Belgian Museums of the Great War

Belgian Museums of the Great War: Politics, Memory, and Commerce examines the handling of the centennial of World War I by several museums along the Western Front in Flanders, Belgium. In the twenty-first century, the museum has become a strategic space for negotiating ownership of and access to knowledge produced in local settings. The specific focus on museums and commemorative events in Flanders allows for an in-depth evaluation of how each museum works with the remembrance and tourist industry in the region while carving a unique niche. Belgian Museums of the Great War writes the history of these institutions, analyzes the changes made in advance of the anni- versary years, and considers the site-specificity of each institution and its architectural frame. Since museums not only transmit information but also shape knowledge, as Eileen Hooper-Greenhill has noted, the diverse narratives and community programs sponsored by each museum have served to challenge prior historiographies of the war. Through newly revamped interactive envir- onments, self-guided learning, and an emphasis on the landscape, the museums in Flanders have a significant role to play in the ever-changing dialogue on the meaning of the history and remembrance of the Great War.

Karen Shelby is an Associate Professor of Art History at Baruch College, City University of New York. Her research focuses on the cultural politics of exhi- bition narratives, memorials, and cemetery design through examination of the visual culture of the Great War. Routledge Research in Museum Studies

Selected titles

1 Museum Gallery Interpretation and 8 Animals and Hunters in the Late Material Culture Middle Ages Edited by Juliette Fritsch Evidence from the BnF MS fr. 616 of the Livre de chasse by Gaston Fébus 2 Representing Enslavement and By Hannele Klemettilä Abolition in Museums Edited by Laurajane Smith, Geoff 9 Museums, Heritage and Indigenous Cubitt, Kalliopi Fouseki, and Ross Voice Decolonising Engagement Wilson By Bryony Onciul

3 Exhibiting Madness in Museums 10 Introducing Peace Museums Remembering Psychiatry through By Joyce Apsel Collections and Display Edited by Catherine Coleborne and 11 Representing the Nation Heritage, Dolly MacKinnon Museums, National Narratives, and Identity in the Arab Gulf States 4 Designing for the Museum Visitor Edited by Pamela Erskine-Loftus, Experience Mariam Ibrahim Al-Mulla and By Tiina Roppola Victoria Hightower

5 Museum Communication and 12 Museums and Photography Social Media Displaying Death The Connected Museum Edited by Elena Stylianou and Edited by Kirsten Drotner and Theopisti Stylianou-Lambert Kim Christian Schrøder 13 Global Art and the Practice of the 6 Doing Museology Differently University-Museum By Duncan Grewcock Edited by Jane Chin Davidson and Sandra Esslinger 7 Climate Change and Museum Futures Edited by Fiona R. Cameron and Brett Neilson

For more information on this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge- Research-in-Museum-Studies/book-series/RRIMS Belgian Museums of the Great War Politics, Memory, and Commerce

Karen Shelby First published 2018 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Karen Shelby The right of Karen Shelby to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Shelby, Karen D., author. Title: Belgium museums of the Great War : politics, memory, and commerce / Karen Shelby. Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Routledge research in museum studies | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017009320 (print) | LCCN 2017013851 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315673899 (eBook) | ISBN 9781138941052 (hardback : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: World War, 1914-1918--Museums--Belgium. Classification: LCC D680.B4 (ebook) | LCC D680.B4 S53 2017 (print) | DDC 940.3074/493--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017009320

ISBN: 978-1-138-94105-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-67389-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon by Integra Software Service Pvt. Ltd. Contents

List of figures vi Acknowledgements vii

1 Introduction: poppies 1 2 What remains of the country: the war in Belgium 18 3 Planning the centennial 26 4 Site-specificity and the architecture of remembrance 61 5 Historical or memorial site: the museum as ruin 104 6 Immersion: trench and reenactment strategies 126 7 Expression and document: art in the war museum 158 8 The exhibition narrative: an object-centered practice 194 9 Conclusion: tourism and remembrance 227

Bibliography 255 Index 268 Figures

4.1 Westfront Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre, Nieuwpoort 65 4.2 Westfront Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre, Nieuwpoort. Alfred Bastien, Panorama of the IJzer, 1914 (Het IJzerpanorama, 1914), 1921–24. 67 4.3 Entrance to VrijVaderland: Leven achter het Front, Veurne 69 4.4 View of the trenches and Flemish landscape from the viewing platform of the Dodengang, Diksmuide 78 4.5 Memorial Museum Passchendaele, 1917, Zonnebeke 90 4.6 Plugstreet 14–18 Experience, Ploegsteert 94 5.1 Entrance to the permanent exhibition at the In Flanders Fields Museum, Ieper 111 5.2 View of the ruins of the first IJzertoren, Diksmuide. 118 6.1 Personal video narrative at the In Flanders Fields Museum, Ieper 129 6.2 Trenches at Sanctuary Wood Museum (Hill 62), Zillebeke 133 6.3 Trenches at the Dodengang, Diksmuide 133 6.4 Trenches at Hooge Crater, Zillebeke 134 6.5 De Patrouilleurs at the Dodengang, Diksmuide 145 6.6 De Patrouilleurs at the Memorial Museum Passchendaele, 1917 146 7.1 John Hassall, The Berlin Tapestry, 1915 164 7.2 John Hassall, The Berlin Tapestry, 1915 165 7.3 John Hassall, The Berlin Tapestry, 1915 165 7.4 Interior of the Plugstreet 14–18 Experience, Ploegsteert 177 7.5 Detail 178 7.6 Johan Vandewalle with a photograph of brothers Jim and John ‘Jack’ Hunter 190 8.1 Chapel at Talbot House, Poperinge 202 8.2 Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History, Brussels 205 8.3 Sanctuary Wood Museum (Hill 62), Zillebeke 212 8.4 Memorial Museum Passchendaele, 1917, Zonnebeke 218 8.5 Museum aan de IJzer, Diksmuide 219 8.6 Hooge Crater Museum, Zillebeke 220 9.1 Memorial Museum Passchendaele, 1917 242 9.2 In Flanders Fields Museum, Ieper 243 9.3 Café Taverne de Dreve, Zonnebeke 248 9.4 Hooge Crater Café, Zillebeke 248 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following, without whom this book would not have been possible. Interviews with personnel at the museums, members of the Flemish govern- ment and organizations associated with the centennial preparations were invaluable. Everyone was so kind to take the time to speak to me, sometimes on numerous occasions. Thank you to Paul Breyne, Commissioner-General for the Commemoration of the First World War; Pierre Ruyffelaere, General Coordi- nator of The Great War Centenary (2014–18); Lea Winkeler, Project Manager The Great War Centenary for Visit Flanders; Geert De Proost, General Repre- sentative of the Government of Flanders to the U.S., and Nicolas Polet, Director of Governmental and Academic Affairs, both of Flanders House in New York City; and Stephen Lodewyck, the Program Coordinator for the Centennial of the Great War in the Westhoek for Westtoer. Pierre Ruyffelaere was instru- mental in helping me wrap my head around the intricacies of the centennial funding and provided helpful feedback on Chapter 3. It was lovely to make the acquaintance of David Moortgat and Marc Van Riet and be introduced to the passion they feel for the De Patrouilleurs, a Belgian living history society. I was able to speak with them during a living history event at the Dodengang and through a follow-up interview at Fort Liezele. Those at the many museums include Niek Benoot and Ilse Watteyne, owners of the Hooge Crater Museum; Steven Vandenbussche, Director, and Kristof Blieck, Education Director at the Memorial Museum Passchendaele, 1917; Jan Van der Fraenen, Research Assistant from the Dodengang and the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and of Military History; Raf Craenhals, Manager of Talbot House; Michael Lemenu, Coordinator of Vrij Vaderland; Matthieu Wulstecke, Coordinator of the Plugstreet Experience; as well as Anny Beauprez, Céline Dumont, and Amélie Demoen; Gerdi Staelens and Rudy Willaert from the Lange Max Museum; Patrick Vanleene, project manager of Westfront Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre, Walter Lelievre, Nieuwpoort town archivist, and Isabelle Mahieu; Dominiek Dendooven, scientific research assistant, Annick Vandenbilcke, scientific assistant and product development and programming, Jan Dewilde, Curator, and Piet Chielens, Coordinator of the In Flanders Fields Museum; Cindy Bruycker of Sanctuary Wood; Steven Maes, Education Coordinator and Peter Verplanke, viii Acknowledgements Conservateur of the Museum aan de IJzer; and Johan Vandewalle of the Café Taverne de Dreve. Students in the museum seminar at the University of Ghent provided feedback and added insight to the interpretations of the Museum aan de IJzer. Thank you to Jan-Baptise Boon, Phylis Dierick, Marjolein Dietliens, Linde Leppens, Olivier Van D’huynslager, and Nina Vanslambrouck. The initial ideas of the book were presented by invited lecture to members of the Research Group ‘Experiences and Memories of the Great War in Belgium’ (Memex WWI), Belspo (Federal Public Planning Service Science Policy Office). Thank you to Karla Vanraepenbusch, doctoral candidate at the University of Leuven and research assistant at CegeSOma, the Study Centre for War and Society, for the initial invitation and to the members of Memex for an engaging discussion, which helped me formulate the final structure of the book. This book draws on research supported the PSC CUNY Research Foundation and the Dean’sOffice at the Weissman School of Arts and Sciences at Baruch College, the City University of New York. Portions of the book were delivered at the 2015 conference ‘Landscapes of the Great War’ in New York City, and in 2016 at the ‘Beyond Flanders Fields’ conference held at Queen Mary University of London and University College London. I am also grateful for the comments and suggestions from Karla Vanraepenbusch, Jon Mann, and Betsy Dudash, and the anonymous readers during review. Jon Mann provided critical editing during the writing of the manuscript. Thanks to Jacob Kramer for his thoughts on portions of the manuscript, as well as Lisa Pope Fischer and Kara Andersen, my other FFPP colleagues. Thanks to Betsy Dudash for the final read-through. The final bibliography would not have been completed on time without Rebecca Pollack. Thank you to Yirka De Brucker and David Vanden Bossche for driving all over Flanders and to Brussels to take the photographs for the book. The photographs of De Patrouilleurs were taken by Patrick Brion and Gilbert Joostens. My last thanks are to Jean Shelby and Jay Pingree, who gave insurmountable support and held down the fort during my research trips to Belgium, and to the Maes family (Roos Snauwaert, Luc Maes, Steven Maes, An-Marie Breem, Anäis Maes, Elise Maes, and Titus Maes). This book would not have been possible without their care and assistance. Luc Maes even sacrificed a car on my behalf. The book is dedicated to Jude Shelby Pingree, whose joy in visiting Belgium is contagious. 1 Introduction Poppies

Starting in January 2014, passengers disembarking at Brussels airport were greeted with columns of photographs of the Great War. Panels in black and red proclaimed ‘Flanders Fields: A Place to Remember’. The airport even noted the hundred-year anniversary of World War I on its website in order to ‘remind passers-by of this tragic period in which people from every corner of the world were involved’. In collaboration with Tourism Flanders (Toerisme Vlaanderen), the ceiling of the arrivals level of the airport was hung with red poppies, the symbol of the war. Along the airport access roads, poppy seeds were sown to blanket the area in the spring of 2014.1 The development and funding of the installation was through Visit Flanders, a website dedicated to the history and culture and Flanders. The airport installation was an overall promotion for the centenary of the war in Flanders, in which Ieper (French: Ypres), Passchendaele, Zonnebeke, Poperinge, Antwerp, Leuven, and other cities were noted. The project was not limited to one specific museum or site; however, for many visitors to Belgium, Flanders Fields – the site of the Ieper Salient, where people from more than fifty nations fought – is synonymous with the remembrance and history of World War I. Fittingly, the In Flanders Fields Museum (IFFM) in Ieper supports the largest number of visitors. From January to August 2014, the number of visitors had already reached 350,000, with the anniversaries of the first battles in the region still to come. During the autumn months, visitor entrance times had to be staggered to avoid congestion in the galleries. To interest Flemish who live in the northern portion of West Flanders and those from East Flanders, the twelve-part program Vlaamse Velden (Flanders Fields) aired on Flemish television. Performed in Dutch, it was not simulta- neously broadcast in the French-speaking parts of Belgium. The series told the story of the Boesmans, a family from Ghent, and the myriad ways they were affected by the war. The Battle of the IJzer, the inundation at Nieuwpoort, the rise of a Flemish nationalist ideology in the Belgian army, the takeover of Ghent University by the Germans – these are the many storylines that comprised the history of Flanders during the war. The narrative took the protagonists, and thus the viewers, to various sites in Flanders, including the German military cemetery at Vladslo; the sluice complex of the Ganzepoot and the King Albert Memorial at Nieuwpoort; Ieper; Passchendaele and Zonnebeke; the Trench of 2 Introduction Death (Dodengang); the IJzertoren; the Lijssenthoek Military Cemetery outside of Poperinge; and the Menin Gate and Last Post in Ieper.2 The BBC production Parade’s End (2012), an adaptation of a Ford Madox Ford novel, was filmed on location in Veurne and Nieuwpoort during the centenary. The sites used for both films were then emphasized in the marketing of the war to those within and outside of Belgium. A special brochure was printed tying tourism directly to the fictional trials of the Boesman family. It invited residents of Flanders to join the family on the roads in Flemish fields and to ‘feel the tragedy of the Great War’ while exploring ‘the western corner in the wake of the successful fiction series’. A map marked all of the spots found in Vlaamse Velden. Readers could also find information on bike and auto routes, hotels, restaurants, and other tourist sites associated with the war. Websites dedicated to the Great War were flooded with postings and updates on events. VisitFlanders.com, for just one example, suggested places to stay, sites to visit, World War I events and tours, and a brief history of the war. Many sites had links to personal stories of those who fought or were otherwise affected by the war. This history is written, like that in the museums, from ‘below’, with the emphasis on ordinary participants rather than with a top- down focus on political and military leaders. Information about the war and the centennial initiatives were regularly updated on the Flanders Fields 14–18 Facebook page, and social media played a large role in the marketing of the centenary. The reactions of visitors were uploaded and posted, reaching a wider audience than previously possible. The official postings were augmented with personal uploads of photographs and stories. On the Visit Flanders website, the ‘Legacy Cycle Route’ was promoted as ‘the ideal starting point for a tour to the ancient battle fields’. In addition to many other cycling routes, one was spon- sored by the Province of West Flanders and Westtour, following the history of the inundation of the IJzer Plain through various memorials and historic sites associated with this, the defining strategy of the Belgian army in October 1914. One could sign up for the Flanders Fields 14–18 Newsletter, which provided ‘historical information and Great War related events, exhibitions and remem- brance ceremonies’. The amount of information, connected both to com- memorative as well as tourist initiatives, is far too extensive to document. Many of the tours, cycling routes, and other ceremonial events were directly connected to the museums in Flanders, most of which are dedicated to a parti- cular history of the war. The majority of events were dedicated to the history of the war in Flanders, but the Brussels-Capital Region and Wallonia also laun- ched similar initiatives. The federal government, the two regional governments of Flanders and Wallonia, and the local municipalities spent considerable money and time devising guidelines for the commemorations and plans for the successful implementation of the programs. Several museums in Flanders, Wallonia, and the Brussels-Capital Region received the majority of the funds for installing or reinstalling exhibitions in light of the coming centenary. Literally hundreds of books have been published in English on the First World War. Most, however, relegate Belgium to a secondary role and many Introduction 3 neglect to mention Belgium altogether except to note that several of the towns at the center of this four-year conflagration are located in Belgium. The reasons Belgium was pulled into the fray, and the consequent involvement of Great Britain, play pivotal roles in the history of the war. For some in Flanders, the war became a backdrop against which regional politics were staged with the broader goal of attaining a Flanders that would be independent of the entire Belgian state. The First World War and a revival of Belgian patriotism pulled the country together. Walloon identity was subsumed into the greater Belgian one,3 and the Flemish nationalists were treated as a threat to a unified Belgian front.4 Belgium was, as Laurence van Ypersele reminds us, a unitary state at the out- break of the war.5 It was Belgian neutrality that was violated, and it was the Belgian army that mobilized to defend the country and its citizens. Both Wal- loon and Flemish citizens suffered. As the centenary approached, the commemorations of the Great War within Belgian federalism were examined by three prominent historians: van Ypersele and Sophie De Schaepdrijver, who addressed the Walloon and Flemish per- spective, respectively, and Nico Wouters, who reflected on the politics of memory on both sides of the language border.6 Some of the issues outlined point to the lack of dialogue between the French-speaking and Dutch-speaking regions in preparations for the centennial. While little of this is evident in the museums addressed in this book, it is important to note the ways in which information was conveyed to a public eagerly anticipating the new exhibitions and ceremonies. Flanders’ role in the war was highly promoted in the countries of the former Commonwealth, rendering the cities in the eastern portion of Belgium all but invisible; the aforementioned 2014 Flanders Fields display at Brussels airport is a case in point. But even within Flanders, discussion among political parties was heated. Some sites associated with the war were privileged over others, resulting in disgruntled mayors and civic leaders. In 2014, Sandy Evrard, the mayor of Messines and a member of the Liberal and Flemish Democratic Party (Open Vlaams Liberalen en Democraten or VLD), was unhappy with the new bus line that was to link the various war sites in Flanders. Just prior to the launch, it was announced that the buses following the ‘poppy route’ would run visitors only from Nieuwpoort to Diksmuide and down to Ieper, bypassing Messines. Evard pointed out that only towns linked through the bus tour were those associated with the Christian Democratic and Flemish Party (De Vlaamse christendemocratische partij or CD&V), and they would thus be the only ones to benefit from this tourist venture.7 I should also point out that, at present, it is not just the economic benefits that are at stake; each town wants its role in the war acknowledged, not lost in the predominant Ieper narrative.

The museums Scholarship on museums and memorials of the Great War began in the 1990s, most notably with Gaynor Kavanagh’s Museums and the First World War: A 4 Introduction Social History and Susanne Brandt’s ‘The Memory Makers: Museums and Exhibitions of the First World War’.8 More recently, Andrew Whitmarsh con- tributed ‘We Will Remember Them: Memory and Commemoration in War Museums’, Sue Malvern published ‘War, Memory and Museums: Art and Artefact in the Imperial War Museum’, and, in 2012, Jay Winter addressed the representation of war in museums.9 While most academics have addressed the Imperial War Museum (IWM), Whitmarsh compared the IWM to the IFFM through themes such as commemoration and the state; national image, myth, and depictions of the enemy; and the portrayal of the individual in com- memoration as victim, hero, or martyr. In 1998, the IFFM was the subject of Julie De Nys’s M.A. thesis for the Vrij Universiteit Brussel.10 Both De Nys and Whitmarsh considered the first iteration of the IFFM, before its 2013 renova- tion. A few articles have also addressed museums and exhibitions dedicated to the war in Belgium; most recently Bruno Benvindo and Karla Vanraepenbusch assessed the Royal Museum of the Army and Military History’s ‘14–18, This Is Our Story!’, an ambitious exhibition presenting the war in its Belgian as well as European context, and ‘14–18 Brussels in German Time’ at the Museum of the City of Brussels.11 The museums examined in this book are all positioned along the Western Front in Flanders – which remained active for the duration of the war – from Nieuwpoort at the North Sea to the small town of Ploegsteert, the only Front town located in the French-speaking part of the country. As a central location in the Ieper Salient, the city of Ieper has several museums and sites dedicated to the war, including the famous Menin Gate Memorial to the Miss- ing, and several Commonwealth cemeteries. The IFFM hosts the most diverse visitor population of any of the museums in Flanders.12 However, 22 km to the north of Ieper lies Diksmuide, the site of the Battle of the IJzer, where the beleaguered Belgian army held the front line. In October 1914, German advancement was halted when the Belgians flooded the IJzer Plain at Nieuw- poort, creating a watery divide that would last the remainder of the war. It is clear that in Flanders, and in the country of Belgium as a whole, there is no single master narrative of the war. During the centenary, several museums expanded their exhibitions in order to attempt to address more fully the com- plexity of the war in Belgium. Others were founded specifically to address a neglected region and history. The Westfront Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre was initiated to bring attention to the inundation of the IJzer Plain, which secured a small sliver of unoccupied Belgium held by King Albert. The new museum, Vrij Vaderland (Free Father- land), in Veurne near the French border, documents the king’s life at the Front, telling a compelling story of his dedication to both country and his troops on the front line. In Diksmuide, the Museum aan de IJzer not only reinstalled the entirety of its twenty-two story museum, but also changed its name (from the IJzertoren Memorial Museum) in a rebranding attempt. Housed in a memorial tower dedicated to the Flemish soldiers in the Belgian army, the current itera- tion is intended to underscore the Battle of the IJzer and serve as a site dedi- cated to peace. The Lange Max Museum opened its doors in 2014 to provide Introduction 5 information on the German occupation of Koekelare and the history of the cannon, the Lange Max, that was used to bombard Ieper and Dunkirk. In Ieper, the IFFM shares the story of the experiences of the Commonwealth as well as the more than fifty nations that fought in the region. The Memorial Museum Passchendaele, 1917 (MMP) in Zonnebeke is primarily dedicated to that fateful year for the Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) troops. Hooge Crater Museum and Sanctuary Wood are filled with items that remind visitors of the overwhelming numbers of objects that were left in the region by both the Allied and German armies. Talbot House in Poperinge, which functions as both a museum and a guest house, provides an intimate connection with the soldiers of the Commonwealth. Visitors may sleep in the same rooms the soldiers used during their breaks from serving at the Front. The ANZAC Rest Museum, a new and privately held small museum in Polygon Wood, focuses on the amateur archae- ological digs in the region undertaken by its owner. Just over the Flemish/Walloon regional division, the Plugstreet 14–18 Experience in the town of Ploegsteert addresses the effects of the war on the Comines-Warneton region. The IFFM tells the most inclusive story of the war; the others primarily focus on specificevents. All of the museums include information on the impact of the war on local residents of the small towns that were either occupied or destroyed. The name of each museum is telling. The MMP self-identifies as a memorial, while the IFFM is named after a famous poem, written as a reflection on an ever-present death. Since mid-century, the poem has been used to memorialize the dead on countless occasions. The Museum aan de IJzer names the Battle of the IJzer as its starting point, placing that battle into public consciousness. This is a similar tactic for the Lange Max Museum, which is named for the German Lange Max gun stationed in the small Flemish village of Koekelare. The West- front Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre does not consider itself a museum but rather a site for the dissemination of information and reflection on the inundation of the IJzer Plain. Vrij Vaderland emphasizes that a small portion of Belgium remained unoccupied during the war. Talbot House retains its name from the war years, and in doing so underscores that it is still a functioning guest house for visitors to Poperinge. The Plugstreet 14–18 Experience borrows its name from the nickname given to the town of Ploegsteert by English-speaking soldiers. Anny Beauprez, president of the Comines-Warenton tourist area that includes Ploegsteert, emphasizes that the goal is to provide an interpretation of the war and inspire visitors to go out and into the landscape, experiencing it for them- selves.13 In the printed material and on the website, the museum calls itself a ‘living memorial’. The study of locality details the social and political components of memory and history in a specific locale. Ross Wilson notes that as memory and the act of remembering is taken as an active engagement and mode of expression, local heritage forms a key point in examining how communities represent themselves within a wider cultural and political framework.14 Will the Great War tourist visit the Ieper Salient, the site of catastrophic material devastation and loss of life, or the Belgian Front, where the smallest Allied army used ingenuity to stop 6 Introduction the invaders? The southern sector and the northern sector are separated by only a distance of twenty-four minutes by car, but it is not only the events that set the two apart. The northern sector was dominated by the Belgians with the support of French troops and the southern sector was held by the British. This book examines the disparate ways in which the museums attempt to engage with site-specificity, their own historiography, community engagement, and the ways exhibition practices serve their strategic plans. As Raymond Silverman notes in Museum as Process, the museum has become a tactical space for negotiating ownership of and access to knowledge produced in local settings.15 This issue was apparent in the years leading up to the centenary in each locality’s attempt to vie for recognition and application for federal and regional govern- mental funding. Since many of the sites self-identify as memorials or memory sites, the museums attempt to bring together shared remembrances of both the British and the Belgians, creating a common past to remember those being commemorated. Traditionally, loss of individuality is part of the process by which the state controls remembrance of the war; soldiers are honored in death but subsumed into their service to the nation – the idea being to make an unpleasant past meaningful. The commemoration of war dead serves two purposes: ‘affirmation and propagation of political ideas about wars and the nations which fight them’ and ‘the need to express and resolve emotional traumas caused by war’.16 The museums in this book pursue the latter goal. None pro- jects a nationalist narrative, with the exceptions, perhaps, of the Museum aan de IJzer – hampered by the partisan memorial in which it is housed – and the Westfront Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre, which was built beneath a com- memorative statue of King Albert. The exhibitions in each, however, focus on the individual, whether military or civilian. National myths or national images are pointedly absent. No individuals are presented as martyrs or heroes (although Ieper itself is connected to a larger group of martyred cites). Museums not only transmit information, they also, as Eileen Hooper-Greenhill notes, shape knowledge.17 Through newly revamped interactive environments and self-guided learning, the museums in Flanders dedicated to the Great War have a significant role to play in the ever-changing dialogue on the meaning of history and remembrance that takes place among state interests, ethnic and social groups, and cultural institutions. Museums are powerful instruments for the creation, maintenance, and dissemination of meaning, fielding and synthe- sizing objects, ideas, bodies, and beliefs. The museums in Flanders all tend to insist that visitors have an obligation to learn about this war. This is one of the reasons that peace is emphasized in many exhibitions; the stress is on the futility of war, de-emphasizing the experiences of those who embraced the conflict. Following a pervasive theme in Carol Duncan’s work, I suggest that a museum is a statement of a particular position, a suggested way of seeing within a social and historical as well as, at times, nationalist narrative.18 It is not just the exhibitions that enlighten visitors. Museums dedicated to the stories of war and conflict can also serve as objects themselves, informing visitors of a specific narrative even before they engage with the object and text presentations. The Introduction 7 space or site in which the museum is located may also function, independently from the interior, as a remembrance space. Several of the museums, to borrow Duncan’s excellent analogy, very much resemble medieval cathedrals, in which pilgrims would follow a controlled route through the interior while pausing at prescribed points.19 Through site-specificity, architectural frame, and exhibition, many of the museums in this book address the impact the war had on nation- alism, remembrance, and the preservation of history in a particular region by expanding upon the intellectual discourses regarding museum studies and exhibition practices. Belgian Museums of the Great War addresses this facet but moves beyond the local politics of the argument to locate the topic within the larger implications of ‘organized forgetting’ as articulated by Marita Sturken.20 Although Sturken addresses contemporary examples from the United States in her text, she introduces the term ‘technologies of memory’, which she defines as monuments, texts, icons, and images. Her work provides a useful characterization of the physical memorial spaces of the museums. Sturken posits that memory has as much to do with fantasy and invention as it does with fact and notes that what is remembered is highly selective, and that it says as much about desire and denial as it does about remembrance.21 Remembrance can thus acquire a nar- rative separate from history and possess its own political significance. Sturken borrows the term ‘organized forgetting’ from Milan Kundera, who stated that such forgetting is often highly controlled and is a strategic tool of politics.22 Sturken asserts that a nation can participate in strategic forgetting, effectively erasing the memory of events that may be dangerous, painful, or contradictory to an already established and accepted historical narrative. The Museum aan de IJzer, for example, in preparation for the centenary attempted to untangle itself from its association with Flemish nationalist politics and the problematic Flemish/German collaboration of the First World War and Flemish/Nazi colla- boration of the Second World War. The museum must continually negotiate narratives of its own history as well as its relationship to those in the Westfront Nieuwpoort Visitor Centre in the north and the IFFM to the south.

The memory and history of the Great War Much of the discourse on the museology and the centenary of the Great War cen- ters on memory and commemoration. These are concepts that have been inserted into both academic and public discourse. A great number of publications on the war include the word ‘memory’, and several museums describe themselves as places of memory. The language of popular culture, including that of the com- mittees formed in Belgium to organize the centenary programs, tends to invite people to ‘remember the war’ and to ‘keep the memory alive’. Calls to remember the war are part-and-parcel of most of the sponsored initiatives in Belgium and on the tourist websites. VisitFlanders.com creates a relationship between Flan- ders and visitors by stating: ‘Here we share a few of the personal stories and photos that we received linked to the Great War in Flanders Fields. Together we 8 Introduction can keep the memory alive!’ But when we are asked to ‘remember the Great War’, we must recognize that we actually do not remember anything from the conflict. The memories have already been constructed for us through television programs, whether documentaries or popular shows such as Vlaamse Velden or the BBC series Parade’sEnd, through carefully constructed, government-sponsored commemorative programs, or through the curated placement of objects in a museum setting. As pointed out by Ross Wilson, these commemorative projects are significant, because they demonstrate how individuals and communities relate themselves to a historical or imagined past.23 But is it memory that museums dedicated to war are attempting to provoke or sustain? We are being asked to remember something that we, who did not experience the war, cannot possibly do. Winter writes that ‘memory’ is often used as a metaphor for something else, but in the context of war, what exactly is it a metaphor for? Nostalgia? Warning? The federal, regional, and local programs tend to use the English word – memory. But if in Dutch, the word used more often is herinnering,whichismore akin to reminder. Susan Crane questioned the role of the museum in preserving and presenting memory,24 and Winter suggested a shift from the term ‘memory’ to the term ‘remembrance’, which denotes an active process of negotiation. Since memories are not actually being recalled in the museums or in the commemorative ceremonies, I have chosen to adopt Winter’s terminology. In the 1980s, memory became its own field of extensive historical study. Much of this literature owes a debt to the sociologist Maurice Halbwachs and his theories on memory from the 1920s.25 Halbwachs, attempting to specify and document the complex process through which societies remember, posited that human memory can only function within a collective context, which is always selective. He regarded all memory as collective, in the sense that memories endure only through the frameworks provided by social groups and the spaces they occupy. Several scholars have expanded on this concept. James Young sought to break down the notion of any memorial’s ‘collective memory’ and instead examine ‘collected memory’: many memories gathered into common memorial spaces and assigned common meaning.26 Young was clear that a society’s memory might be a collection of similar but also competing memories and noted that ‘if societies remember, it is only insofar as their institutions and rituals organize, shape, even inspire their constituents’ memories … for a society’s memory cannot exist outside of those people who do the remembering’.27 For Winter, individual memory is more process than product, and so, in line with Winter’s approach, I place emphasis on the process of the accumulation and symbolism of memory in my histories of the museums in this book. Winter, in the introduction to War and Remembrance, notes that collective remembrance is public recollection facilitated by gathering bits and pieces of the past and joining them together for public use.28 The ‘public’ is the group that produces, expresses, and consumes remembrance. What they create is not a cluster of individual memories; the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Each museum in Flanders is, in a sense, part of a cluster of individuality that, taken as a whole, attempts to convey a greater understanding of the complexity of the Introduction 9 war. Working together, even as they compete with one another for foot traffic and funding, collective remembrance is constructed; it is the result of negotiation and, for the museums receiving funding, may be ideologically charged. It is essential to acknowledge the academic differences and connections between memory and history.29 Contemporary theories of this distinction owe much to Pierre Nora’sinfluential essay, ‘Between Memory and History’, which succinctly explained his goals in his three-volume project on French history, Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past.30 His theories are particularly useful in the consideration of the museums of Belgian Museums of the Great War. For Nora, memory is tied to the present, since it is vulnerable to manipulation and appropriation and thus in permanent evolution – open to the dialectic of remembering and forgetting – while history is a representation and reconstruction of the past and is thus always problematic and incomplete.31 Nora introduced two terms that have made their way into the vocabulary of memory studies: the lieu de mémoire and the milieu de mémoire. The former is the place where memory crystallizes and secretes itself and the latter is the real environment of memory. Nora asserts that lieux de mémoire no longer exist, because memory is no longer embodied in certain sites where a sense of historical continuity persists.32 His lieux are the sites in which cultural constructions of the past serve to define present national identities: an ongoing issue, for example, for the IJzertoren. Nora believes that a truly critical history would preserve some museums and the like but would empty them of the lieux de mémoire. Can the IJzertoren, in which the Museum aan de IJzer is housed, be both a lieu de mémoire and a milieu de mémoire? Can the exhibition programs expose the stories of the Flemish soldiers in the war as legend but still convey how the memories of that war shape the concept of the Flemish Movement and the goals of the construction of a Flemish nation? It must be possible, as Nora suggests, for a museum to acknowledge and venerate the past and serve the nation when that the nation is no longer a cause but a given? For Nora, the memorynation was the last incarnation of the unification of memory and history, and once that nation became a finalized construct, the split between the two was the inevi- table result. Daniel Sherman, in his specific treatment of French memory and the Great War, rejected the distinction between memory and history. Sherman pursued the construction of cultural practices encoded in memory, following the notion of a collective memory as outlined by Halbwachs. He explored the relationship between the two types of memory (individual and collective) with particular attention to the emergence, from their dynamic interplay, of the form of social memory we know as commemoration.33 Collective memory is socially con- structed and informed by political, social, and economic structures. Sherman sought to examine ways in which the war and its consequences became enfolded in the site cast as memory.34 This example provides Belgian Museums of the Great War with a framework to analyze why specific commemorative events and spaces and places that were created after the war continue (or do not con- tinue) to shape the culture of Flanders. The way the term memory has been 10 Introduction used during the centenary serves as a way to articulate connections between cultural and social and between historical and present-day remembrances. For Sherman, the commemorative object or event could be couched in Foucauldian terms, with the nexus of power/knowledge thus providing an essential founda- tion for understanding the dynamics of commemoration. Starting with the IFFM in 1996, the objects of the Great War have been understood through this ideology. Where Winter linked memory to grief and mourning, taking the political element out of his arguments, Sherman countered that the political dimension of commemoration resides in the way it channels mourning in a direction that conforms to dominant perceptions of the national interest.35 Sherman’s arguments are the most helpful for this study, since it is impossible to separate the museums from the politics of Flanders. This was made clear during the preparations for the centennial as outlined in Chapter 3. No con- sideration of World War I memory studies in Flanders (for the Belgian Front) should ignore the politics of the Flemish Movement, since it shaped the politics and social engagement behind the front line at Diksmuide. While I agree with Wouters that explicit or overly assertive references to ‘Flemish identity’ had to be avoided during the commemorations, the history of the Flemish Movement as expressed during the war through the activities of the Front Movement should not be overlooked. Using Henri Lefebvre’s ideas of space, which note that the concept of space is produced by bringing together verbal signs (words and sentences) and non- verbal signs (music, evocations, and architectural constructions), I consider not only the intersections of the individual and collective/collected memories within a specific physical site – the museum – but also within the framework of time, ritual, memorial, and the origins and disintegration of particular political movements in Flanders.36 There is a process that makes a monument a local artifact and a particular site a commemorative site. First, communities must choose a particular space. Second, they must choose signs that represent their sense of themselves, of what distinguishes them from others. In Flanders, the site then links the specificity of the sign to a larger group, such as the nation, or in the case of the IJzertoren, to a specific history of the nation. I use James Young’sdefinition of memorial and monument for this project. For Young, memorials traditionally recall deaths or tragic events and provide places to mourn, while monuments are celebratory markers of triumphs and heroic individuals.37 They make the heroes and triumphs perpetually present. Memorials ritualize remembrance. In memorials, the dead are honored; in monuments, communities honor themselves. For many of the museums examined in this book, the distinction between memorial and monument collapses. It is important to note the function of the museums discussed in this project, since both the physical and symbolic spaces have evolved significantly from 1918 to the present. The monument’s capacity for change has not always been acknowledged, because it has been defined by its permanence, which could also guarantee the permanence of a particular idea of memory attached to it.38 Alois Riegl’s ‘The Modern Cult of Monuments: Its Character and Its Origins’ still Introduction 11 provides the context with which to trace the historical development of the ‘intentional monument’, whose significance is determined by its makers, to the ‘unintentional monument’, a product of later events.39 Memorials can also be gradually invested with new meaning as new generations visit them under new circumstances and new rituals evolve. Particularly important sources on the study of museums in general include Donald Preziosi and Claire Farago’s collection Grasping the World: The Idea of the Museum and Carol Duncan’s Civilizing Rituals: Inside the Public Art Museum.40 Duncan was concerned with the way museums ‘offer up values and beliefs – about social and political identity – in the form of the direct experience’.41 She posited that a museum’s meaning as an institution is structured through ritual. Since most of the museums in this book, particularly the Museum aan de IJzer and the IFFM, are the focus of ritualistic pro- grams and pilgrimages, Duncan’s theories are useful in establishing the manner in which these Flemish museums construct a particular social and political program for the public. Preziosi, in the first sentence of his intro- duction to Grasping the World, asked the important question: are the his- tories staged by museums facts or fictions?42 Since the museums were restaged or conceived to address the centenary, all engaged in primary- source research to present a factual narrative of the war, but filtered through the objectives of museum personnel. Some, such as the Museum aan de IJzer even circumvent any legendary stories that have pervaded the muse- um’s history in the past. As Eileen Hooper-Greenhill has noted, ‘museums must serve many masters’.43 Preziosi, following Duncan, noted the theatrical effects of the museum. But unlike theatrics in the employ of ritual, for Preziosi these theatrics serve to enhance the historical belief in what the museum strives to represent. He asserted that the truth is merely under the guise of the facts, or what he calls ‘facticity’, and what the visitor encounters thus must be the truth.44 This issue is especially pertinent in the new installation of the Great War Galleries at the Imperial War Museum (IWM) in London in July 2014, which outlines the contributions made to the war by the people of Great Britain’s empire. The new exhibition moves away from a strictly chronological narrative, focusing for the first time on objects, digital media interactive screens, projections, and voice-over narratives. Following the IFFM, the IWM focuses on the stories of participants, relying on letters, diaries, and other documents. However, it fails to explain clearly why Great Britain became embroiled in a four-year battle on Belgian soil and the resulting implications of the influx of Belgian refugees to England.

Outline of the book Chapter 2, ‘What Remains of the Country: the War in Belgium’, locates the reader in the history of the Great War in Belgium and specifically in Western Flanders. It begins with an outline of the invasion of Belgium in August 1914 and the shift, within the first few months, to the entrenchment of the German, Belgian, and other 12 Introduction Allied armies in Flanders and then to the battles on the Salient that comprise the more familiar history of the Western Front in Belgium. A brief description of the museums that address the specificities of the battles is included. Chapter 3, ‘Plan- ning the Centennial’, outlines the organization and funding of the 2014–18 com- memorative programs within tourist, commercial academic, cultural, educational, and international aspects. The museums and other commemoration initiatives were vetted through the multifaceted structure of Belgium. Discussion was not without dispute from members of the academic community. With a full awareness that the centennial would be deeply connected to exceptional mone- tary profit from tourists, there was a call at least to note that this renewed interest in the war should add to public history. Chapter 4, ‘Site-Specificity and the Architecture of Remembrance’, analyzes the place of the museum within the space of its specific landscape, moving from Nieuwpoort in the north and following the IJzer and Ieper rivers, as the lines of the Western Front moved to the south in Flanders. One of the popular com- memorations was Lichtfront (Light Front), which used hand-held torches to mark the trench lines from Nieuwpoort to Ploegsteert connecting the northern and southern sectors of the Belgian battlefront from Flanders to Wallonia. Indeed, all of the museums addressed in Belgian Museums of the Great War incorporate the site-specific landscape in which they are grounded into their exhibitions. Sights from viewing platforms and strategically placed windows purposefully frame the visitors’ experience. At the MMP, the Platoon Experi- ence program moves groups of schoolchildren through the former battlegrounds to Tyne Cot cemetery, in which the students don the gear of an Australian platoon and assume the identities of many of the Australian soldiers. The stu- dents end the program by locating where the soldiers are buried or by looking to see if their names are inscribed on Sir Herbert Baker’s Memorial to the Missing. The Plugstreet 14–18 Experience is just a short distance away from the Hyde Park Corner (Royal Berks) Cemetery and the Berks Cemetery Extension, in which the Ploegsteert Memorial is located. Of course, each museum’slocation was typically a secondary concern in its original inception as an institutiona- lized chronicle of the war. Many of the museums were housed in preexisting structures that were never designed for their eventual use as museums. However, in the current iterations, each museum displays a self-awareness of its site- specificity, and the majority have developed, and at times underscored, a rela- tionship with the surroundings. As a result, each museum is itself an object for consideration in the museum narrative. Its predetermined shape and site-specificity delimit and may define the exhibition within. The geographical location, whe- ther rural or urban, is an important aspect of museum identity, and the views of that landscape play a role in the story the visitor absorbs as he or she moves through the space. Chapter 5, ‘Historical or Memorial Site: The Museum as Ruin’, examines how the museums are framed by their site-specificity as restored ruins, which – for many museums in the book – is significant in understanding their role in writing, or rewriting, the history and memory of the war. The MMP underscores this Introduction 13 association in its name. The buildings themselves often play a prominent role in the exhibition narrative, serving as mnemonic devices. The limitations of this predetermined architectural frame also must be considered in the design of the exhibition narrative. The IFFM, for example, is located in Ieper’s restored Cloth Hall, the social and economic center of medieval Flemish towns. The first iteration of the IJzertoren, in which the Museum aan de IJzer is housed, was destroyed in 1943, and the ruins play a notable role in the understanding of the site. The MMP was installed in a former chateau amid the now bucolic grounds that became infamous during the Battle of Passchendaele (Third Ieper). These museums must negotiate the double identity of a space of memory and a space of history – essentially lieux de mémoire: material, symbol and function. Chapter 6, ‘Immersion: Trench and Reenactment Strategies’, addresses inter- active museum strategies. For example, the MMP creates reenactments through living tableaux-vivants to underscore the spectacle of the war, illustrating a living history for the contemporary visitor. The Museum aan de IJzer asks visitors to be self-reflective – with whom in the narrative do they identify? A nationalist? A Belgian royalist? At the IFFM, the story of the war is told in the first person, through primary source documents such as diaries and photographs as well as ‘filmed witness accounts’. These first-person histories are documentary- style modern dramatizations of historical accounts from actual military and civilian veterans from World War I. Life-size screens are placed throughout the museum, providing live-action narrative from a variety of perspectives. The idea is, again, to get as close to authenticity as possible, which is underscored in the physical relationship to the actors who mirror the viewers. The reenactment films allow the museum and the visitor to explore the place of memory, testi- mony, and narrative construction in historical knowledge and the new uses of embodiment and reconstruction in new forms of learning and pedagogy. These videos are expanded into a living history at the MMP in Zonnebeke that com- plement the static displays. This practice calls for a degree of audience involve- ment, an awareness of the degree of artificiality of the display, and the recognition of different but equally legitimate methods of interpretation. How effective, for example, are the reenactment strategies that are organized by the MMP and the Dodengang? How do the British reenactments and their pre- parations differ from those by the mock Belgian soldiers? In particular, this chapter incorporates Wilson’s research on trench renovation in order to look specifically at the different methodologies of each museum in regards to the visitor and the museum trench constructions. Chapters 7 and 8, ‘Expression and Document: Art in the War Museum’ and ‘The Exhibition Narrative: An Object-Centered Practice’, investigate how museums use exhibition strategies to narrate objectives. The significance of any object can be made to appear a uniquely powerful ‘witness’ to past or present events and to the character, mentality, or spirit of a people, place, or time.45 Winter noted that the common experience of bereavement bequeathed by the Great War erased the traditional barrier between ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture.46 This lack of differentiation between the two pervades the exhibition practices of 14 Introduction all of the museums in Flanders. Works of art by well-known Belgian artists are placed side-by-side with sketches made by soldiers in diaries. Government-issued ceremonial regalia is exhibited with the gear of the foot soldiers. Viewing the display of the everyday objects, museum visitors connect on an emotional level to a history that is incomprehensible on a visceral level. While the objects are rendered benign by their placement in a museum space, contexualized through first-person narratives and theatrical reenactments, the objects attempt to reach visitors in a way that mere text cannot. Displays and collections are arranged to form a narrative, which, even with the same exact objects, could change, dependent upon what type of story the museum wants to tell its visitors. The chapter examines whether the exhibitions are object- or narrative-oriented and how material culture or art, whether period-specific or contemporary, is used in the narrative. How, for example, does the public interact with the diversity of juxtaposed realistic, abstract, and conceptual art forms? The book also looks at how the museums utilize the same objects. For example, what makes a display of shells different in the Museum aan de IJzer than one in the MMP or Hooge Crater? The Conclusion, ‘Tourism and Remembrance’, asks, ‘what are the con- sequences of the increase in tourism in Flanders during the centenary? How and to whom are the museums marketed? What types of souvenirs are sold in the museum shops? How do the traditional cafeé museums like the Hooge Crater compare with the larger institutional museums such as the MMP or the politically charged Museum aan de IJzer? Since the IFFM markets itself directly to the British tourist, it is also important within the context of these specific museums to consider studies on war, culture, and tourism such as David Lloyd’s Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 (in which the title makes no distinction between the tourist and the pilgrim) and Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett’s Desti- nation Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage.47 In David Crouch and Nina Lubbren’s anthology Visual Culture and Tourism, the contributors analyzed the relationship between art, objects, tourism, and the landscape where they come together.48 John Urry and Chris Rojek’s extensive research into the ability and mobility of the modern tourist is particularly helpful in locating the specifics of war graves and memorials as sites of both pilgrimage – which, in this context, I define as the secularizing of a formerly religious practice – and tourism: here the transformation of a sacred space into one of spectacle for ideological and commercial gain.49 While the focus is on those museums that follow the line of the Front in Belgium before it carves down and into France, I do examine the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History, located in Brussels and funded by the federal government, which also tells the tale of the Great War. Looking at the Royal Museum of the Armed Forces provides an effective means to address a nineteenth-century approach to a history of war in contrast to the twenty-first-century versions in Flanders. Belgian Museums of the Great War analyzes how each of the museums maintains a localized history within the overarching narrative of the war. This shift to a local history and identity of the Introduction 15 Great War remains, for the southern sector, within the overwhelming narrative of British engagement. Museums dedicated to war must straddle two diverse worlds. They are often housed in or refer to sacred sites while also existing as business ventures that must make money to survive. How will these museums stay relevant after the centennial? What function will they serve? What services will they provide? Halbwachs arguedthathistorycanonlybeginwhen memory ends, and that can only occur when the lived first-hand experience of a historical event becomes irrelevant to new groups. The war in Flanders is, as outlined by Bernard Lewis, a ‘recovered history’.50 With perhaps the exception of Talbot House, that story is one that has been reconstructed from archives and archaeological sites. Will the museums of Flanders dedicated to the Great War eventually become historical repositories, or will they con- tinue to be considered houses of memory, framing a view of the past as a continued integral part of the present? I suggest the latter because, for many, the identity of Flanders or even the ability to locate Flanders on a map is integrally tied to the repetition and recollection of the events of the war as preserved through landscape and the objects that stand in for those who were affected by the war.

Notes 1 Tourisme Vlaanderen collaborated with Visit Flanders in the installation. Normally, this space in the airport is rented out for commercial purposes; however, given the interest in the centennial, it was used to highlight information about the war in Flanders. Email exchange with Lea Winkeler, Project Manager for The Great War Centenary and Visit Flanders. 2 The province of West Flanders provided 400,000 euros in direct financial support and an additional 1,000,000 euros in material support. 3 See Chantal Kesteloot, ‘Mouvement Wallon et identité nationale’, Courrier Hebdomadaire du CRISP, no. 1392 (1993). 4 See Karen Shelby, Flemish Nationalism and the Great War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). 5 Laurence van Ypersele, ‘The Preparations of the 14–18 commemorations by the Walloon-Brussels Federal and Wallonia’, Journal of Belgian History, XLII, 4 (2012), 186. 6 Chantal Kesteloot, ‘Introduction: Commemorating 1914–1918’, Journal of Belgian History, XLII, 4 (2012). 7 Tom Le Bacq, ‘Die van Ieper Denken dat Heel WO I Zich Bij hén Afspeelde’, De Standaard, April 16, 2014. 8 Gaynor Kavanagh, Museums and the First World War (Leicester: Leicester Uni- versity Press, 1994), and Susanne Brandt’s ‘The Memory Makers: Museums and Exhibitions of the First World War’, History and Memory, 6, 1 (Spring–Summer 1994), 95–122. 9 Andrew Whitmarsh, ‘We Will Remember Them: Memory and Commemoration in War Museums’, Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies, 7 (2001), 11–15; Sue Malvern, ‘War, Memory and Museums: Art and Artefact in the Imperial War Museum’, History Workshop Journal, no. 49 (Spring 2000), 177–203; and Jay Winter, ‘Museums and the Representation of War’, Museum and Society, 10, 3 (November 2012), 150–163. 16 Introduction 10 Julie De Nys, ‘In Flanders Fields Museum, een Nieuwe Educatieve benadering’. M.A. thesis, Vrij Universiteit Brussel, 1998. 11 Bruno Benvindo and Karla Vanraepenbusch, ‘Des commémorations sous influence? Exposer la Grande Guerre à Bruxelles’, Mémoires en jeu, 1, 2 (December 2016), 59–62. 12 Interview with Dominiek Dendooven, scientific research assistant at the IFFM, August 26, 2014. 13 Author interview, Anny Beauprez, president of Comines-Warenton tourism, July 2016. 14 Ross Wilson, Cultural Heritage of the Great War in Britain (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016), 167. 15 Raymond Silverman, Museum and Process: Translating Local and Global Knowledge (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014). 16 Alex King, Memorials of the Great War in Britain: The Symbolism and Politics of Remembrance (Oxford: Berg, 1998). 17 Eileen Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and the Shaping in Knowledge (London: Routledge, 1992). 18 Carol Duncan and Alan Wallach, ‘The Museum of Modern Art as Late Capitalist Ritual: An Iconographic Analysis’,inGrasping the World: The Idea of the Museum, D. Preziosi and C. Farago, eds. (London: Ashgate Publishing, 1994); Carol Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums (London: Routledge, 1995). 19 Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums, 12. 20 Marita Sturken, Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, the AIDS Epidemic, and the Politics of Remembering (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 7. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. Also see Milan Kundera, ‘Afterword: A Talk with the Author by Philip Roth’, in The Book of Laughter and Forgetting, trans. Michael Henry Heim (New York: Penguin, 1980), 235. 23 Ross Wilson, ‘War Discourse: Still Talking about the First World War in Britain, 1914–2014’,inLanguages and the First World War: Representation and Memory, Christophe Declercq and Julian Walker, eds. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 239. 24 Susan Crane, ‘Memory, Distortion, and History in the Museum’, History and Theory, 36, 4, Theme Issue 36: Producing the Past: Making Histories Inside and Outside the Academy (December 1997), 44–63. 25 Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, trans. Lewis Coser (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1992). The original French is La mémoire collective (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1950). 26 James Young, Texture of Memory (New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1994), xi. 27 Ibid. 28 Jay Winter and Emmanuel Sivan, eds., War and Remembrance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 29 See also Frances Yates, The Art of Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966); Jacques Le Goff, History and Memory, trans. S. Rendall and E. Claman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992); Richard Terdiman, Present Past: Modernity and the Memory Crisis (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993); Mieke Bal, Acts of Memory: Cultural Recall in the Present (Hanover NH: Dartmouth College Press, 1998); Andreas Huyssen, Present Pasts: Urban Palimpsests and the Politics of Memory (Cultural Memory in the Present) (Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 2003); and Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006). 30 Pierre Nora, ‘Between History and Memory’, Representations, 26 (Spring 1989), 15–35, and Nora, Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, trans. A. Goldhammer, 3 vols. (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1996–98). 31 Nora, ‘Between History and Memory’,8. Introduction 17 32 Ibid., 7. 33 Daniel Sherman, The Construction of Memory in Interwar France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 2. 34 Ibid., 3. 35 Ibid., 7. 36 Ibid., 216, from Henri Lefebvre, Production of Space, trans. D. Nicholson-Smith (New York: Blackwell Publishing, 1991), 57. 37 Young, 3. Young distinguishes a memorial from a monument. Monuments refer to a subset of memorials such as the material objects, sculptures, etc., used to memorialize a person or thing. He treats all memory sites as memorials and the plastic objects within these sites as monuments. This definition has been incorporated into the essay ‘Monuments and Memory’, in Robert Nelson and Richard Shiff, eds., Critical Terms for Art History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 234–250. 38 Young, 6. 39 Alois Riegl, ‘The Modern Cult of Monuments: Its Character and Its Origins’ (1903), trans. Kurt Forster and Diane Ghirardo, in Oppositions, 25 (1982), 21–51. 40 Donald Preziosi and C. Farago, eds., Grasping the World: The Idea of the Museum; Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums. See also Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge; Duncan and Wallach, ‘The Museum of Modern Art as Late Capitalist Ritual; Daniel Sherman and Irit Rogoff, eds., Museum Culture (Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1994); and Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum (London: Routledge, 1995). 41 Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums,2. 42 Preziosi and Farago, 1. 43 Hooper-Greenhill, 1. 44 Preziosi, 13–15. In a later essay, ‘Collecting/Museums’, Preziosi even went so far as to characterize the museum as ‘one of the most brilliant and powerful genres of modern fiction’.Preziosi,‘Collecting/Museums’,inCritical Terms for Art History, 281. 45 Donald Preziosi, ‘Myths of Nationality’, paper presented at NaMu: Making National Museums conference, University of Leicester, Leicester, England, June 18–20, 2007. 46 Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural Memory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). 47 David Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919–1939 (New York: Berg, 1998); and Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berke- ley: University of California Press, 1998). 48 David Crouch and Nina Lubbren, eds., Visual Culture and Tourism (Oxford: Berg, 2003). 49 John Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Society (London: Routledge, 2002); Consuming Places (London: Routledge, 1995); and John Urry and Chris Rojek, eds., Touring Cultures: Transformations of Travel and Theory (London: Routledge, 1997). 50 Bernard Lewis, History: Remembered, Recovered, Invented (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 55. 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