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Soil-Calcium Depletion Linked to Acid Rain and Forest Growth in the Eastern United States

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Soil-Calcium Depletion Linked to Acid Rain and Forest Growth in the Eastern United States Prepared in Cooperation with The U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service and New York City Department of Environmental Protection SOIL-CALCIUM DEPLETION LINKED TO ACID RAIN AND FOREST GROWTH IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES CALCIUM CYCLING IN FORESTS Since the discovery of acid rain in the 1970's, scientists have been concerned that Calcium is an essential nutrient for tree growth deposition of acids could cause depletion of that is used in the formation of wood and in the calcium in forest soils. Research in the 1980's maintenance of cell walls, the primary structure showed that the amount of calcium in forest of plant tissue. Trees obtain calcium from the soil soils is controlled by several factors that are (fig. 1), but to be taken up by roots, the calcium difficult to measure. Further research in the (a positively charged ion) must be dissolved in soil 1990's, including several studies by the U.S. Geological Survey, has shown that (1) calcium in forest soils has decreased at locations in the northeastern and southeastern U.S., and (2) acid rain and forest growth (uptake of calcium from the soil by roots) are both factors contributing to calcium depletion. s. Forest Calcium in Soil Water \ Mineral Soil Figure 1. Calcium cycle in forest ecosystems. Inputs to the pool of available calcium in the soil result from weathering of rocks, atmospheric deposition, and litterfall. Outputs from this pool result from root uptake and leaching out of the soil. U.S. Department of the Interior WRIR 98-4267 J.S. Geological Survey February 1999 water. Calcium adsorbed to negatively charged adsorbed to particle surfaces. Weathering, the surfaces of soil particles (termed exchangeable physical and chemical breakdown of rocks, calcium) is also available to roots because both gradually releases calcium to soil water where it can adsorption and desorption of calcium occurs readily (1) be taken up by roots, (2) adsorb to particle through the process of chemical equilibrium. Some surfaces, or (3) be leached out of the soil by calcium is deposited onto forests in an available negatively charged ions in percolating water. form in dust and precipitation or is returned to the As calcium is released by weathering, acidity in the soil through decomposing leaves and branches that form of hydrogen ions is neutralized, which form the forest floor. Most of the calcium in soil, increases the pH of soil water and the surface waters however, is bound within the mineral structure of into which it flows. Calcium leached out of the soil rocks within the underlying mineral soil, which into surface waters also serves as an essential prevents it from dissolving in water or becoming nutrient for aquatic plants and animals. CALCIUM RESEARCH IN THE 1970'S AND 80'S The discovery of acid rain (acids deposited from increased leaching caused by acid rain (Johnson the atmosphere in rain, snow, particles and gases. and others, 1982). more accurately referred to as acid deposition) in the In the Southeast, the amount of calcium in soils 1970's prompted concern that deposition of acids was found to be generally less than in the could increase leaching of calcium, and other Northeast, but was thought to be somewhat neutralizing cations, such as magnesium, sodium, protected from cation leaching by the high and potassium (referred to as base cations) from capacity of these soils to adsorb sulfate, a forest soils. Acid deposition provides (1) hydrogen negatively charged ion. The fine texture of soils in ions, which displace cations adsorbed to soil the Southeast enhances sulfate adsorption, which surfaces, and (2) sulfate and nitrate ions, which tend removes the negative charge from soil water that is to keep these cations dissolved in soil water that necessary to leach the positively charged cations. eventually drains into streams and lakes. Results of Considerable uncertainty as to the status of soil preliminary research in the 1970's suggested that calcium remained, through the 1980's, however, elevated leaching might deplete soil calcium, because the processes involved in weathering and decrease forest growth, and acidify surface-waters leaching were found to be extremely complex. At (Cowling and Dochinger, 1980). These concerns the close of the research phase of the National were somewhat alleviated in the Northeast by the Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) discovery that the soil contained large amounts of in 1990, decreases in the availability of calcium in calcium. Although most of the soil calcium was forest soils from either acid rain or known to be in unavailable forms in rocks and forest growth had not been confirmed, although minerals, the rate at which calcium was released by the possibility of future depletion from acid weathering was considered to be sufficient to offset deposition was acknowledged (NAPAP, 1993). CALCIUM RESEARCH IN THE 1990'S Continued research in the 1990's has documented uptake of calcium by trees in excess of inputs from distinct decreases in soil calcium over the past 4 to 5 weathering. Follow-up studies have suggested, decades, in both the Northeast (Johnson and others, however, that both acid deposition (Markewitz and 1994a) and the Southeast (Richter and others. 1994). others. 1998) and a decline in deposition of calcium These decreases were attributed primarily to the from the atmosphere, a trend that has been underway since the 1970's, may also have contributed to the 1995; Long and others, 1997). Related studies have decrease in the availability of soil calcium in the also suggested that forest harvesting could reduce East (Johnson and others, 1994b). calcium availability through the removal of calcium Investigations of forest health have identified stored in trees, which could lower the growth rates of relations between low calcium availability and a the regenerating stand (Federer and others, 1989; reduction in stress tolerance of red spruce (Shortle Hornbeck and others, 1990). Relationships among and Smith, 1988; DeHayes, 1992; Schlegel and acid deposition, calcium availability, and forest others, 1992), and sugar maple (Wilmot and others, productivity remain uncertain, however. Ongoing research hv the UfS, Geological Sutviy, in collaboration with the U.S. Fbre&l Service, the University of Illinois, the Institute of Ecosystem Stitdtes and Syracuse University, has provided tw information on the causes cind magnitude of calcium depletion In $wfy of the- eastern United States, Remits of this research have been tlt>ttiilt'd in four articles prepared for scientific. jewriMls. A general summary of each of these articles and a vf current USGS cnkwm meareh fallows. 1. DISCOVERY OF A NEW MECHANISM OF CALCIUM DEPLETION IN FOREST SOILS Aluminum released to water in the mineral soil by acid rain decreases the availability of calcium in the overlying forest floor, the primary layer for nutrient uptake by roots in forest soils. Lawrence, G.B., David, M.B., Shortle, W.C., 1995, A new mechanism for calcium loss in forest-floor soils; Nature, v. 378, p. 162-164. Decreases in concentrations of exchangeable by capillary movement. Because aluminum has a calcium are generally attributed to displacement by much higher affinity for negatively charged surfaces hydrogen ions, which can originate from either acid than calcium, introduction of aluminum into the deposition or uptake of cations by roots (Johnson forest floor tends to displace adsorbed calcium, and others, 1994a, Richter and others, 1994). A which causes it to be more readily leached. A regional survey of soils in northeastern red spruce continued buildup of aluminum in the Oa horizon forests in 1992-93 (fig. 2) has revealed that can (1) decrease the availability of calcium for roots decreases in exchangeable calcium concentrations in (Lawrence and others, 1995), (2) lower the the Oa horizon (a layer within the forest floor, efficiency of calcium uptake because aluminum is where uptake of nutrients is greatest) can also result more readily taken up than calcium when the ratio of from increased concentrations of exchangeable calcium to aluminum in soil water is less than 1 aluminum, which originated in the underlying (Cronan and Grigal, 1995), and (3) be toxic to roots mineral soil (Lawrence and others, 1995). By at high concentrations (Anderson, 1988). lowering the pH of the aluminum-rich mineral soil, The Oa horizon has generally been considered acid deposition can increase aluminum immune from acidification by acid deposition concentrations in soil water through dissolution and because the typical pH of soil water in this horizon is ion-exchange processes. Once in solution, the less than 3.8 whereas the pH of rain in the East aluminum (although not a nutrient) is taken up by typically ranges between 4.0 and 4.5 (lower pH roots and transported through the trees to be indicates greater acidity). The low pH of soil water eventually deposited on the forest floor in leaves in the Oa horizon is caused by organic acids that and branches. Dissolved aluminum in the mineral form naturally through the decomposition of plant soil can also be transported into the forest floor by a matter. Organic acids that move downward in rising water table, or during unsaturated conditions, percolating water from the Oa horizon into mineral 1. Kossuth, Me. horizons, which contain little organic 2. Bear Brook, Me. 3. Howland, Me. matter, tend to be removed from solution 4. Crawford Notch, N.H. through further decomposition or by 5. Bartlett, N.H. adsorption to mineral surfaces. Once 6. Cone Pond, N.H. 7. Hubbard Brook, N.H. removed from solution, they are incapable 8. Sleepers River, Vt. of acidifying the soil, which results in a 9. Groton, Vt. 10. Mt. Abraham, Vt. higher pH in the mineral soil than in the 11. Whiteface Mountain, N.Y. forest floor.
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