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Plant Economy of the Kura-Araxes. a Comparative Analysis of Agriculture in the Near East from the Chalcolithic to the Middle Bronze Age

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Plant Economy of the Kura-Araxes. a Comparative Analysis of Agriculture in the Near East from the Chalcolithic to the Middle Bronze Age Plant Economy of the Kura-Araxes. A comparative analysis of agriculture in the Near East from the Chalcolithic to the Middle Bronze Age. Volume 1 Catherine Longford Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield October 2015 Abstract This thesis investigates the nature of the Kura-Araxes cultural horizon by examining archaeobotanical evidence from sites across the Near East from the Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age. Using the concept of food as material culture, this thesis explores the cultural integrity of the Kura-Araxes horizon and the extent of mobile pastoralism in the Kura-Araxes economy. This thesis presents a detailed archaeobotanical study of a Kura-Araxes site, Sos Höyük from northeastern Anatolia, which dates from the Late Chalcolithic to Middle Bronze Age (3500-1500B.C.). From the archaeobotanical evidence, Sos Höyük appears to have been a settled agro-pastoral community. The thesis also investigates the Kura-Araxes cultural horizon through a comparative analysis of crop remains from Kura-Araxes and other Near Eastern sites from 6100-1500B.C. Crop data from 117 sites, including 21 Kura-Araxes sites, are compared using correspondence analysis. Over the period studied there is a decline of in the proportion of glume wheat at sites across the Near East. In some regions this is accompanied by an increase in barley remains and in other areas by an increase in free threshing wheat remains. The shift from glume wheat to barley at sites in low rainfall areas appears to have been related to climatic change at c.2200B.C.. The increase in free threshing wheat appears directly related to the spread of the Kura-Araxes cultural horizon. At Kura-Araxes sites there is a preference for hexaploid free threshing wheat that distinguishes Kura-Araxes sites from non-Kura-Araxes sites in every region that Kura-Araxes material culture is present. The distinctive crop signature of Kura- Araxes sites supports the interpretation of the Kura-Araxes horizon as a shared cultural identity. Archaeobotanical evidence also indicates that the Kura-Araxes practiced settled agro- pastoralism rather than transhumant pastoralism. The expansion of the Kura-Araxes across the Near East may have been motivated by the search for new agricultural land. ii Acknowledgements. There are many people I need to thank for their help and support throughout my PhD journey. Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Glynis Jones who has not only guided me through my PhD but been my mentor and good friend for the many years I have lived in Sheffield. I also would like to thank my advisors Dr Mike Charles and Dr Sue Sherratt for helping me with various aspects of my research and especially thanks Sue for reading my chapter. I also wish to extend my deepest thanks to Professor Tony and Dr Claudia Sagona. They introduced me to the world of archaeology when I was a fresh-faced undergraduate at the University of Melbourne and have continued to support me in my endeavours ever since. It was Tony who first encouraged me to pursue archaeobotany when I visited the University of Melbourne on an open day in 1998. My initial encounter with the Kura-Araxes culture was when I joined Tony and Claudia’s study team at Sos Höyük in 2001. Excavations had finished in 2000 but I feel I got to know the site very well after three seasons of pottery counting and survey in the Pasinler Valley. During my time in the field with them at Sos Höyük, and more recently at Chobareti, I have benefited from their advice and discussions over the nature of the Kura-Araxes culture and economy. I look forward to more work at Chobareti and elsewhere in the Caucasus. This thesis has relied on published and unpublished archaeobotanical data from a number of sites. Drs Naomi Miller, Lucie Martin and Meta-Marie Hald all sent me assemblage data from their sites in the Near East. Alice Berger kindly let me use the data from her Masters thesis on the Tel Beit Yerah plant economy, a very important site for understanding the Kura- Araxes phenomenon. I wish to particularly thank Dr Mark Nesbitt from the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, who not only gave me his unpublished data from the three Aşvan sites but also let me have the Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age Sos Höyük archaeobotanical material to analyse. I wish to thank the excavation directors at Tel Beit Yerah – Drs. Rafi Greenberg, Sarit Paz, and Mark Iserlis – for letting me join their team and for many valuable discussions on the Kura-Araxes/Khirbet Kerak culture. I look forward to future excavations at the site and continuing to work with the Tel Beit Yerah team. iii Thank you to all the Sheffield Archaeobotany lab members who have been great friends and colleagues throughout my PhD: Ellen Simmons, Gemma Martin, Mike Wallace, Becky Harrison, Tudur Davis, Dani de Carle, Angela Walker, Alex Livarda, Lucy Lawrence and John Hodgson. I offer a special thank you to Emily Forster for her advice and for commenting on some of the chapters of this thesis. I also wish to thank the University of Sheffield for funding my PhD. I was very fortunate to receive a University Prize Scholarship which enabled me to pursue this research. My parents have supported me so much over the years, and they have been a constant source of encouragement throughout my PhD via Skype and long distance phone calls. I cannot thank them enough for everything they have done for me! And last, but certainly not least, a massive thank you to my husband Chris for all the help and support he has given me throughout my PhD. Not only did he help with the GIS maps but he has encouraged me and has done all the cooking for last six months! I could not have done this PhD without his love and support. iv “I think it could be plausibly argued that changes of diet are more important than changes of dynasty or even of religion… Yet it is curious how seldom the all-importance of food is recognized. You see statues everywhere to politicians, poets, bishops, but none to cooks or bacon-curers or market gardeners.” George Orwell The Road to Wigan Pier 1937 “The History of every major Galactic Civilization tends to pass through three distinct and recognizable phases, those of Survival, Inquiry and Sophistication, otherwise known as the How, Why, and Where phases. For instance, the first phase is characterized by the question 'How can we eat?' the second by the question 'Why do we eat?' and the third by the question 'Where shall we have lunch?’” Douglas Adams The Restaurant at the End of the Universe 1980 v CONTENTS Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….iii List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ix List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..xi Volume 1 CHAPTER 1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..……………….. 1 1.1 Food and culture……………………………….………………………………………………………………… 1 1.2 The Kura-Araxes culture………………………………………………………………………………….…… 2 1.3 Structure of this thesis…………………………………………………………..…………………….……… 5 CHAPTER 2: Archaeology of the Kura-Araxes Culture………………………………………………….……..… 6 2.1 Chronology of the Kura-Araxes cultural horizon…………………………………….……………. 6 2.2 Southern Caucasus…………………………………………………………………………………………… 10 2.3 Eastern Anatolia…………………………………………………………………..…………………………… 17 2.4 Northwest Iran…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18 2.5 Upper Euphrates………………………………………………………………………………………………. 21 2.6 The Amuq…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27 2.7 The Levant………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29 2.8 Summary of Kura-Araxes regional archaeology………………………………………………… 31 2.9 The expansion of the Kura-Araxes cultural horizon……………………………………………. 32 2.10 Kura-Araxes Economy……………………………………………………………………………………… 34 2.11 Sos Höyük and the village of Yiğittaşi………………………………………………………………. 36 CHAPTER 3: Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………..……………… 46 3.1 Sos Höyük Archaeobotanical analysis………………………………………………………………… 46 3.2 Comparative analysis of Kura-Araxes and other Near Eastern archaeobotanical site assemblages………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 55 vi CHAPTER 4: Sos Höyük Archaeobotanical results and discussion…………….……………….………… 67 4.1 Crops at Sos Höyük……………………………………………………………………………………………. 67 4.2 Trends in crop taxa……………………………………………………………………………………………. 75 4.3 Wild plants at Sos Höyük…………………………………………………………………………………… 77 4.4 Exploring variation in sample composition………………………………………………………… 78 4.5 Sources of plant remains…………………………………………………………………………………… 79 4.6 Fuel use…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89 4.7 Seasonality………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 91 4.8 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 95 4.9 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 101 CHAPTER 5: Near Eastern Archaeobotanical Assemblages (6100-1500B.C.) Results of Analyses by Phase and Regional grouping…………………………………………………………………………………..…… 103 5.1 Phase and regional analysis of crop composition for Near Eastern Archaeobotanical Assemblages…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 103 5.1.1 Phase-by-phase analysis…………………………………………………………………………….... 104 5.1.2 Region-by-Region Analysis……………………………………………………………………………. 120 5.2 Grape distribution and ubiquity………………………………………………………………………. 127 5.3 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 129 CHAPTER 6: Discussion of Near Eastern Archaeobotanical Assemblages (6100-1500B.C.): Kura-Araxes agriculture and its implications………………………………………………………………….…. 130 6.1 Climatic change and
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