caprids mountainous region. These include meters. (Small concentrations of reflect a conception of zoomorphic large mounds with elaborated rock art on the right bank of the representation pointing to a pre- ‘walls’ and adjoining circular altars Baga Oigor were not included in Bronze Age date. The earliest (Fig. 2, preceding page); simple the definition of the complex nor images of hunters, usually frontal mounds that may indicate burials; in its 2001 publication.) and with great clubs or spears, large standing stones, often set in may mark the advent of the stone ‘frames’; and Turkic The rock art complex of Bronze Age. The only image type enclosures, often associated with Tsagaan Salaa/Baga Oigor is not from western Mongolian sites that the carved stone images of Turkic only of unusual size; it is also of a appears to reflect a spirit world is warriors. Khar Yamaa can thus be remarkable age. A few images of found in the Tsagaan Salaa/Baga considered a rock art complex that mammoths indicate that the Oigor complex. This image has a includes several sites of con- complex dates back to at least the bell-shaped body and horns. centrated petroglyphs. late Pleistocene, before mam- Sometimes it has feet, sometimes moths disappeared from this it appears to be giving birth to an One of the largest con- region of North Asia. Many images animal or infant child, but it never centrations of rock art in of aurochs (wild cattle, Bos has recognizable features northwestern Mongolia is the primigenius), horses, and argali (Jacobson 2002). complex of Tsagaan Salaa/Baga (wild sheep) also appear to date Oigor (Jacobson, Kubarev, from a very early period. They are The complex of Tsagaan Salaa/ Tseevendorj 2001), located along rendered with a static, profile Baga Oigor is especially rich in rock the left and right banks of the monumentality and with the art imagery from the middle and Tsagaan Salaa (White Fork) before simplification of legs and the late Bronze Age. Often suggestive its confluence with the Baga Oigor rounded treatment of abdomens of complex narratives, scenes from (the Small Uighur) and further familiar to many Westerners from that period may be of animals along the left bank of the Baga the open-air site of Foz Coa, alone or they may be filled with Oigor for a total length of Portugal, or from Paleolithic cave representations of hunting after approximately 30 km (Fig. 3). art in France and Spain. By the wild cattle, caprids, or elk, archers Some of the images are pecked early Holocene, mammoths had, of in combat, or herds of animals into granitic or sandstone boulders course, disappeared and were not accompanied by herders (Fig. 4, scattered at the base of the slopes again represented in the complex. next page). Wild and domes- and bordering the rivers. The On the other hand, many images ticated yak make their appearance majority, however, are pecked or of elk (Cervus elaphus sibiricus) as do scenes of family caravans. These characteristically include domesticated yak with household goods loaded on their backs and led by women (on right in Fig. 3). Caravan scenes are frequently accompanied by hunters, as if to suggest the hunting grounds through which families made their way to new pastures. In many cases the large yak carry baskets in which the children or the family are riding. On rare occasions we see these caravans attacked, as in a raid.
Images of family caravans, like those of men driving wheeled vehicles, reflect the increasing transhumance of local populations in the late Bronze Age. This major
Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh shift in life styles probably Fig 3. Petroglyphs in the Baga Oigor Valley. 8 to end with the early Iron Age. While there are many images later than that, including some images and even inscriptions from the Turkic period, they are not as impressive as the earlier material. Nonetheless, the history of representation covered by this extraordinary complex extends over as much as 12,000 years. For that reason alone, but also for the outstanding quality of much of its art, this complex serves as a remarkable cultural heritage; it has appropriately been proposed for inclusion in the list of World Heritage Sites.
Photo copyright © Gary Tepfer Fig. 4. Mythic scene (?), with elk, moose, figures and small animals. The rock art complex of the Bronze Age. Tsagaan Sala II. Upper Tsagaan Gol is even larger than that of Tsagaan Salaa/Baga emerged gradually during the great ‘deer stones’ of central and Oigor and no less marked by second millennium BCE, as forests north Mongolia. Their appearance imagery of outstanding quality. retreated in response to the here, in northwestern Mongolia, Moreover, its combination of a gradual reversion to a drier, appears to reflect the intrusion of distinctive physical landscape, harsher climate. Paleoenviron- a new population at the end of the extensive rock art, and numerous mentalists believe that by Bronze Age, bringing with it the ritual sites make it one of the most approximately 3000 years before tribal emblem of a deer. From complex concentrations of the present, the climate and where these people came, prehistoric and early historic art environment of this part of however, and who they were within North Asia (Jacobson, Mongolia had become as we know remains unclear (Jacobson 2001). Tseveendorj, Kubarev 2002). it today. In effect, by the late Located in a high, narrow valley Bronze Age the environment The great period of Tsagaan just under the glaciers of Tavan appears to have forced a gradual Salaa/Baga Oigor rock art seems Bogd, the knot of mountains at the transition from sedentary hunting and pastoralism to a herding- dependent economy. In addition, the appearance of horse riding in the late Bronze Age — vividly recorded in the rock art of Tsagaan Salaa/Baga Oigor and other sites — supported the transition first to transhumance and then to a semi- nomadic life style. In imagery dating to the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages, we see, also, the appearance of an increasing stylization in the treatment of animals. Deer (elk) images, especially, reflect that trend: their bodies are often rendered as extremely elongated, their legs thin, even vestigial, the heads drawn out into the form of a long bird beak, and their antlers exaggerated into great waves stretching back over their spines (Fig. 5). These highly stylized
Photo copyright © Gary Tepfer formulations are exactly those Fig. 5. Stylized deer, birthing women, hunt scenes and dwelling. Late Bronze known more frequently from the Age. Baga Oigor II.
9 reverence in the distant past, just as it is in the present.
In general, the rock art of the Upper Tsagaan Gol reflects the same cultures and eco- nomic transitions
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Waugh C. Daniel © Photo one sees at Khar Fig. 6. View toward Tavan Bogd, Yamaa and Tsa- Upper Tsagaan Gol. gaan Salaa/Baga Oigor. 2005 Waugh C. Daniel © Photo There are, however, a Fig. 9. Cart. Bronze Age. Upper Tsagaan Gol. juncture of China, Mongolia, and few significant differ- Russia (Fig. 6), the complex is ences: perhaps because of its among the finest preserved from wrapped around a boat-shaped, proximity to the high mountains, that period (latter first millennium there is no rock art CE) within North Asia. These here that can scenes include large riders, riders confidently be hunting wild goats, and even riders dated to the late carrying their eagles or falcons for Pleistocene; that is, hunting. no images of the megafauna that About 45 km directly to the disappeared at the south and within a closed border end of the Pleis- zone is found the site of Aral Tolgoi, tocene. On the located at the western end of the other hand, we great lake, Khoton Nuur have identified a (Tseveendorj, Kubarev, Yakobson number of stone [Jacobson] 2005). This is a region artifacts of Paleo- of northwestern Mongolia that lithic form as well uniquely retains, even today, an as many images of extensive relic forest from the elk, argali, wild early-middle Holocene. Compared
Photo copyright © Gary Tepfer goats, horses and to those we have already Fig. 7. Horse herd. Bronze Age. Upper Tsagaan Gol. aurochs that by mentioned, this site is quite small, style and technique taking the form of a single, whale- sacred mountain named Shiviit of execution indicate a pre-Bronze shaped hill where imagery is Khairkhan . To judge from the Age date. Tsagaan Gol is located almost entirely on the manner in which its flanks are particularly rich in art of the Bronze eastern half of the ridge. Despite adorned with both rock art and Age; the complex includes some its relatively small size, however, surface structures, Shiviit spectacular panels of hunts and this site is of exceeding Khairkhan was the focus of herding, as well as of carts and importance: it represents the riding (Figs. 7, 8, 9). finest and largest open-air The many represen- collection of Paleolithic rock art tations of highly stylized within North Asia, unsurpassed by deer dating to the late any other documented site. The Bronze Age and the fact early date of this material is that these images are indicated by a fine image of a frequently pecked rhinoceros, an animal that, like the directly over earlier, mammoth, disappeared from this Bronze Age imagery, region approximately 11,000 years raise significant ques- before the present. Images of tions regarding social ostriches, also, are of particular change in that period interest since they must date back (Jacobson 2000) (Fig. to a period previous to the 10, next page). In emergence of forests in the early
Photo copyright © Gary Tepfer addition, there are Holocene. Other images of Fig. 8. Young men and bulls. Late Bronze Age. many panels from the considerable age include aurochs, Upper Tsagaan Gol. Turkic period that count elk, horses, argali, and wild goats
10 Bilüüt include several art along the north-south valleys unusually large, early Iron of mountainous Bayan Ölgiy. Many Age horsemen. Many of these have been noted by local representations of groups of rock art enthusiasts; too many large yak are also found have been badly damaged by local here; these reflect the herders and thoughtless tourists herding economy of the late (Fig. 12). The fate of these sites, Bronze Age. An area of as of the large complexes scattered petroglyphs is described above, is a subject for also found south of the lake serious concern. and within the border zone closed to the public. A When the great rock art sites number of the compositions of northwestern Mongolia are there are of outstanding considered on a larger regional quality, some suggesting a scale, they are seen to have clear
Photo copyright © Gary Tepfer date within the late associations with the Bronze Age, Fig. 10. Stylized deer. Late Bronze or Early Pleistocene. A large Iron Age, and Turkic cultures Iron Age. Upper Tsagaan Gol. number of petroglyphs are responsible for major complexes in found scattered on the the Russian Altai. One finds, also, (Fig. 11). Many of these images boulders of a great moraine associations with rock art of the are rendered with considerable (Khara-Boreg) at the east end of Minusinsk Basin, but these are simplicity, grace and monu- Khurgan Nuur. In summer of 2005 weaker and include only a few pre- mentality, but many are also we identified and began the Bronze Age references. The art of extremely difficult to see. Perhaps documentation of another major the early Iron Age of the so-called because of glacial action in ‘Scythian Period,’ affirms the Pleistocene, and due to relationships between this the much more humid large region, the Sayan conditions in this far Mountains, the Russian western valley over the last Altai, and even with the few thousand years, the Tienshan of Kazakhstan bedrock on which the and Kyrgyzstan. images are pecked is crumbling and frequently While our understanding covered with lichen. (Even of this material is only at a more destructive are the beginning phase, it is thousands of sheep and already clear that the rock goats that cross this hill art of the Mongolian Altai, every day, their small, Photo copyright © Gary Tepfer as well as that across sharp hoofs impacting Fig. 11. Archaic elk with overlaid images. Pre-Bronze Mongolia, serves as a surfaces already weakened Age. Aral Tolgoi. priceless document for the by age and weather.) In assessing complex of rock art east of Tsengel’ study of the prehistory in the heart the significance of Aral Tolgoi, it Khairkhan Uul. Although much of of Eurasia. Rock art constitutes the must be related to the small the material at this isolated site clearest source material for a concentration of Paleolithic reflects a cattle-herding culture consideration of cultures and imagery at the site of Kalgut, on from the late Bronze Age, the Ukok Plateau (Molodin, there are also many images Cheremisin 1999) and to the of horned, anthropomorphic Paleolithic imagery of Tsagaan figures — male and female Salaa/Baga Oigor. — in postures suggesting dance or birthing. The Within the Khoton Nuur basin darkened patina of these is also found the site called Bilüüt, images, their apparent a series of three hills on the north execution with a large blunt shore of the lake (Kortum et al. instruments, and the 2005). The pecked imagery at this exceedingly damaged site reflects an extension of the aspect of the surfaces on
cultural traditions so vividly which they are found 2005 Waugh C. Daniel © Photo represented at the two large indicate a pre-Bronze Age Fig. 12. Petroglyphs defaced by red paint near complexes to the north. Perhaps date. In addition, there are a herder camp, Khatuugiin Gol (not far from the most impressive images from many concentrations of rock Bayan Ölgiy).
11 traditions that cross national have simply dropped out of the researchers nor rock art lovers boundaries and paleoenviron- stone surface, leaving ‘echoes’ or should ever record rock art by any mental regions. In terms of its ‘ghosts’ of the original. This is, in intrusive methods. The best scientific value, rock art should be fact, a natural process and can recording method is photography, considered to have a documentary probably not be stopped: indeed, although one may also employ a value no less significant than we know of absolutely no way in tracing technique, using a heavy, materials retrieved from which it can be delayed. But the clear plastic sheet over the archaeological excavations of process is radically hastened by imagery. Used in conjunction with burials and settlement sites. But human activities. Walking over the soft felt pens, this method of it is also true that rock art is neither pecked images weakens the copying is probably quite harmless. pure art nor archaeology: it pecked surface and should be mediates between the two avoided. Cleaning the surface, The rock art of Mongolia, and disciplines, revealing styles, except by the light brushing away especially that of the Mongolian subjects, and values held in of superficial dirt and pebbles, is Altai, is a precious resource for the common by large communities and also no longer considered to be study of prehistoric societies and cultures while at the same time acceptable. Lichen growth should their culture. Given its outstanding disrupting general cultural rules never be removed or disturbed. quality and quantity, it is curious with the insights and expressive While we may not yet be able to that this material has not been clarity of individuals. Rock art is, exploit lichenometry as a rock art extensively studied until relatively in other words, both art and dating technique, it will likely be recently. As indicated earlier, this archaeology, both image and ‘text.’ possible to do so in the future. situation has been changing; but Lichens are, also, like ivy: once the emerging attention brings negative Around the world and within growth has taken root on stone it as well as positive results. On the Mongolia, rock art has been serves as a kind of protective one hand, one might assume that attracting increasing attention over covering, while pulling it away or the more attention rock art the last few years and on the part scrubbing it off tears up the receives, the better its chances of of both scientists and amateurs. organism’s tendrils and the rock preservation. Unfortunately, while For this reason it is important to crystals in which they are many local herders and officials review the proper ways to handle embedded. The destruction of rock decry the increasing destruction this material so that it is preserved art sites in the neighboring region and theft visible in rock art sites for the benefit of future gen- of the Russian Altai is a case in throughout Mongolia, there has erations. While rock art has point: at several of the most until recently been little political traditionally been studied using a important sites, in researchers’ will and no financial backing to variety of approaches, we are now enthusiasm to record the images address this situation anywhere, keenly aware that many of these they had found, they scrubbed the and certainly not in the richest approaches have ultimately proven surfaces of the stone free of all region of rock art — the Mongolian to be extremely destructive. It is lichen. As a result, too many of Altai. The increasing attention of all too possible, in other words, to those surfaces are now falling tourists brings with it, also, love rock art ‘to death.’ First one away, obliterating the very images intended or unintended impacts: must realize that even though rock the researchers wished to record. damage inflicted by individuals appears to be solid and in some with selfish interests or by those respects ‘eternal,’ it is not: any The third process that must be (far more numerous) who admire rock surface, pecked or otherwise, avoided is recording the images by the images pecked onto rocks but is in a constantly dynamic process any kind of rubbing technique. This do not realize the negative impact of decay catalyzed by time and the has traditionally been the preferred of human feet, human hands, or elements. Pecked surfaces, way of recording rock art, and we inappropriate (intrusive) means of however, have a particular fragility. still see serious scientists as well reproduction. Indeed, it behooves The very act of pecking or as amateurs using this approach. all who honor this extraordinary engraving images has resulted in Again, however, we also see the tradition to encourage its a breaking of the hardened ‘rind’ destructive results in many sites preservation: both through our or case, opening the surfaces to of the Russian Altai as well as own actions and through our the in-seeping of water and the elsewhere in the world. The communications with others. intrusion of vegetation. Tem- physical pressure required in perature change, freezing and making rubbings only further thawing, further weakens the weakens the ‘cleaned’ surfaces. About the Author pecked surfaces, as does the The ink or similar substance used millennial growth of lichens. to make the rubbing invariably Esther Jacobson-Tepfer is the Observers of rock art will seeps through the paper and Kerns Professor of Asian Art in the frequently note, perhaps, that the contaminates the chemistry of the Department of Art History, crushed surfaces of whole images stone surface. Briefly put: neither University of Oregon. She has been
12 working on the petroglyphs and (2002): 1–6. The full report of this D. Tseveendorzh, L. Batchuluun, N. surface archaeology of Bayan Ölgiy complex will be published in 2007. Batbold. Molor Tolgoin Xadny aimag, Mongolia, for the last Zurag. Ulaanbaatar: Institute of twelve years. Kortum et al. 2005 Archaeology, MAS, 2004. Richard Kortum, Zagd Batsaikhan, Tseveendorzh, Batbold 2005 References Edelkhan, Josh Gambrell. “Another Petroglyph Complex in the Altai D. Tseveendorzh, N. Batbold. Mountains, Bayan Olgii Aimag, Dundgov’ Amgiin Del Uulyn Biluunii Chen 1988 Mongolia: Biluut 1, 2, and 3.” Xadny Zurag. Ulaanbaatar: Chen Zhao-fu. Découverte de l’Art International Newsletter on Rock Institute of Archaeology, MAS, préhistorique en Chine. Paris: Albin Art, No. 41 (2005): 7–14. 2005. Michel, 1988. Kubarev, Jacobson 1996 Tseveendorj, Kubarev, Yakobson Jacobson 2000 V. D. Kubarev, E. Jacobson. [Jacobson] 2005 Esther Jacobson. “‘Emblem’ Répertoire des Pétroglyphes d’Asie D. Tseveendorj, V. D. Kubarev, E. Against ‘Narrative’ in Rock Art of centrale. Sibérie de Sud 3: Yakobson (Jacobson). Aral Tolgoin the Mongolian Altay.” Bulletin of the Kalbak-Tash I (République de Xadny Zurag. Ulaanbaatar: Siberian Association of Prehistoric l’Altai). Tome V. 3. Mémoires de Institute of Archaeology, MAS, Rock Art Researchers, 3 (2000): la Mission archéologique française 2005. 6–14. en Asie centrale. Paris: De Boccard, 1996. Tseveendorj, Jacobson, Kubarev Jacobson 2002 1997 Molodin, Cheremisin 1999 Esther Jacobson. “Shamans, D. Tseveendorj, E. Jacobson, V. D. Shamanism, and Anthropomor- V. I. Molodin, D. V. Cheremisin. Kubarev. “Newly Recorded phizing Imagery in Prehistoric Rock Drevneishie naskal’nye izobra- Petroglyphic Complexes in the Art of the Mongolian Altay.” In: zheniia ploskogor’ia Ukok. Altay Mountains, Bayan Olgiy Henri-Paul Francfort and Roberte Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1999. Aimag, Mongolia.” International N. Hamayon, eds. Shamanism. Newsletter on Rock Art, No. 17 Uses and Abuses of a Concept. Novgorodova 1984 (1997): 1–6. Bibliotheca Shamanistica, Vol. 10. E. A. Novgorodova. Mir petroglifov Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 2002, Mongolii. Moscow: Nauka, 1984. Wang 2005 pp. 277–296. Wang Binghua, “The Polychrome Novgorodova 1989 Rock Paintings in the Altay Jacobson-Tepfer 2001 E. A. Novgorodova. Drevniaia Mountains.” The Silk Road, 3/1 Esther Jacobson-Tepfer. “Cultural Mongoliia. Moscow: Nauka, 1989. (2005): 16–23. Riddles: Stylized Deer and Deer Stones of the Mongolian Altai.” Okladnikov 1972 Bulletin of the Asia Institute, 15 (2001; published 2005): 31–56. A.P. Okladnikov. Tsentral’no- aziatskii ochag pervobytnogo Jacobson, Kubarev, Tseveendorj iskusstva. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 2001 1972. E. Jacobson, V. D. Kubarev, D. Okladnikov 1981 Tseveendorj. Mongolie du Nord- Ouest: Tsagaan Salaa/Baga Oigor. A.P. Okladnikov. Petroglify Répertoire des Pétroglyphes d’Asie Chulutyn-Gola (Mongoliia). Novo- centrale. Fascicule No. 6. Paris: De sibirsk: Nauka, 1981. Boccard, 2001. 2 vols. Okladnikov and Zaparozhskaia Jacobson, Tseveendorj, Kubarev 1969 2002 A.P. Okladnikov, V. A. Zapo- E. Jacobson, D. Tseveendorj, V. D. rozhakaia. Petroglify Zabaikal’ia. Kubarev. “A Petroglyphic Complex 2 vols. Leningrad: Nauka, 1969. in the Upper Tsagaan Gol Valley,
Mongolian Altay.” International Tseveendorzh, Batchuluun, 2005 Waugh C. Daniel © Photo Newsletter on Rock Art, No. 32 Batbold 2004 ‘Man-stone.’ Upper Tsagaan Gol. Turkic Period.
13 monumental futility of the Great The Origins of the Great Wall Wall as a military installation has been demonstrated in especially stark terms during the Ming period, Nicola Di Cosmo when massive investments did not Institute for Advanced Study, prevent China from being attacked by the Mongols and eventually Princeton (USA) conquered by another northern people, the Manchus. China’s strategic culture seems to have If there is a single Chinese boundary between nomads and favored static defense, and this monument that people anywhere settled people (Lattimore 1937, may be one reason for the long in the world are likely to have seen, 1940). Arthur Waldron in his existence of various types of heard of, or read about, this is the excellent study restored its border fortifications, and the Ming Great Wall (Fig. 1). Aside from its historical dimension, exploding construction of the Great Wall as mythical proportions, the Great some of its myths (that it could be we know it. But was this always Wall has symbolic powers that seen from the moon, for instance) the case? Did the Great Wall transcend its historical and and focusing on its construction always serve as a defensive material existence. It has been during the Ming dynasty, in the structure? These are some of the depicted as a parting line between fifteenth century, when the Great questions I had to ask as I became the known and the unknown and Wall became the majestic interested in the early phase of the the physical line marking the monument we can see today history of the frontier between frontiers of civilization, the (Waldron 1990). Yet although the China and the steppe. inhospitable liminal universe which Ming Great Wall is a relatively was the preserve of a demimonde recent creation, the concept of a The theory that the northern of barbarians and trans- Great Wall, or more correctly ‘long walls were erected to defend frontiersmen, convicts and walls’ (chang cheng) has been in Chinese states from the nomads soldiers, crafty merchants and existence for a much longer time, is well known and continues to banished officials. In historical going back to the late fourth carry much weight today. As we writings, the Great Wall has been century BCE. As astonishing as the shall see in greater detail below, presented as protection against spatial dimension of the Great Wall Sima Qian’s narrative account of invaders — the engineering is, covering several product of a superior civilization thousand miles, it is erected against the tumultuous its temporal aspect waves of its enemies — but also that has been key to as the symbol of unrestrained, its success as a vain, and arrogant tyranny, symbol of patriotism tangible product of the blood and and national pride, a tears of the toiling masses. Most line in the sand recently the Great Wall has between barbarians acquired yet another meaning, and Chinese drawn following new orientations in the even before China’s politics of historical interpretation: imperial unification. a meeting point of cultural exchange, compared to a river that Yet once we unites rather than divides, and begin to consider brings different nationalities closer the Great Wall as a together. A malleable symbol historical artifact adapted to political and cultural rather than as metaphors, gate to be crossed or symbol, we are drawbridge to be lifted, the Great bound to recognize Wall of China continues to be a an altogether dif- testimony of China’s cultural, ferent picture. As a historical, and now national defense structure, identity: a most patriotic artifact. its record is abys- mally bad. It never Owen Lattimore probably was prevented inva- the first Western scholar to see the sions, and it was copyright © Nicola Di Cosmo Photograph Great Wall more as an economic expensive to build and environmental than a cultural and maintain. The Fig. 1. The Ming Great Wall in northeastern China.
14 the historical relations between in terms of ‘civilized’ vs. those statements that point to China and the northern nomadic ‘barbarians.’ Among the non- cultural differences, then, we find peoples in chapter 110 of his Chinese were, of course, northern that such differences provide a Records of the Grand Historian peoples thought to be the political rationale that allowed for (Shiji, first century BCE) was based ancestors of the warlike nomadic the expansion of Chinese polities. on the historical myth (an horsemen who were to become a ‘invented tradition,’ some might major threat from the Han dynasty Especially in the Warring States say), according to which China and onwards. From the mid-eighth to period (5th-3rd century BCE) the the north had been perennially at the mid-sixth century BCE, Chinese Chinese political and economic odds with one another, and that states conducted a series of spaces continued to expand even China had since the dawn of history military campaigns in the north though the number of independent suffered from nomadic invasions. against peoples called Rong and states vying for power dwindled. This rationalization of what was in Di. Sometimes these peoples The general trend was towards the effect a late phenomenon, that is, retaliated but usually they were creation of larger and stronger the appearance of the strong defeated, subjugated, incor- states, which expanded not only unified nomadic empire of the porated, and eventually as- by swallowing up other Chinese Xiongnu, set the tone for the later similated. This process was made states but also by expanding into Chinese understanding of relations easier by the understanding that external areas. If we look at the with the north. According to this certain rules of conduct in war (a northern frontier, this trend is deeply rooted topos of Chinese code of honor, a sense of fair play) clearly identifiable as the states of historical thinking, which has been that were to be observed, at least Zhao, Yan, and Qin kept expanding repeatedly asserted as recently as theoretically, when the fighting and growing both militarily and at the Symposium on the Great occurred among Chinese polities, economically. Setbacks occurred, Wall held in 1994, China was weak were no longer prescriptive in the but the general impulse was and unable to oppose an adequate case of foreign wars, where no trick towards becoming stronger, and defense against the northern or stratagem, no broken oath, no alien peoples, not integrated in nomads, except for the Great Wall, breach of loyalty carried a moral Chinese civilization, were a which then became a symbol of sanction or other undesired reservoir relatively easy to tap resistance against all invaders political consequences. Foreign into. From pastoral people the (Waldron 1995). Concern for the peoples were conceived as Chinese imported cattle and sheep, historical ‘weakness’ of China vis- resources, and their use as such wool, leather, horses, and pelts. à-vis the nomads could not exist, was not only practiced by Chinese Moreover, at this time the frontier of course, outside of a notion that states, but also theorized. economy became monetarized regarded the nomads themselves through the use of metals, such as as a positively aggressive, mili- From the sparse textual gold objects possibly used as tarily superior enemy (as evidence at our disposal we can currency, and especially bronze represented, for instance, in the see that the land and labor coins. Military requirements may Disney animated movie Mulan). As extracted from non-Chinese have played a key role, since pack Sima Qian said, it was their innate groups constituted a type of wealth animals must have been needed nature to love war (Sima Qian often coveted by the Chinese in increasing numbers for 1993, p. 129). states. Victories obtained against transportation during military foreign peoples could serve the campaigns as armies became The history of the northern strategic purpose of intimidating larger and larger. Horses become frontier before the unification of potential enemies. Another especially important from the late China is obscure and often cast, in doctrine — wrongly assumed to be fourth century BCE with the the earliest Chinese texts, in pacifist — maintained that wars adoption of mounted warfare by moralizing terms. The Chinese had against foreigners had to be Chinese states. In sum, already attained a high level of undertaken sparingly, because archaeological but also textual cultural sophistication, with music, there was a risk that such ventures evidence suggest a historical rituals, moral norms, and may weaken the state and expose context, on the eve of the building especially writing. Those people it to attacks from other Chinese of the very first ‘great wall,’ in who did not write, had different states. It was realpolitik, not moral which the northern frontier zone customs, and did not belong to the values, that regulated the foreign appears to have been increasingly Chinese cultural and political relations between Chinese states valuable, in economic and strategic sphere, were therefore regarded and their neighbors. Generally terms, to northern Chinese states. as uncivilized. Several passages speaking, the political discourse can be extracted from the earliest about foreigners in pre-imperial As we know, the First Emperor historical documents which present China tends to justify expansion of Qin, the one who in 221 BCE the story of the relationship and conquest, which is exactly emerged victorious from the between Chinese and non-Chinese what happened. Looking closely at struggle among the ‘Warring
15 States’ and unified China, was not wall’ the source of conflicts ‘barbarian’ region. For the most the one who first erected walls. He originated by the less developed part, they were entirely within merely expanded and unified a side, the nomads. At any rate, all areas culturally and politically alien network of fortifications which theories converge to agree that the to China. These simple obser- existed previously and had been ‘great wall’ was built as a response vations should already suffice to established by the states of Qin in to nomadic aggression. To test the raise doubts as to the actual the northwest, Zhao in the north, truth of this general apparently function of the earliest walls. More and Yen in the northeast (see map, unshakeable belief we then should doubts are engendered as we Fig. 2, for the various ‘walls’). ask a most significant question: delve deeper into the textual and Given that the conventional theory what does the evidence actually archeological evidence. holds that the early walls were built say? to protect China from the nomads, The idea and technology of such historians have tried to explain Surprisingly, there is no textual ‘long wall’ military installations is why the nomads would raid, evidence that allows us to establish first found in central and southern attack, or invade those lands we a direct cause-effect relationship China and associated with states conventionally call ‘Chinese.’ between nomadic attacks and the such as Wei and Chu in the fifth Generally speaking, scholars have building of the walls. The evidence century BCE. The ‘walls’ built along produced a number of theories shows, on the contrary, that the the northern frontier constituted an more or less persuasive, and more building of walls does not follow integrated system of man-made or less supported by the sources. nomads’ raids, but rather precedes structures and natural barriers. Some have sought to explain the them. If a linkage can be The careful choice and use of nomads’ aggressiveness, for established in terms of mere topography enhanced greatly the instance, with a model of nomadic- chronological sequence, the effectiveness of these forti- sedentary relations according to construction of the walls should be fications. This system, in addition which nomads need to acquire regarded as the cause, not as the to the ‘walls,’ included small as well resources from their agriculturist effect, of nomadic incursions. as relatively large forts, beacon neighbors, and would resort to war Secondly, archaeological evidence towers, look-out platforms, and or trade to obtain them. Owen does not support the contention watchtowers. Typically, the walls Lattimore himself saw relations that the walls were protecting a were made out of stamped earth across the frontier strongly sedentary population, even less and stones piled up in layers to determined by competing societies that they were protecting a form a rampart, usually on sloping that differed dramatically in terms ‘Chinese’ sedentary population. In terrain, so that the outer part of environmental adaptation and fact, the early walls did not mark would be higher than the inner part economy. Chinese scholars have an ecological boundary between (Fig. 3, next page). Moreover, seen also in the ‘imbalance’ in the steppe and sown, nor did they along the walls archaeologists have development of the productive mark a boundary between a discovered, at regular or irregular forces on both sides of the ‘great culturally Sinitic zone and an alien intervals, mounds of stamped
Fig. 2. The Great Walls.
16 mention of wall building activity by the northern states is found in the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), authored by Sima Qian around the turn of the second century BCE, that is, over two hundred years after the first northern walls were built, and after about a century of wars between the nomadic empire of the Xiongnu and China. Sima Qian inscribed such a long and bloody con- frontation in a historical pattern according to which China (variously indicated as Hua, Hsia, Zhong- Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh 1998 Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh yuan, Zhongguo, or even ‘the land Fig. 3. The Han wall at Yumenguan, showing stamped earth construction. of caps and sashes’) and the nomads constituted two antithetic earth that are probably the built by Qin, for its entire length, poles that had been at odds ever remains of elevated platforms or we find three to four mounds since the dawn of Chinese history. towers. On higher ground, such as (raised platforms) per kilometer, Within this pattern Sima Qian hilltops or even mountain peaks, amounting to a total of produced an ethnic genealogy, small stone structures have been approximately 6,300 separate culminating with the Xiongnu, that found, in the shape of platforms, structures. Throughout the line of held all the various ‘northern which are assumed to have served the walls, on the inner side, we barbarians’ together as one as look-out posts or beacon encounter ruins of military coherent narrative unity. As a towers. On the inner side of the installations. Citadels and forts are result he created a polarization wall, at varying distances, we find distributed at a distance of three between a unified north and a a number of additional con- to five kilometers from each other, unified south and projected it into structions, in the shape of square and their internal area may vary the past. Sima Qian also recorded or rectangular enclosures, whose from 3,500 m2 to 10,000 m2. They names and events whose number walls are often made of stone, are generally walled, though forts and variety is in itself evidence of believed to be forts garrisoned by built on steep ravines and gullies the political and ethnic complexity soldiers. do not have walls, as the natural of the north. Hence, while it is topography provided sufficient essential to remember that the In mountainous terrain along protection. historical narrative of the northern precipices and ravines or narrow frontier is, not, itself, neutral, one gullies, the man-made structures Turning to the evidence cannot use this argument simply may be limited to a few towers and provided by textual sources, some to dismiss all that it reveals about gates blocking a mountain pass. caveats need to be borne in mind. China’s relations with the north Roads on the inner side of these The first concerns authorship, or during the Warring States period walls served the purpose of rather the historical and cultural (for details, see Di Cosmo 2002, connecting the various garrisons context from which the sources part IV). with strategically important themselves originated. Explicit locations. Beacon towers, also placed on the inner side of the walls, were probably used to communicate between the various stations, although the system of communication is unclear (Fig. 4). Undoubtedly a complex system of couriers, postal stations, and checkpoints must have been operating, and the sheer number of structures and their spatial extension suggest that the efficient
use of these early ‘walls’ required 1998 Photo copyright © Daniel C. Waugh an extensive military presence. Fig. 4. Han beacon tower at Yangguan, west of Dunhuang. For instance, on top of the wall
17 Moving then closer to the understood to be nomadic peoples themselves from the nomads only question of the Great Wall, we – NDiC]; built long walls, and made after they had taken large portions need to ask whether the Shiji, as a barrier [stretching] from Dai of territory from them. our most important historical text, along the foot of the Yin Mountains supports an interpretation to Gaoque.’ Thus, Zhao created an Having examined the textual according to which the walls were advanced line of fortification, deep evidence, let us turn briefly to the established as a military defense. into today’s Inner Mongolia, archaeological context. The Or, to put it differently: does the encircling the Ordos steppe, then material culture of non-Chinese historical evidence show a inhabited by pastoral nomads. I people in what has been called the connection between nomadic could find only one passage that Northern Zone is fairly well known. threats and wall-building? As for refers explicitly to a state’s need Archaeological excavations the state of Qin, the record says to protect itself against the throughout the Great Wall region, that its king Zhaoxiang (306-251 nomads without this being linked reveal the presence of a large BCE) began to build walls on the to a previous Chinese expansion. number of bronze objects, such as north-western border after a This is from a debate that took knives and swords, belt plaques, military campaign into that place in 307 BCE at the court of horse ornaments, and precious territory, which was inhabited by the same King Wuling of Zhao objects. Archaeologists and art a non-Chinese people called the during which the king strove to historians have long recognized Yiqu Rong. The pretext of Qin’s persuade his advisors to adopt this as a fully separate cultural expansion is attributed to a cavalry and follow the example set complex which developed ‘scandalous’ series of events. by the nomads. The king said, continuously from at least to the Apparently the king of these Yiqu ‘Without mounted archers how can second millennium BCE, and Rong had illicit intercourse with I protect the frontier against Yan, usually cite among its salient the Queen Dowager of Qin, who the Hu, Qin and Han?’ In the features a distinctive metallurgical bore him two sons. Having grown context of the debate, however, production and stylistic idiom, in displeased with the king, the the nomads (that is, the hu people) particular the ‘animal style,’ and Queen Dowager later deceived and were not the only threat to Zhao, connections with the greater killed him, assembled an army, and and throughout the whole speech Siberian and Central Asian then proceeded to attack and it is evident that the ‘protection’ ‘Scythian’ art. Some of the most destroy the Yiqu. Having argument was accompanied by an precious objects, usually in gold, conquered the Rong, Qin also even more pronounced expan- come from the Ordos region. The expanded to the north into the sionist argument. In any case, remains of the Chinese walls crop territory within the Yellow River’s unlike the adoption of cavalry, the up for the most part in the middle great bend, today’s Ordos region. building of walls is not mentioned of this area, across grassland In this way Qin acquired extensive in connection with the protection plateaus and deserts or in rough new lands, which became subject from nomads or any other enemy. mountainous country. Chinese to military administration, or Warring States coins, pottery ‘commanderies.’ Only then Qin This is the core evidential shards, and lacquered objects have ‘built a Long Wall to guard against ground based on which scholars been found, but the Chinese the Hu.’ (Hu was a generic term to have argued that the northern presence here at this early time indicate nomadic steppe peoples.) walls had a defensive purpose, and was limited only to sites connected The state of Yan was located in the had been erected as a protection with the wall fortifications north-east. During the reign of against nomadic attacks. However, themselves, showing that military King Zhao (311-279 BCE), a none of these statements says that colonies and troops were stationed general who had served as a walls were constructed as a result in an otherwise ‘barbarian’ cultural hostage among the nomads made of, or as a response to, nomadic environment. For sure the walls a surprise attack against the attacks on Chinese people. What were not built between Chinese Eastern Hu. He defeated them, and they say is that the walls were built and nomads, but ran, from a forced them to retreat ‘a thousand to ‘repel’ or ‘contain’ the nomads Chinese viewpoint, through a miles.’ Yan then ‘built “long walls”’ after the states had advanced remote territory inhabited by and established commanderies ‘in deeply into their lands, had foreign peoples. Some of these order to resist the nomads.’ But occupied their territory, and had peoples were incorporated within this ‘resistance’ followed a military set up military commanderies. The the perimeter of the walls, some expansion well into nomadic building of fortifications proceeded remained outside. territory. The third northern state, hand in hand with the acquisition Zhao, also had conflicts with of new territory, the transfer of If we wish to understand the steppe nomads. The Shiji tells us troops to this region, and the early function of the walls, it is on that King Wuling ‘in the north establishment of new adminis- the Chinese soldiers that we should attacked the Lin Hu and the Lou- trative units. The states of Qin, concentrate, not on the Chinese fan [both of them are generally Zhao and Yan needed to protect farmers. Why were the soldiers
18 stationed so far to the north, in susceptible to a purely ideological University Press, 1989. alien territory? The only con- interpretation. clusion that the evidence would Lattimore 1937 support, in my view, is that the About the Author Lattimore, Owen. “Origins of the walls’ and soldiers’ presence in the Great Wall of China: A Frontier northern regions is consistent with Concept in Theory and Practice.” Nicola Di Cosmo is Professor of a pattern of steady territorial Geographical Review, 27/4 East Asian History at the Institute growth by the states of Yan, Zhao, (1937): 529-549. and Qin. They developed the for Advanced Study, School of Historical Studies (Princeton, N.J.). system of long lines of fortifications Lattimore 1940 to expand into the lands of His main interests are in the history nomadic or semi-nomadic peoples, of frontier relations between China Lattimore, Owen. Inner Asian and fence them off. Soldiers and Inner Asia, and in the social Frontiers of China. New York: defended this territory against and political history of Mongols, American Geographical Society, nomadic peoples possibly expelled Manchus, and other peoples of 1940. from their pastures. This military north and Central Asia. His books push created a pressure on include: Ancient China and Its Sima Qian 1993 nomads that in turn led to a Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Sima Qian. “Shi Ji 110: The Accout pattern of hostilities. The walls, in Power in East Asian History of the Xiongnu.” In: Sima Qian, other words, were part and parcel (2002); Warfare in Inner Asian Records of the Grand Historian with an overall expansionist History (500—1800) (ed., 2002); Translated by Burton Watson. 2 strategy by Chinese northern A Documentary History of Manchu- vols. Rev. ed. New York, Columbia states meant to support and Mongol Relations (1616-1626) (co- University Press, 1993, vol. 2, pp. protect their political and economic authored with Dalizhabu Bao, 129-162. Note: the quotations penetration into areas thus far 2003); Political Frontiers, Ethnic above from Sima Qian are my own alien to the Chinese world. This is Boundaries and Human Geo- translations. consistent both with the general graphies in Chinese History (co- trend of relations between Chinese edited with Don J. Wyatt, 2003); Waldron 1990 and The Diary of a Manchu Soldier states and foreign peoples and with Waldron, Arthur. The Great Wall of in Seventeenth-Century China the political, economic and military China: from History to Myth. (2006). imperatives facing the Warring Cambridge: Cambridge University States in the late fourth century Press, 1990. BCE. It was at this time that References northern Chinese states began to Di Cosmo 2002 Waldron 1995 pay attention to cavalry and to develop mounted warfare, and the Nicola Di Cosmo. Ancient China Waldron, Arthur. “Scholarship and local pastoral people were surely and Its Enemies: The Rise of Patriotic Education: The Great Wall more suited to this task than the Nomadic Power in East Asian Conference 1994.” The China sedentary Chinese. The walls were, History. Cambridge: Cambridge Quarterly, 143 (1995): 844-850. in other words, part of a system University Press, 2002. designed to enclose and establish Xu 2001 exclusive access to a precious Jagchid and Symons 1989 Xu Pingfang. “The Archaeology of reservoir of human and material Sechin Jagchid and Van Jay the Great Wall of the Qin and Han resources at a time when the bitter Symons. Peace, War, and Trade Dynasties.” Journal of East Asian struggle among Chinese states had Along the Great Wall: Nomadic- Archaeology, 3/1-2 (2001): 259- become deadlier than ever, and Chinese interaction through two 281. every state was striving to exploit millennia. Bloomington: Indiana any means likely to increase its chances of survival. The walls were meant as a barrier not only against dispossessed nomads but also against competing Chinese states. As such, the origins of the Great Wall are closely linked to a military and political project that will eventually result in the imperial unification of China. Recognizing the historical origins of the Great
Wall does nor diminish its symbolic 1998 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh power, but hopefully makes it less The Ming Fortress at Jiayuguan, blocking passage through the Hexi Corridor.
19 Archaeological Investigations of Xiongnu Sites in the Tamir River Valley Results of the 2005 Joint American-Mongolian Expedition to Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu, Ogii nuur, Arkhangai aimag, Mongolia
David E. Purcell and Kimberly C. Spurr Flagstaff, Arizona (USA)
During the summer of 2005 an archaeological investigations, and What is known points to this area archaeological expedition jointly their results, are the focus of this as one of the most important mounted by the Silkroad Foun- article, which is a preliminary and cultural regions in the world, a fact dation of Saratoga, California, incomplete record of the project recently recognized by the U.S.A. and the Mongolian National findings. Not all of the project data UNESCO through designation of University, Ulaanbataar, investi- — including osteological analysis of the Orkhon Valley as a World gated two sites near the the burials, descriptions or maps Heritage Site in 2004 (UNESCO confluence of the Tamir River with of the graves, or analyses of the 2006). Archaeological remains the Orkhon River in the Arkhangai artifacts — is available as of this indicate the region has been aimag of central Mongolia (Fig. 1). writing. Consequently, the greater occupied since the Paleolithic (circa The expedition was permitted emphasis falls on one of the two 750,000 years before present), (Registration Number 8, issued sites. It is hoped that through the with Neolithic sites found in great June 23, 2005) by the Ministry of Silkroad Foundation, the many numbers. As early as the Neolithic Education, Culture and Science of different collections from this period a pattern developed in Mongolia. The project had multiple project can be reunited in a which groups moved southward goals: archaeological investiga- scholarly publication. onto the steppes from the Taiga, tions of the Iron Age Xiongnu adopted pastoralism in some form, culture in central Mongolia, Research Design and Project and eventually moved south and instruction of Mongolian university Methodology west. Whether the movement was students and Silkroad Foundation in response to pressure from other volunteers in archaeological field Central Mongolia contains a rich, groups to the north or east methods, and cultural exchange deep, and varied archaeological (pushing) or new opportunities to between Mongolians and record that is, unfortunately, the south and west (pulling) Americans. These activities, far poorly known outside of Mongolia remains an important arena of from being discrete, were and the Russian-speaking research, but the pattern was inseparably part of the everyday archaeological community (cf. persistent for millennia. The activities of the expedition. The Bessac 1965; Davydova 1968). adoption of metal implements in the Bronze and Iron Ages appears to have done little to change this pattern. The first historically documented group of the Iron Age, called the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) by Han scholars, appears on the scene around 300 BCE, presaging a succession of similar steppe nomads that included the Uighur, Turks, and Mongols. The Xiongnu had a complicated and contentious relationship with the Han, raiding as well as trading with Han settlements along the north- western frontier of China. The relative degree to which the Xiongnu political system and its leaders were dependent on the Han is the current subject of Fig. 1. Map showing location of the Tamir River excavations.
20 heated debate (Barfield 1994; cf. goods to address the questions of alternatively, did the Xiongnu Di Cosmo in this issue). In an ethnic identify and material polity incorporate groups with attempt to address some of the cultural. The 2005 expedition different lifeways, including questions about this relationship, selected a Xiongnu cemetery in the agriculture, hunting and collecting, as well to gather additional Tamir River valley, a region from and dedicated pastoralism information about the nature of the which a good comparative (Barfield 1981)? The 2005 Xiongnu culture, the Silkroad collection was excavated in 2003 expedition targeted Tamir 2 (1) Foundation launched an archae- by a joint Mongolian-Korean to address whether the site is a ological expedition to gather new expedition. The cemetery site construction of the Xiongnu, rather data. selected by the 2005 Mongolian- than another group or a different American Expedition was named time period, (2) if built by the Ethnic Identity, Material Tamir 1. Xiongnu, to determine if this was Culture, and Gorodishche a year-round settlement (per- Tamir 1 is located on a manent), a seasonal settlement, or Specifically, the 2005 expedition prominent granitic outcrop known was built for short term occupation sought information in three areas: as Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu near such as fortified refuges, periodic the ethnic affiliation of the other cemeteries of the Neolithic, or seasonal gathering places, or Xiongnu, the affiliation of Xiongnu Bronze Age, and Mongol periods. special functions (i.e. ceremonial), material culture with Siberian and The significance of this place may and (3) to establish the Han traditions, and the derive in part from its prominent relationship of this site with the architecture and use of visibility within the Tamir and cemetery, Tamir 1. gorodishche (earthen-walled Orkhon River valleys, and its structures) by the Xiongnu. Recent proximity to the broad, well- Project History archaeological investigations of watered floodplains of these major burial populations in Inner rivers. Investigations from July 20 The general goals of the project Mongolia and southern Siberia to August 19, 2005, included the were identified in consultations have identified significant europoid preparation of detailed maps of the among Adela Lee, Head of the Caucasian Bronze Age populations, site using handheld GPS units, Silkroad Foundation, Dr. Albert some as old as the Hirgisur photodocumentation, and the Dien of Stanford University, Dr. complex of the Bronze Age (Di excavation of five graves at Tamir Mark Hall of the University of Cosmo 1999). Some readings of 1. California at Berkeley, and Dr. Zagd Han texts suggest the Xiongnu Batsaikhan of the Mongolian were, at least in part, ethnically The third research question National University, a noted like modern European populations, targeted a site 10 kilometers to the authority on the Xiongnu and a view supported by the recovery west of Tamir 1, which we author of the definitive work on the of Caucasian remains from some designated Tamir 2. This site Xiongnu, entitled (in English) Xiongnu graves (Tumen 2005; see consists of three enormous Xunnu. Dr. Hall had worked on a also the article by Batsaikhan in earthen-walled enclosures that prior excavation with Dr. this issue). Furthermore, some (superficially) resemble structures Batsaikhan. The latter had scholars have suggested that the excavated during the Soviet era in previously excavated at Tamir 1 Xiongnu, after leaving central the area of Lake Baikal and in the and felt that it was a significant Mongolia, migrated west across the Selenga River valley of southern Xiongnu cemetery, likely to contain steppes to the eastern edges of the Siberia. A noteworthy project at additional intact graves. He had Roman Empire, where they were the site of Ivolga by Davydova also discovered Tamir 2. The known as the Huns. Others, noting (1968) suggested that these proximity of the two sites offered that hunnu is a Han term for any gorodishche were fortified, the opportunity to explore all of barbaric foreigner, and that the permanent Xiongnu villages, the research questions discussed Xiongnu and Huns are separated containing tightly packed semi- above, as well as offer students of by nearly 200 years in the Han and subterranean houses, pits, metal the field school opportunities at Roman accounts, suggest that the foundries, and possible animal survey, mapping, and excavation. Xiongnu and Huns are two different enclosures. These sites, however, groups, albeit of similar nomadic also contain considerable evidence Plans for the project were lifestyles. Addressing this issue for agriculture, in the form of grain initiated in 2004, with field work requires better understanding the storage pits, large ceramic vessels, to be conducted in the summer of ethnic composition of the Xiongnu agricultural tools, and grinding 2005. Dr. Hall made all of the initial and Huns and their material culture tools. The variety of features and preparations, issuing a call for traditions (Di Cosmo 1999; Miniaev specialized tools raised the volunteers in the fall of 2004. Of 1995). Excavation of Xiongnu question: did the Xiongnu practice the dozens of applicants, Dr. Hall tombs in Mongolia could potentially agriculture in tandem with selected 14. Unfortunately, just provide skeletal remains and burial pastoralism (Di Cosmo 1994), or, two weeks before the project was
21 to take the field, other and areas subjected to surface to, or slightly into, a commitments forced Dr. Hall’s excavations. David Purcell directed culturally sterile calcic soil. The withdrawal from the project. The this part of the field school. Using development of such soils typically Silkroad Foundation subsequently a Garmin 12-channel handheld requires many millennia, with their contracted with two of the Global Positioning System (GPS) formation likely pre-dating the volunteers — professional receiver, each of the sites was Xiongnu occupation. The test units archaeologists with prior mapped to scale with 3-5 m were located by reference to the experience running archaeological accuracy. During this activity, basic GPS coordinates, and thus have a field schools — to co-direct the metric data was collected for each potential locational error of 3-5 m. project for Silkroad Foundation. feature and recorded in tabular Relocating these units would be Due to scheduling conflicts form. Due to the size of Tamir 2, almost impossible for subsequent resulting from the sudden change and to give all project participants researchers, so each unit was lined in project supervision, neither an opportunity to learn site with plastic sheeting and a metal David Purcell nor Kimberly Spurr mapping, the recording resulted in object (coin, or other small trinket) was able to participate in the a site map of the entire settlement was placed in the bottom center. project for the entire four week and individual maps of each of the The units will, therefore, be field term. The Silkroad three enclosures (Figs. 21, 22, identifiable with a metal detector Foundation contracted with Dr. below). At Tamir 1, the density of and the actual location of the unit Wang Binhua, a prominent retired graves in the central portion of the could be precisely plotted with archaeologist formerly based in site required that we produce a reference to a site grid placed with The Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous detail map of part of the site, in a transit, theodolite, or total Region in China, to complete the addition to the overall map. All of station. project term after Purcell and the Mongolian students and Spurr departed, and to provide Silkroad volunteers were able to Each test unit was laid out with additional perspectives on the take part in this activity. respect to the cardinal directions. Xiongnu tradition from the western Since topographic maps of the area occupied by the culture and Some surface survey of areas project area were not available to the archaeological traditions of the outside of the sites did take place, the 2005 expedition, Purcell set Peoples Republic Of China. Thus, but at an informal, reconnaissance true north declination on his the 2005 expedition came to have level. This included a number of compass to 9° W, the alignment four archaeological directors and individual and group forays around of the western wall of Structure A. a field methodology that combines Tamir 1 to investigate the many The GPS-derived plot of this wall contemporary trends from three of other grave markers on Tamiryn is 4° E declination, indicating that the major schools of archaeological Ulaan Khoshuu, which Dr. the builders of Tamir 2 sought to methodology: American, Soviet Batsaikhan identified as belonging orient their layout to the true (Mongolian), and Chinese. The to Neolithic, Bronze Age, and cardinal directions, not magnetic. methods used in survey, testing, Mongol graves (Fig. 2). On one GPS north is slightly askew from mapping, and feature excavation occasion, Batsaikhan, Purcell, and True North. are described below. Spurr drove north of Tamir 2 to visit a site with extensive earthen For each volunteer, Purcell then Field Methods and walls that had been reported by a provided instruction on how to set Approaches to Data Collection local herdsman. A rough GPS map up an excavation unit, make sure of this site seems to show that it that it is square, set a datum for Site Survey, Mapping, and is of very different form than Tamir vertical measurement controls, Documentation 2, and possibly represents an and excavate using hand tools. animal trap and corral from an Each unit was excavated in Although it was hoped from the unknown period, rather than a arbitrary 10 cm levels. Unfor- outset that the field school would habitation area. tunately, screens were not include the opportunity for Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 systematic surface surveys of the Test Excavations type that form a major part of the American approach to describing The 2005 expedition further settlement systems, time and investigated Tamir 2 through a materials did not allow for this. series of systematic and Instead, the project focused on judgmental test excavations. The detailed documentation of each of systematic tests consisted of 1 x the sites, with the goal to produce 1 m hand units placed on a 50 m plan maps of each site showing the grid within Structure A of Tamir 2. Fig. 2. Surface remains of a Bronze- locations of each archaeological Fifteen of these units were Age (?) grave on a slope facing feature, relevant natural features, excavated to 20 cm below the Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu.
22 available to sift the soil for small vertical walls and rectangular artifacts that are often plan of TU 18 suggests that it overlooked when excavating. was excavated by archae- Profiles were then drawn of the ologists, rather than looters. exposed soil stratigraphy in Dr. Batsaikhan was unaware of selected units (those that who would have conducted such exhibited useful stratigraphy) an excavation. and plan maps were drawn of the bottom surface of the unit Feature Excavations if it exposed a cultural feature Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 or artifact. Selected units were The excavation of individual Fig. 4. Test Unit 16, Tamir 2 site. also documented through digital archaeological features was the photographs. sequence within the wall proper final activity undertaken in 2005, (Fig. 5). A possible post hole was and the primary focus of efforts at To investigate the architecture observed in profile in the east end Tamir 1. The approach followed of the gorodishche, three of this unit, perhaps part of a methods used previously by Dr. judgmentally selected test palisade wall or gate. Batsaikhan at this and other excavations were made in Xiongnu sites, with slight Structure B. These consisted of a modifications at two of the 1 x 1 m unit (TU 17) placed in a features. Using a compass set to long, low swale that extends partly magnetic north, the visible feature across the interior of the structure, (a low rock ring) was divided into a 1 x 1 m unit (TU 16) placed quarters along the cardinal within the interior southwestern directions using string lines, which corner of the wall, and a 1 x 1 m extended at least 1 m beyond the unit (TU 19) placed in a gap of the edge of the rock ring. Vegetation southern wall near the and overlying dirt was cleaned (Fig. southeastern corner. All were 6) from the northwestern quarter excavated in arbitrary 10 cm levels first, followed by the northeastern, initially, with TU 19 being southeastern, and southwestern. excavated in natural levels below A balk, or untouched strip of soil 20 cm. TU 17 exposed what 20-30 cm in width, was left appeared to be a natural cobble between each of the quarters (Fig. and gravel deposit and was 7, next page). Using metric graph discontinued at 6 cm (Fig. 3). TU Photo © David E. Purcell 2005 paper, each exposed stone of the Fig. 5. Test Unit 19, Tamir 2 site. grave surface was then drawn to scale with a string mapping grid, Test Unit 18 consisted of drawing a block 5 x 5 m at a time. cleaning and profiling the walls of The northwestern quarter was a rectangular pit found near the illustrated first, and upon center of Feature 1 (Structure B), completion of the map of that in the top surface. The pit section, the rocks were removed measured approximately 1.35 x and discarded, and a 2 x 2 m 1.0 m. After cleaning the pit walls, excavation unit was established at layers of brightly colored soils and the center of the section, with the
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 an older, in-filled pit or shaft, were balks forming two of the edges. Fig. 3. Test Unit 17, Tamir 2 site. visible. Some of the layers are less Each feature quadrant was treated than 5 cm in 16 exposed what appeared, at thickness, and first, to be molded dirt (adobe) alternate regularly, bricks, and was expanded with 1 suggesting the x 1 m units to the north and east; periodic renewal of these proved to be natural drying the exterior surface cracks in melted construction dirt of the mound. The that has collected at the base of old pit or shaft was the wall (Fig. 4). Expanded to 1 x slightly north of TU 3 m, TU 19 exhibited a series of 18, and may have four cultural fills of visually been an ancient Photo © David E. Purcell 2005. distinctive colors that appear to looters’ tunnel. The Fig. 6. Cleaning the rock ring of Feature 201, represent the construction conspicuously Tamir 1 site.
23 at Features 160 and inconsistently applied. 201. At Feature 201, each of the quarters Excavated artifacts were was undertaken removed to the expedition camp simultaneously with as soon as they could be safely clearing the vege- taken from the ground, and were tation and over- stored in the expedition laboratory burden. During the in a ger that was erected in camp. removal of the rock In this location, artifacts were fall from the grave cleaned, photographed, and monument, large illustrated. Dan Waugh syste- quantities of animal matically documented every bones were observed substantial, and many of the less mixed with the rock, complete, artifacts through as well as ash and photographs taken in relatively Photo © David E. Purcell 2005. charcoal, concen- controlled lighting. Fig. 7. Partially exposed rock ring of Feature 160, trated beneath an Tamir 1 site, view along balk to south. upright boulder at the RESULTS southeastern edge of in this manner, sequentially. The the ring (a possible headstone). Tamir 1 - The Cemetery excavation units were excavated The northeastern and southeastern approximately 1 m in depth, with quarters and part of the Tamir 1 consists of 287 graves the fill being discarded, to expose southwestern quarter were then visible on the surface as torus- the opening of the grave shaft excavated carefully by hand to shaped low mounds of rocks proper. After two adjacent expose a deposit of burned, clustered on a south-facing slope quarters had been opened in this butchered horse bone, associated around the head of a series of dry manner, profile maps of the balks with a few artifacts. At Feature washes that are tributary to the were drawn to illustrate the 160, excavation proceeded in Tamir River. Documentation of stratigraphy of the upper portion halves, not quarters, due to its Tamir 1 entailed the preparation of the grave shaft and the small size. At both features, of two maps, and completion of a collapsed grave monument. The vertical data were established and table that recorded the size, balks were removed once all of the elevations were recorded for the condition, orientation, and profiles are drawn, and the grave present ground surface, top of the attributes of each grave. One map shaft fill was removed as a single grave monument, grave shaft completed in 2005 is a plan of the stratum down to the tomb. The opening, and individual points entire site, shown in relation to the grave contents were exposed, within the graves. The balk profiles natural drainage system; the other excavated by hand, and of both features were drawn from is a detailed plan view of the photographed before being level lines, with the entire grave, densest portion of the cemetery. removed to complete excavation shaft included, profiled in sections The cemetery encompasses 560 x of the grave. Photography was approximately 2 m in thickness. 390 m, an area of 21.8 hectares. undertaken almost entirely by Unfortunately, due to a mis- Each grave was documented as a Silkroad participants, although not communication, only the upper ‘feature’ and numbered in a systematic fashion; typically, meter of the grave shaft was sequentially from 1-290 (three photographs were taken when an documented in this manner before numbers were omitted). The interesting find was uncovered and the rest of the grave shaft fill was surface expression of the graves announced. Once the entire grave shoveled out. The deeper profiles ranged from 2 m in diameter to had been completely excavated, documented the fill sequence of 12 m, with an average of 4.6 m the skeleton and grave goods were the graves , a procedure that was (n=273) and modes of 4.0, 5.0, replaced in their positions and a followed by the 2003 Mongolian- 3.0, and 6.0 m (in order of final map of the grave was drawn. Korean Expedition. In addition, in frequency). The median feature Vertical controls were not used at Features 109, 201, and 160, most diameter is 4.5 m, (n=269). Features 97 or 100, including the artifacts or features found in the Thirty-one of the graves exhibit use of a vertical datum, level lines graves or grave shafts were single boulders set upright in the for the balk profiles, or recording mapped and vertical elevations ring of rocks, often on the of vertical elevations. Limited recorded as they were exposed, southeastern or northeastern vertical control was undertaken at and each find was exhaustively edge, perhaps marking the head Feature 109. photodocumented by Dan Waugh, of the grave (headstones). The David Purcell, and other project graves located closer to the Tamir Purcell initiated several participants. As noted above, this River floodplain appear to be modification to these procedures program of photography was smaller in diameter, in closer
24 Feature 100 contained an articulated skeleton within the remains of a poorly pre- served wooden shaft liner. Associated grave goods includ- ed a complete white bronze TLV mirror (Fig. 1, p. 36), two ceramic jars, a fragment of cloth (Fig. 9), a ceramic spindle whorl, a Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh complete oil lamp, Fig. 8. Feature 97, Tamir 1 site (clockwise from upper left): bronze cauldron with iron base, pot, lamp, ani- bronze metal mal bones, gilt ring of lacquer bowl, resting on pot. clothing plaques including possible proximity to one another, and more buttons, a carnelian (?) bead, a of Mongolia, Department Photo © National University of Anthropology and Archaeology 2005 densely clustered than are graves bronze cauldron, and a bronze (?) Fig. 10. Gold earring. Feature located higher on the slope, farther coil-like object of unknown function 109, Tamir 1 site. from the river’s edge. Dr. (possibly a core for a string of Batsaikhan previously excavated in coins). Tamir 1, but the site has also been subjected to unscientific and unauthorized excavations, including several graves observed in 2005 that appeared to have been very recently looted. Five graves were completely excavated by our expedition in 2005: Features 97, 100, 109, 160, and Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 201. Excavation revealed that the rock rings were once continuous mounds of rocks piled over the grave shaft, but with the settling of the grave and shaft fill through time, now appear to be mounded Fig. 11. Glass rings of cobbles. beads. Fea- ture 109, Tamir 1 site. Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Feature 97 contained a nearly Fig. 9. Cloth (carpet?) fragment with complete, but disarticulated, embroidered design. Feature 100, wooden handle (Fig. 12, next human skeleton and a cache of Tamir 1 site. page), and various rusted iron grave goods at the foot of the objects. Despite the later digging grave (Fig. 8) that included a Feature 109 was a tomb showing in the tomb, handholds and bronze and iron cauldron, a evidence of two looters’ shafts, but footholds were identified by Dr. lacquerware bowl with a gilt brass still held a partially intact wooden Wang in the shaft walls as having rim (see images, next article), an lining and the disarticulated and been cut during the graves initial oil lamp, and several ceramic jars. obviously disturbed remains of one excavation, providing ingress and There was also group of decorative individual. The funerary offerings egress for the excavators. metal and bone objects that may that had been overlooked by the have been horse tack decorations, looters included a gold earring (less Feature 160 exhibited a looter’s a bone and metal bit, and a the inset stones) (Fig. 10), a shaft in the profile of the grave wooden toggle. Two or possibly turquoise jewelry setting, two shaft; at the bottom of the looter’s three other lacquer vessels, less fragments of a large white bronze shaft was the displaced cranium well-preserved, were also present TLV mirror (Fig. 3, p. 37), three from the burial (Fig. 13, next but disintegrated before being cast glass beads (Fig. 11), a page). Quantities of charcoal were documented or described. possible iron knife with lacquered scattered throughout the grave
25 It is possible that these rocks had been placed on the top wooden boards of the coffin (no longer extant). The lowest layer of the coffin walls was intact, and there seemed to be traces Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 of a pattern of a Fig. 15. SE wall of coffin, sherd of jar carpet that might visible in center. Feature 160, Tamir 1 have been laid on site. Fig. 12. Iron knife with handle of lacquered wood. the ground below intact grave with a fully articulated Photo in situ, approx. 310 cm. depth (© Daniel C. the body. At the SE skeleton in situ, except for the Waugh); sketch of possible original appearance (© end of the coffin was cranium, which was found on the David E. Purcell). Feature 109, Tamir 1 site. a separate compart- NW side toward the feet. ment (Fig. 15) Associated grave offerings included containing two ceramic jars and a a string of Han Dynasty wushu possible cooking vessel, and just coins (Fig. 17), found in the inside the coffin were remains of a lacquerware vessel (Fig. 16). Beyond the NW end of the coffin some verte- brae, probably of a sheep, were found. Apart from the skull (see above), the middle section of the skeleton was in the presumed orig- inal position laid NW to SE. However, the
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh mandible had been Fig. 13. Skull in Feature 160, displaced and was Tamir 1 site. found in approxi- Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 mately the pelvic Fig. 16. Pots, charred vessel and remains of lacquer area, a result pre- bowl (lower right). SE end of grave, Feature 160, Tamir shaft starting around a depth of 1 site. 50 cm and continuing to the sumably of the bottom. At 231.5 cm the action of the looter. The grave excavation revealed a rectangular goods included a complete bronze rock “lining” of the grave with a mirror of possible local rock pile in the center (Fig. 14). manufacture (Fig. 5, p. 38), a metal earring, a ceramic spindle whorl, four stone beads, assorted iron objects includ- ing possible belt buckles/plaques, all badly corroded, and traces of at least one additional lacquerware object. Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh Feature 201 was Fig. 17. A string of wushu coins
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh also an apparently on a metal ‘core.’ Feature 201, Fig. 14. Feature 160, Tamir 1. Rock “lining” of grave. Tamir 1 site.
26 plain at Hermental, west- on the top of an earthen mound northwest of Tamir 1. The plain is (Feature 1) within Structure B. No a part of the Tamir Valley that is artifacts or buried features or bounded by ranges of hills to the cultural deposits were exposed in west, north, and east, and extends the test units. This seems unusual, in a long slope that gradually in light of Davydova’s (1968, p. flattens to the south where it 217) comment that Xiongnu merges with the floodplain of the settlements of Mongolia differed river. From Tamir 2, Tamiryn Ulaan from Ivolga in containing large Khoshuu is a dark, prominent quantities of (roof) tile, a fact that
Photo ©of National University Mongolia, Department of Anthropol- Fig. 18. Jar in Feature 201, ogy and Archaeology 2005 landmark on the horizon to the she attributed to ‘some other type Tamir 1 site. east-southeast. The expedition of dwelling, different from those remains of what was apparently a mapped the structures at Tamir 2 of the Ivolga gorodishche.’ lacquered box, 13 clothing toggles and produced plan view maps of or clasps of bronze (?) with some each structure individually, to show The soils consisted of two traces of fabric wrapping, at one detail, and of the three together strata. Stratum I, the uppermost, intact large ceramic jar (Fig. 18) to show their relationship. During is a medium brown silty sandy and sherds of a second one, an iron the collection of the UTM loam, humic, containing abundant coordinates with the rootlets and some fine gravel. It GPS receivers, the is 8-20 cm thick and uncompacted. site was traversed Its contact with the underlying many times on foot, Stratum II is typically horizontal with detailed notes (occasionally undulating) with an recorded about the indistinct 1-2 cm thick contact form, condition and zone. Stratum II is a compact pale orientation of the brown sandy loam that exhibits a Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 gorodishche. No Stage I-II calcium carbonate Fig. 19. Bronze and lacquer handle for an eared cup. artifacts dating development. It extends from 8- Feature 201, Tamir 1 site. before the modern 20 cm below the present ground period were ob- surface to an undetermined depth. base for a cauldron or standing served, other than a single pottery It contains variable quantities of lamp, a compound bronze and sherd observed (but not collected) gravel, up to small cobble-sized. lacquerware object (Fig. 19), apparently the handle of a lacquered eared cup, from which additional fragments remained, and various iron objects including a belt buckle. One iron ring or clip was found within the burned horse offering in the rock tumulus above the grave, as were a few sherds.
Tamir 2 - The Gorodishche
Three gorodishche or earthen- walled fortifications, labeled Fig. 21. Overview plan map of Tamir 2, depicting the spatial relationship of the Structures A-C from west to east, three gorodishche (structures). Numbered forms within the enclosing earthen form Tamir 2 (Figs. 20, 21). The walls are large earthen mounds, to which arbitrary feature numbers were enclosures extend in an east-west assigned. Breaks in the walls are apparent formal gates and other cuts or line 1,725 m across a broad, gentle gaps in the continuity of the walls. (Drawing © David E. Purcell 2005)
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Fig. 20. Panorama (composite of three photographs) of Tamir 2 settlement site, taken at 7:15 PM from point at altitude of 1455 m looking SW by W along length of site.
27 All rocks exhibit a 3-6 mm rind of structure’s interior. Major gaps whether this is a natural or calcium carbonate, with appear in the approximate centers constructed feature was not projections from the downward of each of the walls, with those on determined. An iron pipe was surfaces. Most of the rocks are the north and east walls at grade. found standing upright in the schistic metamorphic. Stratum II The gaps on the south and east southeastern ‘tower’ of Structure contains significantly less moisture walls feature visible ramps A. than does Stratum I. extending from the gap down to the exterior, over the ditch. The Structure B is the central earthen Three hand excavation units gaps in the east, west, and south enclosure, nearly square in shape, were judgmentally placed in or walls are flanked by sections of the measuring 455 m east-west by near architectural features (such wall that are broader at the base 440 m north-south to the outer as walls and gates) to expose and higher in elevation than edges of the ditch (Fig. 22, next details of their construction, and surrounding sections of the wall; page). Its construction is similar were in some cases expanded to these three openings appear to to that of Structure A, with gates follow interesting deposits. These have been formal gates. The east visible in the north, east, and south are described above. The previous and west walls also feature gaps walls, with accompanying towers. excavation on the central mound at grade level that are not regularly The north wall includes two shallow in Structure B was also cleaned and spaced along the wall. These may gaps equidistant between the profiled (TU 18), providing details represent more recent cuts to corners and the central gate. The of its construction. No artifacts provide access, but additional south wall exhibits two shallow were recovered from any of the research is needed to fully describe gaps but without regular spacing. judgmental units. Given the vast the construction and modification The west wall exhibits a shallow areas encompassed by each of the sequences of these features. The gap in the wall center, but without gorodishche — ranging from 7.2 north wall exhibits three shallow flanking mounds, and a grade level hectares in Structure C to 16.3 gaps, in addition to the gap in the opening to the south. Only the hectares in Structure A — the wall center, which is at grade but north and south gates and the absence of findings by this very is blocked on the exterior by the southern gap in the west wall are limited testing is not surprising. ditch The ditch appears to have at grade level. The Structure B What is surprising, however, is the been a borrow ditch for soil used walls are also enclosed by a complete lack of surface or to build the enclosing walls, but shallow (15-20 cm deep) ditch, subsurface artifacts. Further also appears to have functioned as which is continuous around the research is necessary to establish a dry moat, based on its placement exterior except at the south gate, the age and cultural associations to the exterior of the wall. Each which spans it. Six interior earthen of these features through corner of Structure A stands 0.4 mounds were documented, as well archaeological means, despite to 1.0 m higher than contiguous as a seventh, low mound that may their apparent similarity to other sections of wall, and is much be natural. Like Structure A, the features east of Ulaanbataar broader at the base, forming a largest mound (Feature 1) is near previously studied by Dr. swell that extends outward 4-5 m the center, in line with the gates. Batsaikhan. beyond the walls. These may have This mound stands approximately been the bases for tower-like 2 m above the ground, but exhibits Structure Descriptions and elevated features, or bastions. a much more formal shape in plan Interior Features that did Feature 1 of Structure A. Structure A contains five It is rectangular with obvious Structure A, the westernmost of earthen mounds of various shapes, ramps that extend east and west the three enclosures, measures ranging from nearly square to toward the gates. A cluster of 490 m east-west by 450 m north- nearly circular. The largest, small boulders and a rectangular south in maximum dimensions. Feature 1, stands nearly 3.5 m pit were found on top; a single The enclosing wall is 16-18 m in above the ground and is near the potsherd was found within this pit, width and appeared to vary from center of the structure, in line with which was cleaned and profiled to 0.5 m to 2.0 m in height above the gates on the east-west and document the mound construction the interior ground surface, with a north-south axes. The other sequence. The upper portions of shallow ditch visible at the base of mounds stand 0.9 to 1.4 m above the mound, based on this profile, the wall on the exterior, except in the surrounding ground. Feature appear to have been made of three locations that correspond 5 has a small square rock alternating layers of brightly with gaps in the wall. Nine alignment on top, and Feature 1 colored soils. The arrangement of locations along the wall exhibit has a rock ring or ovoo base near the interior features — with a small visible dips or reductions in its center. A possible earthen ramp circular mound (Feature 4) south elevation, four of which extend to slopes down the eastern end of of Feature 1, and two other the interior ground level, providing Feature 3. A low swale or ridge mounds in the southeastern grade-level access to the links Feature 1 with Feature 4; quadrant (Features 2 and 3) — is
28 of the enclosure. A possible borrow ditch/moat, 5 cm in depth, is visible only around the north- eastern wall corner exterior. Four earthen mounds were observed in the interior, with the largest (Feature 1) near the center, standing approx- imately 4 m in height, the tallest of any feature docu- mented at Tamir 2. To the southeast are three other mounds (Features 2-4) that range in elevation from 0.6 to 1.6 m above the ground. No other features were observed. The lower walls, near absence of a ditch, and less pronounced encircling walls may indicate that this structure is older than the other two; the more pro- nounced wall fea- Fig. 22. Tamir 2, Structure B detail plan map. Elevations are GPS-derived (WGS 84 Datum), with a 3-5 m potential error. Relative heights are estimated above the surrounding ground tures of Structure A surface level, which slopes north to south. (Drawing © David E. Purcell 2005) may indicate that it is the youngest of nearly identical to that observed compared with contiguous wall the three, and that the gorodishche at Structure A. Structure B, segments. The Structure B walls were constructed over a relatively however, also includes a low are 16-20 m in width and 1.2-1.75 long time period in order from east mound almost in-line with, and m in height. to west. near, the east gate (Feature 5), and another mound just east of the Structure C is the easternmost SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER north gate (Feature 6). The low enclosure. It is rectangular in plan, RESEARCH: METHODS AND mound that was not assigned a measuring 335 m east-west by GOALS feature number is just east of the 275 m north-south. The walls are south gate, but stands barely 20 10 m in width and 20-60 cm in The results of the 2005 Expedition cm above the surrounding ground. height. Gaps are present in the do not ‘solve’ the problems of the A low ridge extends north- walls, but follow no apparent central Mongolian Iron Age. westwards from Feature 4 to the regular scheme of placement, with Indeed, few individual archae- west wall; this was tested (Test a single gate in the east wall ological projects have the ability Unit 17) and found to be a natural center, and pairs of gaps in the to dramatically change existing gravel deposit. However, the siting other three walls. The gaps are not models. The acquisition of of Feature 4 at its end appears to flanked by earthen mounds, and archaeological data usually have been deliberate. The wall only the northwestern and produces incremental results, in corners exhibit mounds of dirt, northeastern wall corners exhibit that the results of any one possible towers/bastions, but the mounds of dirt; the southern individual project, combined with corners do not form pronounced corners do not, and the entire years of research in a given area, swells and the mounds are southern wall is approximately 20 together reveal strong patterns relatively low in elevation cm lower in elevation that the rest that suggest the signatures of
29 cultures, periods, and transitions. Xiongnu settlement was located careful review of aerial and satellite Once patterns have been nearby. If Tamir 2 was that photos and systematic survey delineated, then subsequent settlement, our efforts so far using horses, camels, or vehicles. individual projects can contribute cannot even substantiate that Such surveys could easily be through the recovery of more Tamir 2 was ever inhabited like carried out by following GPS specific data that supports, refutes, Ivolga, much less that it was gridlines, looking for visible or refines the model. For example, associated with the cemetery. To features. Areas around recorded the finding of a certain type of date none of the graves at Tamir sites and in proximity to eroded diagnostic artifact in association 1 reveal the complex structures surfaces should be inventoried with datable materials may supply and richness of goods found in more intensively on foot, a date for just that artifact type or excavations at Noin Ula, Gol Mod systematically following GPS for an entire phase, depending on and Tsaraam (on the last, see the gridlines. A check of Google Earth the context. article by Miniaev in this issue). revealed that Tamir 2 is not visible due to low resolution; higher Several types of artifacts Clearly, much additional resolution images need to be recovered from the graves of Tamir research needs to be conducted at examined. If publically accessible 1 appear to be important finds, Tamir 2, which perhaps should images of this region are not particularly the TLV mirrors become the focus of future efforts. available, it would be worth having recovered from Features 100 and The size of the site, its apparent aerial photos flown of this area, 109, the glass beads from Feature lack of artifacts, and its relative after obtaining the needed 109, and the lacquer bowl from proximity to Tamiryn Ulaan Khusuu government permission. Feature 97. The specific suggest that it too, is an important significance of the mirrors is place, but its function remains The interior, and the exterior described at length by Prof. Lai unknown. A military purpose, is perimeter, of Tamir 2 should be elsewhere in this issue. In general, suggested by the existence of the examined using ground pene- however, the richness and size of walls and the presence of apparent trating radar, magnetometer, and the graves, in comparison with fortifications along them. Future electrical conductivity instruments. other Xiongnu graves excavated by research needs to be directed at Any subsurface features, including Drs. Batsaikhan and Wang, (1) establishing the age of the site, our test units, pits associated with suggest that this cemetery (Tamir (2) identifying and excavating recent herder camps, and ancient 1) may represent the final resting features within and outside of the features such as houses, storage place of more important or wealthy walls, (3) comparing the site pits, etc. should be apparent. Xiongnu individuals. The orien- architecture with other earthen- Remote sensing is now used tation of the heads to the east walled structures of the central routinely in some settings, and the rather than the typical north Mongolian steppes, (4) recovering cropped grass of the steppes is orientation, greater number of materials that link the site with ideal for the use of all of these ceramic vessels, and the relative Tamir 1 or with other sites in the methods. Interior features, such as lack of military hardware are also region, and (5) conducting regional houses and pits, were readily unusual aspects to Tamir 1. settlement analysis to better visible on the ground surface at However, the degree to which understand the types and Ivolga as low mounds with upright ancient grave robbing has affected placement of other sites in the stone slabs and depressions; the the composition of the grave goods region. gorodishche at Tamir 2 did not cannot be evaluated at this time. exhibit any of these indications of Some graves, such as Feature 109, Much of the research at Tamir buried features. Systematic test were clearly looted many centuries 2 will need to be accomplished excavations are not recommended, ago, leaving only those artifacts using remote sensing methods, as hundreds or thousands would overlooked or discarded (such as including aerial and satellite have to be excavated to complete the broken mirror) by the robbers, photographs, on the ground even a small, and probably not and skeletal remains in disarray. systematic survey, and remote statistically valid, sample of just What is then difficult to explain are prospecting for features in and one of the structures. One of the objects such as the golden earring around the site itself. It is clear structures should be completely from Feature 109, which appears that pedestrian surface survey, as mapped by remote means; based to have been stripped of its jewels, practiced in the western United on the results, the other structures but was left in the grave, probably States, is not appropriate for the may be sampled in areas where by accident. Given the site’s Mongolian steppes, given the lack features are likely. The sheer size location in the Orkhon Valley, it is of visible artifacts on the surface, of these structures suggests that tempting to speculate that this the vast areas to be examined, and they were built, at least in part, to cemetery was used by the elite of the nature of the known types of shelter herds of animals, so Xiongnu society, perhaps indicating sites. Some pedestrian survey features may not be present in that an important or central should be conducted in support of large sections of them. Given the
30 placement of the interior mound or groups not described by the About the Authors features that are visible, it is official chronicles, especially the expected that some sort of internal poor and those of minority or partitions or fences may have been dispossessed status. David Purcell and Kimberly used to divide the interior space, Spurr are professional archae- although the form of such a fence The use of 3-D laser scanning ologists who live in Flagstaff, is unknown. Excavations of of the graves is also recom- Arizona. They graduated in 1993 possible features should be mended, but not strictly necessary. with Master’s degrees in undertaken to ‘ground truth’ the This type of mapping uses anthropology from Northern findings. However, fine mesh computer-controlled lasers to Arizona University and have excavation screen must be part of measure to sub-millimeter worked in a variety of settings any further program of test accuracy the forms of features and since. Purcell has worked for excavations, in order to catch small their contents; this could include contract archaeological research objects. Often artifacts as large as the surface expression of the companies and is currently coins can be missed, and coins are collapsed grave monuments, the employed as Principal Investigator very important for dating sites in grave and grave shaft, and the and Projects Manager by Four this area. skeleton and associated funerary Corners Research of Tularosa, New objects. The advantage of this Mexico. He also works as the Tamir 1 also yielded important approach is that it generates an Coordinator of the Kaibab- information, particularly about the electronic dataset that can be Vermilion Cliffs Heritage Alliance, types of artifacts that might be output as a virtual illustration of a non-profit organization dedicated expected at this cemetery in future the feature, or even used to create to research, preservation, and excavations, particularly the laquer an exact scale model of the interpretation of the cultural vessels. Preparation for subse- feature. Such an approach is heritage of the region of Arizona quent excavations of graves should desirable if public interpretation lying north of Grand Canyon. Spurr include having on hand appropriate and presentation of data is a worked for the Navajo Nation conservation materials and component of future projects. For Archaeology Department for 13 methods to salvage intact these example, a Xiongnu grave model years, leaving this summer to form priceless artifacts for further study could be generated from such data Past Peoples Consulting, LLC, and display. Future projects should and installed in the Mongolian which specializes in the study of also be better prepared to National University, or presented human remains and burials, in both transport fragile artifacts and to the public on line or modeled in archaeological and forensic human remains back to Ulaan relief and displayed publically. settings. She directed the Bataar, by including sturdy boxes, Laser scanning also supports the preliminary phase of a multi-year plastic tubs, and other packing creation of web-based displays investigation of a Paleoindian site materials as part of their field that allow viewers to manipulate in North Dakota this summer, and equipment. In situ mapping of the their point of view via the Internet. will also work with the Museum of graves as finds are made, with Northern Arizona to excavate sites recording of vertical elevations, is The overall impression of the along the Colorado River in Grand highly recommended as part of sites investigated by the 2005 Canyon this coming fall. standard operating procedure. expedition is that these are This will make the collected data important places within one of the References compatible with current standards cultural cradles of the world’s in use around the world. Another civilizations. Within a 60 km radius Barfield 1981 arena in which more rigorous field are the Uighur capital, the Qidan Thomas J. Barfield. “The Hsiung- methods should be applied is the capital, the Mongol capital, and nu Imperial Confederacy: collection of soil and plant samples the burial sites of the Türk leaders Organization and Foreign Policy.” for analysis. Advances in the study Bilge Qaghan and his brother Journal of Asian Studies, 41/1 of preserved pollen, plant remains, Kültegin. Does the Orkhon Valley (1981): 45-61. wood species and dating, also hold the Xiongnu capital, and radiocarbon dating, and faunal are Tamir 1 and 2 somehow Bessac 1965 remains have greatly enhanced the associated with it? These are just Frank Bessac. “Review of current knowledge of subsistence, some of the exciting questions that Mongolian Archaeology.” Asian trade, burial and religious the 2005 expedition has raised, Perspectives, 8/1 (1965): 141- practices, and chronology. A and as with all good science, we 147. central tenet of historical are now left with more questions archaeology is to test the archival than answers, and more questions Davydova 1968 record against the physical than before we undertook the A. V. Davydova. “The Ivolga remains of the past and to project. Gorodishche (A Monument of the illuminate the lives of individuals Hsiung-nu Culture in the Trans-
31 Baikal Region).” Acta Archae- ologica Academiae Scientiarum The Challenges of Preserving Hungaricae, 20 (1968): 67-245. Evidence of Chinese Lacquer- Di Cosmo 1994 Nicola Di Cosmo. “Ancient Inner ware in Xiongnu Graves Asian Nomads: Their Economic Basis and Its Significance in Daniel C. Waugh Chinese History.” The Journal of The University of Washington, Asian Studies, 53/4 (1994): 1092- Seattle (USA) 1126.
Di Cosmo 1999 This brief communication may sonably well preserved Chinese Nicola Di Cosmo. “The Northern serve as an appendix to the report lacquerware in Xiongnu tombs are Frontier in Pre-Imperial China.” In: by David Purcell and Kimberly the ‘eared cups’ (Fig. 1), painted The Cambridge History of Ancient Spurr on the Tamiryn Ulaan table legs, chopsticks and an China. Ed. Michael Loewe and Khoshuu excavation in 2005. My animal-shaped pouring vessel Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cam- goal is not to provide a scholarly found in the excavations at Noin bridge: Cambridge University analysis of the abundant evidence Ula in northern Mongolia. Indeed, Press, Cambridge, 1999, pp. 909- we uncovered of Chinese the inventories of the Noin Ula 966. lacquerware — I lack the expertise graves are full of references to to do that — but mainly to lacquered objects (Rudenko 1962, Korean-Mongolian 2002 document it and to highlight the pp. 117 ff.; pls. VI, XLVIII; Trever Mon-Sol tosliin 5 zhil: Tusgai challenges which must be 1932, pls. 27, 29-31). As is well uzesgelen/Korean-Mongolian Joint addressed if such evidence from known, the circumstance of the Expedition in Mongolia 1997-2001: future excavations is to be graves having been flooded there Special Exhibition. Ulaanbaatar: properly preserved and studied. resulted in remarkably good Mongolyn Undesniy Tuukhiin preservation of organic material, Muzey, 2002. One is struck by the frequency including carpets, clothing, a wide with which lacquerware (or at least variety of wooden objects, and Miniaev 1995 traces of its existence) is reported much more. The eared cups at Sergei Miniaev. “The Excavation of in excavations of Xiongnu graves Noin Ula are of particular interest Xiongnu Sites in the Buryatia and also the apparent lack of its here: at least one of them had both Republic.” Orientations, 26/10 serious analysis. The term can, bronze handles and an inscription (1995): 44-45. of course, encompass a variety of dated 2 BCE indicating its objects of different composition, manufacture in Sichuan, the major Okladnikov 1990 ranging from those merely location of Han lacquer production A. P. Okladnikov. “Inner Asia at decorated with a resin-based paint (Dschingis Khan, nos. 16, 17, pp. the Dawn of History.” In: Denis to objects made of layers of wood, 50-51). Sinor, ed. The Cambridge History clay and/or cloth impregnated with of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge, lacquer and then covered with At Tamir 1, evidence of lacquer etc.: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1999, additional layers of paint. With was found in at least four of the Ch. 3. notable exceptions, the evidence five excavated graves, in all cases from Xiongnu graves is of the designs being in red (or Tumen 2005 surviving paint layers or orangish red) and black. Where Tumen Dashvereg. “Paleo- fragments, not intact objects on possible, it was photographed in anthropology of Eastern Mongolia.” which the paint was applied. As situ, but with one exception, none Mongolian Journal of Anthropology, was the case in our Archaeology and Ethnology, 1 Tamir excavations, (242) (2005): 72-91. such survivals may end up being ‘pre- UNESCO 2006 served’ primarily in UNESCO. World Heritage List: the photographic Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape. record, although this Electronic document
32 in the SE end, near the head of the deceased (fig. 3); in the SE corner, probably an eared cup (fig. 4); midway along the S side of the coffin, another bowl or cup (fig. 5); on top of the array Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 including pots and a Fig. 7. Detail of preceding. cauldron, a bowl with Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 a gilded brass rim Fig. 2. A box of lacquer fragments from Feature 201, (figs. 6, 7). The Tamir 1 site. latter was best of what we might term ‘reasonably preserved, with some large intact’ lacquer objects could be fragments that retained the layers preserved. Once exposed to the air, the paint layers begin to dry and curl. Given their fragility, some means of immediately sealing them and enclosing them in appropriately shaped packing 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh would be required. Thus, absent Fig. 8. Inner side of a fragment of such means, the surviving lacquer the metal-rimmed lacquer bowl ended up further fragmented in a from Feature 97. jumbled collection in a box (Fig. of cloth and clay (Fig. 8). A 2). Most of the larger fragments, Chinese inscription (wishing good especially those with painted fortune) was found on what was
designs, were then photographed 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh probably the interior bottom of the and packed, but whether they Fig. 4. Remains of lacquer ves- bowl (for analogous examples on sel at SE corner of coffin, Fea- eared cups, see Zhongguo 1993- ture 97, Tamir 1 site. 1998, pp. 44, 52- 53). David Purcell has drawn a re- construction of the bowl, based partly on the photographs (Fig. 9, next page).
Feature 109. The most striking lac- quered object found here was the iron knife with a lac- Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh quered wooden Fig. 3. Fragment of lacquer object handle depicted (after removal) from SE end of Fea- 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh ture 97, Tamir 1 site. Fig. 5. Remains of lacquer vessel, middle of S side above (Fig. 12, p. of grave. Feature 97, Tamir 1 site. 26). Unfortunately, might subsequently be flattened by the time it was and pieced together remains to be photographed in seen. Should the designs be of any situ, the paint value for identification, at least a fragments had visual record has been preserved. already dried and curled. The knife Here is a brief summary of the was at a level above lacquerware finds at Tamir 1: Fig. 6. Remains of lac- Feature 97. The grave contained quer bowl with gilded at least four lacquerware objects: brass rim. Feature 97, Tamir 1 site. Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh
33 alongside where the head of the corpse would have been located (Fig. 11). The most substantial find was that of an eared cup, where one bronze handle with its lacquer inset was preserved along with a sizeable piece of the paint layer for the bowl (Fig. 12; also Fig. 19, p. 27 above). Its exact location in the grave is not clear to me but presumably was recorded. The design on the lacquer inset of the handle is somewhat similar to that on the dated cup found at Noin Ula. In approximately the center of the grave, there was what appears to Fig. 9. Lacquerware bowl discovered with Feature 97 grave goods, shown at 36.7 have been a lacquered wooden box percent of actual size. The rim band was recovered (Bag 65), but the bowl in which the small string of wushu disintegrated within hours of exposure. The drawing was prepared directly from coins was found. It is worth noting the vessel fragments and from high resolution digital photographs taken by Dan that pieces of a lacquered box were Waugh. Original drawing and illustration by David Purcell. also found at Noin Ula. Lastly, I that of the actual burial and near would note what seemed to have the NW end of the grave, been the dark “shadow” left by a suggesting it might have been lacquered object approximately in displaced and dropped there when the location where the head of the the grave was looted. At least one corpse would have been at the SE red lacquerware vessel (Fig. 10) end of the grave. seems to have been located in the NW end of the grave below the Feature 160. There was at least knife but above the level where one lacquered vessel at the SE one of the bronze mirror fragments corner of the grave, inside the was found and in an area where coffin (Fig. 13, next page). A there was a collection of various reasonably large portion of the animal bones (the position is paint had been preserved. With analogous to that of the bowl with the approval of Prof. Wang gilded rim in Feature 97). Some 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh Binghua, we used a hastily additional fragments were found in Fig. 11. Lacquer fragment that had improvised technique of trying to what would have been the location been wrapped around large pot in remove it intact, by laying of the waist of the corpse. NE corner of Feature 201 grave. cardboard down on the top and
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Fig. 10. Lacquer fragment from near NW end of grave in Feature 109, Tamir 1 site.
Feature 201. The remains of a lacquerware vessel were wrapped Photo © Mongolian National University, Department Photo © Mongolian National University, of Anthropology and Archaeology 2005 partly around the large, intact jar Fig. 12. Remains of a lacquerware eared cup with a metal handle (at top), in the NE corner of the grave, photographed in situ. Feature 201, Tamir 1 site.
34 this latter location still lodged in the underside of its was that of a rim, by the time it was brought lacquered vessel. back to camp, most had fallen out. It is conceivable that careful While it is difficult emptying of the bowl (spoonful-by- to know with any spoonful, grain-by-grain) would certainty the original have revealed more of the body location and sub- intact, but we now have no visual stance of most record of what was there. objects which left Presumably there are methods for fragments of lacquer preservation which could be in the graves, we applied at the time such lacquer is have enough evi- first uncovered. Even short of dence to suggest sophisticated technical means that Chinese lac- (such as a transparent resin or querware was both moldable foam), a technique a readily available similar to that used in Feature 160 and a valued com- might be adopted to preserve modity among the those pieces which have been Xiongnu buried at flattened and can be isolated from Tamir 1. It seems other finds. This rather crude Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh likely that each approach would not have worked, Fig. 13. Remains of lacquerware bowl (s) SE corner grave contained of course, for the bowl in Feature of coffin. Feature 160, Tamir 1 site. more than one 97, since it preserved in situ much then slicing under it with a trowel lacquerware bowl, the locations in of its original curvature. and inserting another piece of the first instance being either at cardboard to create a ‘sandwich’ the head of the grave (at Tamir 1, By the time excavation of the that encompassed all that this means the SE end), in the graves had been completed and remained of the cup. When this pelvic area either directly on or the objects found in them laid out was done, the object had already next to the corpse, and in the for a final drawing that then served begun to deteriorate from the grave goods piled to the north of as a documentary “map” of their drying and curling of the paint the feet (the NW end of the coffin). contents, what lacquer there was layer. There was also substantial While eared cups appear to have had been further fragmented, if other evidence of lacquer in the been common enough, the bowl preserved at all, and any traces of grave, notably in the center of the with the gilded rim and the remains where it had been eliminated when SE end near the bulkhead that of the lacquer-handled knife are the floor of the pit was scraped separated the compartment with unusual finds (for the bowl cf. down. Laying back in place the pots, and in the pelvic area at Zhongguo 1993-1998, p. 174). fragments of lacquer (as opposed the center of the grave, where to bones, metal objects, etc.) was there were both part of what More systematic photography not part of the process of the final appeared to be the bottom disk of and measurement would help mapping of the grave (and in the a bowl and paint layers intermixed considerably in documenting the circumstances could not have with the bronze mirror and lacquerware. I was able to been). spinning weight (Fig. 14) . It undertake that primarily in seems quite certain that at least Features 97, 109 and 160 but was While the location of the lacquer absent at the point might help flesh out our knowledge where the metal- of burial ritual, the odds in fact are rimmed bowl in good that most lacquer fragments Feature 97 was in Xiongnu tombs would be useless emptied of the dirt for analysis, unless a technique in it and its sur- exists or can be devised to pinpoint viving fragments origin or date from their chemical removed. While composition. We would certainly some of the best- wish to know what can be learned preserved from the painted designs on the fragments of that lacquer, something that perhaps
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh bowl (which would could be accomplished if the huge Fig. 14. Lacquer fragments (indicated by arrows) with have helped in corpus of Han-era lacquer is bronze mirror (left) and spinning weight (right). Fea- analyzing its struc- systematized. Whether that will ture 160, Tamir 1 site. ture) were those reveal anything about the date of
35 our Xiongnu graves or the About the Author Miniaev 1998 particular external connections of S. S. Miniaev. Dyrestuiskii those who occupy them is hard to Daniel Waugh is a retired professor mogol’nik. Arkheologicheskie know. of history at the University of pamiatniki Siunnu, vyp. 3. St. Washington, where he taught pre- Petersburg: Evropeiskii dom, The challenges of preservation modern Russia and courses on 1998. which we faced and were not Central Asia, including a survey of Rudenko 1962 equipped to solve were certainly the Silk Road. He has participated not unique. Dr. Miniaev has in Silkroad Foundation summer S. I. Rudenko. Kul’tura khunnov i recorded many instances of institutes in Dunhuang and the Noinulinskie kurgany. Moscow- fragments of red lacquer in his Tamir excavation in Mongolia and Leningrad: Izd-vo. excavations of the Dyrestui edits the Foundation’s journal. One Akademii nauk SSSR, 1962. Cemetery (Miniaev 1998). He has of his principal tasks in retirement Trever 1932 mentioned in correspondence that will be to maintain the Silk Road Camilla Trever. Excavations in one of the most pressing priorities Seattle website
Fig. 1. The bronze mirror from Feature 100, Tamir 1 site.
36 The Date of the TLV Mirrors from the Xiongnu Tombs Guolong Lai University of Florida, Gainesville (USA)
Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 In the summer of 2005, the square center field (also Silkroad Foundation and the called knob-seat), which is Mongolian National University decorated with a large, Fig. 3. TLV mirror fragments conducted their first season of joint simple quatrefoil. The main from Feature 109, Tamir 1 excavation at a Xiongnu cemetery decorative zone is framed site. in Arkhangai aimag in Central between the center square Mongolia. Among their findings and two outer bands, one a were three bronze mirrors. After narrow band with a comb-tooth cast inscription (Fig. 4), which describing them, I shall focus in pattern and the other a wide rim reads: this short essay on the first two, ornamented with three concentric … do not know aging; when TLV mirrors of Chinese rings with a saw-tooth pattern. thirsty, [they] drink from the provenance. My goal will be to Four pairs of T’s and L’s are placed spring of jade; when hungry, establish their date in the context on two perpendicular axes through [they] eat of jujubes. [They] of a broader discussion of the the mirror’s center point, while the roam… problems of dating bronze mirrors four inverted Vs are located at the but not to attempt an examination upper outside corners of the four of other issues such as Han- quadrants thus created. On the left According to similar inscriptions Xiongnu relations. and right sides of each T are placed (see below), it appears that these two nipples; two birds, in elegant descriptions refer to the immortals The first specimen from Feature simple relief, stand on either side dwelling in a transcendental 100 is a beautifully decorated of each inverted V. Furthermore, paradise. Mirrors of this type are intact mirror about 10 centimeters comma-shaped curves and short significant not only because they in diameter (Fig. 1, facing page). lines punctuate the spaces It belongs to a type referred to as between these elements. The ‘TLV’ mirrors in Western Sinological overall design of the mirror is literature, because the shapes of perfectly symmetrical, simple, and the main decorative elements on elegant. the back of the mirrors resemble the Latin letters T, L, and V. At the The second specimen (this one center of the back of the mirror is from Feature 109) is a fragment a hemispherical knob pierced for of another TLV mirror, further a ribbon or textile cord, to facilitate broken into two pieces that were the holding of the mirror (Fig. 2). found in different locations in the The knob is surrounded by a tomb (Fig. 3). The main decorative zone is largely missing; only one corner of the fragment has the elements of the L and V and a pair of birds with long tails. This mirror is larger than the one excavated from Feature 100. Unlike the intact one from Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh Feature 100, this 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh fragmentary mirror Fig. 2. Center of TLV mirror from Feature 100, bears a section of a Fig. 4. Section of TLV mirror from seen from an angle. Feature 109, showing inscription.
37 collections and scholarship on bronze mirrors, the museums (Bulling TLV mirror consists of the basic and Drew 1971-72). motifs of the letters T, L, and V. They used to be referred to as The problems guiju mirrors in Chinese literature with these sources (J: kiku), because it was have been further considered that the V and L exasperated by the resembled the compass (gui) and preference of col- a carpenter’s square (ju). Early lectors for mirrors scholarship focused on the with inscriptions connections between the TLV containing dates, mirror and the sundial (Yetts 1939, which in turn only pp. 148-165) and between the TLV Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh encouraged the mirror and the diviner’s board (shi) Fig. 5. Detail of mirror from Feature 160, Tamir 1 production of fake site. (Kaplan 1937), for several dated mirrors. As a specimens of sundials and diviner’s represent the best specimens of result of this situ- boards were available for bronze production in the Han ation, the mirror chronologies have comparison at the time. period, but also because their been skewed, because of the inscriptions reflect changing reliance of scholars on inscriptions As many scholars later realized, religious ideas in early China. with dates (Loewe 2001-2). Many however, these motifs actually distinguished scholars, including constitute the board of an ancient The third mirror, from Feature the Japanese scholar Umehara game called liubo, a popular 160, is about 7 centimeters in Sueji, who were connoisseurs of pastime among the elite during the diameter (Fig. 5). It is intact, but Chinese mirrors, were clearly Warring States and Han periods its craftsmanship is rather poor, aware of the situation and had paid (Yang 1947; Komai 1953). Thus compared with that of the other particular attention to the issues scholars have suggested that the two. The decorative scheme is of forgery. Yet in the end, they too TLV mirrors should be renamed as barely discernible. Only a small were occasionally duped by fakes. boju, ‘game board,’ mirrors (Zhou knob is found at the center of the Fortunately, in the last half 1987). But the Japanese scholar mirror back. This type of mirror century, many bronze mirrors have Hayashi Minao commendably seen in Xiongnu tombs is most been discovered under scien- insisted that although the TLV likely a low-quality, local imitation tifically-controlled archaeological pattern shared many similarities of Han mirrors. excavations in China. It is now with the liubo game board, it is not possible to establish a chronology a game board per se; rather the The chronology of bronze of bronze mirrors solely based on TLV mirror, the liubo game board, mirrors, along with dating by archaeological materials. Since the and the sundial, all share the same coinage and pottery vessels buried 1950s, all studies of Han mirrors cosmographical symbolism in tombs, have been important have incorporated, to different (Hayashi 1989, pp. 8-9; also methods used in cross-dating early degrees, the newly available Cammann 1948, pp. 160-1). It Chinese and Xiongnu burials. archaeological materials (Loewe now becomes clear from However, the dating of bronze 1979); yet so far no systematic archaeological evidence that there mirrors is a thorny issue for and methodologically rigorous was more than one type of liubo scholars of Chinese art and study that utilizes exclusively game board in early China, and the archaeology. Almost all of the excavated specimens has been configuration of those are slightly existing chronologies have attempted. We will have to wait to different from that of the TLV included in their studies clearly see how significantly an mirrors (it has only four V’s and spurious pieces or other mirrors of archaeologically-based new two L’s, and six I’s; see Li 2002). dubious origins (Umehara 1943, chronology would differ from the Thus it is inappropriate to equate Bulling 1960, Okamura 1984 and extant chronologies. Though a full the liubo game boards with the TLV 1993, except Zhou 1986; see also reinvestigation of the chronology motif. In current Japanese the discussion in Cammann 1961, of Han bronze mirrors is beyond literature, the TLV mirror is still Bulling 1962, Cammann 1962). the scope of this essay, some of called a kiku (Ch: guiju) mirror. For Bronze mirrors have been highly the issues involved in dating TLV convenience and consistency, and valued and collected since the mirrors will be mentioned below. because it is more descriptive North Song dynasty (960-1126). In my examination, I shall consider rather than interpretational, I shall As a result of their high value, only excavated materials. use TLV to refer to these mirrors forgeries and replicas have been throughout this essay. produced – some of which have Long having been the focus of found their way into private Japanese, Chinese and Western
38 Fig. 6. One of the six TLV coinage is often more accurate for mirrors excavated in dating the burials, because in Hunan (the largest, 14.4 many cases buried coinage is in cm). After Zhou 1986, No. large quantities and was the 2, p. 106. currency of the time. This type of TLV mirror lasted into Emperor and other princely Wu’s reign (140-87 BCE). A kingdoms of the Han famous example, with the same dynasty. Some of the inscription as the Hunan mirror, is earliest known ex- the one discovered in the tomb of amples are six inscribed Dou Wan (d. ca. 113 BCE) (Fig. bronze mirrors exca- 7), the consort of Emperor Wu’s vated from an early elder half-brother Liu Sheng (d. Western Han tomb in 113 BCE), at Mancheng in Hubei Hunan province (the province. largest d. 14.4 cm) (Fig. 6), in which TLV The TLV motif also appeared on mirrors with dragon other types of mirrors, such as the arabesque (panchi) so-called caoye ‘grass-leaf’ decoration were found mirrors, named after the leaf-like The TLV pattern appeared on with funerary coins — clay decoration found on the back of the the liubo game board earlier in the imitations of real coins of Emperor mirrors. The specimen in Fig. 8 is Warring States period, a mirror (d. 11.6 cm) discovered but it did not appear on in Tomb no. 23 in the Western Han- bronze mirrors until the period cemetery near Lou- early Han dynasty. The zhoucheng, Qichun, Hubei Swedish scholar Orvar province. Similar mirrors have also Karlbeck, an avid been discovered in Shaanxi, collector of early Sichuan, and Yunnan (Kong 1992, Chinese bronzes, pp. 203, 204, 206). speculated that the TLV motif on bronze mirrors The majority of extant TLV was first introduced by mirrors are associated with a Liu An (?179-122 BCE), decorative motif called sishen, the Han prince of ‘four spirits,’ the four imaginative Huainan, who was animal symbols of the cardinal famous for his keen directions (along with the color interest in astronomy symbolism): the Green Dragon of and cosmology and who the East, the White Tiger of the patronized the com- West, the Vermillion Bird of the pilation of a compre- South, and the Dark Warrior (a hensive astronomical, combination of a tortoise and a topographical, and snake) of the North. Developed philosophical treatise during the Warring States and Han called Huainanzi (cited periods, these creatures often from Bulling 1960, pp. filled the spaces between the T’s, 20-21). However, it Fig. 7. Bronze mirror from Mancheng M2, d. 18.4 cm. appears in archae- ological records that the Wen’s reign (r. 179-156 BCE) — introduction of the TLV motif onto for the dead to use in the afterlife mirror decoration was earlier than (Zhou 1986, p. 70). Similar clay Liu An’s time, and the cosmological coins also appeared in the famous significance of the decorative motif Mawangdui tomb no. 1 (datable to was more widely appreciated in shortly after 168 BCE), roughly Han society than in the small circle contemporaneous with Emperor of Liu An’s court. Wen. These examples show why
The TLV mirror was popular not Fig. 8. Bronze mirror excavated from only in Liu An’s court in Huainan Louzhoucheng in Hebei province. Af- but as well in the imperial court ter Louzhoucheng 2000, p. 186.
39 characteristics: 1) found in ancient Japanese tombs one mirror carries an in which these mirrors were inscription specifically discovered, and he emphasized the dated 10 CE, the importance of paying particular second year in Wang attention to mirror typology Mang’s reign (Loewe (whether it was a TLV mirror, 2001-2, pp. 240-4); pictorial mirror, etc.) in applying 2) the others either Tomioka’s theory. Umehara further mentioned the pointed out that the regular type important political of TLV mirror was not limited only events during Wang to Wang Mang’s reign, but instead, Mang’s reign, such as it ranged from the late Western the establishment of Han to the Eastern Han and even the idealized Con- later (Umehara 1919). fucian ritual struc- tures Biyong and In retrospect, Tomioka’s theory Mingtang; 3), or is marred, however, by the contain the formula questionable examples he used. ‘Wangshi zuo jing’ First, as Michael Loewe has (‘The Wang family pointed, the 10 CE mirror is of has made the dubious provenance. Among all the Fig. 9. Bronze mirror excavated in Xi’an. After Cheng mirror’); 4), or extant inscribed TLV mirrors, only and Han 2002, fig. 38, p. 132. another formula ‘Xin two have precisely dated you shantong’ (‘The inscriptions; and both of them are L’s, and V’s. Since the spaces Xin has good copper’). likely counterfeit (Loewe 2001-2, between the T and the L on the pp. 240-5). Second, only three axes are often too narrow to fit the Because Wang Mang’s dynasty mirror inscriptions, as far as I animals, they are often moved off has long been considered know, refer to the establishment the axis to fill the eight spaces illegitimate, and his usurpation was of the Biyong and/or Mingtang; flanking the four inverted V’s. Such condemned in the subsequent and the doubtful 10 CE mirror is is the case in the TLV mirror Chinese history (especially during one of the three. One of the other excavated near Xi’an, Shaanxi the Eastern Han dynasty), it seems two is now in the collection of the province (Fig. 9). As a result, the reasonable to assume that 1) the Shanghai Museum (Kong 1992, p. four spirits were elaborated into Han imperial workshops would stop 323). In my opinion, the eight figures; in addition to the four producing mirrors with explicit authenticity of it is also ques- spirits, there are a bird, a toad, a association with the Xin dynasty tionable. Most importantly, there goat, and a winged immortal. The after the fall of Wang Mang; 2) is no scientifically excavated mirror Xi’an mirror was buried together later mirror manufacturers and bearing the references to the with a type of coinage (‘xiaoquan consumers would also consciously establishment of either the Biyong zhi yi’) minted only during Wang avoid this association. If these two or the Mingtang. The absence of Mang’s currency reform during the statements could be proved valid, corroborative archaeological Xin dynasty (9-23 CE), an then those mirrors with an explicit evidence does not necessarily interregnum between the Western reference to the Xin in their mean that the mirrors in question and Eastern Han dynasties. Thus, inscriptions would be a good are fakes. But this should at least the combination of the TLV and the indication of their date. alert us to do more investigation ‘four spirits’ motif and its variations regarding the authenticity of the marks the regular, or classical, TLV Tomioka’s theory was accepted mirrors. We should exercise utmost mirror in early China. immediately by scholars in Japan caution for those mirrors of as well as in China; no one has unknown provenance when their In the 1910s, Japanese scholar questioned the validity of the two authenticity is not backed up by Tomioka Kenzô published several assumptions. Furthermore, comparable archaeological articles, arguing that the word ‘xin’ Takahashi Kenji attempted to materials. (‘new’) which appeared on ten extend Tomioka’s conclusions by inscribed TLV mirrors actually arguing that mirrors with similar Third, although the formula referred to the Xin dynasty, inscriptions found in Japan were ‘The Wang family has made the established by the usurper Wang also manufactured during Wang mirror’ is attested on excavated Mang. Thus, these mirrors could Mang’s era (Takahashi 1919). But mirrors, these mirrors are either be dated to Wang Mang’s time Umehara Sueji soon pointed out not TLV mirrors or are datable to (collected in Tomioka 1920). These that Takahashi’s assertion a much later period in the Eastern mirrors have the following contradicted the material evidence Han dynasty. Such is the case for
40 the pictorial mirror excavated in some low-quality mirrors bearing With these caveats added, now Yangzhou, Jiangsu province (Wang the formula ‘the Xin has good we can test the rest of Tomioka’s et al 1985, p. 95). As Umehara copper’ are dated to the Eastern theory using archaeological noted above, the ‘wang’ on bronze Han rather than Wang Mang’s era evidence. One example is a TLV mirrors did not necessarily refer to (Higuchi 1953). Therefore, the mirror of high quality excavated in Wang Mang and his dynasty. second assumption on which Hunan. It has the following Fourth, the references to the ‘xin’ Tomioka based his theory could not inscription (Fig. 10): or ‘xinjia’ (the Xin family, i.e. The Xin [dynasty] has good the Xin dynasty) or the copper, which comes from formula ‘the Xin has good Danyang, it is refined…; copper’ on mirror in- this excellent mirror scriptions are not always an manufactured in the indication that these mirrors Shangfang [i.e. the could be dated to the Xin imperial workshops] is truly dynasty. For example, a very skillfully made, above bronze mirror from a private are the immortals who do workshop excavated from not know aging; when Hunan that archaeologist thirsty, [they] drink from Zhou Shirong dates to the the spring of jade; when middle of the Eastern Han hungry, [they] eat of the period bears the following jujube. [They] roam about inscription (Zhou 1986, no. all under the heaven and 80. p. 143): swim the four [seas]. The Du family has made the mirror, which is greatly without blemish; the Xin has good copper, which came from Danyang; it is refined with silver and tin, Fig. 10. Bronze mirror excavated in Hunan. It seems that the first half of After Zhou 1986, no. 52, p. 124. and it is pure and bright; the inscription was truncated to the left the Dragon and to and followed immediately by be viewed as valid, since there are the right the Tiger eliminate the another set of inscriptions. In cases in which later private mirror inauspicious; may you forever general, mirror inscriptions are workshops still used the formulae prosper and have joy without often formulaic; that is, set referring to the Xin after the fall end. phrases were picked and chosen of Wang Mang. to create a new inscription. It probably reflects the operation of The use of ‘xin’ and ‘wang’ in a certain modular system in the inscriptions even after the fall designing mirror inscriptions and of Wang Mang deserves further mirror motifs (see Ledderose exploration. The use of the family 2000). And sometimes carelessly In this inscription, the mirror name Wang could be a pure two sets of inscriptions were designer mistakenly exchanged coincidence since Wang has been discretely put on the same mirror. the characters for yang (in a common family name in China, What interests us here, in addition ‘Danyang’) and xiang (in ‘buxiang,’ and there is no evidence to the similar content on our mirror ‘inauspicious’). Although there is suggesting that this Wang refers from Feature 109, is the word ‘xin’ the reference to the Xin, the to Wang Mang. The use of the at the beginning of the inscription. content of the inscription and the formula ‘The Xin has good copper’ Although it is sometimes mis- archaeological context suggest in private workshops could have takenly translated as ‘in recent that this mirror be dated to the just followed the formula and times’ (Cheng and Han 2002, p. middle Eastern Han rather than to models created during Wang 107), its reference to the Xin Wang Mang’s time. Admittedly, this Mang’s imperial workshop for dynasty is clear when we contrast is also not a TLV mirror. This again commercial reasons. But on the it with another formula of a similar supports Umehara’s afore- other hand, the first assumption TLV mirror of the early Eastern Han mentioned qualification to still seems to be valid. I am not period (Fig. 11, next page), which Tomioka’s rules. aware of any case of similar carries the following inscription: reference to the Xin on products The Han [dynasty] has good Furthermore, Higuchi Taka- from the Eastern Han imperial copper, which comes from yasu’s research indicates that workshop. Danyang; it is pure and bright.
41 of TLV mirrors could looked at the elements of the A be dated to the Xin and B types on non-TLV mirrors, dynasty; furthermore, and found that the Type A on stylistic ground, elements (four nipples, plain rim, mirrors with similar and oblique comb-tooth band) are decorative scheme shared by many Western Han could be datable to mirrors, while the Type B elements the Xin dynasty. belong to the Wang Mang and the Eastern Han period. Thus, TLV Japanese scholar mirrors with plain rim and four Fujimaru Shôhachirô nipples could be dated to the late has attempted to use Western Han period. This is largely a typological method corroborated by archaeological to refine the TLV data from Luoyang in Henan mirror chronology by province (Fujimaru 1982, 939- distinguishing the late 940). Archaeological materials also Western Han TLV confirmed that, as Umehara and mirrors from those of Higuchi pointed out, that regular the Xin dynasty and TLV mirror lasted into the Eastern later (Fujimaru 1982). Han period; and after the middle Fig. 11. Early Eastern Han bronze mirror. After He divides the de- of the Eastern Han, simplified TLV Zhou 1986, no. 59, p. 130. corative elements into mirrors appeared in the four categories — the archaeological record, many of To the left the [Blue] Dragon rim decoration, the saw-tooth them produced in private and to the right the [White] band, the number of the nipples, workshops rather than in the Tiger rule the four quarters. and the inscription. He classifies imperial workshop of the Eastern Eight sons occupy the center. different known TLV mirrors Han dynasty. The Vermilion Bird and the Dark according to these categories. Warrior conform to the Yin and What he found is an interesting According to their stylistic Yang forces. pattern of correlation: the TLV characteristics, the two TLV mirrors mirrors have four nipples and with excavated from the Xiongnu tombs or without the four animal figures belong to the classical TLV mirrors, are always decorated with plain rim and are datable to the Xin dynasty with oblique comb-tooth between or to the early to middle Eastern This mirror is of high quality. the rim and the main decorative Han period. An example similar to Similar examples bear the zone. He called this group Type A the complete mirror from Feature inscription ‘Shangfang,’ the mirrors. And the Type B mirrors 100 was found at Shangsunjiazhai, imperial workshop in charging of always have eight nipples and Datong in Qinghai in a brick- the production of bronze and various rim decorations. Then he chambered tomb of the early to lacquer utensils for imperial middle Eastern Han consumption. Although the basic period (Fig. 13, next formula created during the Xin page). The Shangsun- dynasty is still in fashion, here ‘the jiazhai mirror is about Han’ replaces ‘the Xin’ in order to 11 cm in diameter, and avoid the connection with Wang decorated with a simple Mang’s Xin dynasty. In some cases, quatrefoil knob-seat the formula ‘The Xin has good and three rings of saw- copper’ changed to ‘Here is good tooth pattern on the copper, which came from Danyang’ rim. In the main (Fig. 12). decorative zone, among the TLV motifs, Through the above analysis, it there are eight birds on seems clear that imperial both sides of the four workshops of the Xin dynasty did Vs, which is the same create the classical TLV mirrors as those on the mirror with formulae such as ‘The Xin has from Feature 100. good copper.’ Therefore this type There is no clear indication of the Fig. 12. Eastern Han bronze mirror. ethnicity of this tomb After Zhou 1986, no. 63, p. 133. occupant, but in a
42 evidence for the Xin or References early Eastern Han date of the fragmented Bulling 1960 mirror , since this was the time when the cult Anneliese Gutkind Bulling. The was at its peak. Decoration of Mirrors of the Han Period: A Chronology. Artibus In this essay, I have Asiae, Supplementum 20. Ascona, discussed the date of Switzerland, 1960. two TLV mirrors excavated from the Bulling 1961 Xiongnu tombs in Anneliese Gutkind Bulling. Central Mongolia “Rejoinder to Schuyler Cammann’s through a reexam- Review of The Decoration of ination of previous Mirrors of the Han Period.” Journal theories on dating the of the American Oriental Society, TLV mirror. The extant 82/2 (1962): 206-212. chronology of early Chinese mirrors should Bulling and Drew 1971-72 be rigorously reinves- tigated against the Anneliese Gutkind Bulling and large number of Isabella Drew. “The Dating of mirrors available now Chinese Bronze Mirrors.” Archives Fig. 13. Bronze mirror from a brick-chambered through archaeological of Asian Art, 25 (1971-72): 36- tomb at Shangsunjiazhai, Datong, Qinghai. Af- excavations in the past 57. ter Qinghai 1993. sixty years. These similar brick-chambered tomb of scientifically excavated bronze Cammann 1948 late Eastern Han period at the mirrors, such as these from the Schuyler Cammann. “The ‘TLV’ same cemetery, archaeologists Xiongnu tombs, are essential for Pattern on the Cosmic Mirrors of discovered a bronze seal with the the reconstruction of a reliable the Han Dynasty.” Journal of the official title that the Han framework in which the past of American Oriental Society, 68/4 government bestowed upon the cultural contacts and cultural (1948): 159-67. leader of the Xiongnu. The events can be placed. excavators suggested that these Cammann 1961 brick chamber tombs all belong to the Xiongnu (Qinghai 1993). Schuyler Cammann. Review of: The Decoration of Mirrors of the About the Author The fragmented mirror from Han Period. Journal of American Feature 109, moreover, is probably the Oriental Society, 81,3 (1961): a little bit earlier that the intact Guolong Lai is an assistant 331-336. mirror from Feature 100. The professor of Chinese Art and Cammann 1962 original inscription must have run Archaeology at the University of over 30 characters based on the Florida. Trained as an archae- Schuyler Cammann.”Surrejoinder.” size of the mirror and the ologist and paleographer at Beijing Journal of the American Oriental arrangement of the characters. University, he received his Ph.D. Society, 82/2 (1962): 212-214. The content of the inscription, like at UCLA in 2002. His recent that in Fig. 12, describes the realm publications include “The Diagram Cheng and Han 2002 of the immortals, which is of the Mourning System from Cheng Linquan and Han Guohe. connected with the cult of the Mawangdul,” Early China, 28 Chang’an Han jing. Xi’an: Shaanxi immortals that developed in the (2003); “Valuing the Past in China. renming chubanshe, 2002. middle Western Han dynasty and The Seminal Influence of Liang gained great popularity during the Sicheng on Heritage Conservation” late Western Han, the Xin and the (co-authored), Orientations, 35/2 Cheng and Han 2002a Eastern Han dynasties. The (2004); and “Death and the Cheng Linquan and Han Guohe, ubiquitous presence of the TLV Otherworldly Journey in Early edited and translated by Bruce motif on mirrors, coffins, and other China,” Asia Major, 18/1 (2005). Gordon Doar. “A Study of Gaming objects reflected this religious He is currently working on a book Board (TLV) Mirrors Unearthed in frenzy in late Western Han and manuscript using archaeological the Northern Suburbs of Xi’an.” Wang Mang’s time (Suzuki 2003). materials to study early Chinese Chinese Art and Archaeology That is also the circumstantial religions. E-mail:
43 article is largely based on the Hubei sheng jingjiu tielu kaogudui, Tomioka 1920 section on the TLV mirrors that the (comp.) Louzhoucheng and Han Tomioka Kenzô. Kokyô no kenkyû. two authors published in Cheng mu. Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, Kyoto, 1920. and Han 2002, pp. 130-140, but 2000. many careless errors were Umehara 1919 introduced into the English Loewe 1979 translation). Michael Loewe. Ways to Paradise: Umehara Sueji. “Iwayuru Ômô The Chinese Quest for Immortality. jidai no kagami ni tsuite no gimon.” Fujimaru 1982 First published 1979; Taipei: SMC Kôkogaku zasshi, 10/3 (1919): 137-155. Fujimaru Shôhachirô. “Hôkaku Publishing Inc., 1994. kiku shishinkyô no kenkyû.” In: Loewe 2001-2 Umehara 1943 Kôkogaku ronkô, Kobayashi Yukio Hagase koki kinenronbunshô. Michael Loewe. “Dated Inscriptions Umehara Sueji. Kan Sangoku Tokyo, 1982, pp. 931-946. on Certain Mirrors (A.D. 6-105): Rokuchô kinen kyô zusetsu. Kyoto: Genuine or Fabricated?” Early Sômyô Bunseidô, 1943. Hayashi 1989 China, 26-27 (2001-2): 233-256. Wang et al. 1985 Hayashi Minao. Kandai no Okamura 1984 kamigami. Kyoto: Rinkawa shoten, Wang Qinjin, Li Jiuhai, and Xu 1989. Okamura Hedenori. “Sen Kan Yuliang. “Yangzhou chutu de kagami no hennen to yôshiki.” Handai mingwen tongjing.” Higuchi 1953 Shirin, 67/5 (1984): 1-42. Wenwu, 1985/10: 90-96.
Higuchi Takayasu. “Chûgoku kokyô Okamura 1993 Yang 1947 meibun no reibubetsu teki Okamura Hedenori. “Go Kan Lien-sheng Yang, “A note on the kenkyû.” Tôhô gaku, 7 (1953): 1- kagami no hennen.” Kokuritsu 14. so-called TLV mirrors and the game rekishi minzoku hakubutsukan liu-po.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic kenkyû hôkoku, 55 (1993): 39-83. Kaplan 1937 Studies, 9/3-4 (1947): 202-6. Qinghai 1993 Sidney Kaplan. “On the Origin of Yetts 1939 the TLV Mirror.” Revue des Arts Qinghai sheng wenwu kaogu Asiatiques, 11 (1937): 21-24. yanjiusuo, Shangsunjiazhai Han Jin W. P. Yetts. The Cull Chinese mu. Beijing: Wenwu, 1993 Bronzes. London, 1939. Komai 1953 Zhou 1986 Komai Kazuchika. Chûgoku kokyô. Suzuki 2003 Tokyo: Iwanami, 1953. Suzuki Naomi. “Hakukyoku mon to Zhou Shirong. “Hunan chutu enin rokuhaku to—sono seikaku to Handai tongjing wenzi yanjiu.” Kong 1992 Zen Kan matsu no hayari yôin.” Guwenzi yanjiu, 14 (1986): 69- 175. Kong Xiangxing. Zhongguo Chûgoku shutsudo shirô kenkyû, 7 (2003): 103-123. gongjing tudian. Beijing: Wenwu Zhou 1987 chubanshe, 1992. Takahashi 1919 Zhou Zheng. “‘Guiju jing’ ying gai Ledderose 2000 Takahashi Kenji. “Ômô jidai no cheng ‘buju jing’.” Kaogu, 1987/ 12: 1116-1118. Lothar Ledderose. Ten Thousand kagami ni tsuite.” Kôkogaku zasshi, Things: Module and Mass 9/12 (1919): 691-702. Production in Chinese Art. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Li 2002 Li Ling. “Ba Zhongshan wang mu chutu de liubo qiju.” Zhongguo lishi wenwu, 2002/1: 8-15.
Louzhoucheng 2000
Huanggang shi bowuguan, Hubei 2005 Photo © Daniel C. Waugh sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo, The bronze mirror fragment with the inscription, as it emerged in the excavation of Feature 109, Tamir 1 site.
44 Foreign Tribes in the Xiongnu Confederation
Zagd Batsaikhan Mongolian National University, Ulaanbaatar
Although the surviving written more than 20 Xoingnu burials, sources contain too little some with europoid craniums, information about ancient nomads were found at Naimaa Tolgoi, of Inner Asia, archaeological Erdenemandal sum, Arkhangai findings of the last decade enable aimag. Also the 16 graves so far us to reconstruct a great deal excavated from among the 370 at about them and their history. We Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu (the Tamir are both enriching our knowledge 1 site) have yielded 5 unbroken and testing previous assumptions. europoid craniums, and two of the
This new material is essential for ten Xiongnu graves excavated Photo © Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, Mongolian National University establishing different influences on some ten km from that site Fig. 2. Bronze cauldron with an the ethnic composition and contained europoid craniums. iron base, excavated in Feature cultural level of the ancient Inner 97, Tamir 1 site. Asian nomads. Scholars have The design of devoted much attention to these burials and the establishing the relationships grave contents are between ancient nomads in the quite similar to those west of Eurasia and those of the of Xiongnu burials in east. Yet the inadequacy of source other parts of materials has prevented this Mongolia and Trans- problem from being solved baikalia. The three convincingly. Of particular value walled enclosures has been the new paleo- found at the Tamir 2 anthropological information from site 10 km west of recent excavations. For example, Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu have a design similar to Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Xiongnu walls Fig. 3. Antler and iron decorations, probably for a in other lo- harness, excavated in Feature 97, Tamir 1 site. cations (see drawings in the article by of pieces of pottery. Most of the David Purcell above). While graves had been plundered. Yet the date of Tamir 2 has not important and interesting objects yet been determined, it remained, such as a bronze bell, may be connected with the bronze cauldrons (Fig. 2), and cemetary at Tamiryn Ulaan decorations made from bone (Fig. Khoshuu. 3). All these features are probably to be connected with the culture Despite similarities, the and agriculture of the foreign tribes Tamir 1 graves have some which were members of the features which distinguish Xiongnu confederacy. These tribes them from other Xiongnu paid tribute to the Xiongnu and graves, viz.: the greater were responsible for agriculture. depth (three to four meters) (Fig. 1), wooden The Chinese written sources bulkheads, the orientation indicate that the northern Xiongnu Photo © David E. Purcell 2005 of the bodies, infrequent conquered tribes such as the Fig. 1. Feature 109, Tamir 1 site, in the finds of cattle bones and Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, process of excavation. weaponry, and the number and Xinli. By the time the Shanyu
45 extended conflict, 4th-2nd centuries BCE, 2nd-1st migrations from centuries BCE, 1st-3rd centuries CE, east to west were 3rd-5th centuries CE. Also they have undoubtedly demonstrated that the Wusun’s accelerated and anthropological characteristics occurred more have not changed throughout the than once. four periods and thus might be assumed to have been established The sources as early as the 3rd century BCE. indicate that the The anthropological features Wusun was a indicate that the Wusun had mixed nomadic tribe
Photo © Department of Anthropology and Mongolian National University Archaeology, mongoloid-europoid faces, just like which always people from the Tian-Shan, where Fig. 4. A broken grinding stone from Feature 109, sought in its this type of face was probably Tamir 1 site. migrations grass- established after the 3rd century lands and water for BCE. However, the materials from Modun wrote to the the Han its cattle. Since the Wusun lifestyle the Tienshan have more mongoloid emperor in 176 BCE he could claim was identical with that of the characteristics than do the findings that besides the Donghu there Xiongnu, it is no surprise that they from Semirech’e. If we then were as many as 30 small and could adapt easily to the climate compare the cranium found at large tribes which had submitted of Mongolia. Some sources suggest Naimaa Tolgoi in Mongolia, with to the Xiongnu. Among them have that the Wusun settled there some other materials from Inner Asia, it to have been tribes speaking both time before 138 BCE. turns out to have the same Mongolian and Turkic languages. anthropological characteristics as Among the most important tribes Statistical analysis of cattle Wusun craniums. This mixed type with which the Xiongnu had bones tells us that they were in is not only found in Naimaa Tolgoi extensive relations was the Wusun. fact semi-nomadic. Burials at Aktas but also in Central and Eastern The written sources from the which are related to the Wusun parts of Mongolia. second century BCE indicate that period contain, among many other they first lived in the area of what items, a stone mattock, a bronze is today western Gansu province scythe and 11 complete and 15 Written sources indicate that and then were forced to move broken grinding stones (Fig. 4). another europoid tribe which was further west under their leader, the These items form the main a component of the Xiongnu was Kunmo. Their political and trade evidence that the Wusun were the Huzi (in some sources written center was Chigu, an important involved in agriculture. Excavation Zihu). Chinese historian Ma center on the Silk Road. When in near this site has uncovered an Changshou, has suggested that the 2 105 BCE the Wusun ruler received agricultural area (60-150 m ) with name Huzi is a combination of a Han princess as a bride, the a simple irrigation system. Xiongnu and Zi, and the name Zihu Shanyu responded by sending his Most of the Wusun burials are is the same as Zi. While the daughter to the Kunmo, a move round and located alongside a sources do not tell us enough about that would have important political river. The dead are usually placed this people’s anthropological consequences for the Xiongnu. in the grave without a coffin, laid characteristics, they provide some out straight and facing west. interesting suggestions deserving In 73 BCE the Wusun made Decorations, pottery, and of attention. For example, Zhang some changes within their weaponry were placed on the left, Ming indicates that they have a territories, separating them into right and above the head. high nose and long beard. Chinese three parts: central, eastern, and Researchers have determined that historian Yao Weiyuan uses Han western. As the Han began to there are three types of Wusun dynasty sources to prove that in strengthen their control of the burials in the Semirech’e basin their culture and outward Western Regions, in the period 64- (westernmost Xinjiang; eastern- appearance the Huzi were part of 51 BCE resistance developed most Kazakhstan—Ed.). The most the Yuezhi, who in turn at one time among some of the peoples in numerous of these types is the were part of the Xiongnu. G. Inner Asia. The power of the third, where the grave diameter is Sukhbaatar has asserted that they Wusun grew, but then civil strife approximately 5-10 m, and the were a europoid people from developed between two major contents include 1-2 pots, iron Central Asia. Thus, even though factions. This war provided an knives, bronze earrings, and the sources do not reveal anything opportunity for the Han Dynasty various decorations. about the life style and boundaries to use the Wusun against the of the Huzi, it seems that that Xiongnu and take control of the Researchers have divided the there were two europoid tribes Silk Road. During this period of Wusun remains into four periods: among the Xiongnu.
46 We cannot say for sure that burials from Tamiryn Ulaan Investigation of a Xiongnu Khoshuu, Emeel Tolgoi, Naimaa Tolgoi are precisely from the Royal Tomb Complex in the Wusun period; so this association so far is a guess. Further, we need Tsaraam Valley to take into account the fact that Indoeuropean tribes were already Sergei S. Miniaev migrating from the West to L. M. Sakharovskaia western parts of Mongolia as early Institute for the History of Material Culture, as the Neolithic, Eneolithic, and Bronze Ages, and once there they Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg mixed in among the native people. By the time of the Xiongnu they The Xiongnu, otherwise known as information about social structure, were settled in the center of the the Asiatic Huns, created a material culture, and the art of a empire, which meant that not only powerful alliance of cattle-breeding particular society, are neither well- their culture but also their tribes in the late third to early known nor systematically inves- anthropological characteristics second century BCE and then tigated using archaeological began to change and disappear. dominated the eastern part of techniques. Yet there is still sufficient evidence Central Asia for four centuries. in the sources to identify some of Systematic studies of Xiongnu In 1996 the Trans-Baikal the burials at the given sites as archaeological sites have been Archaeological Expedition of the being those of the Wusun. carried out for more than a Institute of History of Material century. At present, materials of Culture, Russian Academy of Finally we can say that the considerable value in the Sciences, St. Petersburg, initiated Xiongnu people who emerged from characterization of settlement a survey of the Tsaraam valley, the Wusun later participated in the complexes and cemeteries of situated 1.5 km to the south of process of the establishment of the various types have been obtained. Naushki village (Buriat Republic, Turkic-Mongolian ethnic group. However, elite barrows, which Russian Federation) (Fig. 1). Both the written sources and usually contain important Archaeological work at the archaeological findings prove that Tsaraam Cemetery the carriers of this culture migrated began in the nine- into and settled in the western part teenth century with of the Xiongnu empire. the discovery of the site in June of 1896 by Note: The author expresses his the pioneer of Xiongnu deep appreciation to the Silkroad archaeology, Iu. D. Foundation for co-sponsoring the Tal’ko-Gryntsevich. He 2005 Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu recorded, ‘...more Expedition. than 20 barrows, dispersed in a forest’ About the Author in the Tsaraam lo- cation. In June 1903, Tal’ko-Gryntsevich Dr. Zagd Batsaikhan is a and Ia. S. Smolev professor in the Department of excavated five of the Anthropology and Archaeology at burials. All of them the Mongolian National University. had been robbed, and He has led numerous important only few artifacts were archaeological expeditions in found (Tal’ko-Gryn- Mongolia, participated in the Joint tsevich 1999: 117- Mongolian-Russian-American 118). Tal’ko-Gryntse- Archaeological Expeditions of the vich drew a schematic 1990s, and was the lead map with an approx- archaeologist for the Tamiryn imate location of the Ulaan Khoshuu excavation in 2005. Among his many publications is a monograph on the Xiongnu. Fig. 1. Map showing loca- tion of the Tsaraam Valley. Copyright © Sergei S. Miniaev 2006.
47 burial site; however, over time the culture of the Xiongnu the central part of the valley. In cemetery was forgotten. In confederation. total, the area known to have September 1996 the cemetery burials measures approximately was rediscovered by the Trans- Site Description 600 m north-south and 400 m Baikal Expedition, which made an The Tsaraam valley is situated 30 east-west. The largest barrow of accurate map marking the location km to the west of the town of the cemetery is located in the of all barrows. The survey showed Kiakhta (Kiakhta district of the northern part of the valley, and 300 that in the valley were con- Buriat Republic, Russian Feder- m to the southwest a line of seven centrated the largest burial ation), not far from the Russian- additional large barrows stretches structures of the Xiongnu now Mongolian border (E. 106o from the northeast to southwest. known in Russia, and these are 08’61.3’’, N. 500 21’22.8’’; 650- The large barrows have similar among the largest anywhere. In 670 masl). The length of the surface construction, which 1997, the expedition began to Tsaraam valley from north to south includes a low square mound with excavate the cemetery and chose is 1.5 km, and its width ap- a round depression in the center. to focus on the large and central proximately 700 m east to west. Around several of the large Burial Complex No. 7 (Fig. 2). The Low mountains with pine forest barrows are located smaller Russian Humanities Foundation, border the eastern section of the barrows which, according to both the Institute of History of Material valley while the western section the historical sources and recent archaeological evidence, are likely to have been sacrificial interments. The combination of a central large barrow ringed by several smaller barrows can be considered a single mortuary complex.
Judging from their external and internal structural similarity to other Xiongnu sites such as Noin Ula or the Elm valley, the Tsaraam tomb complexes presumably date to the Xiongnu period. The Tsaraam group features large burials too and is therefore thought to be related to the highest social strata of the Xiongnu con- federation.
Surface and Internal Struc- tures of the Central Barrow Fig. 2. Burial Complex No. 7 in the Tsaraam Cemetary. Drawing © Sergei S. Miniaev 2006. Barrow No. 7 is not only the largest Xiongnu barrow in Russia but also Culture, Russian Academy of opens on the Selenga River valley. one of the largest known at present Sciences and National Geographic Mixed conifer and deciduous trees anywhere. The surface construc- Society (United States) provided cover lower slopes of the valley tion of the central barrow consists financial support for this project. while the central portion is open of a quadrangle-shaped platform Excavations during the field with plowed fields and grassland surfaced with clay. It measures seasons of 1997-2005 investigated vegetation. Agriculture has been approximately 29 x 28 m with a surface and internal constructions carried on in the valley since the height of approximately 1.5 m of Barrow No. 7 and the ten nineteenth century, and in more above the present surface. The adjacent sacrificial burials. Chinese recent times mechanized plowing entrance chamber is 20 m long and silk items, a Chinese chariot, has been used to prepare fields on extends to the south of the central lacquered artifacts, textiles, felt a fairly large scale. As a result of platform. The walls of the platform carpets, jade, gold, silver, bronze these activities, many of the stone are sided with stone slabs marking and iron objects, funeral dolls and surface features marking burial the perimeter of the walls. Several an “animal cemetery” were found. areas have been destroyed. stone stelae were discovered, As a result of the excavation we some of which were intact and now have extremely important Almost all barrows of the others of which had fallen away new data about the society and Tsaraam Cemetery are situated in from the platform.
48 A single longitudinal and seven Intraburial construction rows of squared beams each perpendicular partitions divided measuring 20 x 20 cm. The the upper section of the burial pit The burial chamber itself consisted construction of the rows of the into nine distinct compartments. of three chambers: an external frame was analogous to the Each partition was constructed famework, an internal framework, construction of the rows of the from wooden logs stacked one and the coffin. The external external chamber. As in the case upon another, sometimes having chamber consisted of seven rows of the external chamber, the frame a thickness of two to three logs. of squared beams; the overall had a covering of transverse Four covers of the burial chamber height of the chamber was ca. 170- boards and a floor similarly were excavated under the 180 cm. The longitudinal and constructed of transverse boards. partitions. The uppermost cover of transverse beams were connected The coffin inside the frame had the burial chamber consisted of by means of interlocking joints of been to a considerable degree stone plates and wood; under the tongue-and-groove construction destroyed by the robbery from the logs was a reed stratum. The cut through the entire width of south end and by the subsequent second cover of the burial chamber each beam. There were no collapse of the chamber. One may was situated in 1.5-1.7 m below additional reinforcing connectors suppose that its floor and roof the upper one and covered the between the beams. consisted of two boards laid entire area of the burial pit. This lengthwise; the side walls of the second cover consisted of large The ceiling of the chamber coffin were made of wide boards, stone plates, stacked in close consisted of boards 20-35 cm wide one to each wall. proximity to each other. There was laid in the east-west direction. The also a thin stratum of reed 0.7 m boards were placed flush with one Objects Found Inside the below the second cover. In both the another, without any connectors Burial Pit. upper and second covers, there holding them together or attaching was some difference between the them to the upper beams of the Fragments of a Chinese mirror and eastern and western parts. The chamber. The ends of the ceiling Chinese chariot were found inside eastern part of the second cover boards rested on the upper beams the burial pit. The fragments of the consisted of large plates and of the frame, and in the middle on mirror were stacked one on top of boulders approximately 100 x 70 three transverse beams laid the other under the logs at the cm in area and with a thickness of equidistant from one another in a second level of the longitudinal 40-50 cm. The stone plates of the north-south direction. The ceiling partition in the center of the burial western half of the cover were of beams rested on the upper beams pit, 218 cm below the surface of smaller size, approximately 40 x of the chamber (which had notches the grave. Some of the fragments 50 cm and with a thickness of only cut in them to secure the beams) had traces of soot, indicating they 10-15 cm. At each corner of the and on columns located along probably had been placed in a fire burial pit on the level of the second interior of the northern and during a funeral rite. The mirror, cover there were small-sized southern walls of the chamber. In whose diameter is 13 cm, is of a stones lying on top of the large the northern section of the burial well-known type with a design ones. The third cover was 11 m structure along the external wall including four nipples, quasi- below the modern surface. This of the external chamber were dragons and birds (cf. Tal’ko- third cover consisted of large stone three columns, and another three Gryntsevich 1999, fig. 3c, p. 50; plates; under the stones there was columns were parallel to the first Chou 2000, cat. no. 20, p. 39). a stratum of pebble, charcoal, birch along the northern wall of the Such mirrors are normally dated cortex and small-sized stones. internal frame. Along the southern from the first century BCE to the Bones of domesticated animals wall of the chamber were another first century CE (Miniaev and were found along northern edge of three analogous columns. Thus Sakharovskaia forthcoming). the third cover, among them skulls each of the three ceiling beams of of horses, cows, sheep and goats the external chamber had five A Chinese chariot was found which were placed in line with each points of support: two on the between the third and the fourth other. Near the skulls were tail and northern and southern upper covers (Miniaev and Sakarovskaia leg bones. The fourth cover, beams of the chamber (where the 2006). This chariot had been partly located one meter below the third ends of the beams were fitted into destroyed by two robber’s entries, one, consisted of large stone special notches), two on the but wheels, a canopy, yokes and plates, birch cortex, a stratum of columns on the northern side and some bronze fittings were pebble mixed with small-sized one more on the southern preserved. The construction of the stones and a stratum of charcoal. columns. The external chamber chariot has very close parallels This fourth cover was situated rested on a floor of beams laid in among chariots of the Han Dynasty directly on the roof of the burial an east-west direction. The period. Like the Han examples the chamber. internal frame consisted of five Tsaraam chariot has a canopy
49 consisting of a wooden framework dolls. One of the dolls was Conclusion covered by some organic material, preserved in its entirety: It had four wooden posts supporting the been formed in a fashion similar The scope of the finds so far at canopy, a trellised seat and to the dolls in the western corridor the Tsaraam complex is wooden ‘elbow-rests.’ The body of and had practically the same burial impressive, and suggests that the chariot and the painting of the goods, i.e., lacquered wooden continuing the excavations in the wheels are remarkably similar to boxes with a mirror and birchbark Tsaraam Valley will add those of a recently restored chariot containers. The other doll substantially to our knowledge of from the burial of the famous Han apparently had been removed by the Xiongnu. Apart from the main general Huo Qubing (d. 117 BCE) the robbers; only its feet tomb of Burial Complex No. 7, the who fought against the Xiongnu. remained. sacrificial burials around it have Judging by the number of yoke- • There were practically no finds yielded interesting information heads, the Tsaraam chariot was in the western internal corridor: which we have discussed originally intended for a team of only two bronze bracelets in the elsewhere (Minaev and three horses. That explains the southwestern and southeastern Sakharovskaia 2002). Of course use of two-yoke shafts instead of corners of the grave. full analysis of the results of such the more typical Han arrangement a large excavation remains to be • with a single central shaft whose The finds in the eastern internal done. The most urgent task is use implies an even number of corridor were confined to its preservation of the finds. The horses in the team.. Quite probably southern part, since the northern organic materials — such items as the chariot found in Tsaraam was part had been destroyed by the birchbark containers, a gift from the Han court to one of robbers. These finds included sets lacquerware and cloth — the representatives of the Xiongnu of harnesses (iron bits, cheek- deteriorate rapidly; it is essential elite. plates, bronze harness-plates, that the financial means be silver chest medallions with images obtained for their proper Objects Found in the of mountain goats), arrowheads, preservation. Burial Chamber a lacquered wooden staff, silver plaques with depictions of a goat, About the Authors The bulk of the burial goods were a lacquered wooden cup and a located in the corridors between lacquered wooden quiver with iron The authors are on the staff the the walls of the chamber, the frame arrowheads. Institute for the History of Material and the coffin. • To a substantial degree the Culture, Russian Academy of • In the western external corridor northern external corridor had Sciences (St. Petersburg). Sergei were objects from several sets of been destroyed by the entrance of Miniaev is a Senior Scientific harness (iron bits, cheek-pieces, a looter, but fragments of ceramics Fellow there and has been at the harness buckles) and two burial and lacquered wooden objects Institute since 1968. He wrote his dolls. Each doll was formed from were found there. Nothing was kandidat (Ph.D. equivalent) the skull of a baby, to which had found in the southern external dissertation on Xiongnu bronzes been attached several braids corridor, but in that corridor, and has compiled a distinguished interwoven with beads. The long attached to the interior wall of the record of publication on Xiongnu ends were shaped like lacquered external chamber, were remains of history, art and archaeology. His wooden sticks. The grave inventory a woolen carpet which had been articles have appeared in journals of the dolls consisted of iron belt destroyed by the shifting of the such as Das Altertum, Ars buckles and lacquered wooden beams of the chamber. Asiatiques and Orientations. Of boxes with cosmetic accessories (a • In the southern internal corridor particular importance is his fragment of a Chinese mirror, hair were a flat iron ring and two iron monograph Derestuiskii mogil’nik pins and birchbark containers of fasteners. (The Derestui Cemetery) (St. Petersburg, 1998) in the series cosmetic pigments). The boxes • In the preserved southern section Arkheologicheskie pamiatniki were decorated with appliqués of of the tomb were the remains of a red lacquer on a yellow lacquer Siunnu (Archaeological Monuments covering of some organic material of the Xiongnu) which he edits. background; the birchbark (felt or compressed fur), two iron containers were ornamented with buckles covered in gold foil and drawings of yurts and carts. depicting a satyr, two gold References • The finds in the eastern external necklaces, and a small gold corridor were practically the same container with the image of a Chou 2000 as those in the western one. Here mountain goat. Chou, Ju-hsi. Circles of Reflection: there were also sets of bridles The Carter Collection of Chinese (consisting of iron bits, cheek- Bronze Mirrors. Cleveland: The pieces and buckles) and burial Cleveland Museum of Art, 2000.
50 Miniaev and Sakharovskaia 2002 S. S. Miniaev and L. M. Archaeology of the Mongolian Sakharovskaia. “Soprovoditel’nye zakhoroneniia ‘tsarskogo’ Period: A Brief Introduction kompleksa No. 7 v mogol’nike D. Tumen Tsaram.” Arkheologicheskie vesti D. Navaan (St. Petersburg), No. 9 (2002): 86- 118; in English as “Sacrifice burials M. Erdene of the royal complex no. 7 at the National University of Mongolia, Tsaraam cemetery” (http:// Ulaanbaatar www.xiongnu.boom.ru/Sacrif.htm, accessed July 19, 2006). The Mongolian period (13th-14th 1950s. In 1990-1993 the c. CE) in Inner Asia is well Mongolian-Japanese ‘Gurvan Gol’ Miniaev and Sakharovskaia 2006 documented in written historical expedition reexamined the ruin. A S. S. Miniaev and L. M. sources. These include narrative Mongolian-Japanese expedition Sakharovskaia. “Khan’skaia histories and documents in Persian, continues archaeological exca- kolesnitsa iz mogil’nika Tsaram” (A Chinese, Arabic and other vation of the Aurag Balgas ruin Han Chariot from the Tsaraam languages. For the earliest stages today. Cemetery). Arkheologicheskie of the history of the Mongol vesti (St. Petersburg), No. 13 Empire, one of main sources is ‘The Karakorum, the former capital (2006). Secret History of Mongols,’ written city of the Mongol Empire in the in the thirteenth century, whose thirteenth century, is the best Miniaev and Sakharovskaia oldest copy is written in studied archaeological site from forthcoming transcription by means of Chinese the period. Russian scholar N. M. S. S. Miniaev and L. M. characters. The ‘Secret History’ Iadrintsev first discovered its ruins Sakharovskaia. “Khan’skoe zerkalo has been studied from a variety of in 1889. The Mongolian-Russian iz mogol’nika Tsaram” (A Han viewpoints: historical, linguistic, historical and cultural expedition Mirror from the Tsaraam ethnological, and literary. The led by Russian archaeologist S. B. Cemetery). (forthcoming article). Mongols had not had their own Kiselev undertook major exca- written language and borrowed vation of the site in 1948-1950, Tal’ko-Gryntsevich 1999 scripts from other cultures, such at which time they explored what as the Uighur. However, in 1269 they determined was the ruin of Iu. D. Tal’ko-Gryntsevich. Materialy they established the new Khan Ogedei’s palace (Kiselev k paleoetnologii Zabaikal’ia. ‘squared’ script. While it never 1965). In 1976-1980, Mongolian (Materials on the Paleo- replaced Uighur, it was used in archaeologist N. Ser-Odjav and his ethnography of the Trans-Baikal.) Qubilai Khan’s time on seals and team renewed excavation of the Arkheologicheskie pamiatniki paizas or passports which city’s ruins. Among their unique Siunnu, vyp. 4. (St. Petersburg: guaranteed free passage for discoveries was a Muslim cemetery Fond “Aziatika,” 1999). diplomats and others through with burials of ordinary people. In Mongol lands. 1995 a Mongolian-Japanese expedition undertook an In addition to the written archaeological survey and made sources, archaeological inves- a topographic map of the city’s tigation in Mongolia and its ruin. Since 1999, the Mongolian- surrounding territory has German joint archaeological discovered various monuments expedition has been excavating at belonging to the period of the Karakorum (Dschingis Khan 2005). Mongol Empire, including ruins of [They found the kiln used to settlements, human statues, produce the numerous ceramic inscriptions on stone and wood, dishes and roof tiles of Karakorum and graves. Ruins of several and recently have concentrated on historically attested settlements the area in the center of the from the period of the Mongol commercial district of the city Empire have been the subject of occupied, it seems, by Chinese scholarly investigation. The earliest artisans and merchants. In one is Aurag Balgas (early exploring further the site Kiselev’s thirteenth century). The Aurag expedition had established as the Balgas ruin was discovered by palace, the Mongolian-German Mongolian scholar Kh. Perlee in the team has raised doubts about that
51 Center at the National University of Mongolia, the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology implemented the project ‘Dornod Mongol’ (Eastern Mongolia) in 2002-2005. As part of this project, the Department’s team of scholars carried out extensive archae- ological reconnaissance in the territory of eastern Mongolia and revealed a number of interesting sites, belonging to different periods of Mongolian history, from Palaeolithic to Mediaeval. The study used GPS methods to determine their exact geo- graphical location. Figs. 1 and 2 show the main routes and newly discovered archaeological sites.
In 2002 three previously unknown sites were found and partly excavated in the Tsuvraa mountain area of Khulenbuir sum, Dornod aimag. In each site were Fig. 1. ‘Eastern Mongolia’ Research Project fieldwork routes, 2002-2005. some hundred graves from the X ...... Archaeological Expedition 1, Dr. Z. Batsaikhan. Mongolian and Xiongnu periods. O —— Archaeological Expedition 2, Drs. D. Navaan, M. Erdene. In 2004 the Department’s attribution, arguing that the Transbaikalia (Russian Buriatia). archaeological team discovered building may in fact be a Buddhist These excavations have several previously unknown and temple. – Ed.] established that there are very interesting sites from the generally as few as two to three period of the Mongol Empire in Grave monuments are found all or as many as five to ten graves Tavan Tolgoi (Ongon sum), Altan over the territory of Mongolia and at one place. Grave monuments Ovoo and Gangyn Tsagan its surrounding regions. So far from Mongolia and Transbaikalia (Dariganga sum and Munkhkhaan around 300 graves have been have common surface con- sum), Sukhbaatar aimag (Fig. 3, excavated in Mongolia and struction. A common finding in next page). In each site there are Mongolian graves is more than ten graves. Some of tibial bones of sheep. them yielded valuable findings which may be related to Chingis Since 1996 the Khan’s royal lineage. Here is a brief Department of description of some of those graves Anthropology and (see also the interview with D. Archaeology of the Navaan below). National University of Mongolia has carried Grave No. 1, Tavan Tolgoi site, out archaeological Ongon sum, Sukhbaatar aimag. survey and excava- Grave No. 1 contained a skeleton tion in eastern and of a headless horse with a saddle central Mongolia. whose bow was sheathed in gold. With the support of To the right of the horse skeleton the Asia Research lay the remains of a woman
Fig. 2. Newly discovered and partly excavated archaeological sites from Xiongnu and Mongolian Periods by the archaeological expeditions from the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, National University of Mongolia (2002-2005). 1. Khairkhan chuluu site, Munkhkhaan sum, Sukhbaatar aimag (Mongolian Period). 2. Tavan Tolgoi site, Ongon sum, Sukhbaatar aimag (Xiongnu and Mongolian Periods). 3. Gangyn Tsagaan site, Altan Ovoo Site, Dariganga sum, Sukhbaatar aimag (Mongolian Period). 4. Tsuvraa Uul, Bayan Uul, Takhilagt Uul sites, Khulenbuir sum, Dornod aimag (Xiongnu and Mongolian Periods). 5, 6, 7. Nugaar, Shuus and Zuun Bayangiin Am, Bugat sites, Khentii aimag (Bronze Age, Xiongnu and Mongolian Periods). 8. Emu site, Selenge aimag (Mongolian Period).
52 harnessed horse head at the left hind corner of the burial pit. The harness had knob-like decorations at the knots, and leather pieces of harness were found elsewhere. At 1.30 m, the excavation unearthed a horse on whose saddle was a gold bow-plate with a dragon image.
To the right of the horse skeleton, separated by a large stone, lay human remains in a wooden coffin. Fig. 3. Archaeological sites from the Mongolian Period. The human skeleton, of a O Grave sites excavated by Department’s archaeological team. supine female, retained its Graves excavated by archaeologists. anatomical structure, but in Settlement ruins. X Stone-man sites: 1. Dornod aimag, 2. Sukhbaatar aimag, 3. Domo Gobi a very poor state of aimag, 4. Dund Gobi aimag, 5. Tov aimag, 6. Uberkhangai aimag, 7. Gobi Altai aimag. preservation. Further excavation revealed oriented toward the northwest. lay to the right of the human various gold and silver goods. She The woman’s skeleton was very remains. A stirrup and a birch- wore a gold ring on a finger of her well preserved. She wore a two bark arrow quiver with four left hand and a golden crown on golden rings on the fingers of her arrowheads inside were unearthed her head A pair of gold earrings left hand; on the inner surface of at the human’s legs. The was found near the skull. A small each ring was inscribed an image archaeological findings and other golden container had a black of a falcon. According to C14 mortuary materials from the powder inside, and ‘ochir’ and analysis, Grave No. 1 is dated grave, in particular the sheep tibial other decorations beautifully 1190-1230 CE or the period of and ankle bones, show that the crafted of gold were found there Great Mongol Empire. grave belongs to the Mongolian too. Other findings in the grave period. Furthermore, some included a silver pot, a bowl Grave No. 2 revealed a characteristics of palaeoan- containing grain, a human image horseman buried not far from the thropological findings from the made from jade and a bronze woman’s grave. He was holding in grave, such as trauma of the left mirror wrapped in cloth. The buried his right hand silk material in which clavicle, outer and inner woman wore a fine silk outer was wrapped a large pearl resting constructions of the grave, and garment and leather boots with upon a base that was shaped like associated archaeological sharp tips. a flower. This large pearl set onto materials suggest that the grave a flower-shaped base is called a belongs to an individual of lower Although the stone structure of jins in Mongolian and was used as social status, e.g. a common the grave on the surface appears a marker of status. warrior. to date to the Xiongnu period, the internal structure and the objects Grave TT-2005 B-4. Geo- Grave TT-2005 B-5. o recovered during excavation date graphical position: N – 45 05’55.7, Geographical position: N – 45o o it to the twelfth or thirteenth E – 112 42’47.1; elevation 1089 o 05’59.0, E – 112 43’10.9; centuries CE. Moreover, the pelvic m above sea level. The grave is elevation 1096 m above sea level. located on the southern slope of structure of the human remains The grave is located on the and the associated gold objects the Dund Ovoot hill, 500 m. to the southern slope of Dund Ovoot hill west of the hilltop. suggest that the burial belongs to of Tavan Tolgoi at the upper left a woman of high social status. The following artifacts were periphery of the group of graves. found in the grave: a sheep’s The surface structure is a ring- Grave TT-2005 B-6. Geo- shoulder blade, ribs, ankle and shaped stone construction 8.5 m. graphical position: N – 45o 05’58.9, tibia bone, all lay near a human in diameter, not mounded on the E – 112o 43’10.7; elevation 1103 skull; and a horse head with surface. m above sea level. The grave is harness lay to the left of the A horse tooth and other bones located on the southern slope of human remains. Sheep vertebrae were found at a depth of 50 cm. Dund Ovoot hill of Tavan Tolgoi, and a shin bone and a horse hoof At a depth of 1.10 m, there was a below and to the left of grave TT-
53 2005 B-5. The surface structure is trim made from bone, birch bark, The graves excavated in 2004- a ring-shaped stone construction copper and iron goods, buttons and 2005 at the Tavan Tolgoi site all 6 m in diameter, not mounded on a belt buckle. had a horse associated with the the surface. interred individual and are of great At 2.10 m, the upper lid of a importance to the archaeology of At a depth of 70 cm, ribs and wooden coffin oriented north-south the Mongolian period. Assuming foot bones of animals, bone knobs was revealed. The well-preserved that the findings are evidence that with metal centers (their purpose coffin had been placed in a stone- the Tavan Tolgoi site is connected is unclear), and pieces of birch bark sided pit and covered by large flat with the history of Great Mongol were found. At 1.1 m were the stones. One of the boards of the Empire, we can conclude that remains of a horse with a leather coffin lid was broken. The coffin graves TT-2004 B-1, TT-2004-B- saddle. At 1.80 m, there was had iron girdles at the head and 2, TT-2005 B-5, TT-2005 B-6, TT- wooden coffin, whose inner surface foot ends and appeared to have 2005 B-7 were burials of nobles was painted with red and white had a copper one in the middle. who had a close relationship to decoration and covered in some The coffin interior was lined with Chingis Khan’s Golden Lineage. places with birch bark. silky material with small white The territory of Ongon sum was Archaeological findings from the ornaments. The measurements of the land of the Onggirat tribe in grave include a golden ring, cloth the coffin were: length 2.12 m; the 12th-13th centuries, a tribe (possibly the lining of the coffin), upper width at the head 60 cm, which had an old bond with Chingis a 3-petal golden ‘ochir,’ a jade belt bottom 55 cm; upper width at the Khan’s Golden Lineage. Thus we decoration inlaid with square foot 54 cm, bottom 42 cm; height might conclude that the Tavan turquoise, and a 7-petal decoration at the head 56 cm, at the foot 50 Tolgoi area was the burial ground made of bone. Palaeoanthro- cm; thickness of lid board 3 cm, of the Onggirat tribe. side wall 6 cm, foot wall 8 cm. pological materials were uncovered The conclusion regarding the without any anatomical structure The human remains in the royal connections of the graves is and consisted of skull fragments, grave were completely disrupted, supported by some of the key a clavicle, ribs, vertebrae, a radius, and the skull with mandible was archaeological finds: the jins a fibula, feet bones and phalanxes. found out of the coffin on the north marker in the man’s grave, the Bone structure and relief of edge of its lid, facing to the east. woman’s rings with a falcon seal paleoanthropological materials Other bones, such as clavicle, inside, the gold saddle bow-plate, show that the human remains are radius and ulna were found out of and the other jewelry, all of which from a male. the coffin at a depth of 2 m. undoubtedly belonged to a royal Nonetheless, lower limb bones, family during the Great Mongolian Archaeological findings from the scapula, ribs, and sacral bone were Empire. Of particular significance grave TT-2005 B-6, among them recovered in the coffin. Since they were the gold rings with the the fully-equipped horse, suggest were out of anatomical order, it engraved image of a falcon, which that the grave dates to the was not possible to ascertain the signifies that the person to whom Mongolian period and belongs to a position of the body in the grave. the rings belonged must be of male aristocrat. The grave appears However, by the coffin shape, it great importance. The falcon is to have been pillaged in antiquity. could be supposed that the mentioned in the thirteenth- interred individual was placed century ‘Secret History of Mongols’ Grave TT-2005 B-7. Geo- supine and oriented to the north. and provides a link to Chingis graphical position: N – 45o 05’58.7, The grave also has unique Khan’s lineage. In its 63rd section E – 112o 43’11.1; elevation 1096 characteristics. A golden earring Onggirat Dei Sechen speaks to m above sea level. The grave is was discovered under the skull of Yisügei Baatar, Temüjin’s father, located on the southern slope of the human remains, which appear when he came to betrothe his 9 Dund Ovoot hill of Tavan Tolgoi, to be those of a man. year-old-son to Börte, Dei down from the grave TT-2005 B- Sechen’s daughter: ‘… This night 5. The surface structure is a ring- From the archaeological I saw the dream that the white shaped stone construction, not findings, including the wooden falcon came to me holding the sun mounded on the surface. coffin and grave structure, we can and the moon and left them on my assume that the grave dates to the hand …. Dear Yisügei, your coming Excavation was undertaken on Mongolian period and belongs to with your son explains my dream. an area of 3 x 2.2 m. At 85 cm, an individual of high social status. The totem of you, Kiyat people, the burial pit was identified and The single earring found in the has come...’ (Chengdü-yin further excavation then conducted grave may have been connected Damdinsüren 1947). Temüjin was over an area of 2.6 x 1.7 m. At a to rituals, and shows that medieval described in this story as the depth of 1.5 to 1.7 m were found Mongolian nobles used to wear a Falcon, a totem of the Kiyat horse vertebrae, a hoof, saddle single earring in their left ear. Borjigin tribe.
54 About the Authors Secret History of the Mongols: The Mongolian Cities.) Moscow: Origin of Chingis Khan. An “Nauka,” 1965. Important The authors are all members of the Adaptation by Paul Kahn. summary of the Soviet-Mongolian Department of Anthropology and Expanded ed. Boston: Cheng & Expeditions of the late 1940s to Archaeology of the National Tsui, 1998.—Ed.] ca. 1960. University of Mongolia. Prof. Navaan Dorjpagma is the Dschingis Khan 2005 Mongol’skii archeologicheskii department’s senior professor. He Dschingis Khan und seine Erben: sbornik. Posviashchaetsia received his initial training in Das Weltreich der Mongolen. slavnomu XL-letiiu Mongol’skoi Archaeology at Moscow State München: Kunst– und Aus- Narodnoi Respubliki. (Mongolian University and for many decades stellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Archaeological Symposium. th worked in the Mongolian Academy Deutschland. Hirmer Verlag, 2005. Dedicated to the Glorious 40 of Sciences. His specialty is Bronze Splendid exhibition catalogue, with Anniversary of the Mongolian Age archaeology of Eastern valuable summary of recent People’s Republic.) Moscow: Izd- Mongolia; he has published three Mongolian-German excavations at vo. Akademii nauk SSSR, 1962. monographs and over 200 Karakorum. Contains interesting articles on scholarly articles. Prof. Tumen some of the discoveries of the Dashvereg likewise received her Kiselev 1965 1950s. degrees from Russian institutions S. V. Kiselev et al. Drevne- and since 1995 has chaired her mongol’skie goroda. (Ancient department. She has held numerous visiting appointments at distinguished foreign universities and recently completed a lecture tour in the United States and Tombs of Chingisids Canada, sponsored by the Silkroad Are Still Being Foundation. Her publications in her specialization of paleoanthropology Found... include three books and some 90 articles. Her e-mail is An Interview with
55 of the saddle were in What will be the title of your book? exactly their original Will it be published soon? position. All the material of the saddle Because those discoveries were had very skillfully- made in Tavan Tolgoi of Ongon executed patterns and sum, we will name the book Ongon needlework. The Tavan Tolgoi. I will include all saddle also had iron materials related to the thirteenth stirrups. The woman century in this book and publish it not only had the gold in Mongolian and English. The book rings but also a bronze will be published in 2006 before mirror, silver bracelets the 800th anniversary of the on each arm and a founding of Chingis Khan’s gold necklace with an Mongolian empire. Fig. 2. Map showing location of Tavan Tolgoi and expensive turquoise Sharga Mountain. inlay. All of them were crafted with the most I heard that you also found a could be from the Xiongnu period. wonderful designs. noble’s hat with a gold jins (a But there was doubt. The Xiongnu This means that during that period small, round item worn on a top of usually did not bury their people Mongols made bracelets of silver. a hat to indicate rank). Was it on higher mountain slopes, which How are you preserving those found in the first excavation? is where those burials were finds? Did you trace the designs? located. In order to find out the The second burial was at the foot reason, we decided to excavate the We are keeping all rare materials of the woman’s burial. First we first grave. When we excavated the under strong security at our thought that it would be the burial northeast grave we found the university. We continue the of her son or someone related to remains of a woman with a horse. restoration of those items, but it her. The excavation revealed that There had not been any it had been looted a long time looting. It was a great find. ago. We are lucky because the There were gold rings on both looter did not also loot the hands, and inside of the rings woman’s grave. Examination were hidden images of white of the skeleton’s anatomy falcons. That image gave us showed that the second grave direct evidence that this contained the body of a man, burial is related to Chingis who was buried with his horse. Khan’s family. Therefore we The horse still had its head. decided to continue research Therefore the man probably and excavation in this area. was a very important aris- Now we have a long period tocrat. The most important of research work ahead. discovery from that tomb was a gold artifact with pearl inlay, Were there other interesting placed on a lotus. It was finds besides those two rings wrapped in silk and held in the with the white falcons? How left hand of the man, which about saddles, bridles, was under his back. It could clothes and other items? be a jins or a religious or Were there other important decorative item. I think that anthropological signs? the important thing is that it is related to the period when The woman was there with Copyright © Department of Anthropol- Buddhism first spread to ogy and Archaeology, Mongolian National the horse, but the horse was University, 2005 Mongolia. The fact that the without a head (Fig. 3). Fig. 3. Drawing of burial in Tomb No. man held this artifact tightly Mongols have a tradition of 1 (?), Tavan Tolgoi. and it was hidden under his placing horse heads on high back is very interesting. We mountains as offerings. The horse is not an easy task. We need more are continuing to study this. had a saddle, and the upper side time. Part of the careful study of of the saddle, both front and back, the saddle components is to make That man’s horse was without any was covered with well-designed accurate drawings. Once restored saddle. Is it because the tomb was and carefully crafted gold. The and carefully studied, all the items looted? How do you know the tomb saddle-cloth, girth and other parts will appear in a book. was looted?
56 Photos © (left) Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, National University of Mongolia; (right) Daniel C. Waugh 2005 Fig. 4. Gold hat decorations and earrings from Tavan Tolgoi It is easy to recognize when other example there Tomb No. 5. people have disturbed an was a gold archaeological monument. The crown, a jade belt-fastener with related to Buddhism. We should skeleton was moved a little. But I gold inlay and a lapis lazuli plate, therefore consider that at this time think the horse originally was a gold ring, a gold hair-clip with the Mongols already had adopted without a saddle. There should various patterns, a necklace with Buddhism. In last year’s ex- have been other valuable artifacts a round gold box and a gold cavation we also found a bone in that tomb. But since there were thunderbolt (Figs. 4, 5, 6). The thunderbolt with carving on it. none, we think it was looted. Since the jins-like artifact was Was the young woman alone under the man’s back, looters in the tomb? Did you find a probably did not notice it. horse or saddle with her? Another interesting discovery in the tomb was a stirrup. Probably that girl was a beloved daughter of an important Last year, winter arrived after aristocrat. A horse was with you had dug two tombs. Did her, and there was a beautifully you dig other tombs this year? designed saddle sheathed in How did you find the other gold and with dragon-shaped important discoveries? ornaments (Fig. 7, next page). We have started to restore that There were other tombs magnificent creation. It has a located near the two we great many well-crafted excavated last year. Therefore Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 carvings. Ethnographically it is we had an ambitious goal for Fig. 5. Gilded pectoral (crown?), Tavan an important monument of Tolgoi Tomb No. 5. this year. We chose three oriental culture. The dragon tombs and excavated them. We most interesting discovery was the ornamentation is very artistic. The excavated them in a different order gold thunderbolt that she held in dragon is the sky animal. A person compared to last year’s excavation her hand. The thunderbolt is who used a gold saddle with a sky and numbered them 5, 6 and 7. A animal had to be a high nobleman. lot of expensive and valuable In Mongolian archaeological history artifacts were found in those three there have never been such tombs. In the fifth tomb there was discoveries before, and they prove a woman younger than 20. On her that we have a proud culture and body and near her head there were heritage. a number of of gold items. Because Photo © Daniel C. Waugh 2005 she was a young woman she was Fig. 6. Gold thunderbolt (vajra) found I saw pictures of Mongolian rulers’ dressed in a fancy manner. For in Tavan Tolgoi Tomb No. 5. saddles. There are two kinds of
57 Photos © Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, National University of Mongolia. Fig. 7. Gold foil saddle decoration with dragon design. Tavan Tolgoi Tomb No. 5. them. But, this one is not each other. Also there are some is clear what cars are coming and comparable to either of them. This other, quite different, tombs that who is visiting. The local people saddle is wonderful. Can you talk we have excavated 200-300 also act as guards. These people about Tombs Nos. 6 and 7? meters away. The tombs that have sharp eyes and they know contained the gold artifacts were who is coming, where they stay, We found a gold earring from Tomb tombs of aristocrats, but the latter whether they come with horse or No. 6. That man’s tomb looks as ones were for ordinary people. car, etc. When even ordinary though it had been disturbed by Some of them contained horses, citizens are so watchful, then any someone. The coffin’s design is but there were no saddles. They casual robber can’t get to this very good. It seems that the might be warriors’ tombs. Some place. coffin’s wood is not from native artifacts could prove this point. In trees but could have been brought last year’s excavation we found a What good people. I am proud of from the south. The inside layer bronze earring from a poor them. I have another question. If of the coffin was some kind of high woman’s tomb. So these were this place is only 10 km from the quality silky material. We found a different kinds of peoples, and we border, then that means that big piece from that material and found different artifacts. As many perhaps some other tombs could now are working to restore it. as five or six other big tombs that be on the other side of the border. There was no horse in that tomb. could contain a lot of gold items Are you interested in this, and The anthropological material of existed in the area where we first have you crossed to the other side? Tomb No. 7 proved that it was a excavated. We will study those man. We found in that tomb some tombs in 2006. There are two or I have not. Because it is a border, gold objects with figurative three hills about 1 km beyond there is no chance to cross it. We designs, possibly used as clothing Dund Ovoot. One hill has about can’t go there, and other people decorations. This tomb also had ten, another one has seven or eight can’t come from that side. been robbed by someone. tombs. The place is called Tavan Therefore we have little Tolgoi (Five Hills) because there information about the other side So, there were five tombs, two are several hills side by side. It of the border. Usually there is not containing women and three of contains monuments from the much information about archae- them men. All the men’s tombs thirteenth century and also even ological monuments in China. It were looted but the women’s ones from the Hun period. We will apply seems that they are hiding their were not. That makes me think to the Mongolian Government to discoveries. Therefore I can’t tell that someone who knew about the protect this place. whether they either have or do not tombs robbed them soon after the have similar monuments. When we burials. Now people know about Tavan look from Tavan Tolgoi to the Tolgoi. Will people go there by south, there is no mountain, it is We also think so. Usually many themselves and rob those all steppe — as we say in expensive items were placed with tombs…? Mongolian, a mirror. If there are noblemen. Those robbers would no mountains, rocks or stones, have known that. Ongon sum of Sukhbaatar aimag people can’t find materials for is the closest sum to the border. burials. Stones are the most Are there any other tombs? Will The place that we conducted our important material for funerals; you continue your research in this excavation is in only 10 km away therefore I think there are not area? from the border. There are three many tombs. To the west and east army units near this place; so the of Tavan Tolgoi there is a series of There are many other tombs in protection is good. The border hills with lots of rocks. That area Dund Ovoot. They are close to guards always watch this place. It is very good place for burials. Also
58 there is a marble portrait of a king totally different from Turkic We excavated three tombs and and a queen in Tavan Tolgoi. Those tombstones. Dr. Bayaraa explained made various discoveries. Some of tombs could be related to this that these stones belong to the them are a little different from the portrait. Mongolian period. Tavan Tolgoi discoveries. We found there a sheep marrowbone. Could you tell us more about this So many gold artifacts were found Mongols use marrows for specially marble stone portrait? When was from this area. Is there a high esteemed occasions. During the it done? Have scholars studied it? possibility that those tombs are lunar new year’s celebrations, we related to the stone portraits? put out marrow for offerings. This The stone portrait of a king and a discovery will tell us much about queen from Tavan Tolgoi were It could be. The tombs beside the Mongolian customs. published in a book a long time king and the queen had been dug ago. During the 1920s, the Russian before. Even though they have Do the gold artifacts from Sharga scholar, V. A. Kazakevich, studied been looted we hope there will be Mountain have different designs it. The Mongolian scholar, Bayaraa, some discoveries. Those dis- from the Tavan Tolgoi ones? also thoroughly studied it. He coveries will tell us many things. wrote a book called A Stone There is no big difference. We Portrait of Eastern Mongolia and Were there any books? If there found a gold decoration from defended his Ph.D. on this topic. were any sutras found, that could Sharga Mountain which was very In this book Dr. Bayaraa wrote that be very interesting. similar to the hat decoration found the ‘King and Queen from Eastern at Tavan Tolgoi. That hat Mongolia are from the thirteenth No. We did not find any book- decoration was a little different century; these were Chingis Khan’s related items. But all of these from previous gold crowns. It has famous kings.’ monuments are ‘books’ them- a heart-shaped turquoise inlay on selves. all four sides. It has many different You found thirteenth-century patterns. Even though these artifacts in the tombs near this In the young woman’s burial you artifacts were found 200 km from stone portrait. That means that found some red-brownish powder. each other, they are very similar. you proved Dr. Bayaraa’s thesis. This woman seems to be a beloved One could even say that the same princess of an important khan. smith made them. So, those items You are saying that I proved it. Could this powder help establish surely belong to same period. However, I can’t claim that. her genealogy? because we did not prove that this We have been looking for Chingisid portrait is related to those tombs. Maybe this was a treasured tombs in the Khentii Mountain There are two more tombs medicine. We haven’t determined range for a long time, but did we alongside the stone portrait. After the chemical ingredients of this find them in Sukhbaatar aimag? excavating those tombs we can powder. prove whether the Tavan Tolgoi These tombs are definitely related artifacts are related to the portrait You told me that you found a to the Chingisids. Or very close to or not. woman’s shoe. In which tomb did Chingis Khan or some later you find it? In the rich woman’s descendants. Perhaps they are not Why haven’t you excavated these tomb or a poorer person’s tomb? the direct descendants of Chingis two tombs yet? Khan. Anyway, they were people This year’s excavation gave us very who worshiped and honored We are planning to excavate them interesting information. We found Chingis Khan’s white falcon. in 2006. After this excavation we some more of the same type of can tell whether the tombs and the tombs in Asga sum, Sukhbaatar When the Mongolian Great Khan portrait are from same period. aimag, which is located 200 km to period ended, most khans lived the north of Tavan Tolgoi. The place behind the Great Wall. And many How big are these portraits? Are name is Sharga Mountain. The of them lived in today’s Sukh- they tombstones or carved on external structure of the tombs is baatar and Dornod aimags. stones? Are they different from the same as in the Tavan Tolgoi Therefore these tombs could be Turkish era tombstones? tombs. We found similar gold items related to the southern Yuan there. We also found a woman’s Dynasty. The most important proof The eastern Mongolian stone shoe which has a beautiful leather of this theory is that these artifacts portrait is a tombstone that has a cover with patterns. We conserving are related to the spread of picture of a sitting man — his it and working to restore it. Hinayana Buddhism. These golden whole face and clothes are carved artifacts could be related to Chingis in the stone. It is broken, and the How many tombs did you excavate Khan and his descendants. head is cut from the body. It is in Sharga Mountain? Therefore I think these tombs
59 belong to the later period of the News about Collections Great Mongol Empire. What do you think? The August Hermann Francke and Hans I agree with you 100 percent. Dr. Körber Collection: Archaeological Finds Bayaraa studied the tombstones in from Khotan in the Munich State Museum eastern Mongolia and hypothesized that they are from Qubilai’s period. of Ethnography This might be true. Many khans were influenced by the culture to Ulf Jäger the east and brought silk and other materials from there. These Gronau-Epe/Westfalen (Germany) monuments tell us about the cultural relations that developed at Unknown to a larger public there was never properly catalogued and this time. So, those could be the is a significant collection of published. tombs of lesser khans, perhaps archaeological finds from Khotan Qubilai’s descendants. in the State Museum of Dr. Francke was a well-known Ethnography in Munich, Germany. tibetologist who had previously Because I am interested in It is the third largest collection of worked for the Archaeological Mongolian anthropology, I have a archaeological objects in Germany Survey of India in Ladakh and good collection of materials on from Eastern Central Asia (Xinjiang published two volumes on his Mongolian anthropology and Autonomous Region, China). The research there. He also contributed traditional culture. I search for largest is the Turfan Collection of transcriptions and translations of materials that are published the Königlich-Preussische Turfan- Tibetan manuscripts to Sir Marc abroad about Mongolian culture. I Expeditionen (1902 –1914), Aurel Stein’s Ancient Khotan of have seen many artifacts with brought together by the German 1907. Probably this was the reason different designs, shapes and ethnographers and archaeologists Lucian Scherman chose him to patterns. The monuments that you Albert Grünwedel and Albert von collect archaeological objects in the found are more skilfully decorated LeCoq and now housed in the than they are. I think your Museum für Indische Kunst in discoveries can change Mongolian Berlin. Grünwedel and von LeCoq anthropology and archaeology. mainly worked at sites on the The young woman’s saddle is northern route of the Silk Roads simply wonderful and incom- between Kumtura, Kucha and parable. I wish you success in your Turfan itself. The second largest studies. Your book will surprise the collection of such finds is the Emil whole world. Thank you very Trinkler Collection in the Übersee- much. Museum, Bremen, collected on the southern Silk Road at Khotan in Translated by M. Saruul-Erdene 1928 by the German geographer from the original published in the Emil Trinkler. Unlike the Francke- Zamdaan Journal 23 (2005). Körber Collection, the other two have widely been studied and published (see References).
The Protestant missionary and tibetologist August Hermann Francke (1870–1930) and the sinologist Hans Körber assembled their collection in 1914, shortly before the outbreak of World War I. Both were sent out by the German indologist Lucian Scherman, then the leading Fig. 1. Sherd of a dark-green hard- Director of the Königlich glazed jar showing the head of a camel. Bayerisches Museum für Yotkan, near Khotan, 6th-7th c. CE. Cat. Ethnographie in Munich. The no. FK 249. Photo by S. Autrum- vicissitudes of the War and the Mulzer, Negative No. 18213, copyright subsequent fate of all three men © Staatliches Museum für help to explain why the collection Völkerkunde, München, 2006.
60 to Ladakh and British India. collection but was prevented from However, the British arrested them completing the work due to his as citizens of Imperial Germany teaching and his research in and brought them as POWs to Iranian studies. Although by then Ahmednagar (Maharashtra State). he had retired, in 2003 Dr. Gropp As soon as they had reached proposed that I should take on the Ahmednagar, both men engaged cataloguing project, for which my in correspondence with Lucian graduate training provided Scherman in Munich, in particular appropriate background. This with regard to the issue of how to suggestion, to which I readily obtain their Khotanese collection agreed, was endorsed by the from Kashgar and send it home. leading Director of the museum, The correspondence with Dr. Claudius C. Müller and the Scherman fills two large files in the Curator of its Department of archives of the State Museum of Central and East Asian Art, Dr. Ethnography in Munich. It took Bruno J. Richtsfeld. until 1928 with the help of official The project should result German diplomacy for the eventually in a monograph on the collection to arrive in Munich, some collection’s history, to be published 14 years after it had first been in the series Beihefte des obtained! Fig. 2. Head of a demon. Stucco. Staatlichen Museums für Völker- rd th kunde München. To date approx- Khotan oasis, 3 -4 c. CE. Cat. No. Francke was able to leave the FK 213. Photo by S. Autrum-Mulzer, imately 85% of the planned British Indian POW camp at Negative No. 19094, copyright © chapter on the history of the 1914 Ahmednagar and return to Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde, expedition to Khotan is complete. Germany in late 1917, but then München, 2006. Some additional information is was sent off to the front in the needed, especially on Dr. Francke’s Khotan oasis for the Munich Balkans where he was again contacts with Profs. Grünwedel and Museum of Ethnography. It seems captured and put this time in a von LeCoq and with Sir Marc Aurel likely that the Munich Khotan Serbian POW camp. He never Collection was to be a Bavarian would regain his health after the answer to the Prussian Turfan War. He was appointed Professor Collections at Berlin. The question in Tibetology at the University of is worth further study. Berlin in 1925, and died there unexpectedly on February 16th Francke and Körber collected all 1930, at age 59. their finds in the antique markets of Khotan and from Chinese Soon after the Nazi takeover of officials there; only a very few the German government, in 1933 items were excavated by them Lucian Scherman had to leave his personally. So the provenance of job as the leading Director of the every piece in their collections for State Museum of Ethnography in the most part can be established Munich because he was of Jewish only on the basis of the information descent. He left Germany for provided by the sellers or the Boston (USA) late in 1939 and died Chinsese officials. Since the there in 1947. collection of the material predated World War I by only two months, The Francke-Körber Collection the two scholars temporarily has been housed since its stored their collections at the acquisition in the Department of Swedish missionary residence in Central and East Asian Art at the Kashgar (Kashi). The intention was State Museum of Ethnography, to ship their carefully packed finds Munich. In the beginning of the home via the railways in Russian 1980s the well-known German Turkestan. iranist Gerd Gropp from Hamburg Fig. 3. Standing Buddha. Oasis of University rediscovered the Hanguya near Khotan, late 4th-6th c. The two scholars attempted material. In 1974 Dr.Gropp had CE. Stucco. Cat. No. FK 547. Photo by themselves to return to Germany published the Trinkler Collection in S. Autrum-Mulzer, Negative No. via the normal caravan route the Übersee-Museum, Bremen. He 18212, copyright © Staatliches Mu- south, across the Karakorum Pass began to catalogue the Munich seum für Völkerkunde, München, 2006.
61 Stein, which may have involved and include buddhist texts as well on the northern route of the Silk planning for another expedition to as other private and official Road in the Tarim Basin: Khotan. documents, in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan. They will be sent to Albert Grünwedel. Bericht über In December 2005 I was able experts of the Berlin-Bran- archäologische Arbeiten in to organize the Francke-Körber denburgische Akademie der Idikutschari und Umgebung im Collection according to modern Wissenschaften in Berlin for Winter 1902-1903. München, principles. The ca. 2000 archae- modern philological and historical 1906. ological finds have been arranged analysis. in more than a dozen categories, Albert Grünwedel. Altbuddhistische which include: fine Yotkan- Completion of this cataloguing Kultstätten in Chinesisch- ceramics, subdivided into smaller and the publication project is Turkistan. Berlin, 1912. groups such as ornamented contingent on the author’s sherds, handles in certain animal- receiving funding, since the work Albert Grünwedel. Alt-Kutscha. forms, the well-known monkeys currently is incidental to his Berlin, 1920. and camels, etc. (Fig. 1); employment in a non-academic household ceramics; imported field. He has applied to the Albert von LeCoq. Chotscho. ceramics; china; lamps and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft Facsimile-Wiedergaben der incense-burners; spinning- (DFG) in Bonn; any other support wichtigsten Funde der 1. Kgl. weights; geological specimens of which may be forthcoming will Preuss. Expedition nach Turfan in ores and stones for jewelry; carved advance international scholarship Ostturkistan. Berlin, 1913 (repr., statuettes of semi-precious stones on the ancient history and culture Graz, 1979). and jade (nephrit); seals and gems of the Silk Roads. in stone and metal; objects made of marine shells and mother-of- Albert von LeCoq. Die pearl; playing-cubes; buddhist About the Author buddhistische Spätantike in terracottas; buddhist stuccos (Figs. Mittelasien. 7 vols. Berlin, 1922– 1933 (repr., Graz 1973–1975). 2, 3); and coins (Kushan, Sino- Ulf Jäger was educated at the Kharoshthi, wushu coins, other Universities of Münster/Westfalen Chinese coins from the Han to Ming and at Freiburg/Breisgau, Albert von LeCoq. Bilderatlas zur Dynasties, early islamic coins). Germany. He received his Ph D.in Kunst und Kulturgeschichte 2003 at Münster University in Mittelasiens. Leipzig, 1925 (repr., While comparative analysis has Archaeology and Ancient History. Graz, 1977 ). only begun, the first results of it His dissertation, “Horsemen, are interesting. For example, there Mounted Warriors, and Horse Albert von LeCoq. Auf Hellas are links between the ceramics of Nomads between the Rhineland Spuren in Ostturkistan. Berichte Khotan in the collection and their and Korea: On the Late Antique und Abenteuer der II. und III. analogues in locations such as Riding Culture between East and Deutschen Turfan Expeditionen. Bactria, the buddhist complex of West in the 4th-8th Centuries CE. Leipzig, 1926 (repr., Graz, 1974). Kara Tepe (Uzbekistan) and even A Contribution to the Synthesis of English tr. as: Buried Treasures of early medieval Sogdia. Some Ancient History and Archaeology,” Chinese Turkestan: An Account of pieces, such as certain miniature has been published in German in the Activities and Adventures of vessels made of terracotta and the series Beiträge zur Ur- und the Second and Third German metal, are similar to ones found in Frühgeschichte Mitteleuropas Turfan Expeditions. London, 1928; the Northern Caucasus, for (Weissbach; Langenweissbach: repr., 1985. example in the tombs of Beier & Beran, 2006). His Moshchevaia Balka. Certain of the specialization is the archaeology Albert von LeCoq. Von Land und bronze objects which are possibly and cultural history of pre-islamic Leuten in Ostturkistan. Berichte belt ornaments can be found from Central Asia. He may be contacted und Abenteuer der 4. Deutschen the Ordos to Western Turkestan. either by e-mail
62 Chinese Central Asia. London; estan. Die Trinkler-Sammlung im A[ugust] H[ermann] Francke. Amherst, Mass., 1980. Chs. 8, 9. Übersee-Museum zu Bremen. Durch Zentralasien in die indische Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Gefangenschaft. Herrenhuth, [Herbert Härtel and Marianne Deutschen Zentralasien-Expedition 1921. Yaldiz.] Along the Ancient Silk 1927/28. Teil 3. Monographien der Routes. Central Asian Art from the Wittheit zu Bremen No.11. H. Walravens and M.Taube, eds. West Berlin State Museums. An Bremen, 1974. August Hermann Francke und die exhibition lent by the Museum für West-Himalaya-Mission der Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen C. About August Hermann Francke Herrenhuther Brüdergemeinde. Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, and his works on the Silk Roads: Eine Bibliographie mit Standort- Federal Republic of Germany. New nachweisen der tibetischen York, 1982. A[ugust] H[ermann] Francke and Drucke. Mit einem Beitrag von L.D. Barnett. “Appendix B: Tibetan Michael Hahn. Verzeichnis der Marianne Yaldiz. Archäologie und manuscripts and Sgrafitti Orientalischen Handschriften in Kunstgeschichte Chinesisch- discovered by Dr. M. A. Stein at Deutschland. Supplement. Volume Zentralasiens (Xinjiang). Hand- Endere.” In: M.Aurel Stein. Ancient 34. Stuttgart, 1992. buch der Orientalistik. Siebente Khotan. 3 vols. Oxford 1907 (Repr. Abteilung: Kunst und Kultur; Ed. New York 1975; Delhi, 1981), Vol. D. Biography of Lucian Scherman: J. Stargardt. Dritter Band: 2, pp.548-569. Innerasien. Zweiter Abschnitt. U. Weigelt. Lucian Scherman Leiden etc., 1987. A[ugust] H[ermann] Francke. (1864–1946) und das Münchner Antiquities of Indian Tibet. Pt. 1 Museum für Völkerkunde. B. About the Emil Trinkler (Chronicles of Ladakh). Calcutta, Münchner Beiträge zur Collection from Khotan in the 1914; Pt. 2 Calcutta, 1926 (repr. Völkerkunde. Beiheft 2. München, Übersee-Museum, Bremen: New Delhi, 1972). Archaeological 2003. Also, the author’s Survey of India. New Imperial dissertation, München, 2002. Gerd Gropp. Archäologische Funde Series. aus Khotan/Chinesisch-Ostturk-
Digital Collections: New Additions to Silk Road Seattle
Thanks to the support of the Silkroad Foundation, the work of Lance Jenott and valuable contributions of material by others, some significant new additions have been made to the collection of educational resources available through the Internet on the website Silk Road Seattle. Those already familiar with the site might note that it has a new URL or electronic address:
• A new section on Silk Road Geography with an introductory essay and a set of image galleries featuring landscapes of Eurasia. • Under “Museum Collections>Featured Museums,” the addition of hundreds of new images. Most of the images have captions which include where possible references to published catalogues and further information. The additions are for the following museums: State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia * Over 975 images, a good many being recent color photographs, among them: an excellent selection of the early Inner Asian nomad imaterials, especially from the Pazyryk burials, an extensive collection of Sasanian silver, Islamic ceramics and much more. * We have digitized and posted the largest part of the images in Smirnov’s magnificent 1909 portfolio, Eastern Silver (Vostochnoe serebro). * images and a pdf file of the complete English text from Boris Marshak’s Sogdian Silver (Sogdiiskoe serebro) (1971). *images and a pdf file of the complete text of Camilla Trever, Excavations in Northern Mongolia (1924-1925) (1932) on the first Noin Ula excavations. State Historical Museum, Moscow. Photographs include many of early Central Asian material and of Golden Horde (Mongol) material. Extensive additions to our previously posted collection of images from the National Museum of Mongolian History, Ulaanbaatar. The selection includes much Xiongnu material, quite a few images of the recently- excavated Bilge Qaghan treasure, and a substantial collection from the period of the Mongol Empire.
63 Choijin Lama Museum, Ulaanbaatar. Images of the outstanding collection of Mongolian Buddhist ritual objects and art. • In our section on Silk Road Cities, a number of new, illustrated web essays and image sets, most of them contributed by Profs. Frank Harold and Florian Schwarz: The Alborz and the Assassin Castles, Iran Almaliq, Xinjiang Balkh and Mazar-e-Sharif, Afghanistan Bam, Iran Bamiyan, Afghanistan Herat, Afghanistan Mashad and the Shrine of Imam Reza, Iran Shahr-i-Sabz (Kesh), Uzbekistan Yazd, Iran Additions to images of Bukhara and Samarkand, Uzbekistan Images of Turkmenistan • In our section on “Traditional Culture,” a slide show of erecting a Ger (Yurt) in Mongolia, images from 2005. • Historical Texts: *The Kharosthi Documents from Chinese Turkestan. The complete text of Burrow’s translations of the documents from Niya in the Stein Collection, courtesy of the Royal Asiatic Society. *Accounts of Chinese Travelers to Central Asia in the Mongol era (from Bretschneider’s classic compendium): 1. Yeh-lu Ch’u t’sai (Si Yu Lu) 2. Wu-ku-sun Chung tuan (Pei Shi Ki) 3. Ch’ang Ch’un * The Travels of John Marignolli, 1338-1353 — a Franciscan sent as papal legate to the Mongol Emperor of China.
Please remember that we are always interested in contributions of text or images, since this is an ongoing project with horizons as broad as the Silk Roads were long. Contact Daniel Waugh
Bronze mirror fragments excavated in Feature 109 at the Tamir 1 site. Drawing © David E. Purcell 2006.
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