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The City Reader “The Drive-in Culture of Contemporary America” from Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (1985) Kenneth T. Jackson EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION As Friedrich Engels (p. 53), Frank Lloyd Wright (p. 388), Sam Bass Warner (p. 63), Robert Bruegmann (p. 218), Robert Fishman (p. 83), Myron Orfield (p. 338), and others have shown, suburbia has a long history, extending back at least as far as the European and American railway suburbs that arose as retreats from the polluted industrial cities for the comfortable middle class. But suburbanization took on new form and historical significance in the 1920s and in the years following World War II. The initial locus was America, and the catalyzing technology was the automobile. In Crabgrass Frontier, Kenneth T. Jackson, sometimes called the dean of American urban historians, provides a sweeping overview of the “suburban revolution” in the United States. In the chapter entitled “The Drive-in Culture of Contemporary America” he lays out a devastating critique of the mostly negative social and cultural effects that the private automobile has had on urban society. Kenneth T. Jackson did not originate the critique of suburbia. Indeed, the suburban developments of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s in America and elsewhere gave birth to a massive literature, most of it highly critical. Damned as culturally dead and socially/racially segregated, the post-World War II suburbs were called “sprawl” and stigmatized as “anti-cities” (to use Lewis Mumford’s term to describe Los Angeles). Titles such as John Keats’s The Crack in the Picture Window (1956), Richard Gordon’s The Split-level Trap (1961), Mark Baldassare’s Trouble in Paradise (1986), Robert Fogelson’s Bourgeois Nightmares (2005), David Goetz’s Death by Suburb: How To Keep the Suburb from Killing Your Soul (2007), and Saralee Rosenberg’s Dear Neighbor, Drop Dead (2008) capture the tone of much of the commentary. Indeed, James Howard Kunstler in The Geography of Nowhere (1993) calls the automobile suburbs “the evil empire,” Joel S. Hirschhorn titles his analysis Sprawl Kills (2005), and another radical analysis screams Bomb the Suburbs (2001)! Nevertheless, Jackson’s well-documented analysis of the artifacts of suburban culture – everything from three-car garages to drive-in churches – stands as a definitive statement on how the automobile transformed both the structure and social life of modern cities. Kenneth Jackson is the Jacques Barzun Professor of History and the Social Sciences at Columbia University. He earned his PhD at the University of Chicago and is a past president of the Urban History Association and the Organization of American Historians. He is the editor of the Encyclopedia of New York (1995) and the author of several influential books including The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (1967) and Cities in American History (1972). Jackson has been called an “urban pessimist” because of his dark view of suburbanization – a recent work on progress on American transportation policy is entitled The Road To Hell – but in a recent interview he noted that he now sees “a ray of hope” for cities “after a long decline.” The reasons for his hopes include the growing realization that cities can be made “walkable,” more bicycle-friendly, and less dependent on 74 KENNETH T. JACKSON automobiles – the kinds of planning developments foreseen by the Charter of the New Urbanism (p. 410), Peter Calthorpe’s analysis of urbanism and the challenge of climate change (p. 511), and David Owen’s “green urbanism” vision of denser, more compact cities that are “more like Manhattan” (p. 414). Classic works on suburbia include Herbert Gans’s The Levittowners (New York: Pantheon, 1967), remarkable for its overall positive view of middle-class tract-home life, Sam Bass Warner’s Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870–1900 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), and Robert Fishman’s Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (New York: Basic Books, 1987). For a representative collection of analytical essays on the subject, see Becky Nicolaides and Andrew Wieze (eds.), The Suburb Reader (London and New York: Routledge, 2006). Other recent studies of suburbia include J. Eric Oliver’s Democracy in Suburbia (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), Mark Salzman’s Lost in Place: Growing Up Absurd in Suburbia (New York: Vintage, 1995), Valerie C. Johnson’s Black Power in the Suburbs (New York: SUNY Press, 2002), Becky Nocolaides’s My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working-class Suburbs of Los Angeles (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), Adam Rome’s The Bulldozer and the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), Oliver Gillham’s The Limitless City: A Primer on the Urban Sprawl Debate (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2002), and Dolores Hayden’s Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth, 1820–2000 (New York: Pantheon, 2003). For a different view – spirited defenses of “sprawl” as an age-old and very natural process of urban expansion – see Robert Bruegmann, Sprawl: A Compact History (University of Chicago Press, 2005) (p. 218), Paul Barker, The Freedoms of Suburbia (London: Frances Lincoln, 2009), and Frederic Stout, “The Automobile, the City, and the New Urban Mobilities” (2014) (p. 696). The postwar years brought unprecedented prosperity motor vehicle, thus becoming the first fatality in the to the United States, as color televisions, stereo long war between flesh and steel. Thereafter, the systems, frost-free freezers, electric blenders, and carnage increased almost annually until Americans automatic garbage disposals became basic equipment were sustaining about 50,000 traffic deaths and about in the middle-class American home. But the best 2 million nonfatal injuries per year. Automobility symbol of individual success and identity was a sleek, proved to be far more deadly than war for the United air-conditioned, high-powered, personal statement on States. It was as if a Pearl Harbor attack took place on wheels. Between 1950 and 1980, when the American the highways every two weeks, with crashes becoming population increased by 50 percent, the number of so commonplace that an entire industry sprang up to their automobiles increased by 200 percent. In high provide medical, legal, and insurance services for the school the most important rite of passage came to be victims. the earning of a driver’s license and the freedom to The environmental cost was almost as high as the press an accelerator to the floor. Educational adminis- human toll. In 1984 the 159 million cars, trucks, and trators across the country had to make parking space buses on the nation’s roads were guzzling millions for hundreds of student vehicles. A car became one’s of barrels of oil every day, causing traffic jams that identity, and the important question was: “What does shattered nerves and clogged the cities they were sup- he drive?” Not only teenagers, but also millions of posed to open up and turning much of the country- older persons literally defined themselves in terms of side to pavement. Not surprisingly, when gasoline the number, cost, style, and horsepower of their vehi- shortages created long lines at the pumps in 1974 cles. “Escape,” thinks a character in a novel by Joyce and 1979, behavioral scientists noted that many Carol Oates. “As long as he had his own car he was an people experienced anger, depression, frustration, and American and could not die.” insecurity, as well as a formidable sense of loss. Unfortunately, Americans did die, often behind the Such reactions were possible because the automo- wheel. On September 9, 1899, as he was stepping off bile and the suburb have combined to create a drive-in a streetcar at 74th Street and Central Park West in culture that is part of the daily experience of most New York, Henry H. Bliss was struck and killed by a Americans . Moreover, the American people have “THE DRIVE-IN CULTURE OF CONTEMPORARY AMERICA” 75 proven to be no more prone to motor vehicle the journey. Truck companies, for example, promoted purchases than the citizens of other lands. After legislation to spend state gasoline taxes on highways, World War II, the Europeans and the Japanese rather than on schools, hospitals, welfare, or public began to catch up, and by 1980 both had achieved transit. In 1943 these groups came together as the the same level of automobile ownership that the American Road Builders Association, with General O United States had reached in 1950. In automotive Motors as the largest contributor, to form a lobbying N technology, American dominance slipped away in the enterprise second only to that of the munitions E postwar years as German, Swedish, and Japanese industry. By the mid-1950s, it had become one of the engineers pioneered the development of diesel most broad-based of all pressure groups, consisting engines, front-wheel drives, disc brakes, fuel-injection, of the oil, rubber, asphalt, and construction industries; and rotary engines. the car dealers and renters; the trucking and bus Although it is not accurate to speak of a uniquely concerns; the banks and advertising agencies that American love affair with the automobile, and depended upon the companies involved; and the labor although John B. Rae claimed too much when he unions. On the local level, professional real estate wrote in 1971 that “modern suburbia is a creature of groups and home-builders’ associations joined the the automobile and could not exist without it,” the movement in the hope that highways would cause a motor vehicle has fundamentally restructured the spurt in housing turnover and a jump in prices. They pattern of everyday life in the United States. As a envisaged no mere widening of existing roads, but the young man, Lewis Mumford advised his countrymen creation of an entirely new superhighway system and to “forget the damned motor car and build cities for the initiation of the largest peacetime construction lovers and friends.” As it was, of course, the nation project in history.
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