Social Justice Brief

A Social Work Perspective on Drug Policy Reform

PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACH

The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty.

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is the largest 750 First Street NE, Suite 700 membership organization of professional social workers in the world, Washington, DC 20002-4241 with nearly 145,000 members. NASW works to enhance the professional SocialWorkers.org growth and development of its members, to create and maintain professional standards, and to advance sound social policies. A Social Work Perspective on Drug Policy Reform

PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACH

The establishment of reasonable and more effective drug policies associated with the criminal justice system should be of great interest to the social work profession. Social workers, as a workforce, are an integral part of the criminal justice service delivery continuum and, by definition, they are stakeholders in the national movement to bring about reforms in how drug-related offenses are processed. The social work profession’s historical advocacy for individuals with limited resources and no political power demands social work involvement in drug policy reform.

It is reasonable to expect that social workers well-being of residents. Social work and advocate for policies and programs that public health professionals are natural allies. address over-incarceration by diverting low-level drug offenders from imprisonment Public Health is the art and science of to treatment-oriented alternatives. Since its protecting and improving the health of inception as a profession, social work has communities through education, promotion been dedicated to social justice. More of healthy lifestyles, and research on disease importantly, the profession has contributed and injury prevention. Public health helps knowledge of evidence-informed practice and improve the health and well-being of people policies to national discussions that seek to in communities and across the nation address needs of vulnerable populations. (whatispublichealth.org). At the heart of public health is a commitment to social justice, “based on the compelling desire to make the The National Association of Social Workers world a better place, free of misery, inequity (NASW), with nearly145,000 members, and preventable suffering…” believes that clinical intervention can be a (http://publichealthsocialwork.org). tool for reducing the rates of incarceration in the United States. Social workers were Public Health Social Work is a contemporary, pioneers in developing service delivery integrated, trans-disciplinary approach to systems that served diverse populations preventing, addressing, and solving social with multiple biopsychosocial issues. health problems. Over a hundred years Currently most NASW members are old, it draws on both social work and licensed clinicians who are adept at public health theories, frameworks, assessing and providing treatment for research, and practice. people with mental health and substance » It’s about prevention, not just intervention use disorders. They are essential players after problems have occurred; in every community’s public health efforts » It uses multiple methods, including research, to increase the physical and emotional policy, advocacy, clinical and macro approaches; Social Justice Brief

» 1 « » It works across population levels, from Generally, the arrestee will be subjected to individuals to groups, communities and pretrial incarceration, the bail process, trial, whole populations; and sentencing. Even if the subsequent » It’s strengths-based and emphasizes sentence results in probation or “time served,” resilience and positive factors to promote the individual will have a criminal record health and reduce risk. that can negatively affect future employment opportunities. They are subject to other (Boston University School of Social Work. collateral consequences of being convicted of (http://publichealthsocialwork.org/?page_id=2). even minor crimes such as simple possession of a controlled substance. The situation Most social workers practice in becomes exacerbated when issues such as multidisciplinary work settings, which arrest and sentencing disparities based on means that they are at ease working in race are taken into consideration. collaboration with other public health professionals, government agencies, According to the 2011 FBI Uniform and advocacy communities that seek Crime Report: improvements and reforms in policies » Two-thirds of those arrested for drug that result in positive outcomes. violations in that period were white and 33 percent were black, although blacks made The broad assumption about public health up 12.8 percent of the population. Also, and national drug policy is that the use and most of the arrests were for possession of abuse of illicit and/or prescription drugs and drugs, rather than for their sale or distribution; alcohol is ultimately a public health issue. » 32.2 percent of African American boys born The manifestation of such addictions usually in 2001 will serve at least one year in prison results in significantly higher morbidity and during their lives (Uniform Crime Data of mortality as compared to the general 2011; see www.fbi.gov/stats-services/ population. Although progress has been publications). made in substantially lowering rates of substance abuse in the United States, the use Exclusive of incidents in which drug of mind- and behavior-altering substances trafficking and drug-related violent crime are continues to take a major toll on the health involved, NASW believes the response to of individuals, families, and communities drug-related arrests is best dealt with from a nationwide. In 2005, an estimated 22 million public health–disease management approach Americans struggled with a drug or alcohol as opposed to a strictly criminal justice problem (Healthy People 2000: Substance response. As stated in Social Work Speaks, Abuse. (www.healthypeople.gov/2020/LHI/ “All reasonable avenues to address ATOD substanceAbuse.aspx). [alcohol tobacco, and other drugs] problems must be considered, including psychosocial To put the problem in perspective, during treatments, medications, alternatives to 2009, there were more than 1.3 million drug incarceration, and harm-reduction abuse violations across the country (U.S. approaches” (NASW, 2012, p. 33). Census, 2012. (www.census.gov/compendia/ statab/2012/tables/12s0325.pdf.) In Nonetheless, the nation’s criminal justice addition, in 2010, more than 853,000 system continues to have a high level of people were arrested for marijuana-related arrests and incarcerations for offenses such as violations that led to involvement in the simple possession of marijuana or possession criminal justice system (Federal Bureau of of drug paraphernalia. These low-level drug Investigation. FBI Uniform Crime Report 2011. offenses clog up the court system and local (www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications). Social Justice Brief

» 2 « jails. Although de-criminalization of drug use for drug-related crimes, such as mandatory is not likely to happen soon, it is important to minimum sentences of 15 years to life for examine how such offenses can be handled possession of four ounces of narcotics. The more reasonably. statutes became known as the Rockefeller Drug Laws. The laws almost immediately led History and Consequences of to an increase in drug convictions, but no measurable decrease in overall crime Over-Criminalization of Drug Use (“A Brief History, 2009”). Criminalization of personal behaviors is not new. In the 1920s, Congress passed the 18th Stop-and-frisk policing policies were used in Amendment, which prohibited alcohol use. In NYC to stem gun violence. The policy allows an acknowledgement of the failure of alcohol police officers to stop and search anyone that prohibition, a new Congress (on February 20, the officer considers to be suspicious. Recent 1933) sent the 21st Amendment, which data suggest that the policy was less than repealed prohibition, to the states. The reason successful in getting guns off the streets but for this legislative turnaround was that was highly successful in arresting people for “Congress recognized that prohibition had low-level crimes such as simple possession of failed to stop drinking and had increased marijuana. The policy also exposed the NYC prison populations and violent crime” (Boaz, Police Department to accusations of engaging 1999, para. 4). Similarly, during the 1980s in racial profiling. For example, the Reagan administration declared a “War » In 2011, NYC officers made 685,724 on Drugs,” which essentially had a similar stops as part of the “stop-and-frisk” policy. purpose as that of the 18th Amendment—to Of that group, 605,328 people were react to a perceived threat to societal norms, determined not to have engaged in any by criminalizing personal behaviors (Boaz, unlawful behavior. 1999). As a result, the administration’s » In 2009, 36 percent of the time an officer response to the proliferation of crack cocaine failed to list an acceptable “suspected crime.” use during the late 1980s reinforced the Reasonable suspicion of a crime is criminalization of personal drug use and required to make a stop. increased the number of individuals in the » Of those frisked in 2011, a weapon criminal justice system. As has been widely was found just 1.9 percent of the time. reported, the consequences of the War on » 8.5 percent of those stopped were black or Drugs have been the arrests and incarceration Hispanic, even though those groups make of many thousands of mostly minority young up about half of NYC’s population. men and women for minor drug offenses such » The number of stops involving young black as possession of marijuana. Many of those men in 2011 (168,124) exceed the city’s arrested and convicted of such minor offenses population of young black men (158,406). have histories of drug abuse, and the crimes Even in white neighborhoods, police for which they are arrested are more related stopped more blacks than whites” to their substance use disorders than to (Legum, 2012, para. 3). building drug trafficking empires. Recently, a number of high profile public For example, consider the Rockefeller Drug officials have begun to wonder aloud whether Laws and subsequently, “stop-and-frisk” police the War on Drugs, as a national policy, procedures that are in place in New York should be revisited. For instance, State and New York City (NYC), respectively. New York Governor Andrew Cuomo has In 1973, then-Governor Nelson Rockefeller recently pushed ending criminal arrests for enacted laws that called for stricter penalties possession of small “personal use” quantities

Social Justice Brief

» 3 « of marijuana. In addition, both New Jersey In some states, the impact of drug policies Governor Chris Christie and Newark Mayor on black incarceration has been far greater. Corey Booker have stated that the War on For example, in Illinois, the number of black Drugs has essentially been a failure admissions for drug offenses grew six-fold (“Cory Booker Calls Drug War,” 2012). between 1990 and 2000, while the number Their position is that, over the years, there of whites admitted for drug offenses remained have been many law enforcement officers relatively stable (Lurigio, 2005). This pattern and significant funding committed to the of arrest and sentencing disparities for War on Drugs, with very little to show for it drug-related crimes continues to persist, in terms of slowing down drug trafficking and resulting in a devastating impact on the street level distribution of illicit drugs. Mayor lives of those affected. Booker crystallized the argument against the War on Drugs by extolling the benefits of Impact of Marijuana Arrests addiction treatment over incarceration, saying, “the drug war was costing billions and on Adolescents destroying lives.” He also lamented the high Evidence shows that low-level drug arrests, percentage of blacks in New Jersey’s prisons, especially for possession of marijuana, have writing that they make up 60 percent of the a disproportionate impact on adolescents. jail population, despite being 15 percent of In particular, most of the youths arrested for the state’s population (Jeltsen, 2012, para. 4). marijuana are the least likely to have criminal convictions. In NYC during 2010, “46 percent Racial Disparities of the teenagers (ages 16 to 19) arrested for marijuana possession had never been We cannot discuss the implications of the arrested before for anything” (Levine, 2011). War on Drugs without talking about how this This is a potentially serious and life-altering translates along the lines of race. There are concern for adolescents. For example, the clear data that point to racial disparities in implication of having an arrest record on patterns of arrests and incarceration for youth employment can be devastating. low-level drug crimes. According to Human For that reason alone, it would seem to be Rights Watch (2008), the punitive anti-drug better public policy to develop not only policies of the last 20 years bear heavy diversion from incarceration for simple responsibility for the extremely high and possession of marijuana, but also policing disproportionate representation of black programs that limit arrest records for Americans in the U.S. prison population. possession of marijuana. Drug offenses have played a greater role in black incarceration than white: » Over 38 percent of all blacks entering Implications of Poverty, Health, prison in 2003 with new sentences had Behavioral Health, and Limited been convicted of drug offenses, compared Education to 25.4 percent of whites. A significant number of justice-involved » Between 1990 and 2000, drug offenses individuals have multiple biopsychosocial accounted for 27 percent of the total problems that impact their ability to make increase in black inmates in state prison necessary behavioral changes to avoid and only 15 percent of the increase in rearrests and re-incarceration. However, white inmates. the one overarching factor that contributes to » Among blacks currently serving state prison creating risks for detention (for juveniles) and sentences, 22.9 percent were convicted of imprisonment (for adults) is lifelong poverty. drug offenses; among whites, 14.8 percent.

Social Justice Brief

» 4 « As stated by a California public defender, Social Work as a Component of “If poverty were a disease it would be the most insidious, devastating, and life Public Health threatening disease that Americans suffer. Social work has a long-established relationship The poor suffer not just economically, but with public health. For example, the Florida they also suffer lack of opportunity, lack Department of Health (2007) recognizes of education, lack of health care, and public health social workers as “an integral significantly more violence than others better part of the interdisciplinary public health situated in the community. They suffer higher team” (para. 1). Social workers bring a disease rates, death rates and imprisonment “unique focus on psychosocial factors than their affluent brethren. They are which impact health… [and produce imprisoned at much higher rates and they outcomes that] “improve health and are executed for capital crimes more often well-being of individuals, families and than any other group. In fact, they are their communities” (para. 1). almost the exclusive recipients of the death penalty“ (Holmes, 2002, para. 5). Public health social work includes: » Using an epidemiological approach to Poverty compounds the challenges health and social problems by identifying confronting both juveniles and adults who the association between social factors are arrested and prosecuted. Poverty is often and the incidence of health; the antecedent in educational failure in at-risk » Focusing on community or policy factors youths; in poor employment prospects for that could impact health; young adults, especially for black and » Planning and intervening at the five levels Hispanic young adults, who are released of prevention: health promotion, specific from prison or jail; and in inadequate family protections, early diagnosis and prompt and social supports to help justice-involved treatment, limitation of disability, and individuals stabilize once released. In rehabilitation; addition, substance abuse and mental health » Emphasizing prevention by strengthening issues further complicate the lives of at-risk social support systems that promote youths and young adults in the juvenile and well-being and provide protections criminal justice system. From a social work against ill health and minimize disability intervention and assessment point of view, it and institutionalization; and is usually the case that these individuals have » Focusing on long-range strategies, systems multiple biopsychosocial issues that will have change, policy, and legislation (Florida to be addressed to successfully reduce risks Department of Health, 2007). of rearrests and re-incarceration. Social work’s public health perspective on It is not surprising that NASW is aligned drug policy is consistent with that of health with governmental and nongovernmental care professionals, such as physicians and organizations that support a national shift nurses, when looking at alternatives to away from a Drug War mindset, and toward incarceration in a criminal justice context. reasonable drug policies. NASW is a strong advocate for a criminal justice and juvenile Public Health and Drug Policy justice approach that continues to protect “A public health approach to drug policy public safety by prosecuting violent drug is a coordinated, comprehensive effort that crimes and drug trafficking, while balances public health and safety in order simultaneously reducing criminal prosecution to create safer, healthier communities, and incarceration of low-level drug offenders.

Social Justice Brief

» 5 « measuring success by the impact of both drug www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/news-releases- use and drug policies on the public’s health” remarks/obama-administration-releases-21st- (Drug Policy Alliance, n.d., para. 1). century-drug-policy-strategy).

It should also be noted that a public health Given the general acceptance of drug abuse approach to drug policy includes the as diagnosable and treatable condition, it is following elements: not unreasonable to advocate for a public » Substance abuse is viewed as a treatable health response to illicit drug use. chronic disease that can potentially be debilitating and life threatening if left A consistent thread in the debate about untreated; and developing a public health approach to drug » Drug abuse is a preventable condition; policies is drug treatment and prevention as to significantly reduce incidence of drug a viable alternative to incarceration. More abuse, there is a need for a coordinated pointedly, does drug treatment and national response to the problem that prevention increase public safety? There is includes research, development of best evidence that drug treatment as an alternative Given the general practices prevention and treatment models, to incarceration is effective. (see Figure 1) eliminating health disparities to accessing acceptance of treatment; and facilitating access to care Treatment Can Work with Criminal for low-income uninsured individuals drug abuse as (National Institute on Drug Abuse Justice Populations (www.drugabuse.gov/publications/ Studies conducted by the National Institute diagnosable topics-in-brief/drug-abuse-prevention). on Drug Abuse (NIDA), provide support for the proposition that a public health model for and treatable It is far more cost-effective to seek alternatives treating low-level offenders who have histories to incarceration for minor drug offenders. For of drug abuse is effective. The studies condition, it is example, President Obama is on record for reported by NIDA (2011) indicate that access supporting the point of view that we should to drug treatment during incarceration and not unreasonable approach the national drug problem from a the provision of aftercare treatment upon public health perspective. This position has release have demonstrated that treatment is to advocate for been reinforced in public statements by Gil effective in reducing recidivism and Kerlikowske, the director of the White House increasing public safety... Furthermore, a public health Office of National Drug Control Policy according to NIDA, “research demonstrates (ONDCP). The ONDCP 2012 National Drug that providing treatment to individuals response to illicit Control Strategy identifies 113 specific involved in the criminal justice system actions to be undertaken throughout the decreases future drug use and criminal drug use. Federal government to reform U.S. drug behavior while improving social functioning. policy. These actions include evidence-based Blending the functions of criminal justice public health and safety approaches aimed at supervision with drug abuse treatment and reducing drug use and its consequences. The support optimally serves both public health new ONDCP Strategy embraces three facts: and public safety concerns” (NIDA’s (1) addiction is a disease that can be treated; Integrated Public Health—Public Safety (2) people with substance use disorders can Response section, para. 1). recover; and (3) innovative new criminal justice reforms can stop the revolving door of The national debate on a public health drug use, crime, incarceration, and rearrest approach to drug policies is fairly extensive (2012 National Drug Control Strategy, with significant research to make the case

Social Justice Brief

» 6 « for the justice system to adapt to public health » Substance abuse treatment helps in the models. The Justice Policy Institute (January, transition from the criminal justice system 2008) provides the following eveidence that to the community. Community-based drug support the efficacy of the public health treatment programs have been shown to approach: reduce the chance that a person will » States with a higher drug treatment become involved in the criminal justice admission rate than the national average system after release from prison. send, on average, 100 fewer people to prison per 100,000 in the population than Cost Benefits of Public Health states that have lower-than-average drug treatment admissions. Of the 20 states that Approach to Drug Policy admit the most people to treatment per Substance abuse treatment is more 100,000, 19 had incarceration rates cost-effective than prison or other punitive below the national average. measures. The Washington State Institute » Of the 20 states that admitted the fewest for Public Policy found that drug treatment people to treatment per 100,000, eight conducted within the community is extremely had incarceration rates above the beneficial in terms of cost, especially national average. compared to prison. Every dollar spent on » Substance abuse treatment prior to contact drug treatment in the community is estimated with the justice system yields public safety to return $18.52 in benefits to society. benefits early on. Research has shown that drug treatment programs improve life Given that it costs $210 per day to house outcomes for individuals and decrease the an inmate in NYC jails (Roberts, 2010), it is likelihood that a drug-involved person will clearly to the benefit of corrections officials to be admitted to the criminal justice system. seek alternatives to incarceration that divert low-level criminal justice-involved individuals FIGURE 1 to less-expensive options. Comparatively, the choice of drug treatment can be cost-effective because it reduces drug use and health and related costs connected to drug use. Treatment is less expensive than not treating addicts or simply incarcerating addicts. For example, the average cost for one full year of methadone maintenance treatment is approximately $4,700 per patient, whereas one full year of prison costs approximately $18,400 per person. It has also been documented that every dollar invested in addiction treatment programs results in a return of between $4 and $7 in reduced drug-related crime and criminal justice costs. If health care costs are included, total savings can exceed costs by a ratio of 12 to one. Generally, the expense for treatment can be absorbed by other non-correctional funding sources such as Medicaid. Another option for covering the costs of drug treatment is to

Social Justice Brief

» 7 « reinvest the savings from reducing prison/jail Affordable Care Act census into evidence-based drug treatment NASW anticipates that the Patient Protection and other behavioral health programs. and Affordable Care Act (ACA) (P.L. 111-148) will have a major impact on the capacity of Evidence-Based Program Utilizing a substance abuse service providers and Social Work/Public Health Paradigm planners in the criminal justice system. As a An example of social works’ history of health care program, the ACA also covers coordinating complex prevention, early behavioral health, including mental illness intervention and long-term intervention for and substance use disorders. Therefore, social multi-problem populations, is New York workers will be one of the many professional City’s Department of Health and Mental disciplines that will have a role in: Hygiene’s Correctional Health Service » Determining eligibility of justice-involved (CHS). CHS is responsible for medical, individuals for coverage for Medicaid mental health, dental, discharge planning, once ACA becomes fully implemented; » Working with primary health care staff and transitional health care services in the The average cost City’s correctional facilities, which have over to ensure that justice involved individuals are included in health exchanges; 100,000 admissions per year and house for one full year roughly 13,500 inmates and detainees on » Providing transition planning and linkages to community-based medical and a given day. These services are provided of methadone directly and through contracts monitored by behavioral health services; CHS (www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/hca/ » Ensuring that electronic medical records maintenance correctsrv.shtml). include behavioral health diagnostic, assessments, and treatment planning treatment is An important component of CHS’s approach information for justice-involved individuals is its transitional services which are separated deemed eligible for ACA coverage. approximately into two divisions (1) behavioral health transitional services, and (2) health care Conclusion $4,700 per transitional services. The importance of the Activities such as transitioning justice-involved CHS model to this discussion is that each people onto ACA reflect an important patient, whereas division is managed by a social worker and transformation of service delivery in the both are structured using social work nation’s criminal justice system toward a one full year of transitional planning concepts and constructs public health model. Overall, the role of that emphasize prevention, linkages to critical social work in all aspects of delivering a prison costs services, and early comprehensive needs range of useful services, including substance approximately assessments. New York City CHS is seen as abuse assessments, prevention, and a cutting edge program that is autonomous treatment, is well established. Consequently, $18,400 per from the city’s Department of Corrections. The it is important that the social work profession approach gives a great deal of latitude for articulate and advocate for a progressive person. implementing services that place a premium movement by criminal justice administrators on identifying and addressing underlying toward implementation of public health behavioral health and somatic health policies and programs where appropriate. conditions that are best handled in a treatment context as opposed to primarily It has often been suggested that an correctional approaches. overemphasis on public health will compromise public safety. However,

Social Justice Brief

» 8 « many in the social work profession feel The social work profession is a major part that inclusion of public health concepts in of the criminal justice workforce, and social processing justice-involved individuals with workers have an obligation to be proactive serious health and behavioral problems in advocating for reforms that set priorities will improve public safety. This approach for treatment and other biopsychosocial will divert individuals to appropriate interventions over cycles of incarceration treatment and supportive services that for individuals with histories of substance will lead to reductions in the revolving use disorders, serious mental illness, or cycle of arrest, incarceration, and rearrests co-occurring disorders. of low-level offenders. Social workers must participate and assume Throughout the country, hundreds of private leadership roles in stakeholder collaborations, and public sector organizations are coming participate in grassroots advocacy for together to advocate and respond to criminal justice reforms, and develop research necessary reforms in the criminal justice and written materials that speak to the issues system. This level of collaborative problem from a social work perspective. solving has been occurring for many years. Finally, the social work profession must For example, the successful effort to mitigate remind itself of its long history of introducing sentencing disparities for convictions for innovations to service delivery and of social crack cocaine as opposed to powder cocaine justice problem solving that, in many ways, was achieved over a five-year period and pre-dates current public health models. involved advocates from all spectrums of criminal justice stakeholders including For more information contact: social work. Melvin H. Wilson, LCSW Manager, Department of Social Justice and Human Rights [email protected]

Social Justice Brief

» 9 « References Boaz, D. (1999). Drug legalization. Retrieved from Levine, H. (2011, October). Marijuana arrests: the Cato Institute Web site: www.cato.org/ Gateway to the criminal justice system. Brooklyn publications/commentary/drug-legalization- Rail. Retrieved from www.brooklynrail.org/ criminalization-harm-reduction-excerpts 2011/10/local/marijuana-arrests-gateway- into-the-criminal-justice-system A brief history of New York’s Rockefeller Drug Wars. (2009, April 2). Time U.S. Retrieved Lurigio, Arthur J. The Disproportionate Incarceration from www.time.com/time/nation/article/ of African Americans for Drug Crimes: The Illinois 0,8599,1888864,00.html Perspective. Loyola University Chicago, TASC, Inc. 2005. Retrieved from (www.state.il.us/ Boston University School of Social Work. public/pdf/ResearchReports/Disproportionate Public Health Social Work. Retrieved from %20Incarceration%20of%20African%20 http://publichealthsocialwork.org/?page_id=2 Americans%20for%20Drug%20Crimes.pdf)

Drug Policy Alliance. (n.d.). New direction for New National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2011, May). York: A public health and safety approach to Topics in brief: Treating offenders with drug drug policy. Retrieved from www.drugpolicy.org/ problems, integrating health and public safety. docuploads/ndny_pubhealth.pdf Retrieved from www.drugabuse.gov/publications/ topics-in-brief/treating-offenders-drug-problems- Federal Bureau of Investigation. FBI Uniform integrating-public-health-public-safety Crime Data of 2011. Retrieved from www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications) National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug Abuse is a Preventable Behavior. March, 2007. Retrieved Florida Department of Health. (2007). Overview. 12/7/12 from (www.drugabuse.gov/ Retrieved from www.doh.state.fl.us/family/ publications/topics-in-brief/drug-abuse- social work/default.html prevention) Holmes, C.C. (2002). Crime and poverty. Retrieved National Association of Social Workers. (2012). from www.pubdef.ocgov.com/poverty.html Alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. In Social Human Rights Watch. (2008). Targeting blacks: work speaks: National Association of Social Law enforcement and race in the United States. Workers policy statements, 2012–2014 Retrieved from www.hrw/sites/default/files/ (pp. 28–33). Washington, DC: NASW Press. reports/us0508_1.pdf Office of National Drug Control Policy. Obama Jeltsen, M. (2012, May 24). Cory Booker calls drug Administration Releases 21st Century Drug Policy war national nightmare, supports medical Strategy. April 17, 2012. Retrieved on 12/7/12 marijuana. Huffington Post. Retrieved from from (www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/news- www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/23/ releases-remarks/obama-administration- cory-booker-drug-war_n_1541082.html releases-21st-century-drug-policy-strategy)

Justice Policy Institute. Substance Abuse Treatment Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, P.L. and Public Safety. January, 2008 Retrieved from 111-148, 124 Stat 119–1025 (2010). www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/ Public Health Social Work. What is PHSW? 08_01_REP_DrugTx_AC-PS.pdf Retrieved from http://publichealthsocialwork.org Kinlock, et.al. A randomized clinical trial of methadone on November 13, 2012. maintenance for prisoners: results at 12 months Roberts, S. (2010, June 10). As crime rate drops, post release. 2009. Journal of Substance Abuse New York’s jail population falls to lowest level in Treatment. Retrieved from http://journalofsubstance 24 years. New York Times. Retrieved from abusetreatment.com/article/s0740-5472(09) www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/nyregion/ 00030-0/abstract on September 10, 2012. 11jails.html Legum, J. (2012, June 10). 10 Facts everyone should U.S. Census Bureau. (2012). The 2012 Statistical know about New York City’s ‘stop-and-frisk’ Abstract: Law enforcement, courts, & prisons: policy. Retrieved from ThinkProgress Justice Web Arrests. Retrieved from www.census.gov/ site: www.thinkprogress.org/justice/2012/06/ compendia/statab/cats/law_enforcement_ 10/496984110-facts-newyorkcity-stop-and-frisk courts/prisons/arrests.html Social Justice Brief

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