DOCSLIB.ORG

IAEA Nuclear Energy Series Status of Minor Actinide Fuel Development

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
IAEA Nuclear Energy Series Status of Minor Actinide Fuel Development IAEA Nuclear Energy Series IAEA Nuclear No. NF-T-4.6 No. Development Fuel Actinide Minor of Status IAEA Nuclear Energy Series No. NF-T-4.6 Basic Status of Principles Minor Actinide Fuel Development Objectives Guides Technical Reports INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA ISBN 978–92–0–106909–2 ISSN 1995–7807 09-21351_P1415_cover.indd 1 2010-01-14 08:55:29 IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES PUBLICATIONS STRUCTURE OF THE IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES Under the terms of Articles III.A and VIII.C of its Statute, the IAEA is authorized to foster the exchange of scientific and technical information on the peaceful uses of atomic energy. The publications in the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series provide information in the areas of nuclear power, nuclear fuel cycle, radioactive waste management and decommissioning, and on general issues that are relevant to all of the above mentioned areas. The structure of the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series comprises three levels: 1 — Basic Principles and Objectives; 2 — Guides; and 3 — Technical Reports. The Nuclear Energy Basic Principles publication describes the rationale and vision for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Nuclear Energy Series Objectives publications explain the expectations to be met in various areas at different stages of implementation. Nuclear Energy Series Guides provide high level guidance on how to achieve the objectives related to the various topics and areas involving the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Nuclear Energy Series Technical Reports provide additional, more detailed, information on activities related to the various areas dealt with in the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series. The IAEA Nuclear Energy Series publications are coded as follows: NG — general; NP — nuclear power; NF — nuclear fuel; NW — radioactive waste management and decommissioning. In addition, the publications are available in English on the IAEA’s Internet site: http://www.iaea.org/Publications/index.html For further information, please contact the IAEA at PO Box 100, Vienna International Centre, 1400 Vienna, Austria. All users of the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series publications are invited to inform the IAEA of experience in their use for the purpose of ensuring that they continue to meet user needs. Information may be provided via the IAEA Internet site, by post, at the address given above, or by email to [email protected]. 09-21351_P1415_cover.indd 2 2010-01-14 08:55:30 STATUS OF MINOR ACTINIDE FUEL DEVELOPMENT The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GHANA NORWAY ALBANIA GREECE OMAN ALGERIA GUATEMALA PAKISTAN ANGOLA HAITI PALAU ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PANAMA ARMENIA HONDURAS PARAGUAY AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PERU AUSTRIA ICELAND PHILIPPINES AZERBAIJAN INDIA POLAND BAHRAIN INDONESIA PORTUGAL BANGLADESH IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF QATAR BELARUS IRAQ REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA BELGIUM IRELAND ROMANIA BELIZE ISRAEL RUSSIAN FEDERATION BENIN ITALY SAUDI ARABIA BOLIVIA JAMAICA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JAPAN SENEGAL BOTSWANA JORDAN SERBIA BRAZIL KAZAKHSTAN SEYCHELLES BULGARIA KENYA SIERRA LEONE BURKINA FASO KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE BURUNDI KUWAIT SLOVAKIA CAMBODIA KYRGYZSTAN SLOVENIA CAMEROON LATVIA SOUTH AFRICA CANADA LEBANON SPAIN CENTRAL AFRICAN LESOTHO SRI LANKA REPUBLIC LIBERIA SUDAN CHAD LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA SWEDEN CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN SWITZERLAND CHINA LITHUANIA SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG TAJIKISTAN CONGO MADAGASCAR THAILAND COSTA RICA MALAWI THE FORMER YUGOSLAV CÔTE DIVOIRE MALAYSIA REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CROATIA MALI TUNISIA CUBA MALTA TURKEY CYPRUS MARSHALL ISLANDS UGANDA CZECH REPUBLIC MAURITANIA UKRAINE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MAURITIUS UNITED ARAB EMIRATES OF THE CONGO MEXICO UNITED KINGDOM OF DENMARK MONACO GREAT BRITAIN AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONGOLIA NORTHERN IRELAND ECUADOR MONTENEGRO EGYPT MOROCCO UNITED REPUBLIC EL SALVADOR MOZAMBIQUE OF TANZANIA ERITREA MYANMAR UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ESTONIA NAMIBIA URUGUAY ETHIOPIA NEPAL UZBEKISTAN FINLAND NETHERLANDS VENEZUELA FRANCE NEW ZEALAND VIETNAM GABON NICARAGUA YEMEN GEORGIA NIGER ZAMBIA GERMANY NIGERIA ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES No. NF-T-4.6 STATUS OF MINOR ACTINIDE FUEL DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2009 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis. Enquiries should be addressed to the IAEA Publishing Section at: Sales and Promotion, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel.: +43 1 2600 22417 email: [email protected] http://www.iaea.org/books © IAEA, 2009 Printed by the IAEA in Austria December 2009 STI/PUB/1415 IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Status of minor actinide fuel development. — Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2009. p. ; 29 cm. — (IAEA nuclear energy series, ISSN 1995–7807 ; no. NF-T-4.6) STI/PUB/1415 ISBN 978–92–0–106909–2 Includes bibliographical references. 1. Nuclear fuels — Research. 2. Actinide elements. I. International Atomic Energy Agency. II. Series. IAEAL 09–00616 FOREWORD Following the ‘Atoms for Peace’ initiative in the 1950s, the technical feasibility and economic viability of nuclear energy were established in the 1960s, and rapid commercial deployment of nuclear energy ensued around the world. Today, there are 439 reactors worldwide with a total generating capacity of 372 GWe. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the nuclear energy growth rate was expected to rise rapidly and the adequacy of uranium resources became a growing concern. As a result, the development of fast breeder reactors became a priority in France, India, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America, as well as in other countries. Sustainable development of nuclear energy calls for the development of innovative nuclear energy systems with highly efficient utilization of fissile and fertile resources. However, today’s commercial thermal reactors utilize less than 1% of total uranium resources. Hence, developmental efforts in recycling plutonium as well as minor actinides in current and future innovative nuclear energy systems are under way in several Member States. Additionally, plutonium recycling in LWRs has been pursued as an interim step toward an ultimate closed fuel cycle within fast breeder reactors. Furthermore, during the past two decades or so, new R&D programmes have been launched in several Member States to develop alternate reprocessing techniques and advanced partitioning processes that might aid in nuclear waste management. Current reprocessing techniques only recover uranium and plutonium. Advanced processes aim to recover minor actinides and other long lived fission products for the purpose of transmuting them in reactors. The IAEA has been closely involved for many years in fostering collaborative R&D efforts and information exchange among Member States in development of innovative nuclear energy systems, including innovative nuclear fuel cycles approaches. The purpose of this report is to summarize the current status of minor actinide containing fuel types under development, fabrication processes for such fuels, pertinent thermal and physical properties, and irradiation test results. More importantly, these R&D programmes will be put into the context of appropriate fuel cycle options for actinide recycling and their implications on the future expansion of nuclear energy. The contributions of the experts who helped draft and review this report, are greatly appreciated. In particular, the IAEA expresses its gratitude to M. Mayer (USA) for chairing the review group and for his significant contribution in the preparation of this report. Thanks are also extended to Y.I. Chang of the Argonne National Laboratory (USA) for a critical review of the draft and final editing. The IAEA officer responsible for this publication was H.P. Nawada of the Division of Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Technology. EDITORIAL NOTE This report has been edited by the editorial staff of the IAEA to the extent considered necessary for the reader’s assistance. It does not address questions of responsibility, legal or otherwise, for acts or omissions on the part of any person. Although great care has been taken to maintain the accuracy of information contained in this publication, neither the IAEA nor its Member States assume any responsibility for consequences which may arise from its use. The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Table 2.Iii.1. Fissionable Isotopes1
    FISSIONABLE ISOTOPES Charles P. Blair Last revised: 2012 “While several isotopes are theoretically fissionable, RANNSAD defines fissionable isotopes as either uranium-233 or 235; plutonium 238, 239, 240, 241, or 242, or Americium-241. See, Ackerman, Asal, Bale, Blair and Rethemeyer, Anatomizing Radiological and Nuclear Non-State Adversaries: Identifying the Adversary, p. 99-101, footnote #10, TABLE 2.III.1. FISSIONABLE ISOTOPES1 Isotope Availability Possible Fission Bare Critical Weapon-types mass2 Uranium-233 MEDIUM: DOE reportedly stores Gun-type or implosion-type 15 kg more than one metric ton of U- 233.3 Uranium-235 HIGH: As of 2007, 1700 metric Gun-type or implosion-type 50 kg tons of HEU existed globally, in both civilian and military stocks.4 Plutonium- HIGH: A separated global stock of Implosion 10 kg 238 plutonium, both civilian and military, of over 500 tons.5 Implosion 10 kg Plutonium- Produced in military and civilian 239 reactor fuels. Typically, reactor Plutonium- grade plutonium (RGP) consists Implosion 40 kg 240 of roughly 60 percent plutonium- Plutonium- 239, 25 percent plutonium-240, Implosion 10-13 kg nine percent plutonium-241, five 241 percent plutonium-242 and one Plutonium- percent plutonium-2386 (these Implosion 89 -100 kg 242 percentages are influenced by how long the fuel is irradiated in the reactor).7 1 This table is drawn, in part, from Charles P. Blair, “Jihadists and Nuclear Weapons,” in Gary A. Ackerman and Jeremy Tamsett, ed., Jihadists and Weapons of Mass Destruction: A Growing Threat (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2009), pp. 196-197. See also, David Albright N 2 “Bare critical mass” refers to the absence of an initiator or a reflector.
    [Show full text]
  • Thermal Transport in Thorium Dioxide Nuclear Engineering and Technology
    Nuclear Engineering and Technology 50 (2018) 731e737 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Nuclear Engineering and Technology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/net Original Article Thermal transport in thorium dioxide Jungkyu Park*, Eduardo B. Farfan, Christian Enriquez Kennesaw State University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kennesaw, GA 30144, USA article info abstract Article history: In this research paper, the thermal transport in thorium dioxide is investigated by using nonequilibrium Received 28 September 2017 molecular dynamics. The thermal conductivity of bulk thorium dioxide was measured to be 20.8 W/m-K, Received in revised form confirming reported values, and the phonon mean free path was estimated to be between 7 and 8.5 nm 20 December 2017 at 300 K. It was observed that the thermal conductivity of thorium dioxide shows a strong dependency Accepted 12 February 2018 on temperature; the highest thermal conductivity was estimated to be 77.3 W/m-K at 100 K, and the Available online 1 March 2018 lowest thermal conductivity was estimated to be 4.3 W/m-K at 1200 K. In addition, by simulating thorium dioxide structures with different lengths at different temperatures, it was identified that short Keywords: Molecular Dynamics Simulation wavelength phonons dominate thermal transport in thorium dioxide at high temperatures, resulting in Nuclear Fuel decreased intrinsic phonon mean free paths and minimal effect of boundary scattering while long Thermal Transport wavelength phonons dominate the thermal transport in thorium dioxide at low temperatures. Thorium Dioxide © 2018 Korean Nuclear Society, Published by Elsevier Korea LLC. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
    [Show full text]
  • 小型飛翔体／海外 ［Format 2］ Technical Catalog Category
    小型飛翔体／海外 ［Format 2］ Technical Catalog Category Airborne contamination sensor Title Depth Evaluation of Entrained Products (DEEP) Proposed by Create Technologies Ltd & Costain Group PLC １．DEEP is a sensor analysis software for analysing contamination. DEEP can distinguish between surface contamination and internal / absorbed contamination. The software measures contamination depth by analysing distortions in the gamma spectrum. The method can be applied to data gathered using any spectrometer. Because DEEP provides a means of discriminating surface contamination from other radiation sources, DEEP can be used to provide an estimate of surface contamination without physical sampling. DEEP is a real-time method which enables the user to generate a large number of rapid contamination assessments- this data is complementary to physical samples, providing a sound basis for extrapolation from point samples. It also helps identify anomalies enabling targeted sampling startegies. DEEP is compatible with small airborne spectrometer/ processor combinations, such as that proposed by the ARM-U project – please refer to the ARM-U proposal for more details of the air vehicle. Figure 1: DEEP system core components are small, light, low power and can be integrated via USB, serial or Ethernet interfaces. 小型飛翔体／海外 Figure 2: DEEP prototype software ２．Past experience (plants in Japan, overseas plant, applications in other industries, etc) Create technologies is a specialist R&D firm with a focus on imaging and sensing in the nuclear industry. Createc has developed and delivered several novel nuclear technologies, including the N-Visage gamma camera system. Costainis a leading UK construction and civil engineering firm with almost 150 years of history.
    [Show full text]
  • Nuclear Energy: Fission and Fusion
    CHAPTER 5 NUCLEAR ENERGY: FISSION AND FUSION Many of the technologies that will help us to meet the new air quality standards in America can also help to address climate change. President Bill Clinton 1 Two distinct processes involving the nuclei of atoms can be harnessed, in principle, for energy production: fission—the splitting of a nucleus—and fusion—the joining together of two nuclei. For any given mass or volume of fuel, nuclear processes generate more energy than can be produced through any other fuel-based approach. Another attractive feature of these energy-producing reactions is that they do not produce greenhouse gases (GHG) or other forms of air pollution directly. In the case of nuclear fission—a mature though controversial energy technology—electricity is generated from the energy released when heavy nuclei break apart. In the case of nuclear fusion, much work remains in the quest to sustain the fusion reactions and then to design and build practical fusion power plants. Fusion’s fuel is abundant, namely, light atoms such as the isotopes of hydrogen, and essentially limitless. The most optimistic timetable for fusion development is half a century, because of the extraordinary scientific and engineering challenges involved, but fusion’s benefits are so globally attractive that fusion R&D is an important component of today’s energy R&D portfolio internationally. Fission power currently provides about 17 percent of the world’s electric power. As of December 1996, 442 nuclear power reactors were operating in 30 countries, and 36 more plants were under construction. If fossil plants were used to produce the amount of electricity generated by these nuclear plants, more than an additional 300 million metric tons of carbon would be emitted each year.
    [Show full text]
  • Rulemaking for Enhanced Security of Special Nuclear Material
    Rulemaking for Enhanced Security of Special Nuclear Material RIN number: 3150-AJ41 NRC Docket ID: NRC-2014-0118 Regulatory Basis Document January 2015 Table of Contents 1. Introduction and Background .............................................................................................. 1 2. Existing Regulatory Framework .......................................................................................... 3 2.1 Regulatory History ............................................................................................................. 3 2.2 Existing Regulatory Requirements .................................................................................... 8 3. Regulatory Problem .......................................................................................................... 13 3.1 Generic Applicability of Security Orders .......................................................................... 13 3.2 Risk Insights .................................................................................................................... 16 3.3 Consistency and Clarity .................................................................................................. 27 3.4 Use of a Risk-Informed and Performance-Based Structure. ........................................... 29 4. Basis for Requested Changes ........................................................................................... 30 4.1 Material Categorization and Attractiveness ..................................................................... 30 4.2
    [Show full text]
  • Actinide Ground-State Properties-Theoretical Predictions
    Actinide Ground-State Properties Theoretical predictions John M. Wills and Olle Eriksson electron-electron correlations—the electronic energy of the ground state of or nearly fifty years, the actinides interactions among the 5f electrons and solids, molecules, and atoms as a func- defied the efforts of solid-state between them and other electrons—are tional of electron density. The DFT Ftheorists to understand their expected to affect the bonding. prescription has had such a profound properties. These metals are among Low-symmetry crystal structures, impact on basic research in both the most complex of the long-lived relativistic effects, and electron- chemistry and solid-state physics that elements, and in the solid state, they electron correlations are very difficult Walter Kohn, its main inventor, was display some of the most unusual to treat in traditional electronic- one of the recipients of the 1998 behaviors of any series in the periodic structure calculations of metals and, Nobel Prize in Chemistry. table. Very low melting temperatures, until the last decade, were outside the In general, it is not possible to apply large anisotropic thermal-expansion realm of computational ability. And DFT without some approximation. coefficients, very low symmetry crystal yet, it is essential to treat these effects But many man-years of intense research structures, many solid-to-solid phase properly in order to understand the have yielded reliable approximate transitions—the list is daunting. Where physics of the actinides. Electron- expressions for the total energy in does one begin to put together an electron correlations are important in which all terms, except for a single- understanding of these elements? determining the degree to which 5f particle kinetic-energy term, can be In the last 10 years, together with electrons are localized at lattice sites.
    [Show full text]
  • INFORMATION O a a .Aoi Chemistry-Traniuranie Elements
    INFORMATION o a a .aoi Chemistry-Traniuranie Elements UNIVERSITY O r CALIFORNIA Radiation Laboratory Contract No. W-7405-eng~48 CUBSITIClTIOH CAKCBLUD IV. TT Ftv«Jbs Itti'.s fJ«cR'otsdLisV^ CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF AMERICIUM COMPOUNDS D. H. Templeton and Carol H. Dauben February 3, 1953 RESTRICTEO^JCTA This document cqpm pLrw ricted data as defined in ttagSrarfic Energy Act of 1944. Its tsn fip rtfa l or disclosure of Its contents ^p*ny manner to an unautor- ised person is prohibited. Berkeley, California UNIVERSITY Of CALIFORNIA Rodiotiofl Loborotory 42RC8 Cover Shoot INDE X NO. Ill K£ ■ -10/ Do not rsrtovt Tbit document eo nto in t__ IL- pages Tbit is copy ^ of tor lot tL Glassification Eoch perton who rtcoivot thltdocument must tipn the cover thstt I Route to Notsd by Date Route to Noted by D aft OHO A im *[|S 5(M) CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF AMERICIUM COMPOUNDS1 D. H. Templeton and Carol H. Dauben Department of Chemistry and Radiation Laboratory University of California, Berkeley, California February 3, 1953 ABSTRACT The crystal structures of several compounds of americium, element 95, have been determined by the X-ray powder diffraction method. AisF^ is hexagonal (LaF^ type) with a = 4. 067 t 0.001 X and c « 7. 225 t 0.002 Si for the pseudoceil which explains the powder data. AmO^ is cubic (CaF^ type) with 1 a = 5. 38) t 0.001 X AmOCl is tetragonal (PbFCl type) with a = 4.00+O.OlX, c = 6.78 t 0.01 X. The metal parameter la 0.18 t 0.01.
    [Show full text]
  • Re-Examining the Role of Nuclear Fusion in a Renewables-Based Energy Mix
    Re-examining the Role of Nuclear Fusion in a Renewables-Based Energy Mix T. E. G. Nicholasa,∗, T. P. Davisb, F. Federicia, J. E. Lelandc, B. S. Patela, C. Vincentd, S. H. Warda a York Plasma Institute, Department of Physics, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK b Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH c Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3GJ, UK d Centre for Advanced Instrumentation, Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LS, UK Abstract Fusion energy is often regarded as a long-term solution to the world's energy needs. However, even after solving the critical research challenges, engineer- ing and materials science will still impose significant constraints on the char- acteristics of a fusion power plant. Meanwhile, the global energy grid must transition to low-carbon sources by 2050 to prevent the worst effects of climate change. We review three factors affecting fusion's future trajectory: (1) the sig- nificant drop in the price of renewable energy, (2) the intermittency of renewable sources and implications for future energy grids, and (3) the recent proposition of intermediate-level nuclear waste as a product of fusion. Within the scenario assumed by our premises, we find that while there remains a clear motivation to develop fusion power plants, this motivation is likely weakened by the time they become available. We also conclude that most current fusion reactor designs do not take these factors into account and, to increase market penetration, fu- sion research should consider relaxed nuclear waste design criteria, raw material availability constraints and load-following designs with pulsed operation.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Phys:1200 Lecture 36 — Atomic and Nuclear Physics
    1 PHYS:1200 LECTURE 36 — ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS (4) This last lecture of the course will focus on nuclear energy. There is an enormous reservoir of energy in the nucleus and it can be released either in a controlled manner in a nuclear reactor, or in an uncontrolled manner in a nuclear bomb. The energy released in a nuclear reactor can be used to produce electricity. The two processes in which nuclear energy is released – nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, will be discussed in this lecture. The biological effects of nuclear radiation will also be discussed. 36‐1. Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiation.—Radioactive nuclei emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. These radiations are harmful to humans because they are ionizing radiation that have the ability to remove electrons from atoms and molecules in human cells. This can lead to the death or alterations of cells. Alteration of the cell can transform a healthy cell into a cancer cell. The hazards of radiation can be minimized by limiting ones overall exposure to radiation. However, there is still some uncertainty in the medical community about the possibility the effect of a single radioactive particle on the bottom. In other words, are the effects cumulative, or can a single exposure lead to cancer in the body. Exposure to radiation can produce either short term effects appearing within minutes of exposure, or long term effects that may appear in years or decades or even in future generations due to changes in DNA. The effects of absorbing ionizing radiation is measured in a unit called the rem.
    [Show full text]
  • Trends Towards Sustainability in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
    Nuclear Development 2011 Trends towards Sustainability in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Executive Summary NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY Nuclear Development Trends towards Sustainability in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Executive Summary Full publication available at: www.oecdbookshop.org © OECD 2011 NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT Executive summary Over the last decade, there has been increased recognition of the role that civil nuclear power could play in terms of energy security and greenhouse gas reductions, especially if viewed over the long time frames of the expected lifetimes of current reactor technology. Nuclear energy presents a number of attractive features: it generates essentially no greenhouse gas emissions during production (limiting climate change) and no air pollution (avoiding very detrimental health effects); it is largely immune to the intermittency and unpredictability exhibited by wind and solar energy; it uses fuels with very high energy density (easing the establishment of significant strategic stockpiles) with resources and fabrication facilities distributed in diverse and (mostly) geopolitically stable countries. It therefore contributes to security of supply and offers a reliable energy source for countries where demand for electricity is growing rapidly. Such countries, including China and India, have thus been pursuing rapid deployment of nuclear energy and related fuel cycle elements, including reprocessing and recycling. Nuclear energy can be economically competitive, especially if carbon pricing is considered and financing costs are controlled. Certainly the sector still faces a number of challenges: first and foremost the requirement for continuous enhancement of safety and safety culture (reinforced in particular by the accidents of Three Mile Island, Chernobyl and the more recent accident at Fukushima Daiichi), the need to control the spread of technologies and materials that may be used for non-peaceful purposes and to implement final solutions for radioactive waste disposal and management.
    [Show full text]
  • Enrico Fermi
    Fermi, Enrico Inventors and Inventions Enrico Fermi Italian American physicist Fermi helped develop Fermi-Dirac statistics, which liceo (secondary school) and, on the advice of Amidei, elucidate the group behavior of elementary particles. joined the Scuola Normale Superiore at Pisa. This elite He also developed the theory of beta decay and college, attached to the University of Pisa, admitted only discovered neutron-induced artificial radioactivity. forty of Italy’s top students, who were given free board Finally, he succeeded in producing the first sustained and lodging. Fermi performed exceedingly well in the nuclear chain reaction, which led to the discovery highly competitive entrance exam. He completed his of nuclear energy and the development of the university education after only four years of research and atomic bomb. studies, receiving his Ph.D. in physics from the Univer- sity of Pisa and his undergraduate diploma from the Born: September 29, 1901; Rome, Italy Scuola Normale Superiore in July, 1922. He became Died: November 28, 1954; Chicago, Illinois an expert theoretical physicist and a talented exper- Primary field: Physics imentalist. This rare combination provided a solid foun- Primary inventions: Controlled nuclear chain dation for all his subsequent inventions. reaction; Fermi-Dirac statistics; theory of beta decay Life’s Work After postdoctoral work at the University of Göttingen, Early Life in Germany (1922-1923), and the University of Leiden, Enrico Fermi (ehn-REE-koh FUR-mee) was the third in the Netherlands (fall, 1924), Fermi took an interim po- child of Alberto Fermi and Ida de Gattis. Enrico was very sition at the University of Florence in December, 1924.
    [Show full text]
  • Fast-Spectrum Reactors Technology Assessment
    Clean Power Quadrennial Technology Review 2015 Chapter 4: Advancing Clean Electric Power Technologies Technology Assessments Advanced Plant Technologies Biopower Clean Power Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Value- Added Options Carbon Dioxide Capture for Natural Gas and Industrial Applications Carbon Dioxide Capture Technologies Carbon Dioxide Storage Technologies Crosscutting Technologies in Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Fast-spectrum Reactors Geothermal Power High Temperature Reactors Hybrid Nuclear-Renewable Energy Systems Hydropower Light Water Reactors Marine and Hydrokinetic Power Nuclear Fuel Cycles Solar Power Stationary Fuel Cells U.S. DEPARTMENT OF Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Brayton Cycle ENERGY Wind Power Clean Power Quadrennial Technology Review 2015 Fast-spectrum Reactors Chapter 4: Technology Assessments Background and Current Status From the initial conception of nuclear energy, it was recognized that full realization of the energy content of uranium would require the development of fast reactors with associated nuclear fuel cycles.1 Thus, fast reactor technology was a key focus in early nuclear programs in the United States and abroad, with the first usable nuclear electricity generated by a fast reactor—Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I)—in 1951. Test and/or demonstration reactors were built and operated in the United States, France, Japan, United Kingdom, Russia, India, Germany, and China—totaling about 20 reactors with 400 operating years to date. These previous reactors and current projects are summarized in Table 4.H.1.2 Currently operating test reactors include BOR-60 (Russia), Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) (India), and China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) (China). The Russian BN-600 demonstration reactor has been operating as a power reactor since 1980.
    [Show full text]