Agricultural Economy of Namibia NAMIBIA STUDIES SERIES NO

Agricultural Economy of Nalllibia Strategies for Structural Change

United Nations Institute for Namibia Agricultural Economy of Namibia NAMIBIA STUDIES SERIES NO. 6 N.K. Duggal, Editor Agricultural Economy of Namibia Strategies for Structural Change

Based on the work of J.J. Oloya, 1. Miclaus, F.A. lshengoma and K. Aho

United Nations Institute for Namibia LUSAKA, ZAMBIA Editor N.K. Duggal

Published by United Nations lnstitute for Namibia P.O. Box 33811 Lusaka

The Agricultural and Land Resources Division of the United Nations Institute for Namibia is enjoined, inter alia, to undertake research in: (a) land reclamation and its possible development, (b) conversion of white owned ranches and "native reserves", (c) existing livestock and future possibilities, and (d) existing and future tillage possibilities. This study, the Agricultural Economy of Namibia: Strategies for Structural Change, the sixth in the Namibia Studies Series, embraces various aspects of these research objectives.

One aspect of the above objectives relating to land use and reform policy options has been the subject of a study published separately as Namibia Studies Series No. 3. While sorne references are made to this earlier study, the current study provides a sharper focus on important policy issues in the fields of livestock production, crop production, marine and fresh water fisheries, nutrition, and farm production support policies. The study evaluates the state of agriculture in Namibia in arder to identify the factors likely to influence policy. lt examines the main problems faced by agriculture in Namibia and, in so doing, suggests policies that might improve the future performance of this vital sector of the Namibian economy.

Of particular interest in this study have been the small-scale African farmers who have, under the present illegal regime, been denied agricultural progress through nonprovision of essential back up services such as agricultural extension, credit and marketing support, etc. Because of the low demand for exports of raw materials, there is comparative advantage in promoting import sub stitution of food products. In such a case the small-scale farmers have a vital role to play in stra tegies aiming at attaining food self-sufficiency. It is also politically pragmatic to be self-sufficient in food supply. The Liberation Movement has recognized this: "A nation which is dependent on another country for the food consumption of its population can not be but a dependent hostage of the particular country which feeds its population." The Liberation Movement also perceives that the redressing of the current basic agriculture problems, such as poverty, landlessness, unemploy ment, and skewed incarne distribution, is an essential prerequisite for creating an egalitarian society. To this end, integrated national edmomy in which there will be a proper balance between agricultural and indus trial development is to be created; processing industries, state-owned ranches, cooperatives and collectives will be established. In addition, a programme of agrarian transformation aimed at giving land to the tiller will be carried out. Land reforms, and the distribution of land contribute both to greater equity in incarne distribution, and, thus contribute to the fulfilment of the goal of distributive justice. Land reform programmes are usually accompanied by institu tional organization to ensure that farmers are supplied with the requisite inputs such as high yielding seed varieties, fertilisers and crop protection chemicals. Farmers also need to be provided with credit and marketing facilities.

Ail these issues have been covered in the study.

From such a premise the study develops options in respect of the various policy issues which the govemment of Namibia may wish to consider in its efforts to develop Namibian agriculture.

Apart from considering issues that are purely agricultural, the study has covered two other dimen sions namely fisheries, and the nutritional status of the Namibian population. The fishing industry that contributed significantly to the export eamings of the country in the past has, in recent years, seen a major decline due to the illegal regime's policies which can only be described as short-term

v exploitation and profiteering at the ex pense of long-term economie rationality. The fish stocks can only be rebuilt through sound conservation policies. It will, however, take time because of the extensive damage already clone to the marine ecology balance.

Finally, the extent to which agricultural policies can be implemented depends to a considerable extent on the manner in which policy issues outside agriculture are implemented. ln order to assist the vast majority of small-scale farmers in the rural areas, it may be necessary to pursue policies of intersectoral cross-subsidy, so that inputs such as credit, improved seed varieties, fertilizers and insecticides may be made available to small-scale farmers at priees they can afford to improve agricultural productivity, and so make agriculture eventually increase its contribution to national development and economie welfare. Thus, for this, and other reasons such as agriculture tends to be a reservoir of labour in the early stages of development, it is generally recognized that agricul ture has to be treated as a sector which differs from the other sectors of the economy.

This study which incorporates the recommendations of the Seminar on Agricultural Economy of Namibia: Structure and Strategy Options for Development, should prove valuable to the decision makers in the government of independent Namibia; for it shows how the objectives of agricultural development policy can be implemented for the benefit of the people of Namibia.

HAGE G. GEINGOB Director United Nations Instùute for Namibia

vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Hon. Mr U. Mwila, Minister of Agriculture and Water Development, delivered the keynote address to the Seminar on the Agricultural Economy of Namz"bz"a: Structure and Strategy Options for Development held in Lusaka, 24 25 February, 1983.

Mr L. Stephanus of the South West Africa People's Organ is ation delivered the opening address to the Seminar.

Papers were presented at the Seminar by the following extemal contributors: Prof. S. Mbilinyi (Office of the President, Republic ofTanzania), Dr H. G. B. Chizy uka (Veterinary Research Station, Balmoral, Zambia), Dr H. F. Schels (Veterinary Research Station, Balmoral, Zambia), Mr W. M. Chibasa and Dr D. M. Naik ( linistry of Agriculture and Water Development, Zambia).

Staff of the various divisions o f the United Nations Institute for Namibia made valuable contributions during the Seminar.

Other participants came from the South West Africa People's Organisation, the School of Agricultural Sciences of the University of Zambia; the Food and Nutrition Commission (Zambia); and the Natural Resources Development College (Zambia).

Secretarial help in producing this report was provided by Mrs N. M. Mubanga and Mrs M. Chim fwembe.

vii

:' ··. CONTENTS

Page

Foreword v

Acknowledgements VI

Introduction 1

Chapter One Geographical and Environmental Background 4

Chapter Two Livestock in Narnibia's Agricultural Economy 10

Chap ter Th ree Crop Production : A Neglected Resource 20

Chapter Four Fisheries : An Overexploited Resource 27

Chap ter Five Production Support Services 37

Chapter Six Nutritional Status of the Population 45

Chapter Seven Development of the Agricultural Economy for Independent Namibia 59

ix INTRODUCTION

The agriculture sector- the second largest contributor to Namibia's gross domestic product (GDP) after mining- is characterized by inequities and lopsidedness. The in equities are based on skin colour, with whites dominating the most profitable subsector, viz. the commercial agriculture, on land alienated from th e blacks. Ali governmental efforts such as loans, extension services, and provision o f infrastructure strive to make the commercial agriculture as profitable as possible. The subsistence agriculture- strictly a domain of the indigenous population- is, on the other hand, neglected, resulting in near starvation for the majority of the population. The generally neglected traditional sector produces for home consumption, with very little surplus for the market. Produc tion under these conditions is based on resources which the family unit can muster- labour, live stock, hoes- and barter trade is the means of exchange of capital goods. There is little capital accumulation, and technology is underdeveloped so that the increase in incarne which is partly achieved through capital accumulati on and technical change is not affected.

Lopsic\edness of agriculture in the terri tory is part of a broader occupation policy of expanding the export sector and keeping the Namibian market captive for imports from South Africa. The agricultural product mix thus, stresses on export commodities such as beef, and karakul pelts at the cast of cereals, vegetables, and fruits that must be imported for home consumption. Indeed, it has been aptly said that the country produces what it does not consume and consumes what it does not produce.

Such an agricultural policy that bencfits few large-scale commercial farmers at the o:pense of the majority small-scale, low income farmers can not be accepted as a solution to the develop ment of the country. After independence Namibia will need to maintain a steady pace of develop ment to consolidate the gains resulting from the struggle for independence and generally to keep pace with rising expectations- as other African countries have experienced- that tend to accompany the attainment of political independence. T he new policies will therefore have to redress, in line with SWAPO's professed aim of creating an egalitarian society, such basic problems as absolute poverty and landlessness particularly among the small-scale peasant farmers, unemployment, and skewed incarne distribution.

Such strategy will need to concentrate heavil y on agriculture. First, an efficient agriculture plays an im portant role in the production of food for self-sufficiency (supplying food to con sumers in bath the agricultural and nonagri cultural sectors) thereby eliminatin g the need for food imports which would otherwise be necessary. The dependence of African countries on food im ports has been the subject of complaint not !east because of the considerable Joss of overseas earnings. Secondly, increasing farm incomes can form the basis of an expanding intemal market for nonagricultural products and services of the other sectors of the economy, and help to provide a taxation base for the govemment. lVIoreover, the resources for developmen t in the rest of the economy come from increases in output and incarne from the agric ultural sector so that economie growth in such cases is very much conditioned by the growth of the agricultural sector. ln such cases the role of agriculture in supplying capital funds, through taxes and savings, is significant. Thirdly, the development of agriculture increases the opportunities for employment and at the sa me ti me releases surplus labour for the other sec tors of the economy. With technological change and capital accumulation agr icultural production should ÎnCl·easc at a much faster rate than the rate of growth of population. Since income elasticity of agricultural products as a group, especially food products, is Jess than unity, an excess supply of agricultural products is formed. This surplus

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 1 can then be sold domestically or marketed abroad, with excess supply relative to demand resulting in declining priees. The declining priees result from dcmand elasticities which again are generally low for agricultural products with the result that priees tend to decline to a level which generates ex cess supply of labour from agriculture to the other se ct ors of the economy. Fourthly, agriculture can and does make substantial contribution to foreign exchange earnings. In sorne of the African countries agriculture is the predominant source of foreign earnin gs. This is achieved through exports of food and raw materials direct or through processin g in the nonagricultural scctor, to the export markets.

Up to the present time very little has been published on the agricultural cconomy o f Namibia. The available publications either deal with only sorne aspects of agriculture or are outdated.1 There is therefore need for a more detailed and up-to-date appraisal of the present situation. It is hopcd that this study will fill the gap. This study presents an overvicw of the present state of agriculture in Namibia including relevant physical and economie data on th e various aspects of agriculture. The main problems confronted are analysed and sorne policy options for the future dcvelopment of this vital sector are suggested.

As a prelude to the discussion of the various topics, and in ordcr to present the discussion in its proper perspective sorne theoretical discussion on the role of agriculture in the economy of a developing country like Namibia is presentee!. The importance-of environmcntal factors and phys ical features on agricultural production has been stressed particularly bccausc of the fragility of the ecosystem.

The available data on Namibia is scanty . The problcm of data availability has becomc even more acute since 1966 when South Africa stopped publishing separate economie statistics for the territory. Necessarily therefore sorne of the availablc information is incomplcte. For cxamplc, information regarding irrigation, cropping patterns, or land use potential in Namibia is not availablc. Input/output data on crop production is lacking, as are many othcr technical coefficients including those related to animal production. Discussions with colleagues from Namibia has, howevcr, helpcd to fill sorne of these gaps. In sorne cases it also becamc a prac tical neccssity to use data from Botswana on the assumption that similarity of climatic and agroecological conditions should rcsult in gucssti mates for Namibia. Sorne data notably on population, was dcrived from earlier United Nations Institute for Namibia studies.2 Dcspite these limitations it is hopcd that the study provides an insight into the agricultural situation in Namibia on the basis of which it may be possible to makc viable proposais for future development.

The study is dividèd into seven chapters. Chapter One describes the natural environment in cluding geographical features and water resources. Physical and climatic factors, cithcr individuall y or in aggregate, influence agricultural productivity in any given country, and in amibia they arc particularly important. The next two chapters analyse the two important aspects of agriculture that are fundamental for the long term development of the country, nam ely, livcstock, and crop produc tion. The level of development of these two subsectors in the terri tory clearly indicates the inequity and lopsidedness designed to serve the interests of the illegal regime. The fishing industry (Chapter Four), that contributed significantly to the export earnings of the terri tory, has, in recent years, seen a major decline. The causes of this decline are discussed within the historical contcxt. Sorne of the resultant issues are discussed toge th er with suggestions for possible measures to rcvamp the industry. Chapter Five examines the existing sectoral support services such as extension services, marketing, finances, transportation and manp<;>wer constraints. Chapter Six discusses nutritional status of the Namibian population. In the absence of food consumption surveys, any health statistics, or clinical surveys of the population, the assessment of the nutritional status is based partly on the estimation of food resources, and partly on qualitative information. In Chapter Seven, the various strategy options for the development of agriculture are enumerated. No attempt is made, however, to make projections into the future beyond what can be deduced from the limited data base presented. Finally, areas which require urgent further studies are identified.

2 Introduction REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. See for instance, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into South West A/rica Affairs 1962-63 {Pretoria, Govt Printer, 1964) Chairman : F. H. Odendaal (R. P. No. 12/1964); C. P. A. Hansen, The Agricultural Econo my of Namibia (Windhoek, Div. Agric., 1966); and K. Anschell and R. Brannon, 17te Agricultural Sector in Namibia :A Brie[ Assessment (Lexington, Univ. Kentucky, 1978). 2. R. H. Green, Manpower Estimates and Development Implications for Namibia (Lusaka, UNIN, 1978).

Agn'cultural Economy of Namibia 3 Chapter One

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND

Namibia , situated roughly be twcen 17° and 29° South latitude and 12° and 21 o East longitude, has an arca o f 824 295 square kil ometres and is bounded in the north by Angola, in the north-east by Zambia, in the east b y Botswana and South Afri ca and in the south by South Afri ca. On the we st the tcrritory borders the Atlantic Ocean with approxim atcly 1 300 km o f coastline. Extending furthcr cast fr om the north-cast is the 35 km wide Cap ri vi Strip which separates Angola from Botswana and runs for abo ut 450 km to the Zambczi Ri ve r.

Topography

Namibia is a rclati vcl y dry country characterizcd by the prese nce of the Namib and Ka.J ahari deserts in the wes t and cast rcs pectivcl y and a plateau which covers the res t o f the country. Topo graphicall y the territory may be di vidcd into three regions.

First is the Namib which occupies about 15 per cent of the arca of Namibia and is in reality the western coastal part o f the much largcr desert arca of southern Afri ca. It is relatively mild, with very little rain, but with hi gh humidity and detritus soils. Rainfall increases progressively, however, as one procccds furthcr inland . Thus , Swakopmund, on the coast, has an annual average rainfall of 1.6 cm, Goanikontcs , 32 km from the coast, averages 3.4 cm and Khan !Vlin e, 51 km inland, avera ges 4 .3 cm whilc a t Donkcrhuk, 144 km inland, the average rainfall is 17.3 cm.1

From the Na mib, the land rises rapidly to the interior plateau which has an ave rage height of 1097 rn above sca leve !. Most o f the populati on of Namibia , totallin g sorn e 1.5 million, lives on this plateau. The central plateau, covering more th a.n half the country's land surface arca, stretches from the northcrn to the southern. border, and form s a divcrsified landscape of mountains, sand valleys, and gcntly undulating plain s. The southern part of the plateau comprises semidesert areas of Namaqualand famous for producin g karakul shcep. In the central part is Damaraland where the semi-arid karoo givcs wa y to !:,>T azing country and where the cattle and sorn e cl airy industry is concentratcd. In Damaraland, the main plateau attains its greatest height of 1 400 to 1 500 m around Windhoek, the capital o f the territory. The Aus mountain range, south of Windhoek, with an average elevati on of 2 000 m may be regarded as the wa tershed o f Namibia. From Windhoek, broken mountain ranges and peaks with an elevati on o f 1 800 to 2 400 rn rise from the main plateau and extend n orthwards to the Kaokoveld mountains. In the grass and bush-covered n orthern districts, scattered timber and sub-tropical vegeta ti on appear in the vicinity of the Okavango River. In the east the main plateau comprising mos tly grass and bush-covered dunes merge eventually into the vast sandveld of the Kalahari Desert on the border with Botswana.

The third region , viz., the Kalahari lies along most of the eastern part of the country . It com prises level plains covered with thick layers o f sa nds and lim es tone and with virtuall y no surface wa ter. These ii1clude the bush covered plain s and wood savannah to the n orth of Etosha Pan in cluding Ovamboland and the higher rain fall areas of Kavango and eastern region.

Climate

Altho ugh Namibia is largely dry desert country with hot and cool nights, there is a great deal of variation both in aridity and temperature in view of the large size o f the country and the wide differences in elevation within the country . For example, the most n orth-easterly arca is

4 Geographic al and Environmental Background regardee! as sub-humid.2 T he northern districts h ave a m ean annual temperature o f 22° C with a minimum o.f 2° C and maximum of 42° C. The ariel bclt which is affectee! by the cole! Benguela currcnt from the Antarctic rarely exceeds 21° C and ha wct, dense fo gs almost clai ly througho ut the greater part o f the year. From Dcccmber through February, howcvcr, the coastal clim~tc is p lc asant. T he central areas o f the country have warm sunny days and cool nigh ts, whilst the southcrn part has a h ot summer and relatively cole! win te r.

Rainfall is inadequate in many parts of the country and is unc\'t:nl y distrihutcd. T hi s factor constitutcs a serious constraint to agric ultural production. ln the north-cast the average rainfall l'or the th rce mo nths vari es from 300 mm in Grootfontein to onT 450 m m in cast Caprivi, dcclin in g westwards and southwards to 25 mm in the inn"cr Namib. ~iap 1.1 givcs somc indication of rainfall pattern, and variability (pcrccntagc devia ti on) in the country . Convcctio nal rain rarcly occurs in coastal Namib which receivcs an average summcr rainfall o l" 12.5 mm. Total rai nfa ll ranges from lcss than 100 mm in the Namib to 600 to 700 mm

Map 1.1 : Namibia- Rainfall Pattern and Variability

--.- .,..-., .-·-·----- ·- · r _ ., . .,..- .. '"'. / .-·.,·]-·-go '...... , .

KEY 24° 24° Mea n ann ua l rainfall (mm)

RainfaU variab il ity (% deviation) 26° 26°

0 80 160 240 km

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 5 Soifs

ln geological terms, the soils of Namibia are gcnerally described as immature. The three main soi! categories also correspond to the three topographical zones described above.

The desert type soils are found along the coast. They comprise the coastal sand dunes, and weathered rock of the Namib. They also incluùe the soi! types bordering the desert. The colour of thcse soils is rcddish brown to brownish yell ow. The rest is a vast stony land exposed to severe wind erosion. The soils ne ar the coast are highly al kali ne with a high concentration of water soluble salts consisting largcly of sodium chloride (common salt) and gy psum. The soils further south are also alkaline and deficient in humus. Apart from the alluvial beds along the rivers, the desert type soils are too infertile to support any crop farming.

Kalahari soils cover a large arca in the east and north-cast bordcring the Ngamil and soils of Botswana. They cover su ch are as as Ovamboland, Oka van go, and Omaheke. These soils are sandy, fine tcxturcd with wcak cohesion and high absorptive capacity, and are deficient in phosphorus. In Ovambo and Okavango, the soils arc sandy and con tain a high proportion of salt which pcnetrates to the surface from bclow, lcaving grey salt y (saline) and hardcned soils due to the infiltration of iron and lime. In the north-cast wc find palc-colourcd, low cation-exchange capacity, Cumbrian arinosols with sorne calcium carbonatc-rcndcring the soils alkaline. Soils with reddish brown sand ovcrlying limestonc which form charactcristic dunes occur from Gobabis southwards. Sandy soils of Omushcka are lightcr in colour and covcr the areas which lie approximately betwcen Epukino Omaramba in the south and Onarambo Omatako in the north-west. The soils are shallow and reddish brown wi th low organic matter. In central Namibia we find shallow lithosols which are Jess sandy; in fact sorne patch es have sorne vertices. Fertilizer application produces better results in su ch soils. The soils around Otavi/Tsumeb arca are of calcareousfxerosols type with a finer structure, and with sorne underground watcr with no accumulated salts. Accordingly, unlike sorne of the northern part, fertilizer response would be better in this type of soi!.

Good alluvial soils arc found in isolated pockets or along rivers like the Kunene and Okavango. Thcse soils may be greyish brown and gravclly loam, usually containing quartzite pebbles on the surface. Kavango is potentially the most productive part of Namibia because it consists of juvenile land and raw material soils made up of alluvial dcposits from the Okavango River. From the view point of plant nutrition, the main minerais found in the soils are phosphates, lime and sulphides. As far as the soi! pH, clay con te nt and organic matter are concerneù, data is not easily available.3 Howevcr, it is cstimated th at soi! pH in the north and north-eastern Namibia would probabl:y range from 6 to 8. Silt plus clay pcrcentagc would be betwccn 5 to 20 per cent and organic carbon per ccntage would range bctwcen 0.9 and 0.7 percent.

Agriculture and Land Use Patterns

The present agricultural situation in amibia has resultcd from, inter alia, the land use patterns which have cvolved under colonial agricultural policy. For instance, the distribution of land owner ship is extremely skewed wi th the rcsulting wide disparity in the in co mes of whites and Africans. The land owncrship patterns in the terri tory are as fo ll ows: rural white population owns 2 008 hectares of land per capita, with the average for total white population being 531 hectares per capita. Similar figures for Africans in the "reserves" are 68 hectares per capita, and for total non white population 50 hectares per capita.4 These figures als o conceal certain inequities. Land alloca ted to Africans is generall y marginal agricultural land. Unable to maintain oneself on Iimited, marginal lands many blacks have been forced to s.:eh. employment as migrant labourers in the south. Thus, today tiv; peasant scctor contributes probably only about 5 percent of total agricultural sales and only 13 percent of the value of agricultural production.5 There is a startling disparity between the modern commercial farming sector-largely limited to the white-owned far:-Hs -and the more traditional or subsistence farming in the "black areas". "ln the modern sector, which provides about 80 percent of ail commercial agricultural production, about 5 000 to 6 000 white proprietors employ about 44 000 workers, whereas about three times as many people are engaged in the sub sistence sector. " 6 Recent years have als o seen sorne changes in land distribution "triggered by the

6 Geographical and Environmental Background . . .. Fîgul:e l.l : Ptilnary.~etor of Nariûb•~• · Ê~:nomy

Fisheries ______.....,.. Commercial R4 1 millio n Agriculture Rl 35 million

Subsistence Agriculture R20 million Mining ------""' R3 7 5 million Forestry R2 million

InJ ecti o n o r runds into bl ~c k second-tier ~ ove rnm e n ta ] authorities, many o f who m have to use a major part of the moncy to huy up formcrl y w hi tc-uwncd farmland. Altho ugh many w hites have taken this o ppo rtunity to scll , othcrs have usc d the in comc gcncrated from cattle sales to buy more land. T hus, a declining numbcr o f white farmcrs own relativc!y large r farm s, w hereas black land owncrship is incrcasin g graduall y , and is initiall y in t he hands of only a fc w privilcge d fa rm er po liticians. ln tcrms o r bo th attc mp tin g to m ain tain agric ultural o utput and achievin g the long-run goal o f sociall y bcnd icialland rdorm, this special ty pe o f 'land redistributio n' is countcrp roducti vc . lt intensirics the class pola ril'.ation ."7

Water Resources

Watcr is o ne o r the mos t prccio us resources fo r an y agTarian socie ty . However, in Namibia, watcr shortage is on e o f the biggcs t p roblcms. T he average rainra ll over two-thi rds of the country is bclow 4 0 0 mm pcr annum vvhich is considercd to be the minimum ncccssary for dryland ara ble cropping (sec Map 1.1 ).

T he terri tory has hardly any lakes or other surface bodies o f fresh water. T he only perinnial ri ve rs are along the northcrn and southern borders. T he o ther, widely scattered , sand ri ve rs fl ow intermittently and either drain in the Oran ge Ri ver in the south or drain toward the Atlan tic al tho ugh they rarcly reach the ocean.

Notwithstanding t hesc constrain ts, there is substan tial p o tential for th e devclo p ment o f water rcsourccs. lt is es timatcd , for instance, that 220 milli on cubic metres of water can be p rovided yearl y fro m ri ver dams alone.8 Another 280 milli on cubic metres can be obtained fro m ground water sources, making a to tal o f 500 million cubic m etres fr o m thcse two sources alone. Approxi ma tcly 350 million cubic metres o f water fr om these sources is alrcady bein g ut ili zc cl annuall y.

T he annual dcmand for water is cs timatecl to reach or exceed 5 00 million cubic metres by the year 2000 (Table 1.1 ).9 But the utilization of limitee\ water resources in !';amibia has been hampered cl ue to high capital costs in volved and the enviro nmcn tal conditio ns. It has been suggestecl that average capital costs of cl cvcloping surface water sto ragc capacity in Namibia may be as high as R3 pcr cubic mctre1 0 (1974 ). An aclclitio nal factor affectin g water resourcc availabili ty is the ve ry dry con di ti ons which exist in some parts o f the country . Wi th the reservoir and weil collectio n and tapping o f the Kuiseb's underground fl ow for Walvis Bay having n early reache cl its ceiling, further provision of wa ter apparently requires pipelines from the north and/or clesalinatio n of sca water.11

Agricultural Econ omy of Na m ibia 7 In " Homelands" In "White'' R9 404 321 Areas ______R71 720 324 Nature Conservation and Tourism R390 750

Source: Based on SWA Depart ment of Water Aîîa irs, A nnual Report 1977.

In Namibia today the area under irriga ti on totals about 11 000 hectares as follO\•vs: Orange Vall ey (1 000 hectares), Auob Vall ey (300 hectares), Asona (1 34 hectares ), llarcl ap dam (2 500 hectares), Ovambo (4 000 hectares), and othcr small farms (3 000 hectares). In addition, it is cstimated that ano ther G 000 hectares arc lik ely to be brought undcr irriga ti on in Ovambo.12 This has partly been achievcd by the construction o f various dams.

Table 1.1 : Annual Demand for Water by the Year 2000

Use Demand (111 ill ion cu bic m etres)

.. Domcstic us e 283 Min ing and industry 105 Livestock 110

Total 500

Source: C. D. Nixon, Land Us e and Development in Namiuia. Mastcrs Thesis . ln st. of Social Studies, the Hague, 1980.

As already pointed out, Namibia has perennial ri vers which fo rm boundari es with the neigh bouring states : for instance, Kavango , Kunene, and Zambezi ri vers in the north and the Orange River in the south . The presence o f these ri vcrs makcs largc-scale irrigation possible. No conccrtcd efforts have, however, been made to exploit this resourcc, partly duc to the absence of bilateral agreements that will be meaningful onl y whcn Namibia bccomcs indepcn dcnt, and partly duc to the high costs in volved. Some estimates arc already availablc on the irrigation po tcntial. "An irriga tion potential of lOO 000 hectares on go od soil is available on th e Kavan go. The waters of the Kavango are excellently suited for irrigation purposes . In view of the ve ry low salt content and a rainfall of 600 mm, there would seem to be very li ttle dange r o f salting-up. Watcr for up to a furthcr 3 000 hectares is available from the Cunene." 13 Such irrigation schemcs are obviously expensive to esütblish initial! y. It has been estimated th at it would cost up to Rl 0 000 per hectare to develop this potential.1 4

The demands on urban water supply are also in crcas in g, thus placin g an additional burdcn on the limited watcr rcs ources of the tcrritory. Windh oek watcr supply is alrcady bcing outstripped by the population incrcase . Recycling plan t is presently convcrting much of the sewagc e fflu ent back to reusable water, supplcmenting the city's natural water rcsources by supplyin g bctween 25 per cent and 30 percent of the population's domes tic needs. 15 However, ali of the recycled water is suppli ed to non-white population groups- perh aps bccausc the water is not totall y frec of toxic substances such as nitrates. 8 Geograp hical and Environmental Background REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. R. F. Logan, "Geography of the Central Namib Deser t.'' In W. G. McGinnies and B. J. Goldman, ed, Arid Lands in Perspective (Tucsan, Un iv . Arizona Pr. , 1969) p. 132 . 2. S. Mshonga, Toward Agrarian R eform : Policy Options for Namibia (Lusaka, UN IN, 1979) p. 3. 3. For soi! analysis data at Ondangwa see R eport of the Commissio .. ; of Enquiry into South West A/rica Affairs 1962-63 (Pretoria, Govt Printer, 1964) Chairman: F. H. Odendaal (R. P. No. 12/ 1964) p. 289. 4. See FAO, Namibia : Prospects for Future Development (Rome, FAO, 197?) p. 26 . Mimeographed. S. R.Moorsom, Agriculture: Transforming a Wasted Land(Lond on, CilR, 1982). 6. W. H. Thomas, "The Economy in Transition to lndependence." ln R. 1. Totb erg, ed, Namibia : Political and Economie Prospects (Cape Tow n, Dav id Philip, 19 83) p. 55. 7. Ibid ., p. 57. 8. As quoted in C. D. Nixon, Land Use and Development in Namibia. Masters Th esis. ln st. of Social Studies, th e Hag ue, 19 80 p. 48. 9. Ib id. JO . South West A/rica Survey 1974 (Pretoria , Govt Prin ter, 1974) p. 49. 11 . R. H. Green,Namibia : A Political Economie History (Brighton, Univ. Su ssex , 1979) p. 15. 12. Private êommunication from FAO. 13. H. Bra ndt " Development Perspectives for Agriculture in an lndependent Namibia.'' ln H. Brandt and othcrs, Perspectives of fndependent Development in Southern A/rica : Th e Cases of Zimbabwe and Namibia (Berlin , GDI. 1980) p. 95. 14. Ibid . 15. To the Point (21 April 1978) p. 26.

Agrz"cultural Economy of N amz"bz"a 9 Chapter Two

LIVESTOCK IN NAMIBIA'S AGRICUL TURAL ECONOMY

~======-====~,==~======

1. ivestock plays an important part in th e econo mie and social li f'c of the Nam ibian people , and most of them depend partl y or wh o ll y on li ves tock for their subsis tence o r wages. Im portance of li vestock in Namibia's agT icul tural economy is illustrated by th e fact th at, in 1979, cattle and sheep, in cluclin g karakul pclts, accounte d for nearl y 90 per cen t of the gross val ue o f agric ultural produc ti on ( Fi gu re 2.1). Cattlc and karakul sheep play a d o minant rolc in livestock pro ductio n, the main p roducts from these industri es bein g bccf, processecl m eat, and karakul pc!ts w hich togcther account !"or 2 0 per cen t 0 f t he total V<Ùll e () f lam ibian ex po rts (Fig u re 2.2).

In recent years, the worst drough t in the last fifty years has serio usly affectee! the li ves tock inclustry. J\ s ~ ~ res ult, in creased numbers or cattlc and small li vestock have either been sole! to South !\!"rica or s l a u ~~ h te r e d. Fo r instance, in 1980, 236 435 li ve cattlc were exportee! to So uth . !\!"rica,

D ro u ~ ht has a!Tcc ted hoth t he commercial and traditio nal sectors. In 1981, m o re than half of the wh ite Ltrming arcas wcrc cleclared dro ught relief regio ns, and the affecte e! farm ers \·vere made e li gible !"or cme rgc ncy aicl. 5 For black farm ers the situatio n is much wo rse . T heir Jack o f access to re li ef a ie! ma kcs it cli!Ti c ult for them to rcspond rapidl y to the clro ught. In Dam aralancl , for exam ple , the clro ught has reduced th e cattlc p opulatio n fr o m 50 000 to 10 000 and tho usa nds o f small 6 a ni ma is have perish ed o n lands th a t could 110 lo nge r providc grazin g.

Bcef (50.1 %)

Karakul Pclts (29.1 %)

Mutton (8.2%) -

\-Vool (1.5%) 1

Other (11.1%) 20 30 40 50 60 Percentage

JO Liv estock in Namibia s Agricultural Economy Figu-re 2.2 : Approximate Value ofMajor Exports, 1979

Fis h (14%)

Minerais (66%)

Source: Africa !nsight, Vol. II (198 I ) No.2.

Thcrc has bccn in crcascd, dcli bc r ~ttc dcplctio n of cattlc p<> ]Ht b ti o n thr o u ;~ h in crcascd oll-takc particula rl y during the pcri o cl 1980-81 which has resultee! in a considcr;t blc rcdtt C'l io n in the b rced in g hcrds. Thus, the numbcr o f li vcstock coming !'orward l'or markctin .li dmin ,c; th e t:c:-; t l \\' ( J o r thrce ycars will be scvcrcly rcducccl . It h as bccn estimated that rc turn to th e norm ~d ccolo ,li y

The animal hcalth situatio n in l\am ibia is charactcri:;.ed by tit e p resence of a la rge \"< tri ct\' o f infecti on s and paras itic discascs which rcs ul t fr o m in s:mitary cnviro nllH'Il l a nd poor ma nage nten t. At p resent vctcrinary se rvices arc p rovid ed by the sta il of th e South .!\l'rica lkpartm (' nt o!' J\ :-'. ric ul tural Tcchnical Services in cooperati on with the Rescarch Labura to ri cs al Windhoe k, 1\. a manjab, and Ondangwa . Stock discases rcscarch in Na m ibia is undcrtakcn b y So uth A!'ri ca's Ondcrstc poort Rcsearch lnstitute . The vc tcrina ry services nctwo rk in Namibia is an c xamplc o f colo ni a l po li c y. It is orhani zcd in such a ma nncr tha t South Africa con trois the se rvices thrott ;.~ h its spcciali st services, drug facto ri es , and the cntirc vc tcrin ary assi stance progra m me, kccpin g th e in digcn ()us :'\ a m ibi ;ms l'rom havin g acccss to spcciali zcd knowlcdgc in vcterin ary sc ience.

i\'o twithsta nding so m c of th csc constraints, i\: a mibia has goucl poss ib il ities l'o r the dcvclo p mcn t o f li vestock, cs pcciall y cattle in the no rth and the central plateau, a nd shccp a nd goats in the southern regions. Thus, undcr the climatic cnviro nment discusscd in Chaptc r J, and unclcr good ma nage ment and so und vcterinary services the livestock wi ll rcmain for a lon g timc the mainsta y o f the Namibian agTi culturc .

Cattle

Namibia is consideree! to b e an extensive li vcstock farmin g regio n with an average stockin g rate o f lü to 25 hectares pcr cattlc (s ec l\Iap 2.1) . The pasturcs, il' we il managed , a rc hi ghl y sui ta b le for ranching, altho ugh in o mc places ovcrgrazin g has dctcriora tcd thcir conditio n. Ovcrgrazin g, marketing forces which encourage high sales, and the wo rst drought fo r the last fïfty ycars have led to the diminution o f cattlc numbers . Fo r cxamplc, bctwecn 1977 a nd 1979 the cattle po pula tion droppecl from 2 854 million heads to 2 620 million heads. ln 1980 the cattle population of Damaraland alon e was eut fr o m 50 000 to 10 000 while in Kaokovclcl about 30 000 cattlc died.8 Likewisc white farmcrs have bcen forced to slaughtcr, or export alm ost 40 pcr cent o f their cattle. Bccause o f the clro ught it is possible that many farmcrs may no t be able to rcbuilcl thcir hercls whcn the ra ins com e.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia. 11 Map 2.1 : Namibia-Livestock Carrying Capacity

200

KEY (ha/head of cattle)

EI2J Less than 6 D 6-8 .. 8-10 . . i0-1 5 D J 5-30 P77l Cd 30-45

above 45

0 80 160 240 km 1 1 J

200 1

Altogether, therc are over 6 000 cattle farms owned by sorn e 5 000 white residents in Nami bia.9 Most of the white farming is ccntred round the main towns. The re gional sign ificance of lives tock varies throughout the country . For instance, in only about half of the more than 6 000 commercial farms is cattle farming practised as an extensive system. In sorn e regions (Ovambo) cattlc arc mainly kep t as status symbols rather than for production, and traditionall y a big per centage o f the herd consists o f bulls and oxen.

In Ovambo and Kavango cattle remain the most important livestock, fo llowed by small stock and pigs. The most weil known cattle breed in these areas is Sanga type of cattle which is weil adapted to the local conditions including resistance to parasites and diseases. 1-Iowever, Jack of camps and wa tering facilities, Jack of spraying, Jack of dipping facilities, and poor manage m ent have weakened the resistance of Sanga cattle, in many cases res ulting in high mortality rate and a low rate of breeding. Reproducti on and growth rates have als o been affected. Though the average weight of oxen slaughtered around Oshakati b as bcen reported as 350 kg and a few cows were found to weigh between 200 and 300 kg,1 0 it takcs over six years for oxen to attain body weight of 350 kg as a result of poor nutrients in pastures (especiall y Jack of minerals and overgrazin g), and prevalence of diseascs.

12 Livestock in Namibia 's Agricultural Economy Thcrc arc many factors \\·hi ch inOucnce th e success o r failurc of a partic ular brece!. ln i\amibia thcsc includc the harsh Clwironmental conditions, lo w rainfall , and hi ghcr temperatures cl uring the summer months. Undcr such cnvironmcntal and climatic conditions it has bccn pro1·ed that somc cattlc breccls do not adapt we il and thcir production is no t as high as in o thcr countrics. Som c o f the brceds such as Afrikaner, Brown Svv iss, Ilcrdord, Simmcn talc r, and l'in ;.ga ucr, 11·hi c h coule! othcrwisc copc \•vith the Nam ibian cnvironmcntal conditio ns hal'e sh own some shoncomings al tho ugh somc o f th esc coule! be ovcrcomc by pro per k e el in g and 111

Whilc Hereford , and Simmcntalcr have a muc h high cah·in g percentagc , the Afrikaner lws the lcl\1-cst dca th ra tc . Wi th respect to mil k production the re arc t wo brceds rea red under se m i-c x tcnsi1-c manage ment practicc, namcly Fricsian and Brown Swiss. T hcsc have proved to be cconomic<.Ù. Fricsian brceds have highcr milk y ic ld s than Brown Swiss under sc mi-cxte nsi1 ·e a nd inte nsive fa rming system , but milk production fro m Brovvn Swiss cxccecl s that of Friesia n uncl cr extensi1 ·e grazin g system. T hcre arc also o thcr brccds whic h arc uncl cr experimenta ti on at Lïtkomist Research Station and some results alrcady arc proving to be positive and cncouraging. Thesc includc Aberd een Argus, Brown Swiss, Red Poli , Hereford, Sus;;cx, So ut h Devon , and Sho rt Il orn.

Table 2.1 : Calving Percentage and Death. Rates of Sorne Breeds

Numbcr of Y cars Breed of Observation Calving Perc entage /)ealll H ale

Afrikaner 21 7G. 7 2.0 lkrcford 21 85.4 3.6 San ta Gertrudis 6 66.6 3.G Sim men taler 21 82 .4 3 .0

Source: Verslag Om Landbounavorsing (VC'e lwnde) 1971/72 S. W /1 . Stree !<. (Dcpt. va n l.andbou Tegniese Dienstc) p. 27.

Othcr cattlc improvc mcnt programmes in cludc the es tablishment of ran ches. For instance, in Kavango, in 1973, a cattlc improvcmcn t campaign was launchcd by sc tting up the I.;. avango Ca ttle Ranch situated in the bcst meat proclucin g a rca in Namibia (1\l angc tti bloc k). T he Lota! ranch arca is 249 100 hectares o f which 24 000 is u nsu itablc be cause o f the p rcscnce of poison ous pla nts.11 The re ma ining 225 100 hectares is dividcd in to forty farms, cach w ith an average size of 5 627 hecta res. In 1979 the ranch hac12 1 000 cattlc. In fact, by vir tue o f its sizc and the numbcr ol cattlc 1\ lanagetti ranch is a uniCJU C pro jcct, hav in g as a main aim the amelioration of the local breeds by supplying the Kavango farmcrs and th e wh olc o f i\amibia with high C]Uality bulls and cm-vs o f Bonsmara, Red Brahman, and Santa Gertrudis brccds. T he presence ofpoisonous plants (cspeciall y Disc hapetalum cy mosium ), wild ani mals (such as li ons, le o pards, elephants), shortagc o f traincd personnel, big distances from markets, and the high transport cost arc, howcvcr, factors w hi ch ad vcrsely influence the p rogTcss o f the ranch.

Investigations regarding manage ment techniques which contribute to low cllivin g rates arc carried o ut at the Sandvc ld Rcsearch Sta tion. l t has bcen found that mating during the carl y autumn is usually hindered b y Iate summer rains. Mo reover, Joss of body weight o f the cows is usually so marked that by the time o f the mating season (end of April) t he cows h ave not yet rccovere cl en ough to be able to conceivc. One of the objectives o f research is thcrcforc to find out othcr management practices tha t may enable the cows to conccive during earl y spring. During an expcri ment at Omatjene Rcsearch Station, for example, it was shown that, with a correct number of cattle in the gTaz ing arca, oxen can be ready for the m arket within two and half years showing that in Namibia conditions stiJl exist for the expansion of cattle fm· ming. In Ovambo, for example,

Agn'cultuml Economy of Namibia 13 thcrc arc 4 3 15 milli on hectares or gra;.in g land avail ablc i. e . approximatcly 72.9 hectares per famil y. 1I owcvcr, only 3.45 m illi on hectares arc bcin g utilizcd duc to the absence of surface watcr. T he hi ghcs t cattlc concentration is in the Oshana watcr rich arca- 3.5 hectares pcr large stock unit. ln areas with out sur face waters li vcs toc k concentration is much lowcr- 13.6 hectares per large stock unit.12 ln Kavan go the total cattlc average pcr f' amily is 7.12. T hcrc wcrc 81 000 hcads of cattle in 1976. ln somc areas, l'or in stance, along rivc rs, aro und the borcholcs and well s, the cattlc.conccntra t ion rcachcd on e large stock uni t per 1.05 hectarc.13 ln Kavango pcr capita f'arm in comc from cattlc f' arming is about R 1. 70 pcr year ( 197 5/76).

The quality of' gTass and th e quantity of wa tcr rcmain th e main l'actors in!1u cncin g the con centration o l' li vcs tock, but some othcr fa ctors such as popul ation d istrib ution also p lay a rule in cattlc distribution. At present, the main p ro blcm which cndangcrs the dcvclopmcnt of the cattlc stock in lamibia is the alarming state o f the pastures. According to FAO at !east 20 per cent o f the land was ovcn..;ra;.ed, many of' the pasturcs werc abuscd to the cxtent that they arc now almost wasteland. 14 ln l'act, duc to the drought conditions and the con tinuee! degradation of pastures, in crcasccl bcd m ~ trkctin g in recent years will bring the li ves tock industr y into critical stage, and the recovcry o f stock ~ 111d pasturcs will takc a long t im c rcquirin g much effort and invcst rncnt.

The meat industry is o ne of' the most complc:-; cn tcrprises in the modern awicultural cconomy. lts dcv<:lo pmcnt rcquircs, inter alia, acquisitio n of' up-to -datc refrige ration and fr cczin g equipmcnt, v~ t c uum p

The btcst S\\'1\ ;..l c tt 'J' rade Con trol Board's reports ( 1980- l98 l ) show that 1981 wasa good yctr for l'\amibia's meat tradc. The llllmbcr of cattl c ex po rtee! li ve to South A fri ca in crcased from 236 435 in 1980 to 330 6-12 in l 98 l. Similarly, local slaughtcring incrcasedconstantly from 156 958 in 1978 to 191 332 in l 979 and to'224 955 in 1980 but droppcd t o 142 733 in 1981. T he number of calves slaughtered has declinee! as a consequence of the harmful effects o f long drought from 1 991 heaùs in 1979 to l 78 0 hcacls in 1980. T he reports confïrm th at local slaugh tering and processin g of cattk has ri scn in recent ycars- 33 623 more cattlc were sla ughtercd in 1980 as 11 comparcd to 1979 . The pcrccn tage o f cattlc ex porte e! on th e hoof to South Afri ca clropfed from 60.5 per cent in l 978 to 5 1.3 per cent in 1980,15 but in creased to 69.8 percent in 1981 6 ('Iable 2.2 ). Of the local sla ughte r fac tories, Windhoek is the largest (8 0 623 cattlc slaughte recl in 1980), followcd by Okahanclja (48 008 cattk slaughtered in 1980), Otavi (44 990 cattlc), and Oshakati ( li 992 heads) . ln 1979, bcd carcasses, cuts and oflal exportee! to South Africa wcre 9 408 mctric tons :md 7 02lmetric tons respective! y, 1 7 wh il e in 1981, 48 889 becf carcass units wcre cxported.18 This trend o f expansio n of local slaughtcrin g industry into world markets and thereby obtaining higher ave rage priees and foreign c:.;c hange uencfits is a promisin g one . The marke t priee for bccf 1 9 has incrcased in l 98] and supply is bgging bchind. Demand is likcly to continue to cxpand. Average priees obtain ed rose from 98.1 cents pcr kg carcass mass in 1979 to 144.4 cen ts in 1980. Howevcr, direct bencfits to l'\amibia fro m this favourablc situati on of the bccf market is still a long way ofl as long as bccf export and marketing is controllcd by South African firms.

\ s a consequence of the decline of fï sh inclustry on the one hanc! , and a rosy future for the becf industry on the other, the SAR B-shcd at Walvis Ba y was to be convcrtcd into a cole! storagc fa cility with a capacit y of 3 000 tons.20 This cole! store was bcing built b y the First National Dcvclopmcnt Corporation in conjunc tion with a French meat m arketing consortium and the projcct was expccted to be complctcd by l982 whcn the Gobabis abattoir and meat processing factory was also cxpcctcd to be complctcd . The Gobabis complcx was cxpcctccl to cost about R12.5 million , and cmploy abo ut 350 persans. \Vith its updatcd cquipmcnt, the complex will have the capacity to slaughtcr and proccss so mc 4 00 cattlc a cla y. The frozcn carcasses fr om Gobabis arc railed in fr eezer containers to Wal vis Bay whcrc the containers arc storcd bcforc shipmcnt t o South A fri ca or ovcrscas. Whcn the fa ctory attains full productio n capacity thcrc will be no ncccl to export cattlc on ho of to Sou th A fric a. At present, proccssccl bcd products arc largcly exportee! to So u th A ft·i ca by two othcr main proccssin g factori cs: Damara i\ lcat Packcrs, and El oolo .2 1

14 Livestock in Namibia 's Agricultural Econom y Table 2.2 : Heads of Cattle and Small Stock Exported and Locally Slaughtered, 1976-1981

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Cattl e sold 389 248 348 734 396 952 420 189 461 380 473 375 Cattle exported on hoof 260 869 199 7 57 239 994 228 85 7 236 4 35 330 642 Small stock exported 290 948 2 75 95 1 25 2 7 57 248 081 204 050 583 182 Local ca ttlc slaughtering 128 3 79 148 977 156 958 19 1 332 224 955 142 7 33 Processin g purposes 93 214 11 5 17 5 123 545 162 767 Other 35 165 33 802 33 4 13 28 565 Local small stock slaugh tering 11 7 26 7 121 450 13 1 6 70 16 7 553

Sources: Data computed from vari ous sources. SWA Meat Control Board , Annual R eports. Annual repo rts o f various meat canning factories of Windhoek, Okahanclja and Otavi. Windhoek Observer (31 i'vlarch 1981 ).

Dairy lndustry

According to the South and East Africa Year Book (1947), Namibian farm ers not only pro duced what th eir country needed, but also exported clairy produce to So uth Africa and Europe. The export consisted mainly of butter and cheese.

From 1966 up to the present time the cla iry industry has sullered a continuous deteri o ra tio n. FAO in 1975 estimated a total commercial milk producti on of 65 millio n kg which represents only 50 percent of the total requiremen ts o f milk and milk products in i\amibia. Butter producti on re main ed constantly at 300 metric tons fro m 197G to 1978. In 1980 l\'am ibia importee! 12 per cent o f the country's fresh milk n eeds from South Afr ica. 2 2 Indeed, 0:amibian farm ers pa id more attention to rearin g becf cattlc, in spite o f the fact that complete dependence on meat produc tion is ris ky . The cl airy industry will therefo re nee cl to be revived. At presen t , the ad van cee! techno logies in cold storage, milk processing, milk additives and milk transportation offer good conditions for fas t development o f a pro fitable cl air y industry. Thejexisting clairy farm s at Gobabis, Outjo and Grootfontein illustrate the potential o f cl airy inclu stry as also other farm s at 1l ardap dam alo ng the Swa ko p River, and around Rehoboth which coule! he expancled for this purpose.23

Table 2.3 : Sorne Pertinent Features of a Dairy Enterprise in Namibia, 1971/72 - 1979/80

1971/72 1974/75 1979!80

Average daily milk producti on (litres) 883 993 1 455 Approxima te number o f cows milked per day 81 89 122 Average value/litre produced (cents) 7.01 12.84 19.43 l\1i lk income/cow milked per annum (Rands) 279 523 846 Direct costs/cow milked per annum (Rands) 117 254 507 Gross margin/cow milked per annum (Rands) 162 269 339 lncrease over 1971/72 (%) 66 109 Increase over 19 74/7 5 (%) 26 Increase in value/litre over 71/72 (%) 83 177 Increase in direct costs over 74/75 (%) lOO

Source: Farmer's Weekly (15 April 1981).

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 15 However, a large number of clairy farmers arc in uncertain fin ancial position. Bad climatic conditions and hi gh bccf priees have causcd a markcd shi ft away fr om the industry to beef produc tio n altho ugh, bccausc of the large capital in vcs ted in a clairy farm (parlour and milking m achines, clairy animais), it is not casy for the clairy l'arm er to switch to any alternative type of farming, at !cast in the short run. Howcvcr, if the present difficultics last for a lo nge r period sorne farmers may have no option but to !cave the industry.

One of the biggest problcms facin g th e cl airy farmcr is the procuremcnt of vari ous ration ingredients such as bran, and oil cake mcals, on a continuo us basis. Though milk priees have in crcascd substantiall y from scvc n cents pcr li tre in 1971/72 to ninetccn cents in 1979/80 (Table 2.3), the cost o f the major input items has also riscn considcrably (fuel, fertilizcr, cquipmcnt). The farrn ers must be aided to promote efficiency of production and assistee! through realistic priee adjust ments if the clairy industry is tore main viable. Moreover the need for imports could be eliminated and sclf-sufficicncy attaincd if efforts arc made to in creasc the e ffi cicncy of production couplee! with th e in creasc in the sizc of the clairy hcrd fr o m 5 000 cows to approximately 16 000 cows.24 In conclusion, Namibia must dcvcl o p a sound dairy industry which will help to diversify the cconomy.

Slieep

The cstimatcd shcep population o f Namibia in 1979 was 4.2 million 2 5 o f which 3.3 million wcrc ka rakul shec p. The numbcr o f karakul shcep in the las t few ycars has f:1u ctua ted between 3 and 3.5 million dcpcnding on climatic conditions. The karakul industry in Namibia, one of the main pelt supplic rs in the world market, is in l'act one of the most important scctors of agriculture. lt produccs abo ut thrcc million pclts pcr ycar and SWAKARA- the commercial namc for Namibian karak ul - is weil kn own thro ugho ut th e world as a unique fur with featmes . th at di ffer from the origin al brced and o th er karakul types . Whilc the o ri gin al SWAKARA has cst;.tl'>l!shcd a firm demand on the world markets dcspitc the unprcdictablc nature of the intern atio nal m arket conditions, the karakul ind ustry is goin g through a di fficul t peri oc! .

The first hcrd o f karakul shecp was importcd into Namibia in 1907 from central Asia. In the southcrn parts o f the country, 1\laricntal, Maltahohc, Bethanicn, Kec tmanshoop, and Karasburg, met conditions that arc similar to the desert and sc mi-descrt hi ghlands o f ccntra1 Asia. In fac t the Na mibian hot ariel dese rt lands provide a pCI·fcct ecologie al environ ment fOr the karakul sheep. In addition, the grazin g habits o f the· shccp spread grass seeds on to the soi! thus encouraging plant gTow th, and aiding cnvironmcntal protection by prcventing the cncroachment of the Namib and Kalahari deserts.

The karakul improvcmcnt programme commcnccd immcdiately after the importation of the shccp, at first by Iocal ·brccdcrs and latcr by the coloni al gc ne ti cists. After a long period of experi mentation (through observa ti ons , selection , and cross-brceding based on ge netic pairing) a new type o f karakul brecd was formee! with a special type of curl , characteristic colour, and fineness of hair. The different types o f SWAKARA skins currcntly on the market are categori zed as (1) a smooth, satin y skin with lustrous watersilk markings, known as Broadtail , (2) a slightly lo nge r hair version o f the Broadtail but with more markcd ribbing cffcct at the centre of the skin, (3 ) an overall ribbed c ffcct, and (4 ) a soft open curl, scattercd rosettes with ribbcd formations. Black, grey (from extra cl ark through to grey-brown), brown (from ex tra-dark thro ugh Ii gh t-bronze to gold-tipped ), and white pclt colo urs of SWAKARA arc especiall y in demand in the world market.

SWAKARA pclts arc produccd at approximatcly 4 000 karakul farms, of which 3 000 are European ranches. Thcsc ranches stock 90 pcr cent of the to tal number of between 3.3 to 3 .5 million karakul sheep in the country. Thus, the karakul industry is overwhelmingly d ominated by white farmcrs. The average sizc of the European ranches is 15 000 hectares. They have at !east one artificial permanent water source and an average o f fi vc permanent labourers. On a modern karakul farm about 5 hectares are rcquired per ewc and one farm worker is n eedcd fo r every 600 ewes. An average full time karakul fann may have as many as 2 5 00 ewcs .

16 Livestock in N amibia s Agn'cultural Economy T he mean annual ).,>TOSs carnings pcr cwc fo r the las t c igh t ycars, cxcl uding 1977, amountcd to bctwccn R4 anrl R5 which pro duccd an in com c o f Rl O 000 to Rl 2 000 pcr fuU tim c fa rm. Almost t he wh o le p roduction o f S\\'A KA RA pel ts is expo rtee\. Fi gure 2.3 p rovidcs a graphi e rcprcscn tati o n of th·c numbcr o f pclts exporte e\ and the ,·a.lu c of expo rt carnings. T he recent ycars han: sccn w icl c flu c t uatio ns in both the pro ducti on fi gures and fo re ign cxchangc carnin g fi gures duc Lo poli ti cal un ccr tainty , the extrc'm e drought conditio ns, and the recessio n in th e traditio nalmm kc ts o f SWAKJ\RA pclts. Ovcr the las t tWQ ycars the pro duct has also !ost som c o f its popularity as a fa shion article . T he econ om ie p rogn os is continues to be glo o my and the clcli,·cry pcrio d o f the rcquircd prod uc t is som ctimcs too lo n g and too costly . The p.rod uc ti o n o f na tura l colo m pclts had to be in crcasccl con idcrably. As a rcsult o f the small oflcr of cspcciall y brown a nd \\'hitc pclts, l'urricrs oftcn , cl ue to fin ancia l considerations, show li ttle intcrcst in buy in g thcsc pclts in ra w sta tc . ln 1981 the sales o f black SWAKARA garments were m uch be hind the grey and bro wn un es which are m o re in dem and duc to chan ges in fashion as is rc fl cctcd in the priee of the pc lts o f d ifferent colo urs (sec Table 2.4). Nevcrthcless, thcrc arc a numbcr o f fac to rs t h a t coule! in 11u cn cc t he marke t fa ,·o urably in the future . T he farm crs must, thercforc, conccntra tc m ore on bcttcr qu ~ùit y pc lts and they h a\T tu be m acl e aware t hat karakul shccp is an animal t ha t can be use d fo r pelts a n d fo r lll l'< l l. ln th e li gh t o f the present circumstanccs, t he karakul farmcrs in i\amibia have hecn recommcndcd to kccp thcir 11 ocks pure and o nly lambs with high pclt quality sh o ulcl be slaugh tcrcd for the fur lll

Figure 2.3 : Quantity and Value of Na~~'s . Karakul Pelt Export; 1971-1980 . .... ' . . ·.· . .. ..::: ·•·

Quantity Exportee! Expo rt Earn in ~. s (millio ns) (m illi on R) ,

Year 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 198 1 1982

Source: K arak ul Boa rd of Sou th Wes t Africa , Second Annual Report for the Period 1.1.80 to 31.12.80 (Windh oe k, SWA K arak ul Board , 1981).

Agricultural Economy of Namtbia 17 Table 2.4: Analysis of Pclt Sales in London During 1979 and 1970 (Total Offering)

Quantity Perccntage Average Prie e (R ands) Pelt Co.l our 19 79 1980 1979 1980 1979 1980

Black 3 809 5G4 3 832 604 82.9 81.3 ] 5.0 7 13.21 C re y G43 9 19 725 725 l..J. .O 15.4 22. 78 19. 72 Whi te 52 721 G5 255 1.2 1.4 16.20 16.49 Brown 32 357 40 350 0.7 0.9 16.7 9 16.25 Spo tted 54 277 46 589 1.2 1.0 8.62 8.50

Total 4 592 838 4710523 100 100 16.10 14.23

Source : Karakul Board o f So uth Wes t Africa , Second Annual Report for the Period 1 ]anuary 1980 to 3 1 Deccmber 1980 (Windh oek , Kara kul Board, 1981) p . 11.

llowcvcr, SWi\Ki\ Ri\ fas hi on has bettcr co mpetitive ad van tagc over o thcr ty pes o f furs such as ranchcd furs and wild long hair fu rs which arc mo re costl y . ln th csc circumstanccs, it is quite conccivablc that SWA KA RA will tluive and co ule! even k tch do uble the present p ri ee towarcls th e end of 1983.2 7 In spi tc o f this optim is m , the dcclining cond itio n of the farming land duc to overgra1.in g and dro ught, and the mono poly structure o f the karakul ranching industry make it unlikcly tktl th e industry will experience any expansion in the ncar future. It is difficult to think of possib le substitutes for the industry . Alterna tes such as An gora shccp canno t be a rcliable substitutc for karakul shce p sin cc priees o f mo hair l1u ctuate even m ore violently th an th osc o f karakul pelts.

One of the major problems a fkcting karakul brccding has bcen statcd as the tcndcncy fo r the loss o f hair quali ty and pdt colo ur.2 8 Research to rectify this llaw sh o ulcl be unclcrta kcn if Namibia's position as a market leader in karakul pclts is to be maintain ed. So mc rcsearch is alrcady in pro grcss. At p resent, rescarch in stitutions arc engagee! in the in ves ti gation o f th e gcnctic characteristics o f the animais' progcny and ped igree, fc cding mcth ods, discase control, pclts proccssing, etc. A number o f th csc projccts arc bcin g hanclled by the different experim ental sta ti o ns in th e country. At Newclam , rcscarch is bcing conductcd in the clcvclo pmcnt o f albin o among the karakul lambs, investigation into th e causes o f curly hair among the karakul sheep, influence o f nutricnts (particu larl y protcin and carbo hydratcs) in lambs, the dcvclo pmcnt o f age o f pubcrty among the cwes, hormo nes dcvclopmcnt in the reproductio n o f cwes, and the cffcct o f arti fic ial in se mination on the number o f ewes born. At GCll ap Ost Stati on , research is being carried out in the development o f metctllic shining in the lambs, and the causes of pclt thickness . At Kalahari Stati on, attention is being givcn to inbrccclin g, and qualitati ve and quantitative aspects o f pclts. Finall y , at Groot!'ontcin Agricultural College, work is being undertaken on biomass o f pas ture for sheep and goats.

Ano thcr important field o f rcsearch rcquiring a ttention relates to the marketing of pclts including international agreements under which it o pcratcs and whethcr thcsc o pcrate in the best intcrcs t of Namibia. It is also important to investiga tc the m anner in which m arkets can be expanclcd and new marke ts fou nd. Fin all y , rcsearch sho ulcl be undertakcn to find the bcst usage of karakul lamb meat. A t present, between 2.7 and 2.9 million lambs of abou t 1 kg carcass weight cach are bein g slaughtered fo r pclts. This res ults in an cstimatcd 2.7 to 2.9 millio n kg o f m eat which can be proccssccl in the form of. m ea t meal usc d for animal fccding.

ln addition to the karakul shccp , it is cstimatcd that in 1\'amibia thcrc arc abo ut 0.9 million shecp for meat consumption .2 9 The total local slaughtcrin g o f shccp for meat (including karakul shecp) in abattoirs rcvealed an average fi gure o f GO 000 heacl s per ycar bctwcen 1978 and 1980. In addition, abo ut llO 000 hcads per ycar wcrc cxpo rted li ve to So uth Afri ca cluring the same period . As shcep and goat meat rcmain the m ain becf substitute and the staple meat for the Nami-

18 Liv estock in Namibia s Agricultural Economy bians, more rcsearch effort must be undcrta kcn to es tablish the truc carrying capacity o f various types o f veld so that farmers can be advised to use stockin g rates that will cnablc them to farm optimall y witho ut dctrimentall y affcctin g the quality o f the pastures and the soi!.

Goats

l t is cstima ted that thcre arc about l 750 000 goats in l':am ibia . The southern region is the main prod ucer of goats accounting for about 73 per cent o f the total. Unlike cattlc, 1\:amibians do not considcr goats as symbol o f wealth and therdore they contributc m ore directly to food nutrition. The milk from the goat, for cxamplc, is a highly diges tible food which is valuablc for a large number of children. It is easil y acceptee! as a fostcr milk suitablc fo r fccdin g the slo vv-growing infant. During the period 1979 to 1980 about 60 000 goats werc locall y slaughtercd at abattoirs and 120 000 heads wcre exportee! li ve to So uth Africa.3 ° C oat skin s arc also in cl cm and in the leather goods industry and the priee pcr skin obtaincd in 1978 varice! be tween R3.G5 and lU .89 . The severe dro ught ha bccn the main cause o f the in crease in goat slaughtcring and live export.

T hro ugh lo ng periocl o f selection and adapta tion th e ·amibian goat (Damara) is weil acclim~tti zed to difficult local conditions, and has acquircd a great deal of immunity from paras itic and o ther cliseases. The Namibian goat is small , with body wcight se ld om exceeding 25 kg, and the median carcass weight vary in g btween 12 and 14 kg. Two exotic dua.l -purpose breeds arc also found in Namibia , viz., Boer (for m eat and milk) and l\ lohair (for wool and milk). They arc rearcd mainly b y the commercial farmers.

REF ERENC ES AND NOTES

1. Windh oek Advertiser (24 Novemb er 198 1) . 2. Windh oek Observer (3 1 March 1983). 3. Ibid. 4. South A/rica Digest (?.6 June 198 1). 5. Th e Chronicle (Bu lawayo) (7 Mareil 1980). 6. Th e Economist (Lond on)( 17 October 198 1). 7. Windhoek Observer (3 1 March 198 1) . 8. Th e Economist Intelligence Unit, Quarter/y Economie Review of Sou them A/rica ( 198 1) , 3 rd Quarter. 9. International De fence and Aid Fund ,Namibia : Th e Facts (London, !nt. Defence and Aid Fund, 19BO) . 10. W. E. Kassier and F. J. van der Merwe, Die Landbousektor in Owambo (Stellenbosch, Univ. Stellenbosc h, 1974). 1 1. Ekuliko Kavango Limited, Annual R eport No . 1, 19 76/77. 12. Kassier and van der Merw e, Die Landbousektor in Owambo. 13. D. Page, A Comprehensive Development Study on the Kavango Region (Stell cnbosch, Univ. Stellenbosc h, 1979). 14. FAO Satellite Imageries of Na mibia : Planning Workshop on Namibian Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Securi ty, Maputo, Mozambique, August 1980. See also R. Moorsom, Transforminga WastedLand. (London, CIIR , 1982). 15. Th e Economist Intelligence Unit, Quarter/y Economie Review of Sou them A/rica ( 198 1) 3rd Quarter. 16. Windhoek Observer (3 1 March 1983). 17. Windhoek Advertiser ( 13 March 1981 ). 18. Windhoek Observer (31 Marcl_1 1983). 19 . Farmer's Weekly (25 March 198 1). 20. R. I-1 . Green , Namibia : A Poli ti cal Economie Survey (Brighton, Uni v. of Sussex, 1979). 21. Th e Spectrum (SWA/ am ibia) (Jan/ Feb. 19 80). 22. Ibid . 23. Ibid . 24. Windhoek Observer (31 March 1983). 25. Karakul Board of South West Africa , R eport for June 1980 (Windhoek, Karakul Board of SWA , 1980). 26. Windhoek Advertiser (13 March 198 1). 2 7. Ibid . (24 November 198 1). 28. I-1 . Brandt and ot.he rs, Perspectives of Independent Development in Sou them Africa : The Cases ofZimbabw e and Namibia. (Berlin, GDI, 1980). 29. FA 0 Satellite Imageries of Namibia. 30. SWA Meat Control Board , Annual Report (Windhoek, SWA Meat Control Board, 1980).

Agn'cultural Economy of Namibia 19 Chapter Three

CROP PRODUCTION : A NEGLECTED RESOURCE

Ecology and hi storicaf antecedents have made Nam ibia esscntia ll y a li vestock country . Crops, thcrdorc, play a comparati vc ly minor rolc in the agri c ultural cconomy . The lopsidcd agric ultural structures, hcavil y dependent on li vcs tock , have bccn imposed on Namibia to kcep it a captive market for grain produccd by South African farm crs, and a supplier o f chcap red meat for South Afri ca. As a rcsult of thcsc constraints, crop prod ucti on is gc ncrally limited to pcasant agriculture with th e exception thal somc maizc is producccl on commercial farms for fcecl in g the cattlc. Virtual ly no cash crops arc gTown. \\'ithin the con tcxt of th e c xisting situation, the constrain ts on crop production arc much th e same as the constraints on the clcvclopmen t o f pcasant agT icul turc. Thomas id en ti fi cs t h esc cons train ts as follows:

Limitations of nature : low rainfall, periodic droughts; shortagc of irriga tion watcr and borc holcs; un suitablc soi! structure; dange r of sa nd erosion .

Struc tural factors: long distances to markets and urban centres; poor transpo rt and communi cation links; inadequate marketing channcls; tribal communal land owncrship; Jack o f clcctri city and othcr bas ic se rvices; Jack or dcvclopmcnt fin ance.

DcmogTap hi c factors: low land/ man ratio (i njustice of land all ocatio n ); distorted agc/sex ra ti o of labour force (duc to mig-rant labo ur policy) ; hi gh ra te of population growth in rural areas ; virtual absence of urban centres in peasant arcas, restri ction on migration to relieve over population.

Kn owlcdgc gap: ignorance abo ut alternative o r su pplcmcntary products; Jac k of acquaintancc wi th im p rovcd mc th o ds and technologi es; relu ctance to in nova te; Jack o f re se arch and in sullïcicn t rcscarch transmission ; is o lati on Fr om m ode rn agri cul tu rai sec tor and i ts dcm onstra tion c iTcct; in s1dlïcicnt education/training facilitics and Jack o f m anagcrial skills.

lnadequacy o r dcvc lo pment d forts: distrust o f dcvclopmcnt corporatio ns; over-d cpcndencc on cxtcrn :J. l assistance; Ja ck of grassroots motivation and modernizin g agents; shortagc of funds for dcvclopmcn t projects; political in stability; distrust of the bureaucracy and Jack of any local a~rr i c ul tura! pressure groups.

Cie arly most o f th esc lim i tin g factors have be en ci th cr allo wcd to persist or im posed by the apartheid regime with a vicw to create conditions th at ensurc the continuee! availability of cheap labour for the white controll ed industries and farms. Nevcrthclcss, the list of obstacles is use ful ; for the govcrnmcnt of indcpcndcnt Namibia will have to contend with thcse problcms.

Thus, the present statc o f crop production results from a deliberate agricultural policy pur-. sucd by the South African regime which rega.rds Namibia as a source o f its agTicultural raw m ateri als, and a market for its finishcd agri cu}tural products including food products, inputs, and other intcrmediatc products. In conformity with this po li cy, the scctors o f the Namibian cconom y are linked to the o utsidc vvorlcl (So uth Afri ca, Western Europe) rather than to each other. Namibian agTiculturc has th us becn dcvclopcd to complcmen t the South African agri culture sector. Such lopsided agricultural poli cy with its emphasis on pro moting commercial agriculture at the expense o f subsistence fam1in g has had the e ffect of distorting the econo my away fr om the balanced path of economie developmcnt. The devclopmcnt o f a few sectors of the economy in the territory to

20 Crop Production: A Neglected R esource the exclusion o f ali else has resulted in a form o f wowth in i\'amibia which has intensifie cl that country 's dependence on the illegal colonial p ower. Ano th cr significant impact of this pattern is th e enforcement of the dependency status o f the tcrritory b y th e South Ai'ri can control o f the pro ducti on and distribution o r food supplies. As a result, li\TStock proclu ti o n fca turcs promincntly in the agricultural sect or, and it is carried o ut on large -sc alc commercial fanns by whi te farmcrs. Crop production, on the o ther hand, is unclertakcn on a much sm allcr scalc in the rural areas l'or subsistence purposes and in the marginal areas o utside the \\·hitc commercial farm s.

Agri culture in the north is gc nerally constrain ed by th e Ja ck o f watcr, Jack o r modern techni ques, and above ali the lack o f land. In Okavan go, Ovam bo an d the eastern regio n the agri c ulture is gc nerally rain-fcd. The basis of h o mes teacl consists ty pi call y o r tllree to four Lun ili es with a surro unding cultivated arca o f abo ut 8 hectares or an average o f 2 to 3 hcCLa rcs pcr famil y ." T he farming operati ons are labo ur-intensive requiring considerable inputs o r famil y labo ur to open up the land and cultivate the m o unds on which planting takes place. The ho mcs tcad produc ti on, l'or example, o f millet is ty pically abo ut 2.6 bags per hectarc .2 " lt was es tim

In north-western Namibia (including Kaokovcld and Dam arala ti d), on th e o ther hanc\ , somc arable cultivati on is undcrtaken for local consumptio n but the people rely mainl y on livcs tock prod ucts. However, in sm ali vill ages a l'am il y m a y c ul ti va tc abo ut one hec tare or in tcrcroppcd millet, pumpkins, and calabas h, (Hibisc us urens). A t Otav i thcre is al so a small amo unt o r irrigated wheat farmin g and at Ehomba sorn e tobacco, fruits and vegetables arc grovvn.

Therc is very li ttle crop production ac tivity in the commcrcial ·scctor (sec h gurc 3. 1 ). llcnv evcr, some o f G 000 w hite-owncd ranns grow mai1.c for use as animal l'ccc l. T he nc

Farms of \~ ' hitcs 16 43 1 bao,.., s

" Reserv es" Northern "Reserves"---- ...__ __ in Southern Sector 114 000 bags 2 70bags

Agricultural Econ omy of Nam ibia 21 The drilling of b orch oles a nd construction of small dams thus provide the only hope for alleviating wa ter shortage fo r irriga ti on. So far, however, little has been cl one in this field because it involvcs local decision-making and administrati on tha t is hampered due to the Jack of local admin istrative structurcs .5

Crop pro duc ti on fi gures for cither the subsistencc sector or the commercial sector are not rcadil y avail ablc. Howcvcr, Figure 3.1 p rovidcs sorne idea of the rela ti ve importance o f principal arcas in tcrms o f crop o utput.6 Table 3 .1, based on fi gures fr o m the Directorate of Finance, provides a l>rcakdown o f cro p producti on o f somc o f the important commodities, and Table 3 .2 provides crop produc ti on estima tes a nd the arca undcr cultivation fo r vario us crops.

Map 3.1 : Namibia- Cropping Potential

14"' 2

---·-·-·-·-·-. ·-·-.. -·-- ·"""'· ,. ~-~·~ · - · ,··~~~~~~~

...... -:.-. "'-*" .. :f l "''Ï i 1 2ff 1 2(1'

0 80 160 240km 24° 24°

KEY

26° 26° • Normal cropping D Marginal dryland cropping

D Submarginal dryland cropping 280 Il o dryland cropping

li' 14° 2(1' 220 24°

22 Crop Production :A Neglected R esource Table 3.1 : Crop Production in Namibia, 1975-1979

Pro duc tian ( '000 tons)

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Ma ize 12 292 12 163 8 594 9 239 l\tlillct 35 800 41 596 40 295 25 000 Hay Crops 30 3 71 28 767 26 227 24 404 24 000

Source: W. H. Thomas, "The Econoniy in Tnmsition to lndcpendencc." ln R. l. Rotberg, ed., Namibia : Political and Economie Prosp ects (Cape Town, David Philip , 1983) p. 8.

Table 3.2 : Crop Production Estimates 1972- 197 6 (hectares, tonnes)

Cmp1 1971 1972 197 3 1974 1975 19 76

Wheat Are a 600 600 700 700 700 700 Production 600 600 700 700 700 700 Ma ize Area2 30 000 32 000 32 000 32 000 32 000 32 000 Production 10 000 12 000 12 000 12 000 12 000 14 000 l\1i llet Area2 48 000 49 000 50 000 51 000 52 000 53 000 Production 17 000 17 500 18 000 18 500 19 000 ] 9 500 Sorghum Area2 6 000 7 000 7 000 7 000 7 000 9 500 Production 2 000 2 300 2 300 2 300 2 300 2 300 Total Grain A rea 84 600 88 600 89 700 90 700 91 700 93 200 Production 29 600 32400 33 000 33 500 34 000 36 500 Roots and Tubers Are a 12 500 12 500 ) 13 000 13 500 14 500 14 500 Production 105 000 105 000 110 000 115 000 120 000 125 000 Pulses A rea 3 300 3 300 3 300 3 400 3 400 3 400 Production 5 900 6 000 6 200 6 300 6 400 6 600 Fresh Vegetablcs Prod uction3 16 500 17 000 17 500 18 000 18 500 19 000 Total Area4 104 500 108 600 109 400 112 100 114 200 115 900 Production 157 000 160 400 166 700 172 800 178 900 187 100

1. Ali data are highly approximate trend estimates. They do not take account of weather and, therefore, actual annual output fluctuations. 2. Probably grossly underestimated. Outputs may be closer to correct as yields pcr hectare appear to.be grossly overcstimated. 3. Production and implicit hectare probably seriously underestimated. 4. Apparent gross underestimate. 1960 South African Agricultural Census Data (Report No. 1 of 1963) show about 640 000 hectares under culti vation- 66 000 European and 574 000 African.

Sources: Data from FAO, Namibia: Prospects for Future Developmen t (Rome, FAO, 1977). Table reproduced from R. H. Green, M. Kiljunen, and K. Kiljunen, Eds. Namibia : Th e - Last Colony (Harlow, Longman, 1981) pp. 287-8.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 23 Food Jmports

Altho ugh the availablc statistics on food im ports relate cssentiall y to unproccssed foodstuffs, a t,'Teat deal ofprocesscd food products arc importe e! into the country includin g such items as canned ve gc tables, fruits, bcvcragcs, etc. Importee! staple foods includc ccreals, milk products, ve ge ta bles and fruits as weil as roots and po ta tocs. For the pcri od 1974-1979, ccreal im ports amounted to 90 000 tons pcr annum o n average (Tab le 3.3). The bulk of this is macle up o f maizc and whcat. Thcrc is , howcvcr, a w icl c variation ln the amo unt of food imports as a rcs ult o r uncertain climatic conditions that affect do mcs ti c food producti o n. ln addition to ccrcals othcr food products im purtcd in cludc fruits, vcgctablcs, and po tatucs (n carl y 70 000 tons annually) and pulses (10 000 tons).

Table 3.3: Food Crop Exports and Imports Averages for 1974-79

Food Crop Product Export (tons) lmport (tons)

Ccrcals 90 000 Legumes, groundnuts 1 000 10 000 Fruits, roots and vcgc tablcs 20 000 70 000

Source: R. I-Iacnnincn and K. Aho, R esearch to Assess the Present Food and 1 utrition Status of Namibia (Lusa ka, UNIN, 1981 ). Mimeographed. p. 108.

Production Inputs

The agric ultural producti on inputs considcrcd crucial for Namibia arc fertilizers and pl ant pro tection chcmicals. llowcver, statistiçs rcgardin g input supply, tl1at is, chcmicai fertili zcrs, pesti cides, herbicides, etc., in Namibia arc not rcadil y available. ln any case, the use o f thcse agri c ultural inputs is probably nomimd in the subsistcncc scctor in the north and north-cas t wherc some soi ls arc known to be deficient in phosphorus. In the arca o f crop pro tection , the chcmicals su ch as Aldrin, for maize insect pests ; DDT, for maize and sorghum; Dieldrin, for maize and vegetables ; and Daisyston, for vegetables; are n<;>t readily avai lablc or economically accessible to the majority of crop producers who are subsistence farm ers.

The volume of krtili zcr applicd in th e tcrritory can only be cs timatcd. The 1960 South African agri cultural ccnsus data show that about 640 000 hectares are undcr cultivation. At an optimistic ave ra ge annual fcrtilizer application rate o f 120 kg per hectare, the maximum annual fcrtili zcr consumption is no more than 7G 800 tons. The actuaJ figure is probabl y somcwhere bctwccn 8 000 - 10 000 tons.

Marketing

The present marketin g structure for food crops in i'\a mibia is a complex chain of borh publi c and privatc entcrpriscs . Statutory marketin g boards ex ist for main crop products such as maizc _ llowcver, such bo;ucl s arc conccrnccl primaril y with th e purchasc fr o m farm crs and resale to whole sakrs and proccssors. Somc who lcsalc es tablishments arc controllecl by the First Nati onal Develop mcnt Corporation (ENOK), o thcr wholesalcrs and proccssors are private companies while retail cstblishmcnts fr om urban supcrmarkcts to vill age stores arc gcncrall y in private hancls.

Marketing boards serve three impçHtant roles . First, th ey provide the services of assembly or bulking, transport, storage and perhaps gTading, and ge neraily managi ng the f1ow of produce from producers to consumers. Second, they stabili ze priees fo r bo th producers and consumers, providing thereby favourable and stable conditions for producti on. Thire!, they pay subsidies to provide priee in centives to producers and/or to keep priees low fo r consumers and so encourage output.

24 Crop Production :A Neglected R esource Natural Grasslanr!s and Velds

Ano th cr impo rtan t arca o f crop farming which is crucial for aggrcgatc agri c ul tural output in Namibia is the judicio us utilizati on and m anagemen t o f the na tural p asturcs o r grasslancl s includin g velds. Pro pcr manage ment of' the uscful grasses , shrubs, an d trccs espccia ll y in i\amibia with its fragi le ecology is an importan t aspect o f farm m anagemen t practicc. lt is also neccssary Lo undcr sta nd veld vege tation an d the agTo -ccolo:;1caJ cnviron mcnt in wh ic h it cxists (î\ lap 3.2).

Map 3 .2 : Namibia--Veld Types

·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- · - ·- ·-·-·- ·- ·- ·- ·"-"" ,~ ·---·-.-.C:?":::z::cL sq~~ ;:m;:~~ le

l b

orthc rn woodlan d and savannah: l a, Caprivi sub-typc lb, O kavango sub-typc l e, Oshana sub-type 1 d. Kaokovcld sub-typc 22'? 2. Ka o kovel d plateau mopani woocU and and ari d steppe 3. Karstic woocU:u1d 4. Da marala nd thorn-trec savannah S. l.l erg-acacia sc ru b veld 24o 6. Plateau su b-dese rt steppe or ariel sh rub-grass vdd 7. Kalk plateau low sh ru b ve ld 8 . Southern Kal ahari wooded steppe o r thorn-trec savannah 9. Coastal Namib desert 10. lnne r or tra nsitional Nalllib, a nd lower Ora nge River vaJ ley

0 80 160 240 km

Vege ta tion in Namib ia may be d ividcd in to two d ifferen t types de marcatcù by the 200 m m isohyet- the desert type, and the eastern savann ah, woodland an d steppe typ es. T he amo unt o f grass and q uality varies be tween these two types an d also within and bc tween seasons and finall y with t he distribut ion o f rain fall . The mineral con ten t o f' the grasses is likcwise a ffected b y these factors. The most co mmon useful grasses are th ose o f the genus Aristida and in this gcnus the m ost uscful is the species A ristida uniplumis. Other im portan t specics and sub-dcse rt shrubs include Eragrostis species, Leucosphaera bainesii and Montinia caryophyllac ea. Thcre a re fo ur main types o f ve ld , namcly, the desert o f the Na mib lower Oran ge River Valley, the plateau sub-cleser.t , the wooded ste ppe and savann ah o f the southern Kalahari and Damaraland, and the northcrn woodlands. T he m ai n tenance o f stock in each o f these areas depends on sound veld m anage ment.

Agn'cultural Economy of Namibia 25 REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. W. H. Thomas, "The Economy in Transition to 1ndependence." In R. l. Rotberg, ed., Namibia : Political and Economie Prospects (Cape Town, David Philip, 1983) pp. 58-59. 2. C. Totemeyer,Namibia: Old and New (London, C. Hurst, 1978) p. 145. 3. FAO, Food Supplies and Nutrition in Namibia (Rome, FAO, 1979) (NAM/79/022). 4. S. Cross and O. Gibbon, A Short Evaluation of the Agricultural Resources of Namibia (Rome, FAO, 1975) (FH 14/5 AF/A.IO) p. li. S. Ibid. 6. F AO, Namibia :A Preliminary Note Towards a Country Development Briel (Rome, F AO, 197 5?) p. 24.

26 Crop Production :A Neglected Resource Chapter Four

FISHERIES : AN OVEREXPLOITED RESOURCE

The immense fishery resources of Namibia have, over the years, been systematically over exploited by South Africa and other fishing nations, thus endangering the natural cycle of fish and causing a dramatic fall in fish catch in recent years. For instance, total fish catch feil from 415 784 tons in 1978 to 205 891 tons in 1980-a fall of over 50 per cent. 1 Namibia's pelagie industry was, un til ~ecently, tl;le country 's second largest camer of foreign revenue after mining. In view of the continued exploitation of Namibia's natural resources since the enactment of Decree No. 1 for the ·-Protection of the Natural Resources of 1amibia, the thirty-second meeting of the United Nation.s Council for amibia, held on 29 May 1980 in Algeria adopted a resolution underlining the impor tance of the e_ffecti':'e i~plem e ntation of the decree. The resolution condemned the violations of the decree, including the illegal exploitation of amibia's marine resources in its territorial waters and South Africa's acts to extend illegally, in its own name, the territorial coastal waters of Namibia and to proclaim an exclusive economie zone for Namibia. Another resolution condemned ail countries engaged in illegal fishing within Namibia's territorial waters.

The Namibian fish ing industry is entirely controlled by large South African companies and their subsidiaries with their own processing faci li ties, storage, distribution, and marketing network. More than 60 per cent of the total South Afi·ican catch in 1979 was caught in Namibian waters.2 South Africa's over-exploitation of the Namibian marine resources has, in fact, !cft the amibian fishin g industry at stake .. lnadequate legis lation, shortcomings in the scientific evaluation of the fish resources, mismanage ment of the national fish resources, and the effects of the large factory and marketing cartels have also contributed to the present decline of this important food industry. Moreover the Namibian population does not benefit from the country's rich fishing grounds with the exception of a few jobs on fishing boats and fishing industry in Walvis Bay and l..uderitz. Finally, there is evidence that the illegal government has failed to control and take measures for the improve ment of fishing stock in both quantitative and qualjtative terms.

Environment

The 1300km stretch of the South Atlantic Ocean along the Namibian coast is one of the richest fishing areas in the world. The waters offer a unique biotop and excellent conditions needed by sorne varieties of fish such as pilchards and anchovies, which form the bases of the Namibian fishing industry. The cold , nutrient rich Benguela current of the Atlantic coast lit by sun provides a perfect environment for the growth of phytoplankton and zooplankton which constitute the main nutrient stuff of the commercial species, and ensures a sound food chain in fishing grounds which is of paramount importance for the development of different fish species. The prevailing tempera ture, salinity, and dissolved oxygen levels also ensure the survival and development of fish eggs. Namibian waters from Cape Fria in the north to Hollanus Bird Island in the south provide the most favourable conditions for spawning, with temperatures ranging from 11.5°C to 23°C, salinity between 34 percent and 35.5 percent, and the dissolved oxygen at the surface 4 mlf!. The tempera ture apfears to have a predominant influence on the development of fish eggs, especially for pil chards. On the basis of available oceanographie data, salinity and dissolved oxygen would not appear to limit incubation or survival of the Namibian pilchard, but the possible intrusion of low oxygen water into the spawnin g grounds could be a potentiallimiting factor in normal egg and larva development in the region.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 27 Table 4.1 : Catches by Major Fishing Countries in the Southeast Atlantic

Catch (tons)

Country 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Non-coastal States

Bulgaria 31 612 45 744 53 479 37 001 27 08.9 Cub a 44 630 33 219 29 300 63 569 42 917 German Democrati e Re public 4 907 13 515 32 732 7 513 Federal Rcpublic o f German y 12 591 11 467 17 467 31 210 China 35 697 38 031 22 587 2 530 2 440 J apan 144 490 119 871 105 040 72 446 40 053 Poland 76 229 113 026 134 635 164 139 112 625 Portugal 15 367 20 417 24 551 19 241 15 950 Romani a 7 932 5 843 31 307 73 951 Spain 199 891 202 964 175935 162 260 146 361 USS R 420 734 841 250 1 04 7 227 1 496 362 85 804

Sub-tota/1 968 650 1 439 952 1 623 579 2 099 054 1360449

Coastal States

Angola 153 180 74 142 113 008 118 230 105 673 Namibia 759 825 572 424 403 095 415 784 264 102 South Afri ca 638 366 637577 600 258 624 607 651 822

Total 2 520 021 2 724 095 2 739 940 3 257 675 2 382 046

1. Small er quantities arc taken by othcr countries including France, Israel, and Italy.

Sources: Sclccted data computed by the United Nations Institute for Namibia from the various sources includingSouth Afric.anShipping News and Fishing lndustry R eview (May 1979, Nov. 1979), and Windhoek Advertiser (10 April 1981).

Man has also impinge d upon the sea ccosystcm in the region. The fishing industry takes large quantitics o f alm ost everything, but leaves untouched one or two apparently insignificant links in the food chain . In the case of Namibia, overexploitation of the fishing grounds has resulted in a tlrastic decline of the hake resources.4 Hake feed on lantern fish and light fish 5 which in turn, feed on zooplankton . Since the hake, and certain other predatory species such as mackerels, have bec n reduccd to a law lcvcl by excessive exploitation, the lanternfish and perhaps light fish biomass has increascd and the consumption of zooplankton has therefore increased.6 ·on the other hand, the juvenile pilchards eat zooplankton un til they attain about 1 Oümm length and juvenile anchovy eat zooplankton until they are about 80mm long. Thereafter, bath species feed on phytoplanktonJ Thus, abnormally large masses of lanternfish and li ght fish are competing with weak, immature pilchard and anchovy for what would be a depleted food source. The result could be detrimental for adequate pilchard and anchovy recruitment: This also explains the apparent high availability of massbanker in Narnibian waters which eat lanternfish.

The need for research and manage ment within the concept of fish in relation to each other and their environment has been recognized internationally. The ICSEAF Conference in Malta ( 19 7 8) called for the need, indeed the urge nt necessity , for carefully researched understanding of the relationship between the marine organisms and their environment. Recognizing the damage to the sea ecosystem as a result of the faU in hake resources, the ICSEAF eut the hake quotas off the Narnibian coast by 23 per cent to 320 000 tons in 1980. The hake quotas were again reduced by

28 Fishen·es : An Overexploited R esource 34 per cent in 1981. Further, 30 per cent permiss ible hake by-catch in a mixed species fi shing was reduce d to 20 per cent_ Tra wiers catching more th an this leve! were required to use 110 mesh codën ds. 8 These acti ons, it was hoped, would all ow the hake stock to increase, res ulting in reduc tion of lantem fish stock an d increase in the pilchard and an chovy stocks due to the diminishing competition for zooplankton food supplies .

In the meantime the present anomali es in the ecosystem o f the Na mibian waters which en dange r the natural cycle in fish, caused by, inter aLia, the South African overexploitation o f the fishing stock had led to the coll apse o f this once thrivin g fi sh industry.

Fislzing and the Economy of Namibia

Fisheries in Namibia is the second most important industry, after mining. Just over a decade ago, Namibia used to be one o f the most im portant fi shing countries in the world , the inclu stry reaching a peak in 1968 and 1969 wi th total catches o f over one million tons which placee! the country among the seven largest fish producing countries in the world . Thus in 1969 the pela).,rÏ C fishery produced 200 000 tons of fish meal, 4 5 000 tons o f fi sh oil, and 4 000 000 cases o f cannee! fish wit h total gross valu e of US$200 milli on at eurrent priees. Sin ce then the production has fallc n considerably (See Table 4 .2). The fishing industry 's contrib ution to GDP in terms o f constant priees (1 975) dropped continuo usly from R8.1 million in 1978 to R7 .2 million in 1979 and to R6.8 million in 1980.9 The fi sh products despite their low contribution of about two per cent to GDP amount to 14 per cent o f the export in recent years (Figure 2.2) and, together with meat prod ucts, cl ominate the food processin g industry.

Table 4 .2 : Namibian Fishing Industry, 1975-1980

Ca tch ('000 tons)

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Pilchards 545 447 194 46 18 9 Anchovy 194 94 125 360 2 14 159 Reel eyef!Vlackerel 11 11 1 0 .3 12 0.88 iVIaasban ker 9 20 83 9 20 37

Total 759 572 403 415 264 206

Processing

Fishmeal ('000 tons) 14 7 106 83 160 68 55 Fish oil ( '000 tons) 28 19 13 28 20 17 Cannee! fish ('000 cartons*) lü 77 9 9 698 3 991 l 149 920 36

* Approximately 18 kg each.

Sources: South African Shipping News and Fishing Jn dustry R eview (November 1979, September 1980, November 1980). BuLawayo Chronicle (20 March 1981).

ln addition , the fishin g industry provicled a seasonal employment to about 7 500 people in 19 75 . T he dras tic reduction in quota of pelagi e fish (212 000 t ons in 1981) has had serio us im plications for the fish processing factories as we il as for the lab our force. By April, 1981 only three out o f fi ve of the canneries in Walvis Bay were operational with a total labour force of 1 800 workers .10

Agn.cuLturaL Economy of Namibi" 29 Catch ('000 tons) 800

700

600

500

400

300 1 \ 1 1 \ 1 200

100

Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Total catch ----- Massbanker ----_ Pilchards ----- Fishmeal ----- Anchovy ------Fish oil Redeye/ Mackerel ------

Overfishing has caused great harm to the industry. Since 1974 the marked decline in catches has resulted in less fish bcing canned. This has had serious implications for the economy, because the catches are not expected to recover in the sh ort term, and now the contribution of the fish industry to the country's total output has decreased considerably.

Sea Fis/ting

The Namibian sea fishing grounds provide the following commercial species: pilchard (Sar dinops ocellata), anchovy (Engraulis capensis), maasbanker-within the zone of twelve miles and hake (Merluccius sp ), red eye (Etrumens . teres), horse mackerel (Scomber colias), con gers ( Congridae sp )-outside the coastal waters. Pilchards and anchovies have been the mains tay of the Namibian marine fishing industry while the hake and horse mackerel are mainly fished by long distance foreign fleets and only small quantities of them are landed in Namibia, and no benefit whatsoever accrues to the terri tory from this fishery. The boats employed in sea fisheries are remunerated per body weight of ali fish species landed across the board while factories' profit is based on pilchard in-the-can, and the high oil content of anchovies. While fish oil is still the anchovy's premium value product, maasbanker yields mainly fish meal, which earns far less income per unit for the factories.

30 Fisheries : A n Overexploited R esource Se a fishing in Namibia is con trolled directly by the Se a Fisheries Bran ch of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry of South Africa based in Cape Town. The allocation of fishing quota for companies and ships operating in the Namibian territorial waters, as weil as the promotion of the fish industry, and the execution of the research programmes are supervised from Cape Town.11 At the beginning of 1981 six fishing companies were operating in the pelagie fishing industry of Namibia : Kaap-Kunene, Lamberts Bay, Marine Products, Over-Stons, Seaswas and Swafil. Irvin and Johnson Ltd is active in the white fish sector of Namibia while Consortium Visserye B. P. K. is a subsidiary of the large Namibian consortium trading group, Ohlthaver and List.12 Sorne of the companies are operating only in the Namibian sector (e.g., Sea Products, SWA Fishing, and Willem Barendsz) but most of them operate in South Africa and Namibia, and fin ally, sorne partici pate in joint ventures in Peru and Chile (e.g., Kaap-Kunene, Marine Products, Seaswas and Swafil).

The situation of associated and intermediate companies, the frequent reorganization and the overlapping interests make it difficult to indicate a precise estimation of ownership structure. But the South African companies and their subsidiaries have integrated the Narnibian fisheries into the ir own industry.

The pelagie fishery is served by a fleet of about eighty small purse seiners registered at Walvis Bay. By April 1981, about forty-seven fishing vessels of Walvis Bay's fishing fleet werc idle after a depressing start of the fishing season and half of the fishing industry's fishermen were uncertain whether the season would continue at ali.

A combination of factors, both inside and outside the fishing industry, have brought the one time proud Namibian pelagie sector to a crucial watershed. Overexploitation by South Africa corn panics, an inadequate legislation and the presence of foreign trawlers within the country's fishing zone have caused the recent collapse of this fishing industry which was once near the top in genera ting foreign earnings for Namibia. In recent years the pilchards have been moving north with the result that catches which previously were landed in six to eight hours were now more likely to take fifteen hours. In 1981 the pelagie season first opened on March 23, closed on April 1, opened again south of Palgrave Point on April 8 and closed again from April 28 to May 18. The high by-catch of pilchards (33 000 tons landed in April) was the reason for the double closing of fishing. About 80 percent of the pilchards comprised one year old fish which ought to have been allowed to spawn and for that reason it was recommended that the season must not 'open before April 1. The present situation of the pelagie sector has created the need to revise the legislation goveming fishing activities, and to open the gate to the development of white fish industry whose species seem to have more recovery potential. Trawling on' large-scale has be en a trend for many y cars at Walvis Bay. The Consortium Visserye was formed to develop the1white fish industry with pela~:,ric profit. Accord ing to ICSEAF statistics only a few small trawlers work out of Walvis Bay while foreign fleets gather a massive harvest in Namibian deeper waters. In 1979 the total hake catch was about 415 000 tons of which only 8 500 tons were taken by local trawlers.

Namibia is one of the few rcmaining nations in the world whose fish resource can be exploited by anybody without permission, payment or recompense. The present authorities of Namibia have unilaterally declared a 200 mile fishing zone off the coast effective from 1 April 1981, without ICSEAF recognition. The implementation of the 200 mile zone will not affect the present agree ments amongst the members of ICSEAF during 1981. In terrils of these agreements certain foreign countries have traditionally obtained fishing rights off the Namibian coast from the South African Govemment. It has been estimated13 that Namibia could carn at !east R10 million in foreign revenue from 1982 onwards by the implementation of the 200 mile fishing zone which obliges the countries fishing within the zone to pay commission on catches made at the rate of R10 per ton for hake and- R5 per ton for other fish. Ideal! y, this jurisdiction should allow the fishing authorities to exercise a full control of the foreign fleets' off-take and the maintenance of balance between resource recovery, revenue for development, and the present needs of the Namibian industry. Un fortunately, the international recognition of such a zone is at present under the political control of the illegal regime and in the favour of South African fishing companies which will continue to operate and patrol the Namibian coastal waters. Even if this concept were universally accepted by the world 's fishing community, it would be difficult to implement it without recognition from ICSEAF. Thus, to date, the Namibian people cannat participate full y in the exploitation of this valuable natural resource for their own benefit.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia The Present Assessment of the Stock

Pilchards

By 1978 the ICSEAF report warned that the trend in the Namibian pilchard stock is a classic case of the collapse of the industry and the fi gures (Table 4.2) show that since 1975 the stock reached a cri tic ally low leve! which culminated in the total ban on pilchard catching in 1981. The unprcccdcnted "zone quota" on pilchards indiéates that 1981 season is dcsigned to put the industry on a new course toward restoration and protection of the last remaining pilchard resources, before final destruction due to overfishing sets in. To avoid overfishing during the pilchard spawning period the Fishery Advisory Council of South West Africa dccided that the pelagie season in 1981 should start one mon th la ter on 2 3 March compared to the previous year.

The abrupt clos ure of the 1980 season in June was bccause most pilchards were found to be in roe. Thus, in that year only about 50 per cent o f last ycar's 4 000 tons of pilchards in-the-can fJUOta was met.14 The pilchards mi gration in 1980 to the south reflected a retuin to normal envi ronmcntal conditions which wcrc apparently not cxpcricnced for the last four years. This could rcsult in strong rccruitment in thrcc or four ycars. Already it was disclosed that the grounds north of Palgrave Point arc presently populated with young pilchards.15 This fact was confirmed by sorne landings of large numbers of small-sized pilchards during the first two weeks of the season, consti tuting the main rcason for the total ban on direct catching of pilchards. But fishery scientists and industry experts were surprised and puzzled when t.mprecedented pilchard shoals were reported in abundancc at severa! places along the north coast between Walvis Bay and Rocky Point. Estimates of the age of thcsc pilchards arc prescntly cstablished at a minimum of tinee years to five years. Such shoal sizes and ages have not bccn scen since the 1968 to 1970 seasons when the pelagie industry yielded 1.5 million tons. ln fact this pilchards intrusion is in complete contradiction to the rcsults of a scientific survey, carricd out over the years at a cast of R130 000,16 and the pil chard catches during the past decade which dropped to almost nothing in 1980. A plausible ex planation would seem that the fish shoals have moved in from the deep north Atlantic possibly to pursue large plankton bodies moving onto the coastal shclf. The 1980 research results projected that thcrc would be a considerable increase in one year old pilchard biomass. Catches so far this ycar confirm these projections. This favourable factor should not be destroyed by overenthusiasm but should be intcrprctcd as a promising sign of recovery in the pilchard resource. Indeed, the observance of more stringent contrais and the consolidation of normal environmental conditions could be critical factors for the rebuilding of the Namibian pilchard resource.

Anchovy

The anchovics arc the mains tay of fishmeal and fishoil production industry. They are not suitablc for canning because they are easily damaged during transportation and processing. When the pilchard résource declined, the fishing industry switched the catches to anchovy as an alternative stock. Anchovies have shawn an increase in production with a peak catch of 415 787 tons in 1978 followed by a decline to 205 891 tons in 1981.1 7 The ICSEAF fishing quota. for Namibia was initially maintained unchanged for 1980-1981 at 150 000 tons but was later raised to 200 000 tons in 1980 and 19 5 000 tons in 1981 ac cor ding to the prevailing catching and recruiting pattern (Table 4.3 ). The anchovy industry shows more optimistic picture because of the abundance of anchovy shoals south of Walvis Bay and it was expected that two of the four factories operating at Walvis Bay would fill their quotas in the first week of July 1981 and the others would finish shortly thereafter unless additional quotas were alloc~ted. 18 Although the condition of the anchovy caught in 1981 was good-yielding up to 10 percent oil- concern was expressed over the immaturity of the anchovy being landed. Extra investigations are therefore needed regarding the spawning population and recruitment to maintain satisfactory catches and to prcvent the decline in anchovy shoals.

//orse-lvlack erel

The horse mackerel is an important species in the southeast Atlantic waters. It constituted 16 per cent of the total pelagie catch from 1960 u p to 19 7 5.1 9 Un der the name of horse mackerel two main subspecies are known: Kunene horse mackerel, found in the north, and Cape horse

32 Fisheries : An Overexploited Resource mackerel, found in the south. However, statJstJcs do not diffcrentiate bctween the two species. Namibian mackerel catches declinee! drastically from 11 000 tons between 1975 and 1976 to 880 tons in 1980 (Table 4 .2 ) though an unrestricted quota for 1981 was approvcd.20 It has bcen es timated by ICSEAF figures that th e foreign fl eets take alm ost the cntirc mackcrel catch from the Namibian waters.

Table 4.3 : ICSEAF Fishing Quota for Namibia

Quotas (tons)

1979 1980 1981

Macke rel 200 200 } 308 Anch ovy 150 (200 adjustcd) 150 (195 adjusted)

Pilchard 29 4 0

Sources: ICS EAF r.. Ieetin g, Majorca (Dcc. 1980) . South African Shipping N ews and Fishing Jndust1)1 R eview (r-. larch 1979, J anuary, April and July 1981). Windhoek Advertiser (23 r-- Iarch 1981).

Hake

There arc two species of hakc (A1 erluccius paradoxus and i\1erluccius cap ensis ) which arc difficult to separate in the catches. M. capensis is usually caught at up to 500 metres dcpth vvhilc M. paradoxus is caught at a dec per dcpth. Namibia cann ot bcncfit fr om this resourcc bccausc its trawler fleet is not developed thus lcaving this important en tire fish rcsourcc in the hands o f foreign trawlers which have caugh t almost 450 000 tons per year sin cc 19 77.

The hake resources of the southeast Atlantic have bccn under pressure for a numbcr of ycars and the shi ft away from ha~ e to pelagie species has bcen a rcs ult of in crcasin g cost per ton o f fish caught. The hake catch reached a peak of 1t1 million tons in 1972, and thcrcaftcr declin ee! 21 2 2 gradually to 621 000 tons in 1977 and to 320 000 tons in 1980 . Part of the declin e coule! have been a result of South Africa's imposition of a 200 mile exclusive fi shin g zone on 1 Novcmbcr 1977. Since this date, a large number of foreign fl eets have conccntratcd on the Namibian fi shing grounds. Therefore there has been a consistent decline in stock resourccs during the last five ycars. This has led ICS EAF to slas h the hake quota of Namibia and of the other foreign Occts operatin g in southeast Atlantic (Table 4.4) .

R ock Lobsters

The statistics on the landings of rock Jobster caught in Namibian waters show a slight increasc in 1980 (7 53 tons tai! mass) comparee! to 1979 (5 35 tons), and 1978 (359 tons) (Table 4 .5). The Namibian quota was set at 700 tons of tai! mass which figure was onl y fulfilled in 1980. The split quota system for lobster was imposee! and acceptee! since the decline in total catches . For instance in 1969 total catch amounted to 2 500 tons which suggested that the stock was showing signs of overfishing. Rock lobster catch is permitted south of Luderitz only from November 1 to December 3 1 and in ali areas from January 1 to May 15, when the season closes. During the first two months of the season, the minimum carapace caught all owed is 63.5 mm, and from January to May it is 65 mm. The aim of this regulati on is to gradually increase the minimum legal size of rock lobster catches in an effort to encourage recovery of the stocks.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 33 Table 4.4 : ICSEAF Fishing Quotas for White Fish in Southeast Atlantic

Quotas (tons)

1977 1978 1979 1981

~go la 19 900 18 500 16 000 7 766 Bulgaria 14 000 12 200 10 600 5 135 Cuba 28 000 25 400 22 000 10 655 France 5 000 5 000 4 400 3 800 German Democratie Re public 5 000 5 000 4 400 3 800 Federal Republic of German y 9 000 8 600 7 500 3 800 Israel 7 400 7 000 6 100 3 800 Ital y 8 200 7 800 6 800 3 800 Japan 48 000 10 000 8 700 4 235 Po land 35 000 30 000 26 000 12 576 Portugal 16 900 14 400 12 500 6 033 Romania 5 000 4 400 3 800 South Africa 149 000 33 500 29 000 14 058 Spain 157 800 133 300 115 200 55 845 USSR 196 800 164 600 142 300 68 938

Total 700 000 480 300 415 900 208 041

Sources: South African Shipping News and Fislu"ng Jndustry Review (Feb. 1979, May 1979, January 1981). FAO, Yearbook of Fish eries Statistz'cs 1977 (Rome, FAO, 1978).

Table 4.5 : Namibia's Rock Lobster Production

Tait !vlass or Equz'vatent Tait Mass (tons)

1977 1978 1979 1980

Frozen tai! 512 172 329 210 Uncooked whole frozen 15 46 2 8 Cooked whole frozen 33 141 204 535

Total Tai/ Mass 560 359 535 753

Source: South African Shipping News and Fishz'ng Jndustry Review Qune 1981).

Fislt Processing and Marketing

At present the fish caught. by the companies' fleets or privately owned boats is landed at Walvis Bay and Luderitz, where the companies operate Iimited fish processing facilities. The recent collapse of the pilchard resource has, however, led to the severe rationalization of factories' fish quota which must now operate on the basis of a cast and revenue sharing pool.

The fishing industry was one of the larger employers in Namibia providing jobs for about half the year to 5 000 labourers as weil as 800 fishermen ( 19 78 J· The rationalized industry now provides employment for only 2 000 workers and 450 fishermen. 2 The processing has also become highly automated, the workers only selecting fish from the conveyor-belt for dehèading and detailing.

34 . Fishen'es . An Overexptoz'ted Resource k 1980, only two o ut of five fac tori es started operation with the start of the season, resulting in heavy congestion at the wharves and !os t additional fi shing trips by the smaller privately owned ves sels. At the beginning of 1981 fishing se as on only tinee of the canneries were operational - Wesco and ewest Fisheri es and Tuna Corporati on. Overs tons has closed its fishing factory at Walvis Bay foll owing an agreement with Consortium Fisheries to form an amalgamated peht bric operation and has dismantled most o f their canning plant and shipped it to Chile. Tuna Corporation has moved sorn e of its plant to Gansbaair and Laaipek in the Cape. It secms that in Walvis Bay the canncrics are not keen to start up in view of their expanded activitics at other places, since it could result in short term ovcrproduction of canned fish and therefore drop in priees. This is in the light of this year's (1981) planned importation of canned pilchards fr om Pcru via the South African Marketing Asso ciation which bas close links with the canneries in Walvis Bay and South Afric a. The decline of the fis h industry has led to the conversion of the Walvis Bay wharfsidc cold storagc for bcef export-a project which cost R1.5 million and is cxpcctcd to giv c a storagc capacity of about 3 000 tons of frozcn beef. 2 4

The fish industry operatcs through central selling organization for pilchards, fishmcal and fish b ody oïl. The canned pilchards appcar und cr 7 5 differcn t labels which canna t be distinguishcd even by the canncry. Mos t o f the canned pilchards arc exportcd to United Kin gdom and USA. Fish meal is produced mostly from anchovies, maasbankers and the non-ediblc parts of pilchards. About 7 5 per cent must be sold in South Africa at priees fixed below the world market. The fishin g companies sccm unperturbed at this and the gap between world rrice and domcstic priee now sccms to be closin g- R3 74 per ton versus the world priee of R400. 5 Fish meal production of South Afri ca and Namibia in 1980 was about 160 000 tons-su fficicnt for domestic rcquiremcnts ·but leavin g no surplus for export. The domcstic market continucd to absorb alm ost ail the fishm cal and fi shoil produced in South Africa and Namibia in 1981. 1-Iighcr priees rcaliscd during the ycar for fishmcal and fishoil wcnt sorn e way to arrest the cl ownward trend of the pelagie industry.

In 1981, rock lobstcr catches at Ludcritz, and producti on o f frozcn rock lobstcrs werc expcc ted to be higher than those of prcvious ycars. Dcspitc the competition from Cuba and Australia in the J apanese market, the export of cooked rock lobster to that country bad improved in 1981. Similarly the demand and pri ees of rock lobstcrs in USA and Japan have rem aincd stcady. The rock lobster industry now is invcstiga ting the possibility of cxporting live rock lobstcrs.

Speciali zcd fi shing products such as crab meat (m arketcd sc paratcly in the form of body and shoulders, legs and claws) are sold in USA. The fish corn panics arc in a furious competition with each othcr ov.er the large variety of products that they proccss and scll. The capital costs of catching and distributin g are, however, so high that new participants arc kcpt out. South Africa has al so in troduccd a very restricti ve fishing licence which do es not allow the dcvclopmcnt of small-scalc fis hing for the local market. The fish industries are organized in a complicatcd way such that it is difficult to find out what part of the products presented for sale is produccd in Namibia. Certain of the fish products (canned fish , fishm eal) have to supply the South African market at governmcnt controll ed priees bcfore they can be sold to the other countrics at the international higher priees. Thus, sorn e of the profits of the South African subsidiaries in Namibia arc bcing divertcd to cross subsidize higher living standards in South Africa. This competition among the fish companics has created a constant hattie for greater efficicncy and market appeal for the products. Despitc the present adverse factors which have resultcd in ovcrall profits dedining, the con fi denee in the fut ure is still prevalent in the annual reports of the inshore fishing companies. In contrast with the low leve! of landings in sou them Afri ca the companies have geographically spread fishing invcstmcnt in other parts of the world (e.g., Chile, Peru) whcre the fish rcsourcc continues to be sound with no evidence of overfishing and wherc record catches wcre rcportcd in 1981. One result of this spread is that, while domcstic fishing results arc unfavourable due to low quotas, the companics import fish which enables the industry to maintain the various industry labels and supply the traditional export markets.

In/and Fisheries

Fish, being an important, cheap, and high quality source of protein is caught in big quantities m di fferent ri vers (e specially perennial border ri vers), dams, and Oshanas. It is estimated that in

Agricultural Economy of N amibz'a 35 the north, Ovambos consume fish at the rate of 0.5 kg pcr day for adults and 0.2 kg per day for children.26 This picture shows that fish is one of the main sources of protein for subsistcnce in n orthern Namibia.

Exploited with care, the inl and fish eries would rcmain for a long time the most accessible source of protcin in northcrn Namibia. Northern Namibia has the potential to develop fish farming despitc high evaporation rate (120 ki pcr day per hectare). Howcver, more research work regarding local possibilities for building and maintaining fish farms (cspccially at Alushanja dam and an the banks of Okavango River) is required. According to a fisheries consultant's opinion,2 7 in Namibia thcre are a numbcr of fish species such as trout, tilapia (kurper or bream), carp , cat-fish (barbe!) and mullet, that lcnd thcmsclvcs to fish culture. Tilapia and carp may be grown both intensivcly and non-intensivcly in carth dams. Intensive trout culture is best donc in pools. Up to now, there arc no statistics for total fi sh catches, nor has the real potentia l_ o f inland fisheries bcen cstim ated.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. South African Shipping News and Fishing Jndustry Review, Vol. 3S (1980), No . Il . 2. Windh oekAdvertiser(IOApri11981). 3 . South African Shipping News and Fishing Jndustry R eview, Vol. 34 ( 1979) No. 3. 4 . E. Leistner, P. Esterhuysen and T. Malan, Namibia/SWA Prospectus (Pretoria, Africa lnst. of S. A., 1980). S. South A [rica Shipping News and Fishing lndustry Review, Vol. 34 ( 1979) o. 6. 6. Ibid., No. 9 . 7. O. Kin g and Y . McLeod, Sea Fisheries (Cape Town , S. A. Fisheries Branch, 1976) (Jnvestigational Report No. Ill). 8. Ibid . 9 . Economist Intelligence Unit, Quarter/y F:conomic R eview of Southern Africa (1 98 1) 3rd Quarter, p. 4 . 1O . Windh oek Advertiser (2 .April 198 1). Il. 1. Thome se n, The Fishes of Namibia (Norway, University of Tronso, 1983) 12. South African Digest (13 October 1979). · 13 . Windh oek Advertiser ( 1 April 198 1). 14. Ibid . (23 March 1981). 1 S. Ibid. (10 April 19 8 1). 16. South African Digest (1 3 October 1979). 17. South African Shipping News and Fishing Jndustry Review, Vo l. 36 (1 981) No. 7. 18. Ibid . 19 . !CSEAF R eport ( 1979). 20. Windh oek Advertiser (23 March 198 1). 2 1. South African Shipping News and Fishing Jndustry Review, Vo l. 34 (1979) No. S. 22. Ibid., Vol. 36 (1981) No. 1. 23. Windhoek Advertiser (2, 4 April 198 1). 24 . South African Shipping News and Fishing Jndustry R eview, Vol. 36 ( 19 8 1) No . 3. 2S. South African Digest (13 October 1979). 26. W. E. Kassie r, F. J . van der Merw e, Die Landbousektor in Owambo (S tell enbosch, Univ. Stellenbosch, 1974). 27. Farmer's Weekly (South Africa) (21 January 1981).

36 Fisheries :An Overexploited R esource Chapter Five

PRODUCTION SUPPORT SERVICES

A significant fcature of the colonial agricultural po li cy in Namibia bas consistently bcen the provision o f farmer production support services ori ente e! alm os t cxclusively to serve scttlcr intcrcsts whilc neglccting peasant agricuJture. As carl y as 1902, fo r examplc, the governmcnt organizcd agricultural shows for white farm ers with the purposc o f cxposing them to the la test dcvclopmcnts in .farming techniques. Various acti vitics werc introducccl and cxpancl ccl , ovcr the years, to in cluclc agricultural training, technical services, rcsearch, marketing, credit, a nd the provision of agriculture relatee! infrastructure. Agricultural services in the tcrritory fall unclcr th e foll owing hcacls: (1) the Department o f Vctcrinary Services for whites; (2) the Dcpartmcnt o f A!-,rricu lturc for whitcs; (3 ) the Departmcnt of Agriculture for cach of the " homclancls "; (4) the Dcpartmcnt o f Plural Relatio ns for ge neral welfare in southern "reserve" arcas; and (5) the Dcpartmcnt of Colo urccl, Rch ohoth anJ Nama Affairs. Nationwicle production support services arc proviclecl in th e arcas of agricultural economies and marketing.

Tee/mica/ Services and Research

The Department of Agricultural and Tcchnical Services was cstabli shcd to coorJinatc the planning required to support optimum land use on the white farms. lt providcs extension services in soi! conservation; assists in the organi zation o f agricultural shows, dam constructi on, the acquisition of fencing materi al, and the provision of ge neral advisory activitics in rc sponsc to farmcrs' rcqucsts. These include aclvising farmers on sound hushandry practiccs, acquainting them with new cl cvcl op ments, carrying out routine tests, and diag11osis o f plant and animal discascs.

Various research services wcrc cstablishccl to assist white farm crs. The cattlc, horsc, and sheep breeding stations establishccl by Gcrmans as far back as 1907 bccamc the nucleus o f agricul tural research and training. Whilc most o f the i\1stitutions providc backup services to the white mino rity farm ers, the research acti vities of these institutions arc limi tee! to data coll ection. Various agricultural experiment stations in Namibia inclucle the Animal Husbandry Expcrimcnt Station at Hitkoms (cattle stuc! farm), the Karakul Breeclin g and Manage ment Station at Gell ap Ost (karakul stuc! farm) , the Weed Killing Station at Sonop, the Crop and Animal Husbandry Expcrimcnt Station at Marien ta!, the Fis hery Research Station at Walvis Bay, the Water Research lnstitute in Windhoek, the Cattle Breeding Expcrimcnt Stati on a t Omatjcnnc, and the Okaukcjo Ecological In stitutc in the Etosha National Park. Most of the research, e.g. analysis and interpretation of data, is, on the other hand, carried o ut in South Africa in rcsearch institutes such as the Onclres tcpoort Ve terinary Research Institute, the Namib Desert Research lnstitutc, the Fishing Industry Research Institute, the Animal and Dairy Science Research Institute, the Bo tanical Rcsearch Institutc, and the Plant Protection Research Unit.

Veterinary Services

The livestock population in the country is ge nerally characterizecl by the presence of a large variety of infectious and parasitic diseascs such as anthrax, foot and mouth disease, bruccllosis- in cattle, sheep, Boer goats and pigs- lung sickness (bovine contagious plcuropneumonia), rabies, tuberculosis, paratuberculosis, blaç:k quarter, rinderpest, east coast fever, heartwater, scab-in sheep- fowl cholera, typhoid, swine fever, trypan osomiasis, equine infecti o us anaemia, newcastl e disease, and anaplasmosis.1 The list is not comprehensive. The consequences of diseases vary accord in g to the nature o f the cause, environmental conditions, and within livcstock species. The Euro-

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 37 pean breeds of cattle are less resistant to tropical infections and parasitic diseases than the indigenous cattle which have acquired a high degree of tolerance through natural selection. Sorne of the diseases cause grave consequences including high mortality, and, in the case of areas heavily infected with tse-~se fly, it is not possible to keep cattle at ali. Diseases such as foot and mouth disease, haemora gic septicemia, anaplasmosis, hcartwater, brucellosis, anthrax, tuberculosis, rabies, salmonelosis and African swine fever have very adverse effects on animal production. Diseases such as anthrax, rabies, tuberculosis, and brucellosis also represent hazards to human health.

In Namibia vetcrinary services are provided by the South African Department of Agricul tural and Technical Services. Animal hcalth services are based on a small cadre of high leve! veteri narians supported by animal health assistants trained at lowcr or intermediate level. Such a small number of veterinary manpowcr can only control sorne of the major infectious diseases. Preventive measures against diseases on a herd or flock basis, for the improvement of production and manage ment and the individual treatmcnt of valuable animais, are therefore possible on a very limited scale only. Sorne laboratories in Windhoek, Kamanjab, and Ondangwa are at present used for the diag nosis of different contagious diseases which may occur in Namibia. These laboratories also prescribe preventive methods to control them. Such services are rendered especially for the white cattle farmcrs.

Agricultural Economies and Marketing

The Departmcnt of Agricultural Economies and Marketing assists farmers to monitor market priees for agricultural commodities. In other words, the department undertakes market research to help farmers with decision making in their production processes. Such data is very useful to farmers in reducing risks in thcir farming businesses and in stabilizing producer incarnes. In Namibia, marketing and priee fixing, and control of the major agricultural products is carried out by statu tory producer boards cstablished by the South African Govemment under the Agricultural Export Ordinance of 1930. These statutory monopolies include the Dairy Industry Control Board, estab lished in 1931; the Meat Tradc Control Board, cstablished in 1935; the Grain Trade Board, estab lishcd in 1937; and the Karakullndustry Advisory Board, established in 1940. The membership of the boards is limited to the whites who rcpresent various interest groups involved with the particular commodities.

The overall beef industry cornes undcr the South West Africa Meat Trade Control Board which has representatives from South West Africa Agricultural Union, the Livestock and Meat Industry Contrai Board, anCl. the meât processing industry. Control is affected first through licensing of dealers and fixing weekly delivery quotas for either exports or local abattoirs, and secondly through issuing of permits to dealers before exporting or consigning cattle to local abattoirs. The industry has good marketing and transportation system. The beef goes through the board to South Africa. Likewise, export quota livestock are moved on the train to designated markets in South Africa where they arc auctioned. Marketing of cattle in the north is handled by the South West Africa Agricultural Union while cattle for local consumption are handled by small slaughter houses.

In the same manner the dairy industry is controlled by the Dairy Industry Control Board, representing producers and manufacturers. The board fixes priees at factory, wholesale, and retail levels; con trois ex ports and imports; and coordinates and regula tes in te mal distribution of most dairy products.

For karakul, the export marketing and overall supervision of the industry is under the umbrella of the Karakul Industry Advisory Board which also finances international promotion campaigns out of a levy on eaçh karakul pelt sold. In 1974 the levy was R0.30 per pelt. The actual marketing of karakul pelts is in the hands of two international fur companies viz., Hudson's Bay and Annings (CanadafU.K.), and Eastwood and Holt (U. .K./South Africa), which sell over 90 percent karakul exports at the regular trade auctions mainly in London. These companies receive their supplies from farmer cooperatives in Namibia.

38 Production Support Services At present the marketing boards for commodities like maize confine themselves to purchasing from farmers and selling the produce to wholesalers and processors. Grains are not much sold except within Ovamboland where surpluses exist (except in years of drought). In addition various market ing facilities such as canneries and creameries were es tablished near th e source of primary production to assis t the large commercial farmers, thereby ensuring stable incomes. Su ch a policy encourage d the steady growth of the lives tock industry . This in tum made growing contribution to the agricul tural industry of South Africa itsel f since the li vestock products were for exports to South African and overseas markets.

Personnel

The extension service itself is constrained by an acute shortage of personnel. Table 5.1 gives sorn e indication of the size of professional staff available to provide extension support services to the agricultural industry in 1971. There were no professi onal agriculturists as such during that year. There were fifty ve terinary surgeons during th e period, and ci gh t specialist agricultural cngi nce rs, in. addition to sorne fifty sp ecialist scientists such as agronomists, physiologists and microbiologists. The figure als o shows that there were only ten black professional workers though it is not clear as to how many of these were 1amibian.

Table 5.1 : Professional Agricultural Workers in Namibia, 1971

No. of Workers

White Black Vacancies

Agricultural engineer 8 Agronomist, horticultural scientist, fores ter 24 10 Biologist, hydrobiologist, microbiologist, botanist, zoologis t, physiologist 26 6 Agricultural technician 24 4 10 Veterinary surgeon 50 6 Economist

Total 132 14 22

Sources: South Africa, Department of Labour, Manpower Survey No. 9-All Industn"es and Occupa tions (April 30, 1971). Reproduced from K R. Anschel and H. R. Brannon, Th e Agricul tural Sector of Namibia : A Brie[ Assessment (Lexin gton, Univ. Kentucky) (Staff Paper 74) p. 36.

At present there are three agricultural coll eges . One of these at Newdam is for whites only and offers a two-year diploma course . One school, established at Ogongo in Ovambo in 1970 with a total capacity of 120 places runs a three-year certificate programme for Africans. ln 1982 this school had a total enrolment of only twenty students in ali. The school has only produced six graduates, of which three have joined the staff of the school and none are out in the field. 2 The third school, exclusively for Africans, is at Masari in the Kavango .

Provision for Water

The Department of Water Af{airs controls the bulk of water supply in the country in accord ance with the recommendations of the Odendaal Plan.3 The annual reports of the Department of Water Affairs state that in 1974-75 there were 1 078 applications for subsidies on the cost of boreholes, and a further 216 applications were received in resp ect of additional work such as

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 39 reservoirs, pipes, dams, water pumps, etc. R662 716 were paid out during the year in respect of 1 189 boreholes, and R5 7 156 in respect of 177 pumping stations. The average percentage subsidy per borehole was thus 68 percent. ln 1975-76 there were 1 060 applications received forsubsidies for boreholes. Of these 772 boreholes were subsidized at a total cost of R407 416. The average percentage subsidy per borehole amounted to 58 per cent. For additional work, 184 installations were subsidized from 191 applications received. In 1976-77 an amount of R348 320 was paid out during the year for 593 boreholes, and R61 293 for 134 pumping plants. The average subsidy per borehole was 60 per cent. Thus the extent to which the state assists commercial white farmers is considerable and represents substantial income transfer.

Finances

The South West Africa Land and Agricultural Bank, merged with South African Land Bank, and the Department of Agricultural Credit and Land Tenurë are the two major sources of financial support available to the white farmers. According to the Land and Agricultural Bank annual report of 19 77, loans are granted on a long term basis to white farmers in Namibia as provided for in the Land Bank Act. Table 5.2 gives details of the applications for long term loans considered and granted by the Land Bank during 1973 and 1977.

Table 5.2 :Applications for Loans and Loans Granted by the Land Bank, 1973-1977

Applications Considered Loans Granted

Total A mount Total A mount Year Number Rands Number Rands

Mortgage Loans

1973 311 12 353 603 243 7 825 900 1974 393 16 621 809 312 10 481 645 1975 442 19 592 503 333 11 604 400 1976 405 16 165 622 272 8 788 200 1977 333 1.3 319 683 233 7 564 200

Charge Loans

1973 1 4 000 1 4 000 1974 1 7 000 1 7 000 1975-76 1977 5 26 756 5 26 700

Source: C.D. Nixon, Land Use and Development zn Namibia. Masters Thesis. Inst. of Social Studies, the Hague, 1980. pp. 76-77.

Table 5.3 gives an idea of the various purposes for which the loans were requested, the amounts applied for, and the number of loans granted during the period 1973 to 1977. The bulk of the loans were for the purchase of land. In 1973 amounts applied for and granted were R 9 356 796 and R6 053 525 respectively. Thus, 67 per c:ent of the total amount asked as loans was granted. By 1975 the amount applied for had risen to R12 090 863 and amount granted was R7 629 730, or 63 percent of total amount asked.

According to the 1976-1977 annual report long term assistance was granted by the Depart ment of Agricultural Credit and Land Tenure mainly for the payment of debts, the purchase of livestock and farming requirements, and the conservation of soil and water. Owing to the Jack of funds the granting of loans for soil conservation was, however, discontinued during the second half of the year. Table 5.4 shows the manner in which the various applications for assistance were

40 Production Support Services disposee! of. Soi! conservati on works take the lion's share with R544 249 or 52 percent of the total. This is followed by the payment of debts, R237 068 or 23 percent, ancllivestock R193 280 (18 per cent). The other range of activities coverecl by the loans include drilling, ge neral improve ments, purchase of implements and equipment and flood damage. Thus, debts were covered through the acquisition of loans and in sorne cases they were written off.

Table 5.3 : Loans Grantecl by the Land and Agriculture !3ank 1973-1977

A mount Applied for A mount Granted Percentage of Purpose of Loan Rands Rands Total

Purchase of Land

1973 9 356 796 6 05 3 525 67 1974 12 246 810 8 031 286 66 1975 12 090 861 7 629 730 63 1976 1025523 1 5 702 588 56 1977 8 302 396 4 928 986 59

R epayment of Bonds

1973 1217 727 611 630 50 1974 1 143 332 687 141 60 1975 1 483 456 907 990 61 1976 734 718 416 975 57 1977 669 097 39 8 765 60

Consolidation of Debts

197 3 733 331 467 207 64 1974 1 642 337 764 999 47 1975 2 863 888 1 352 133 47 1976 2 183 45 1 1 111 588 51 1977 2 039 27 3 916237 4:3

Fixed Improvem ents

1973 232 826 221 749 95 1974 248 818 237 507 95 1975 284 527 185 422 65 1976 381 179 168 979 44 1977 146 007 127 472 87

Purchase of Stock and Equipment

1973 812 923 4 71 789 58 1974 1 340 512 760 712 57 1975 2 869 771 1 529 125 53 1976 2 611 043 1 388 070 53 1977 2 162 910 1 192 740 55

Source: C. D. Nixon, Land Use and Development in Namibia. Masters Thesis. lnst. of Social Studies, the Hague, 1980.

Agricultural Economy of Namz"bia 41 Table 5.4 : Loans Granted by the Department of Agticultural Credit and Land Tenure 1976/ 77

A mount Percentage of No. of Loans Purpose of Loan Rands Total

83 Soi! conservation works 544 249 52 16 Payments of debts 237 068 23 19 Livestock 193 280 18 15 Drilling 41 829 3 2 Improvements 20 000 2 1 Implcments/Equipment 9 300 1 3 Flood damage 6 795 1

139 1 052 521 100

Source: C. D. Nixon, Land Use and Developmen t in Namibia. i\1asters Thcsis. lnst. of Social Studies, the Hague, 1980.

· Transportation

Roads and railways are important to the farming community in that they permit the trans portation of farmers' products to the markets. Farmers are also able to purchase inputs from distant points and get these transported to their farms. This assists in achieving timely agricultural operations and the attainment of hi gh crop yields . In Namibia, liberal transport policies were instituted to assist farmers by the provision of roads, telecommunication network, and railways to move farm products and mineral products for exports. Map 5.1 gives sorne indication of the network of roads and railways in the country. "There is a tarred road network of 2 772 km in Namibia. Built essentiall y in 1950s and in recent years for military purposes, the substantial wear and tear has not been matched by adequate maintenance. There is an imperial rail track of 2 607 km connecting Windhoek and Walvis Bay to the mining centres and South Africa."4 Walvis Bay, Nami bia's sole deep-water port, handlcs most of exports. In addition, there is a shallow-water harbour at Luderitz.

Production Support Services in tite African Subsistence Sector

The African subsistence agriculture suffers from a severe lack of farmer production support services despite the fact th at it is the livelihood of the majority of the people in the country. Though the Jack of these services is a major setback to the development of agriculture in Namibia, it is in keeping with the illegal re gime's polic y of apartheid. The deliberate neglect of the subsistence sector is in keeping with the immediate concems with maximizing the profits of the settler community. Thus, there is general Jack of education and resources, both financial and technological. Indeed, as the Liberation Movement states, " the economie state of affairs has been consciously designed in accordance with the social interes t of the white settler group .. . . The African masses have been forced to live in impoverished Bantustans . Their colonial strate gy bas been [ desig11ed] . .. so that the country can depend on the agricultural products of South Africa. That is to say, Namibia has been consciously reduced to a captive market or dumping ground of South Africa's own agricultural industry. " 5 "The mentality, ideology and legislation measures of the system of apartheid imposed on Namibia by the South African Government has ... led to the present agricultural situation where today among the non-white population, there are firstly, almost no progressive farmers, no skilled workers, no artisans and no executive personnel for commerce and administration tasks, and secondly-close~y connected with the first aspect - where there is no real purchasing power to speak of. " 6

42 Production Support Services Map. 5.1 : Namibia-Transportation Network

14° 16° 18° 20° 220 24°

.-" " 18°

-··-:; .-- ' " \ + f, ·- 0 200 200 "" '~ -

,.. -

1 r ·- ·- · ---- i 220 22° i 1 i

KEY

24° International boundary ® Capital ------Intermittent rivers 'Main roads 11!11 1 11 Rail ways 26° Aerodromes 26° ' ...

6. ,.j

+ - 280 28° ~ 0 80 160 240km

12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 220 24°

According to the 1976 annual report of the Veterinary Services Division, cattle in the Kavango area are in ge neral in poor health , being large ly affected by internai parasites, contagious abortion, foot and mouth disease, rabies, tuberculosis , black quarter and anthrax. Nutritional deficiency during drought periods (especially mineral deficiency) also contributes to the poor condition of the cattle. The factors contribute to and explain the current low calf percentage and slow rate of growth.

In the case of small-scale African farmers the provlSlon of veterinary services is limited to the action necessary to protect the cattle owned by the whites. Thus, a comprehensive vaccination campaign and disease control is provided with the object of preventing epizootie diseases from spreading to European ranches . A major activity of the veterinary services is the organization and conducting of immunization campaign against the spreading of foot and mouth disease from neigh bouring countries (Angola, Zambia, and Botswana) . In 1979, for example, R1 32 000 was spent on vaccines alone. In Ovamboland, Kaokoland and Kavango 455 000 cattle were inoculated in 1979 with the vaccin es costing R9 1 000.7 Dipping programme against ticks and scab was put in opera tion in 1978 in Ovambo by the construction of 116 dipping tanks and 450 press corridors . African owned livestock are also subjected to unique q uarantine regulations that restrict the marketing of livestock from African farm ers, thus "providin g not only a market m onopoly for the white beef producers but also limiting the econ omie power of the black Namibian."8

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 43 After the Odendaal Report parastatal corporations were set up in the "homelands" to provide farmer support services. Examples are the Ekuliko Kavango Ltd., and the First National Develop ment Corporation (ENOK)-the former having been instituted under the aegis of the latter in 1976 to develop, process, and market agricultural raw materials, and to expand food crop production.

One of the functions of the corporations was to provide Ioans to "individual businessmen, supply loans and Ieases for construction of premises and to supply direct management as weil as capital for severa! large -scale ventures in the fields of fumiture making, construction, tourist facili ties and service stations."9 Initially agriculture was not much considered. Later an agricultural division was started, which has since launched a state cattle ranch at Kavango and a meat canning plant at Oshakati . Other activities of the corporations include a saw-mill and ajoinery in the Rundu district, an irrigation scheme at Vungu-Vungu, a clairy farm, and a number of minor irrigation schemes.

Table 5.5 givcs sorne indication of the nature of loans granted by Ekuliko Kavango Ltd. for the period 1972-1977. Out of a total of 105 loans amounting to R622 421 only five were available to African agriculture amounting to R66 559 or 10 percent of total, although it is evident from the table that the additional benefits such as employment generation are relatively higher in agriculture compared, for example, to manufacturing or service sector such as hotels and restaurants.

Table 5.5 : Loans Granted by Ekuliko Kavango Limited, 1972-1977

No. of Loans Cranted R ecipients/Type of Loan 1972-77

No. of R ecipient/ No. of Amount Employment Y ear Loans Type of Loan Loans Rands No. of Persans

1972 9 General dealers and 80 44 593 135 transport 1973 31 Agriculture 5 66 559 318 1974 9 Liquor shops 15 21 950 120 1975 19 Manu fa ct uri n g 3 200 900 264 1976 13 Restaurant 1 73 600 120 1977 24 Housing 1 214 825 354

Total 105 105 622 427 1311

Source: Spectrum (SWA/Namibia) OanfFeb. 1980) p.10.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. SWA/Namibia Survey, June 1980 (Windhoek, John Meinert, 1980). 2. Private communication from Ms Susan Hurlic . 3. Report of the Commission of Enquiry into South West A/rica Affairs 1962-63 (Pretoria, Govt Printer, 1964) Chairman : F. H. Odendaal (R. P. No . 12/1964). 4. United Nations lnstitute for Namibia,Namibia Handbook (Lusaka, UNIN). Unpublished. 5. Sou th West Africa People's Organisation ,Po/itica/ Pro gram (Lusaka, SWAPO, 1976) p. 11 . 6. W. Schneider-Barthold , Namibia 's Economie Potential and Existing Economie Ties with the Republic of South Africa (Berlin , GDI , 1977) p. 34. 7. R. H. Green, Namibia: A Politica/ Economie Survey (Brighton, Univ . Sussex , 1979). 8. C. D. Nixon, Land Use and Deve/opment in Namibia. Masters The sis. Inst. of Social Studies, the Hague, 1980. 9. Ekuliko Kavango Ltd,Annual Report No. 1,1976/77.

44 Production Support Services Chapter Six

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF THE POPULATION

The agricultural economy of ·amibia is an integral part of the overall captive colonial econo my. The success of this economy within the occupation context depends on the availability of cheap labour- perpetuated by the shortage of food. "Shortage of food makcs wage employment necessary for survival. The large number of people in this position means that competition for employment is fierce and consequently the wages are low. Low wages, since they barely keep the worker and sorne of his family alive, prevent people in this position of dependence from gettin g out of it. Thus the dange r of malnutrition is central to the production and maintenance of a cheap labour supply."1 Indeed the removal of indige nous Namibians from access to production under the policy of apartheid has accentuated the problem of malnutrition. The traditional agri culture has been unable to sustain increased population in the "homelands".2 The nutritional status of a family living in the "reserves" is th us direct! y proportional to the number of adults from th at family working as contract labour in the south.

With the exception o f few specifie studies, 3 there are no food consumption survcys o r relevant health statistics or clinicat surveys of the population to refer to. The assessment of the nutritional status has therefore to be based partly on the estimation of the food resources and partl y on quali tative information about eating habits.

Nutritional Requirements

The energy requirement at the population level in Namibia was calculated according to the FAO/WHO model.4 In this mode!, energy requirements were divided into different age and sex groups and degrees of activity. As there are no group specifie reference persons for Namibia, this study uses the reference person as per F AO/WHO model. The average body weight of the reference man is 65 kg ?- nd that of the woman 55 kg. The age distribution of the population of Namibia is an es timate based on the 1970 South African census data. The age groups in this data arc slightly different from th ose in the F AO/WHO mode!, and therefore sorne modification was necessary. Thomas5 gives the age distribution of the total population without division into sexes, so the adolescent and adult population was divided into equal scx groups (Table 6. 1 ). Based on these parameters, the energy requirement of the total population calculated on a per capita basis was 2.245 kcal (9.4 MJ). This fi gure is close to 2.230 kea! calculated by Frohberg6 and 2.280 kcal givcn by the United Nations. 7

The protein requirement was also calculated according to the F AO/WHO mode!. The per capita requirement is a weighted average of the requirements of the different age and se x groups. These fi gures do not take into account the variability of intake distribution within the population. They are therefore valid only if each person receives, according to his necds, the amount of protein specified and the same quality of protein as is assumed. The protein requirement is expressed as the safe leve! of protein intake (adjusted requirement plus 30 per cent to allow for individual variability) . The safe levet of protein intake is defined as the amount of protein considered neces sary to meet the physiological needs and to main tain the health of nearly ali individuals in a specifie agefsex group. The safe levels of protein intake are given in terms of egg or milk protein. For Namibia it was calculated at 29 g of milk or egg prote in per capita per day. This value must be adjusted to the relative quality of the protein in the national diet. It is assumed that diets of rich countries have a protein quality of about 80 per cent of that of milk or eggs and of poor countries about 60-70 per cent. In Namibia the average is probabl y 70 percent. The corrected figure for the

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 45 safe leve! of protein intake is then 42 g. There is also a need for allowances for wastage and for the distribution of intakes within the population. The F AO/WHO report sugge sts an allowance of 10 per cent for !osses of edible material when food consumption data are derived from nati onal food balance sheets. Taking this allowance into consideration, the final figure for the safe leve! of protein intake per capita is 46 g. The F AO/WHO report, however, emphasizes the limitati ons of this calcula tion. lt probably represents an underes timation of the practical needs o f a population and should therefore be interpreted with extreme caution.

Table 6.1 : Estimated Age Structure of Namibian Population (1977)

Age Group Distribution Years %

1 3.3 1 4 12.2 5 9 14.5 10 14 12.8 15 19 10.2 20 - 24 8.4 25 - 34 13.4 35 - 44 10.2 45 54 6.9 55 - 65 4.4

Source: Based on W. H. Thomas , Economie Development in Namibia (Munich, Kaiser, 1978) p.306.

Estimation of Nutritional Status in Namibia

The nutritional status in amibia can be es timated from F AO fo od balance sheets. However, one must bear in mind that such estimations do not show the nutritional status of an individual in the country. They give estimates o f how much food is available for the population as a whole and for an average individual. The food balance sheets do not give any inform ation about how the food is distributed among the individuals, and if !osses during preparation have been taken into account. Furthermore, they tell nothing about how the food is dige sted and absorbed by an individ ual. Hencc, this kind o f estimate can only be very approximate. It must also be stressed that if the per capita supply givcn in the food balanec sheets is even slightly low, social and other factors may producc a very inequitable distribution within sorne sectors of the population with the result that part of the population is most likely to be. undernourished.

The latest food balanec shcets prepared by FAO contain averages from the years 1975-77. As there are no official statistics for Namibia most of the production fi gures are estimates. Table 6.2 presents a comparison of the calculated daily requirements· of energy and protein and the es timated supply.

Table 6.2 : Energy and Protein Requirements and the Estimated Supply in Namibia

R equirement Supply %

Energy 2.245 kcal 2.217 kea! 99 Prote in 46 g 75 g 163

Source: FAO, Food Balance Sheet 1975-77. Unpublished.

46 Nutritional Status of the Population J Based on a population estimate of 909 000 for 1975-77, these data indicate that the food supply in terms of energy falls short of adequate. However, according to a United 1ations Institute for Namibia study, the actual population for 1974 is estimated to be over 1.2 million, thus suggesting that the energy supply is far too low and there is a risk of inadequate calorie intake among sorne population groups because the food distribution in Namibia is not equal. ln spite of this, there are other views which suggest nearly adequate levels of nutrition. For example, Frohberg8 , basing his study. on F AO food balance sheets for 1972-74, classi fied Namibia into the group of co un tries with adequate calorific and protein supplies, even though there is a small gap between energy supply and requirements.

The daily per capita supply of protein, on the othcr hand, seems adequate, and even excessive. The proportion of animal protcin accounted for 44 pcr ce nt of the cstimatcd protein supply. Again the unevcn distribution must be kept in mind.

Composition of Per Capita Food Supplies

Table 6.3 provides comparative figures for the composition of per capita food supplies. Whcn compared to the groups of developed and developing countries Namibia stands somewhcre bctween the two.

Table 6.3 : Dietary Patterns

Developed All Developing Countrz'es Countries A fric a Namibia Food Group 1972-74 1972-74 1972-74 1975-77

Perc entage share of food groups in per capita calorie supply :

Ccreals 30.7 61.0 48.6 47 .9 Roots and tubers 4 .7 8.1 20.5 14.0 Sugar 12.9 7.1 4.6 3.6 Pulses, nuts, oil seeds 2.4 6.4 7.2 4.6 Fruits, vegetables 4 .3 3.6 5.0 1.9 Me at 13 .4 3.9 2.6 13 .6 Eggs, fish 3.1 1.3 0.9 Milk 8.9 2.2 1.8 4.6 Oils, fats 14.0 5.4 6.5 9.8 Others 5.5 1.0 2.1

Percentage share of food groups in per capita protein supply:

Cere ais 30.2 54.7 52.2 38.4 Roots and tubers 3.7 3.6 8.3 7.3 Pulses, nuts, oil seeds 4.6 15.3 15.6 8.8 Fruits, vegetables 4.4 4 .1 3.6 1.4 Meat 25 .3 9.1 9.4 37.0 Eggs, fish 11.7 6.9 5.4 Miik 18.0 5.0 3.9 6.8 Others 2:1 1.3 1.5 0.3

Sources: FAO, Th e Fourth World Food Survey (Rome, FAO, 1977) (FAO Statùtics Series, No. 11) FAO, Food Balance Sheet 1975-77. Unpublished.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 47 Cereals contributed 4 7.9 per cent to the per capita calorie intake in Namibia. The per capita supply was 108 kg a year based on 94 per cent extraction rate of millet. This extraction rate is, however, considered too high since most of the crop is pounded by hand. A more realistic figure would be an extraction rate of around 70-75 per cent, implying that the annual per capita millet supply is 3-4 kg less. The daily cereal supply is thus about 285 g. Roots and tubers also seem to be important, providing more calories than in developing countries in general. The per capita supply is estimated to be 340 g daily. However, unlike many African countries, starchy roots and tub ers are not staple foods in Namibia. In fact, none of them are grown in large amounts. The main portion of this food group is probably consumed by the whites. Sorne sweet potatoes are grown in the north, but the staple food for most of the population is cereals. It would therefore be more plausible if the proportion of cereals were higher and that of roots and tubers lower.

The same applies to protein intake. The 38.4 percent contribution of cereals to per capita protein supply is very low for a country in which the main food for most of the people is porridge made either from rn aize or millet. Statistically, the percentage of protein derived from cereals may be low partly because of the large amount (c.180g) of meat consumed daily. About half of the meat supply is beef, the other half consists of mutton and lamb, goat, pork, chicken and game. Meat provides 13.6 per cent of the calories, which is the same as in developed countries, and 3 7 percent of the protein, which is much higher than in the developed countries. However, the distribution of meat in the territory is extremely skew, because there are population groups in Namibia who consider meat a luxury and eat it perhaps no more than once a week. Meat is occasionally consumed in very large amounts, though.

The supply of eggs in the territory is very small, 0.3 g daily according to the food balance sheets. Fish is left out of the food balance completely. However, much fish is eaten, especially in the north where almost half of the population lives. Fishing is clone throughout the year in Kavango and Caprivi, and in Ovamboland fish is available during the three or four months of the rainy season.

The supply of fruits and vegetables is also extremely low. The per capita figure is only 120 g a day, providing 42 cal. At su ch a low consumption level there is a risk of vitamin A and C deficien cy. This of course, depends on what kinds of fruits and vegetables are consumed, of which there is no information in the food balance sheets.

Pulses are an important source of protein. However, their proportion in the protein supply in Namibia is smaller than that in developing countries and in Africa as a whole.

The supply of milk in the territ ory is qui te low, especially for a country where stock raising is a means of livelihood for many people. This is probably due to the fact that the milk yield of the cattle is low, except on the white-owned farms. The proportion of milk as a source of energy and protein is higher, however, in Namibia than in developing countries and in Africa as a whole. The amount of milk consumed differs widely between population groups, depending much on the traditional food habits.

Finally, oil and fats are the most important single source of dietary fat supplies, of which they contribute 42 per cent. The consumption of vegetable oils and fats is four times higher than the consumption of animal fats.

On the whole, the F AO food balance sheets indicate that the average food supply and nutri tional situation in Namibia is quite satisfactory. However, the shortcomings of the food balance sheets must be taken into account and, bearing in mind the social conditions in Namibia, it would be grossly optimistic to think that this nutritional well-being is evenly distributed among the popula tion.

Food Consumption Patterns in Namibia

The food consumption patterns differ to sorne extent between various population groups in Namibia. A common feature of the diet of most of the Africans is that their staple food is porridge.

48 Nutritional Status of the Population J In the north the porridge is made of millet, while in the central region and the south maize is used. What is consumed with the porridge varies according to the income of the family. It may be only sugar, fat and perhaps sorne milk. Wealthier families have meat with the porridge, and fish is eaten where it is available. Many stock owners are reluctant to slaughter livestock for everyday consump tion, but on occasions large quantities of meat may be consumed.

Fruits and vegetables are scarce, especially in the dry season. They are grown to a certain extent in the north and in the central region, but significant amounts are imported from South Africa. Wild fruits and vegetables, however, are an important component of food in certain areas.

In Okombahe, where majority of inhabitants are Damaras, the staple diet is porridge made from boer meal (coarse wheat meal) and maize meal, milk when available, and sugar. Vegetables are not popular, but sorne pumpkins, carrots and tomatoes are grown and consumed. Other vegeta bles, su ch as potatoes and onions, are also consumed but not extensive! y. In Otjohorongo, with predominantly Herero population, the diet of the inhabitants consists mainly of thick sour milk during the milking season. In the dry season, maize porridge with sugar is the main part of the diet. Maize porridge is also eaten with thick milk. Game is also of great importance in their diet. The same types of diets were reported for the two population groups living in Otjimbingwe and Waterberg East. The Damaras grow sorne maize and wheat. The latter is used as the staple food. Occasionally a goat is slaughtered. In Waterberg East a good deal of canned food is bought, as weil as various kinds of meal, sweets, tea and coffee, though hardly any vegetables. Sorne wild foods are collected by the women. In urban Karibib, the vast majority bought ali their food, as there were no gardens. The shops had a large variety of commodities, but there is no information about what foodstuffs were most popular. Milk is scarce, and none of the African stock owners have surplus milk to sell.

The importance of milk in the Herero diet has been emphasizeà in many sources.9 Apparently milk still plays an important role as stock raising is the main source of livelihood for this population group, but of late it has been partly replaced by other foods such as maize. The diet of the Damaras has not changed much. The main food is still maize porridge with sugar and fat, perhaps milk, and occasionally meat. Butter is made by the cattle owners and it is mostly used in the clarified form, which keeps better. Vegetables are quite rare. The people in Namaland in the south make their living from stock raising and karakul farming. The soil is dry and very stony, so no extensive cultiva tion of crops is possible. The Saan people (one of the smallest population groups) le ad a nomadic existence living on hunting and gathering wild food, of which they utilize the berries, roofs or leaves. The Odendaal report1 0 lists sixty wild food plants occurring in the Saan diet and there are probably more. The nutritive value of many of the plants has been analysed by the National Re search Institute for the South African Counci1 for Scientific and Industrial Research. The most important items have been the manketti nut (Ricinodendron rautanenii)and the shivi-bean(Guibour tia coleosperma). The use of pulp made from nuts and beans as a milk substitute in the weaning period has apparently prevented serious protein malnutrition among infants.11 It is estimated that less than 10 percent of the Saan at present lead the traditional nomadic life.

Of the people living in the north, the nutritional status of the people in Kaokoveld and the eastern region is least known. In Kaokoveld people seem to live mainly by stock raising and gather ing wild foods though cultivation is undertaken to a small extent together with sorne fishing on the Kunene River. It is quite likely for the people in the eastern region to have a varied diet, as the area is good for farming. A variety of grain, such as maize, wheat, millet, and sorghum is grown in addition to peanuts, sunflower, vegetables, and fruit trees. Fish is available throughout the year, and makes an important contribution to the diet of the population.12 However, very little is known about the diet of the people in Kaokoveld and the eastern region.

Information on the food consumption patterns in Ovamboland and Kavango is available and is based on interviews with Namibians and Finnish missionaries in Ovamboland in 1980, Namibians 1 3 and former missionaries in Finland in 1980 and unpublished pa pers by Karin Haldin ( 19 74-7 5), a Finnish missionary in Ovamboland.

Agricultural Economy of Namz"bz"a 49 Generally, in Ovamboland and Kavango, extensive crop cultivation is made possible due to the presence of the Okavango River. The most important crops are millet, maize and sorghum. Maize is consumed both as vegetable, boiled or roasted, and as a porridge meal. Variety in the diet is brought about by the inclusion of vegetables, such as pumpkins, beans, kale, carrots, cabbages, beetroots, tomatoes and onions in the menu. A newly introduced vegetable, red pepper, is becoming popular too. Legumes, such as groundnuts and mixed beans, add to the protein supply. Potatoes, sweet potatoes and fr uits, such as lemons, papayas, guavas, watermelons and bananas, were grown mostly on the expçrimental farm and sold to the people in the area. South African grown vegetables and fruit are also on sale. The consumption of these products thus depends much on the amount of moncy available for food. Fishing is very popular along the Kavango River and freshwater fish is available throughout the year.

The local inhabitants prepare meal from millet by pounding slightly damp grain with wooden pestles in mortars which arc usually sunk into the grou nd. Obviously, this method cannot be easily used for preparing the quantity of meal required for large-scale institutional feeding. In Onandjokwe and Rupara, the mission runs a mill to prepare meal for the hospitals and school hostels. The millet flour from the mill is not as white as that prepared at home and it has a slightly different taste (rather bitter) due to the extra bran, but it is accepted by the hospital patients and the school children. It can also be mixed with maize.

In 1970, the ational Nutrition Rt~sea rch Institute of the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Rcsearch tricd to find a way of milling millet mechanically to obtain a meal of the requircd quality, i.e. one which is not t ::>o dark. The milling also had to be sufficiently economical for institutional usc.14 After conductin5 sorne experiments, the researchers finally recommended the use of a rice mill to rcmove part of the bran from the grain by abrasion. Apparently this research project did not lead to any practical steiJ'i towards the establishment of commercial milling of millet, with the consequence that the state hcc;pitals and school hostels usually utilize maize instead of millet.

Losses of protcin, minerais and vitamins occur during the milling of the gram mto flour, whether it is milled or hand-pounded. The extent of the !osses depends mainly on the extraction rate. The extraction rate of the flour prepared at home is unknown. It may be comparable with the 75 per cent given in the Zambian food composition tables15 for hand-p ounded millet flour. The acceptability tests carried out in connection with the milling experiments in 1970 indicated that the hi ghest extraction rate that would yield a meal acceptable to the local people in Namibia was between 80 to 85 percent.

The millet porridge continues to be the most important food for the people in the north. It is cooked stiff enough to be served in a basket. The porridge is eaten with a sauce which may consist of green leaves with fat and water, beans in fat, mashed pumpkins, meat and fat, or fresh or sour milk. Porridge made of sorghum may occasionally be consumed but does not seem to be common. Maize is used if there is no millet.

The other traditional food is a kind of beer made of millet flour mixed with malted sorghum. The flour mixture is stirred in hot water and left to cool. Cold water is added and the gruel is left to ferment for a few hours or overnight. The result is a slightly sour beverage with high nutritive value and very low alcohol content. It is consumed unstrained.

Meals in these areas are infrequent. Cooked breakfast is not common. The first cooked meal is eaten between 12.00 and 14.00 hours. This meal consists of porridge and sauce or cooked beans. In Kavango, boiled ·or roasted corn-cobs are quite common, and sometimes a thin porridge is made of mashed pumpkin and flour. Cooked pumpkin is common in Ovamboland too. The main meal, always porridge with sauce, is eaten as late as 19.00 - 21.00 hours. Between meals, the home made beverage is sometim es drunk, though today it is often replaced by tea, coffee or carbonated bever age or bottled beer.

Generally, there appear to be no foods prohibited among the Ovambos and Kavangos. Nor are there many age-group or sex-linked restrictions, or disease-linked foods. The customs may

50 Nutritional Status of the Population vary among the different tribes, though. Among sorne groups pregnant women are not allowed to eat eggs, frogs or turtles. Frogs and turtles are not very important constituents of the diet, but they would add to the protein supply, as would the eggs. But in general ali edible items local! y available seem to be eaten. Of course, sorne foods are more popular th an others. Meat is valued very highly, but it cannat be eaten every day in ordinary families, because of its relatively high priee. Beef and chicken are valued higher than the meat of goats, sheep, frogs and birds. In smaller families cattle are slaughtered very seldom, because they are consideree! to be an economie asset and a sign of wealth. Wealthy families with big herds may slaughter liv est ock more often and sell part of the meat direct to the village people either at the house or in a market place. Sorne small stores have a slaughtering business too.

Considerable quantities of fish are caught in the Kavango River and in the fl ood waters in Ovamboland during J anuary, February and March. Large catches are dried for future use. The fish is eaten with the porridge and the consumption is estimated to be up to 500 grammes per day for adults and 250 grammes per day for children during the tluce months.l 6 This may be an over estimate but generally fish is an important source of protein throughout the year in Kavango and during part of the year in Ovamboland. Large amounts of canned fish are als o consumee!.

Milk is not always available. The cows calve at the beginning of the rainy season, but no t every year. The calves are not weaned, and this reduces the amount of milk available to the people. If the cattle are grazing far away from the villages, fresh milk canna t be transportee!, so the milk is made into butter and sour milk and stored until it is taken to the bouses. Coat milk is not as popular, and is used only if there is a shortage of food. ln Kavango, there is an experimental cl airy farm which sells milk to the sorrounding area.

Eggs are not eaten very often, probably because chicken is valued higher than cggs as food, and most of the eggs are reservee! for hatching although chilclren may sometimes eat them. They are also sold for cash.

Fruit trees, such as guava, papaya and leman, are grown in many places, and in sorne villages local fruit can be bought in the shops or market places. Apples and oranges arc importee! from South Africa and can be bought from the shops or direct from the transportation trucks.

Bread and potatoes are relative! y newly introcluced food items. Fortunately, the government subsidizes the clark, whole-meal wheat bread, so that it can be bought much more cheaply than the white bread. There is a bakery· in Oshakati which dis tributes bread to a wide area. This type of leavened bread was not traditionally made at home, but today people build ovens in termite stacks and bake wheat bread themselves . This home-made bread can also be bought in the market places. Potatoes are not grown ve ry much.

The ordinary food is supplemented by various wild plants and fruits. Furthermore, during the rains, frogs and caterpillars provide additional source. Most of these wild foods can be collected during the warm, rainy season, i. e. from October to June, the best season being November to March. The green leaves, fruits and berries are stored by drying. The role of the wild foods is mainly to bring variety to the cliet. They also provide vitamins and minerais which may be scarce in the staple food.

Although the general food habits and the staple foods have not changee! much in this area, the consumption of food commodities has shifted more and more to those bought from the shops. People with incarne either from the sale of their cattle or from employment, prefer to purchase foods from the shops as they are often easier to prepare than the trad.itional ones. The shops sell bread and biscuits, rice and macaroni, sugar, condensee! and driecl milk, cannee! meat, fish and vegetables , cannee! fruit, maize and wheat flour, jams, etc. Though these commoclities bring variety to the diet, it is feared that they may overtake the tradi tional foods which often are nutritionally better.

Agn:cultural Economy of Namibia 51 Sorne Aspects of Child Rearing in Namibia

An important aspect of nutrition status relates to the condition of children, in particular, during early years. A knowledge of the general pattern of rearing young children is therefore essen tial for understanding the local aetiology of any form of malnutrition, and for the ultimate imple mentation of any programme aimed at improving the situation. Though no national studies have been conducted, the following description based on interviews with people working in Ondangwa and Kwanyama gives sorne idea of the child rearing habits in the territory. It is, however, realized that child rearing habits may not be the same throughout Namibia.

ln Ovamboland, the new-born baby is put on the breast very soon after birth and no foods are given before breast milk. There are no fixed feeding times- the child is fed on demand until it is weaned. The child is breast fed for up to two years, sometimes even up to four years if the mother does not become pregnant again. A few educated women usually go on working after they get married and have children. ln such instances , mothers either go home to feed their babies during work breaks or the child may be brought to the mother's work place to be fed.

Prolonged breast feeding is declining, however. Very few women continue to breast feed their children after the first year. The main reason seems to be an attitude that breast feeding is somehow old-fashioned. It may also be difficult in practice if the mother is working. Bottle feeding is there fore becoming more and more popular, espccially if the mother works outside the home. Low standards of hygiene in usage of the botties, however, increase the number of cases of diarrhoea, which may lead to undernutrition. Milk made from powdered or condensed milk is also sometimes over-diluted, and the baby does not get enough nutrients.

Breast feeding stops immediately if the mother suspects that she is pregnant again, even if the child is very young and bad! y needs the breast mil k. The milk is believed to tu rn sour or unhealthy. A mother might also stop breast feeding the child if she feels ill or if the child falls ill because of the belief that her milk is no longe r good for the baby.

In sorne cases, the breast milk is the only food received by the baby for up to one year. Addi tional food is usually givcn when the baby shows interest in it, which may start from the age of six to seven months. There are no special weaning foods, and the child is given the same types of food as adults, viz. the millet-sorghum beverage and porridge with sauce.

Another problem in child feeding is that an increasing number of the mothers are unmarried. Many women leave their parents' home to work in towns. When a child is born, the mother leaves it with the grandmother and returns to her work. In these cases, the child cannot be breast fed for a sufficiently long time and will probably suffer from nutritional deficiencies.

Small children usually cat with their mothers and get sorne food every now and then. However, the introduction of additional food wh en breast fee ding stops has its problems. Generally, no extra effort is made to keep child 's needs in view. As a result, the child is expected to eat meals made for adults and at adults' infrequent meal times, notwithstanding the fact that the porridge is too thick for the child to eat easily and it is difficult for a small child to fu lfil its energy requirements from two daily meals of porridge. Health care personnel have tried to introduce weaning foods, for example, gruel instead of porridge, boiled eggs, and above all, increased meal frequency. Unfortu nately this kind of change in traditional child feeding is a slow process. It might also create practical problems with increased demand for firewood or other fuel. The infrequent meal pattern might be suitable for the adults, sincc they are used toit, but school children sometimes go hungry. They may not eat anything in the morning, and there may not be any school feeding except for thos.e living in the hostels. Moreover, when they return home in the afternoon the family may have already had the lunch. Sorne school children have only one proper meal taken in the evening.

Some school children take food with them to school. This lunch used to consist of millet bread and the home-made beverage but toda y it ma}' · consist of coffee or carbonated beverages and bread with jam. There are sometimes small shops close to the schools where the children can buy fruit or other food during their lunch break. People sometimes come and sell bread at the schools, too. However, to bu y food requires money, and this is not al ways available.

52 Nutritional Status of the Population Tite Value of Sorne Wild Foods Growing in Namibia

The northem people and the Saan in particular are known to make use of the wild foods which grow in many parts of Namibia. There are also sorne plants in the central area which are known to be collected by the local people. A brief description of the more corn mon wild plants is given below.

Naras (Acanthosicyos horrida); also called naras melon, is a cucurbitaceous plant which is found mainly along the Kuiseb River near Walvis Bay in central Namibia. The fruit is a small melon containing many seeds. Naras starts ripening in Octobcr and the time for harvcsting is from about November to tlarch-April. The ripe naras fruit can be consumed raw, although wh en the harvest is abundant sorne of the fruit is stored: the flesh is first scraped out of the skin and cooked separating out the pips. Both the mashed flesh and the pips are dried. The pips are highly valued and may be eaten raw or used in confectionery. The pips are said to tas te likc alm onds.1 7 The protein and fat contents of naras pips are very hi gh (Table 6.4} and they contain also a considerable quantity of minerais and the flesh, much water.

In addition, in the north, many green leafy plants grow after the rains, and many of them are collected and eaten. The best known is Gynandropsis gynandra commonly known as cat's whiskers, bastard mustard, or spider herd in African food composition tables. Spccies of amaranthus also grow in the north.18 Many of these plants are stored by drying. They are first boiled in water and then the leaves are pressed into cakes which are dried in the sun. These leaf cakes can be stored for severa! months. The fresh leaves are good sources of minerais, such as iron, magnesium, and calcium. Most clark green leaves are also good sources of carotene. Sorne of the nutrients are !ost in the cooking waters and in the drying process, but analyses show that leaf cakes still contain consider able quantities of minerals.19

Another weil known vegetable is tsamma (Citrullus lanatus), a wild watcrmelon, which is also cultivated in Ovamboland and Kavango (Citrullus vulgaris) . The fruit and the seeds of the wild plant are an important source of food and water for the Saan people. The sceds arc cspeciall y rich in proteins and fats.

Of the fruits collected and consumed in the northern region, manketti (Ricinodendron rauta nenii) is best known. The fruit, about the size and shape of a plum, ripens in April. The flesh can be cooked to a porridge or soup, or eaten fresh. There is a soft kernel in the manketti stone which has protein, mineral and oil contents. The oil is usually pressed from the kernel and used in cooking or as a sauce· with porridge. The manketti fruit is also a good source of vitamin B. According to the Odendaal report it is one of the principal veld foods of the Saan people.20

A survey carried out by the Ovambo Department of Agriculture states that one manketti tree yields about 50 kg fruit and that existing trees could supply a million kg nuts per year. If the esti mates are reliable, this would be of great importance to the nutrition status of the northern are as . 2 1

Marula or marvola nut (Sclerocarya caffra) is another weil known fruit tree in the area. The fruit has a very strong taste and the juice is easily fermented into a strongly alcoholi c beverage . It can also be consumed as soup. It is rich in vitamin C. The kernels have a hi gh fat content and can be used in place of à.lmonds.

The baobab fruit (Adansonia dzgitata) is also commonly consumed. The flesh is mealy and has a pleasant taste. The iron and vitamin contents are hi gh and the seeds are rich in proteins and fats.

Other trees which provide edible fruits are the ivory palm (Hyphaene vantrz.coa), wild plum (Xz"menz·a caffra), monkey guava, or jakkalsbessie (Dz"ospyros m espz"lz[ormis). The Odendaal report and the Department of Foresty give a more detailed list of these trees. 2

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 53 Table 6.4 : The Composition of Sorne Namibian V/ild Foods

Food Energy Protein Carbohy drates Fat lOOg KJ g g g

Naras, flesh 265 2.4 11 .1 1.9 Dried fl esh 1342 11.2 34.0 15.4 Seed 2709 30.7 2.3 57.0 Spider herb 143 4 .8 5.2 0.4 Amaranthus sp. 176 4.6 8.3 0.2 Watermelon, fl es h 17-88 0.4 4.7 0.1 Seeds, total 101 15.7 9.1 15.7 Seeds, kernels 2381 25.8 15.1 49.7 Manketti, dry fl esh 1424 9.4 72.9 1.2 Marula, fl esh 252 1.0 13. 1 0.4 Seed, dried 2524 24.6 9.2 57.5 Baobab 1218 2.2 76.7 0.8 Seed, dried 1890 30.0 24.2 29.6 Palm fruit 1267 4 .9 69.6 0.4 Wil d plum 294 2.3 13.2 0.9 Monkey guava 466 0.8 26.0 0.4

Sources: Na ti onal Food Rescarch Institute/CSIR, Pretori a. FAO, Food Composition Table for Use in Africa (Rome, FAO, 1968).

The Nutritional Functions of the Food Commodities Consumed in Namibia

The foods commonly used in a country can be arrange d into fo ur groups according to their functions in the nati onal dict as follows :2 3

Staple food: Cereals, roots and tubers. Protein supplement: Vege table and animal. Vitamin and mineral supplement: Vegetables and fruit. Energy supplement: Fat, sugar and others .

The staple food and the cheapest source o f energy in Namibia is cereals . Cereals are also the main source of protein . The traditional porridge contains 70-80 per cent water, which means that the nutrient density is low. lt is impossible to ge t enough energy or protein from cereals only. Supple ments are therefore needed to improve the quantity and quality of energy and protein intake. Consumption of millet and sorghum should be encouraged as their amino acid composition is better than that of maize.

Cereals als o provide considerable amounts of vitamin B. The content of thiamine is particularly high. Again, millet and sorghum should be preferred to maize as the nicotinic acid in maize is mainly in a bound form and r.robably cannot be utilized by the body. The tryptophan content of maize is also Iow and cannot be uscd by the body as a source of nicotinic acid. Cereals also con tain other minerais and trace elements, though the calcium content is low. Millet and sorghum can easily provide the daily iron requirements, and maize can provide a considerable amount of iron. However, the method of utilization of iron by the body is not known.

Roots and tubers are not important staple foods in Namibia, with the exception of sorne wild species that are used by the nomadic groups. Potatoes and sweet potatoes, grown in sorn e places in the north , could be good vitamin and mineral supplements, but the amounts consumed are quite small.

54 Nutritional Status of the Population Protein supplements can be of either vegetable or animal origin . Legumes, such as beans and groundnuts, are relatively cheap and contain 20 g protein/100 g on average. Unfortunately they need a long cooking time and therefore require much energy. Soaking can, however, reduce the cooking time considerably. The energy content of legumes is almost the same as that of cereals, which they can partly replace. However, they should only be considered a supplement to cereals in order to obtain biologically valuable amino acids. The peanuts also have a higher fat content than other legumes and can therefore supply more energy, whereas the composition of the bambara groundnuts is doser to that of other legumes. Another group with moderate to high protein con tent is nuts and seeds, for example, seeds of pumpkins, watermelons and sunflowers. Most of these foods con tain plenty of fat, too. Many species of wild foods are also important protein supple ments, e.g. manketti and marula riuts, naras seeds and seeds ofwild watermelons as was noted above. Legumes, nuts and seeds are good sources of vitamin B, and their nicotinic acid content would constitute an important supplement to that of cereals. They also provide considerable quantities of minerais, such as iron and calcium. On the whole, the cultivation of plants in this group should be encouraged, as should the consumption of wild foods .

Animal products as protein supplements are usually quite expensive, except where fish is available. However, the protein quality is so high that even small amounts are good supplements to the staple foods. Animal products als o provide energy, the amount depending on the fat content. In addition, meat and milk add to the vitamin B supply.

Vitamin and mineral supplements are needcd to provide ascorbic acid and vitamin A and to enrich the mineral content of the diet. The main sources of ascorbic acid and vitamin A are clark green vegetables and yellow or orange fruits. Sorne of the green vegetables, such as cabbage, kale and green beans, are planted but many wild species are consumed too. They also provide iron and calcium and other minerais. The most valuable fruits are guava, papaya, lemons and many species of wild fruits. Both the energy content and the protein content in vegetables and fruits are, how ever, low, except in sorne clark green vegetables.

Energy supplements are needed to reduce the bulk of the diet. Fats provide about 900 cal/ 100 g and sugar 400 cal/100 g, and are thus rich sources of encrgy. Fats are also traditionally used to make the food tastier. Fats and sugar have no value as sources of protein, nor do they provide vitamins or minerais, but in proper amounts they are valuable encrgy supplements. Ground nuts, wild nuts, and seeds can be considered as both energy supplements and protcin supplements. Many species provide more energy than sugar does and also contain vitamins and minerais.

Impact of Malnutrition

Malnutrition in Namibia is primarily due to social conditions majority of the population is subjected to. Pellagra has been reported in the north during the dry months. The number of cases diagnosed as malnutrition varies from year to year. In Onandjokwe, the 1970s have seen about twenty deaths per year. Of course, sorne malnourished children may nevcr be brought to the hospital and thus go unrecorded.

Infant and child mortality rates in Namibia are a reflection of many environmental conditions. They are a primary index of the existence of nutrition-related health problems. Though there are no statistics covering the whole of Namibia, the figures from Windhoek provide sorne idea of the gravity of the situation. The most striking feature of Table 6.5 is the disparity in infant mortality rates for whites and blacks.

The figures in Table 6.5 show that the mortality rates among the coloureds and the blacks are higher than those of the whites and also higher than international rates. Amoqg coloureds and blacks gastroenteritis is a major cause of death accounting for 21.5 and 40.7 deaths per thousand live births du ring the years 197 6-81. These figures indicate rather severe nutrition-related health problems. Indeed the roots of the high infant mortality problem lie in certain socio-economic conditions, such as undernutrition, poor housing and poor hygiene. Ignorance and high birth rates (the average number of children is four to five, eight is not uncommon, and up to twenty children have been born to sorne women) also play a significant role. The high birth rate, common in many African countries, though a health problem for women, is a practical necessity to a big part of the population whose material security is guaranteed by a large amount of manpower in the family.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 55 Table 6.5: Infant Mortality Rates

1960 1970 1975 1980 1981 ln Windhoek

Whites 43 22 22 23 28 Coloureds 184 74 145 158 165 Blacks 207 189 163 174 178

International rates

High-income groups 15 Medium-incarne groups 83 Low-income groups 138

Sources: Municipality of Windhoek, Demographie Trends in the Population of Windhoek (Wind hoek, Town Planning Section, 1976). City of Windhoek, Mayoral R eports for 1973 and 1974. 1981 data calculated from Medical Officer of Health returns of number of births and deaths each month . . Andersson, Th e Health Sec tor in Namibia. Working Paper presented to the United Nations Institute for Namibia (1983). Mimeographed.

The nutritional problem in Namibia is more qualitative than quantitative. While sources of vitamins C and A seem to be quite scarce in the traditional diets, protein content seems unlikely to be a limiting factor even in the most impoverished diets from areas where cereals are the cheapest sources of cnergy. 2 4 The problem rn ust therefore be viewed as one of insufficient quantities of food available for everybody to meet their energy needs and to provide enough essential nutrients.

The ·F AO food balance sheets indicate that there is no serious shortage of fo od in Namibia. But as stated before, the state of well-being is not evenly distributed. The poor towns-people in particu lar are in a bad nu tritional situation. The abolition of migration restrictions has in creased the size of the black population in the cities, causing vast unemployment and shortages of money and food. The fact that scores of people can be seen daily rummaging for food in Windhoek is evidence of this. One of the groups at risk is therefore the towns-people, and especially children of preschool age.

In rural areas the situation is not much better because the availability of food is uncertain due to its dependence on weather conditions. ln normal years, northern farmers are able to grow enough food for subsistence, but during drought ali the rural areas suffer. A bleeding sickness, seasonally common in Ovamboland, may be connected with the shortage of vitamin C, but there is no general agreement about this. There are also cases of night-blindness which respond to vitamin A treatment.

In addition to cases diagnosed as malnutrition there are many diseases which are connected in sorne way with nutritional status, such as tuberculosis, measles, malaria and intestinal helminths. The outbreak of these diseases may be a result of undernutrition, or the disease may aggravate prevailing nutritional deficiencies. Poor hygiene als o easily causes gastro-intestinal infections and the resultant diarrhoea leads to uRdernutrition. The most vulnerable group, nutritionally, comprises children from one to four years old. ln Onandjokwe hospital the patients diagnosed as having malnutrition are usually between one and two years old, i.e. in the weaning period. As long as the babies are breast-fed they receive their protein supplement from breast milk, but energy supple ment should be given after six months of age. If additional feeding is started very late, the child will not gain weight normally.

56 Nutrz'tional Status of the Population One of the main causes of malnutrition is poverty and Jack of food, especially among the urban population, the nomads, and the smallholders in rural areas in the dry season. A survey carried out by the German Development Institute in Botswana2 5 lists too few meals a day as one of the key determinants in the vicious circle of malnutrition. When the daily food intake consists mainly o f cereals with few other ingredients, the energy content of the food is low in relation toits volume. Th us, if fewer than two meals are consumed per day, very large quantities of food are required at each meal to meet the daily energy need. Therefore, the bulkiness of the diet was considered the main limiting factor in energy consumption in the households at risk. Particularly in the case of children, an inadequate quantity of food provides insufficient energy and protein intake, and for chidren between one and three yea.rs not even two daily meals are enough. A parallel can be drawn between the findings from Botswana and the situation in Namibia as the food habits in these countries are similar.

As long as two substantial meals are consumed per day, the food intake is probably sufficient. Sm ail chidren are, however, at ris k. The energy needs of a child from one to three years are estimated at 1 000-1 300 cal per day. About 285 g of meal is needed to furnish 1 000 cal per day and 3 70 g for 1 300 cal. As the traditional porridge contains at !east 70 per cent water, this would mean that the child eat 1 to 1.2 kg of stiff porridge daily-a quantity that a child cannat eat during only two meals.

Another caus e of malnutrition is probably ignorance of nutritional requirements. This factor, which mainly affects children, is closely connected with the frequency of meals and composition of the diet. Most women have little education in nutrition, and this perhaps leads to unsatisfactory weaning practices and the wrong choice of food commodities even if there is sorne .money to spend. In Ovamboiand, however, the girls' schools run by the Finnish mission have provided sorne educa tion in nutrition. The girls used to have !essons in home economies, which included child care, hygiene and nutrition. Now that the schools have been taken over by the government, home econo mies is no longer included in the curriculum. However, sorne schools tend a garden to train the pupils in gardening, and sorne nutrition facts are taught in connection with these activities.

As nutrition and health are closely connected, the health care units also give nutritional advice, for example, in hospitals and clinics, and, of course, nutrition is included in the curriculum of nursing schools. The circulating health teams in Ovamboland used to hold short teaching ses sions during their clinic visits, which gave them a chance to give nutrition advice. The nurses have even prepared a textbook which covers bath nutrition and other aspects of child care. The circula ting activities have now been restricted to sorne extent, because of the war.

The Ambo-Kavango church also participates in nutrition education. The adult education institute in Engela (Parish Institute) included nutrition as a subject in its one-year course. Teaching materials have also been prepared for this course. In addition, the women's groups within the congre gation take up nutritional subjects in their meetings evcry now and then. Whether the other churches are engaged in this kind of activity is unknown.

The study in Botswana2 6 shows that malnutrition in this special are ais a problem of poverty, food habits, existing infrastructure, and social structure. Major causes are to be found in the pre vailing socio-economic and agricultural conditions. However, there is no single factor, su ch as purchasing power for food or low incarne from agriculture, etc., which caused malnutrition; it is always a combination of severa! factors. The same probably holds good for Namibia. Thus, the improvement of the nutritional status should be treated a~ an integration of various measures.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. N. Andersson, The Health Sector in Namibia. Working Paper presented to the United Nations Institute for Namibia ( 1983). Mimeographed. 2. Ibid . 3. B. Bronte-Stewart, and others, "The Health and Nutritional Status of the Kung Bushmen of South-West Africa" . In S.A . J. Lab. Clin . Med., Vol. 6 (1960) pp. 187-216; J. M. May and D. L. McLellan, Studies in Medical Geography. Vol. 10: The Eco/ogy of Malnutrition in Seven Countries of Southern Africa and in Portuguese Guinea (New York, Hafner, 1971); and G. Cronje and S. Cronje, Workers of Namibia (London, Int. Defence and Aid Fund for S. Africa, 1979). Recently, the University of Cape Town has been working on sorne specifie problems related to nutrition in Namibia. The Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Agn'cultural Economy of Namibia 57. has carried out an extensive survey in the Rehoboth district to assess the health status of infants with special reference to the nitrate content of the drinking water. The Department of Community Health of the Univer sity of Cape Town has carried out a project on anthropometrie measurements among healthy children in Windhoek. 4. FAO/WHO Expert Group, Energy and Protein Requirements (Rome, FAO, 1973) (FAO Nutr. Meet. Rep. Ser. No. 52). 5. W. H. Thomas, Economie Development in Namibia: Toward Acceptable Development Strategies for Indepen dent Namibia (Munich, Kaiser, 1978) p. 306. 6. H. Frohberg, The Relationship Between Nutrition and Health : The Present Situation in Africa (Austria Inst. for Applied Systems Analysis, 1978). 7. United Nations, Compendium of Social Statistics: 1977 (New York, UN, 1980). 8. Frohberg, The Relationship Beiween Nutrition ànd Health. 9. Report of the Commission of Enquiry into South West Africa Affairs 1962 - 63 (Pretoria, Govt Printer, 1964) Chairrnan: F. H. Odendaal (R. P. No. 12/ 1964). 10. Ibid. 11. F AO, Food Composition Tables for Use in Africa (Rome, FAO, 1968). 12. SWA/Namibia Information Service, The Population Groups of South West Africa (Part II) (Windhoek, SWA/Namibia Inf. Service, 1980). 13. K. Haldin, Persona! communication and unpublished papers, 1980. 14. J. P. De Wit and F. Schewegert, "The Potential Role of Pearl Millet as a Food in South Africa. In S.A. Med. J., Vol. 44 (1970) p. 364. 15. National Food and Nutrition Commission, Foodstuffs 1970 (Lusaka, Ntl Fd and Nutr. Comm., 1971). 16. P.E. Claassen and D. Page, Ontwikkelingsplan vie Owarnbo {Univ. Stellenbosch, 1978). 17. E. H. Pfeifer, "Nara and Topnaar Hottentots". In SWA Annual (Windhoek) 1979. 18. W. Giess, Veldkost in Sudwestafrica. SWA Scientific Society, Vol. 20 (1965). 19. S. Soini, Agriculture in Nort1zem Namibia (1980). Unpublished. 20. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into South West Africa Affairs 1962- 63. 21. Claassen and Page, Ontwikkelingsplan vie Owambo. 22. P. J. Le Roux, "The Common Names and a few Uses of the Better Known Indigenous Plants of South West Africa" . In Dep. Forestry Bull. (Pretoria), (1971) No. 47. 23 . Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet. Nutrition och Lantbruk, om Samspelet Me/lan Manniskan, .forbruket och Fodan (Uppsala, 1

58 Nutritional Status in Namibia Chapter Seven

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGRICUL TURAL ECONOMY FOR INDEPENDENT NAMIBIA

Any attempt at articulating options for the development of the agricultural economy of Namibia must necessarily take account of a number of historical, environmental and other internai and extemal factors. These indu de endogenous factors such as the fragile ecology, and exogenous ones like the fluctuations in the world market priee of karakul pelts. For an option to be accept able to the Liberation Movement it must also aim at reversing the anomalies and contradictions which have been a prominent feature of the colonial agricultural policy as pointed out in the preceding chapters. In addition, due to resource constraints there will be need for intersectoral resource allocations and transfers to promote balanced development in the country. Though in most developing co un tries su ch as Ethiopia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Ghana, and Brazil, resources are trans fer red from agricultural to other sectors of the economy, in Namibia production of non-renewable resources should allow the agricultural sector to receive a net transfer of financial resources from other sectors.

The agricultural economy of Namibia was underdeveloped over the years by the colonial regime, and has been distorted in favour of white farmers. Sixty per cent of good land is occupied by these farmers who comprise only 7 per cent of the population. Africans have been pushed in relatively unproductive "homelands" and are not given incentives to produce. In fact subsistence production, particularly the crop sector, has been completely neglected. Land use and husbandry has been abused, thereby aggravating the already delicate eco-system and resulting in semi-desert and desert conditions in sorne parts. The economy has also been designed deliberately to create a food market for South Africa. In consequence, an average o f 100 000 tons of grain are imported annually in addition to large quantities of agricultural inputs.

Thus, qne of the important and priority options for independent Namibia will be to rebuild, promote and develop the agricultural economy so as to increase food production, generate foreign exchange from agricultural exports to supplement contributions of other sectors, and to . create employment. SWAPO's po licy objectives emphasize first, self sufficiel).cy in basic food production; and secondly, the attainment of societal (i.e. distributive) justice. This requires a comprehensive agrarian transformation aimed at giving land to the tiller, and the establishment of peasant co-opera tives or collectives and state owned ranching and crop farms. The third goal emphasized by SWAPO's policy, viz. the improvement in the lev el of living in the rural are as, will hopefully flow from the first two policy objectives, and from policy emphasis on rural development.

Post-independent Namibia is likely to be faced with a number of problems as a result of historical antecedents and the structures which have been built up over the years to support colonial agricultural policy serving basicaliy the interests of the colonial regime. Consequent! y, there will be a need to overhaul these structures and re-orientate policy to focus on the interest of the masses of the newly independent country. Obviously, change. in agrarian: economy can not be brought about overnight. There will be resourse constraints. Various sectors will compete for the limited resources. It would therefore be pragmatic to place various policy objective components in appro priate time-frames; for sorne of the objectives will need immediate attention, while others will be viewed in a longer term perspec.tive.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY: A SHORT TERM SCENARIO

In the immediate post-independent scenario, it would be safe to assume that the majority of white settler farmers and expatriates will leave in a hurry resulting in the abandonment of farms.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 59 just as it happened in Zimbabwe and Kenya. If this occurred, emergency measures would have to be adopted including making use of cadres as vanguard to man the abandoned farms and to push forward policies, assisted by chiefs and others who have had previous experience in the commercial sector as migrant labourers. This would constitute "crisis managèment'; scenario and ali efforts would need to be mobilized to main tain production or arrest drop in output. Assistant farm managers, milking assistants, herdsmen, clairy attendants, charge hands would ali be mobilized to run these abandoned farms.

Such abandoned farms, unoccupied land, and other assets would have to be nationalized, or taken over either as state farms or managed as co-operative farms or a mix of these options. It is conceivable that this could have a temporary adverse effect on export earnings but perhaps no adverse effect will accrue to the 46 000 Africans employed in this sector since these employees would take over the units or be re-employed on the same units under different management. This scenario is also likely to prevail if the government of independent Namibia opts for state ranches and state farms. The Namibians who take over the management of these farms might tempbrarily experience sorne setback due to lack of prior training but would gain experience with time and in the end perform weil. Kenya's experience justifies this optimism.

On the other hand, especially if independence is achieved through negotiations, many white large-scale farmers and ranchers may choose to remain at !east for the immediate future partly on account of the fact that "very many of them have invested much to build up their living as farmers or businessmen".1 In this event, in the short run, there will be need to maintain or optimize agricul tural production. This will be necessary to ensure adequate supply of food such as beef, clairy products, cereals, vegetables, and fruits required by the population, and for export. Such a scenario could, with adequate controls minimize disruptions to the economy by retaining sorne of the whites in their jobs as technocrats and advisers. Those who are purely civil servants on transfer from South Africa will, however, need to be replaced to avoid friction in the civil service arising from political transfer of power from the illegal apartheid system to the national government.

In this scenario, an alternative and perhaps concurrent option would be to cali on international assistance from friendly countries. In addition, secondment of experts and crash training program mes for administrative personnel can be initiated to help fill the gap left by the departure of the South African whites. Crash programmes or in-service training could also be organized for unskilled personnel including para-veterinary staff currently working on commercial farms and agricultural institutions to upgrade skills and fill any vacuum. A task force could be established to help promote agricultural production programme guided by a few extension agents.

There are sorne categories of personnel such as the management personnel in the marketing and processing sector, transport, and communications which, in sorne cases, can not be replaced immediately. Most of these are technocrats working on limited contract and are likely to remain as long as the special allowances they get offer them adequate incentive. The option here will be to ensure that the technocrats train Namibian counterparts to replace them as soon as the latter acquire the requisite skills and experience.

The other important issue relevant to the immediate post-independence scenario relates to the aspirations of the Namibian people. The abolition of migrant labour system will be. among one of the first structural changes to be introduced. People will therefore be free to move into and out of the rural areas. Thus rural/mban migration for those seeking urban employment is likely to assume signifcant proportions. This is in addition to the returning freedom fighters and refugees. At the same time it is also possible that there will be many who will prefer to stay on the land, being uncertain about opportunities for secure urban employment. The extent to which many will prefer to remain on the land will be, to a considerable extent, determined by govemmental policy in respect of urban/rural incarne differentiais and other incentives. If rural incarnes are improved, this will help to reduce rural/urban migration and stimulate agricultural production and thus con tribute towards food security in the country. Such policies could be accompanied by priee support for food crops and subsidy f

However, even then it is possible that in the short run there will be an exodus from the rural areas. The need for the provision of funds to make it possible to extend additional social ser-

60 Development of the Agricultural Economy for /ndependent Namibia vices especially housing and water, and later on schools and hospitals is therefore called for. It should not be forgotten that often there is a crisis of expectation about social and economie develop ment in newly independent countries. Yet, the capacity may not exist soon after independence to supply the goods and services which people expect. For example, in Zimbabwe soon after inde pendence there was pressure on wage demands resulting in wage spiral and eventually industrial unrest. The ideal solution is to match increases in wages with increase in productivity. This crisis of expectation can lead to hasty decisions on sorne key issues on social programmes, and there is a need to consciously guard against this. However, the general wage leve! for Africans is obviously pitifully low and thus will have to be adjusted upwards.

Marketing of beef and karakul pelts will be of critical importance in the immediate post independence period. The marketing of beef could be secured with the European Economie Com mission (EEC) where priees are in any case above world leve!. Additionally, markets could be found elsewhere, for example, in sorne other African countries notably North Africa and Angola or in the Middle Eastern countries. Karakul pelt marketing could be arranged through existing international brokers.

Detailed study on transport options for the period after independence has been recently completed by FAO (1982).2 The possibilities include airfreighting, improvements of Swakopmund harbour, and imports of refrigerated lorries which would allow for sorne export of live stock pro ducts. It would also make it possible to import ag1icultural products from sources other than South Africa.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY: MEDIUM AND LONG TERM SCENARIO

In the medium and long term the objective will be the creation of sustainable agricultural economy in Namibia. ln the commercial sector the principal problem will be to keep the ranches large and viable. The European population is now reduced from 100 000 to 7 5 000 and at present there are nearly 1 000 semi-abandoned or abandoned ranches with the owners now living out of Namibia (most! y in South Africa); of the remaining, 20 to 7 5 per cent are likely to leave on inde ependence.3 Moreover, the white ranches in Namibia are the most heavily dependent subsector in the who le of suq-Saharan Africa in respect of farmer support services. Th us, it is cri ti cal th at back up services should survive and tha't the extension personnel be retained at !east for the first two or three years.

4 Sorne seholars have argued that the ranching sector in Namibia is not viable ; for it provides the rancher a net return of about R8 000 only which is equivalent to the average salary of Europeans in Namibia, and minimum wages of workers on the farm are very low. 5 Although the sector is in deficit, agricultural policy objectives need not necessarily focus on the need for the sector to provide investible surplus. As was argued earlier on, the key role of agriculture includes the need to provide a living and also to provide adequate supply of food, and thus minimize the necessity for food imports. Ifboth criteria are satisfied then this will generate foreign exchange and contribute to the development effort. ln Botswana, the sector is profitable and Namibia could learn from her neighbour's experience. The key elements are the training of staff, the maintenance of adequate back up services, and the provision of supervisory managers.

During the post-independence period, the Namibian government should set up sound medium and long term livestock and crop development strategies and options whose main aim would be (1) the integration of livestock with crop industry including horticulture; (2) self-reliance in milk and clairy products; (3) development of local and extemal markets for beef, clairy products and pelts; (4) improv.ement of animal breeds and pastures; (5) preservation of ecologyfwater; (6) develop ment of indigenous sea water and fresh water fishing; (7) development of processing industry for increasing the added value component of exports and minimizing the imports of processed foods; (8) development of animal feeds industry; (9) the creation of an adequate and efficient agricultural infrastructure; (10) the expansion of employment in large farms, indigenization of workers' skills, and modemizing the traditional agricultural sector so that it can be relied on to produce enough to feed the population.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 61 Livestock Production

The choice of medium and long term livestock policy options will depend on the situation of agriculture inherited from the colonial system . Whatever the state of the intended livestock subsector, given the stated objectives of the Liberation Movement, it would be necessary for the state to provide adequate financial and technical support, and skilled personnel at different ievels t6 run the ranches. It is considered that the present system for large-scale private ownership does not provide a sound basis for an efficient livestock industry and should be complemented by the establishment of state farms and agricultural co-operatives. Within the context of the stated aims of the strategies and options, the following options, individually and collectively are considered viable.

The big ranches which need more attention and skilled manpower torun should be organized as state farms. By means of livestock state farms the government will be in a position to control meat, clairy and pelt production, ensure adequate food production for the population on a more stable basis, control livestock development and breeding, and introduce modern methods. in the field of animal husbandry. Apart from production, the state farms should also provide ali the facilities for manpower training, research, and demonstration of the most up-to-date agricultural technology. As a concept, the state farms are intended to be highly organized enterprises (especial ly in livestock) which under good management will provide ali the opportunities for a stable and sustained production. It is recognized that in sorne countries the state farms have failed to accom plish the various objectives and ~re no longer effective instruments for adequate food production. This is, however, not due to the concept as such, but rather due to mismanagement and failure to provide ali the supporting facilities torun them profitably, e.g. no records being kept, no budgeting, overdependence on govemment for subsidies, etc. Be fore the implementation of this option there fore staff training should be provided at managerial and technical levels. Due to the importance of state ranches, and their leading role in livestock development, a special department in the ministry of agriculture dealing with the state ranches could be formed. Alternatively, astate ranching corpora tion could be established.

Agricultural co-operatives and collectives are other systems which might be organized for livestock farming. Collective farms organized by the state could go a long way in bringing house holds together, and facilitating the application of modern agricultural techniques. For the success of the co-operatives and coll ectives, the state will need to give full support to them. The main task of liv estock co-operatives and coll ectives is to produce various animal products-fresh, preserved, or semi-processed. The livestock co-operatives and collectives need, especially in the beginning, numerous incentives which only the state can provide. The livestock support services should assist the co-operatives and collectives by offering them technical advice from highly qualified personnel and providing, at subsidized rates, animal feeds, drugs, vaccines, artificial insemination, improved seed varieties of pasture grass and lucerne, livestock farming implements, and the organization of periodic in-service courses for ranches. Where possible, these services should be provided free by the government, otherwise loans should be provided. Finally, the livestock co-operatives and collec tives should be viewed as an integral part of the overall agricultural economy of Namibia.

The small-scale private sector is another system of animal rearing which will need attention. It is recommended that subsistence livestock ranches in the north should be gradually converted to small-sc ale mixed farms. This will, however, be difficult to achieve in the central and southern parts of Namibia where the environmental conditions favour mainly extensive livestock ranching. It is recommended that small-scale livestock farmers should be encouraged to improve rural in cornes and employment opportunities. This could be achieved by allocating them land, providing adequate extension services, and distributing high grade breeds through; for example, subsidy schemes.

During the trans1t10n period .the government should give full support to the commercial farms in the private sector because they are the mainstay of animal production, bath for the inter nai market and for export. For instance, a bull subsidy scheme was introduced in Botswana in 1964 with the objective of distributing to the farmers bulls of better genetic quality at subsidized cast. Three main breeds for beef in Botswana are Brahman, Tuii and Simmental. At present (1982) the scheme distributes about 400 bulls annually to the farmers.

62 Development of the Agn·cultural Economy for Independent Namibia Considerable damage clone to the pastures due to overgrazing has worsened during the recent prolonged drought. During the first few years therefore correct stock carrying capacities of pastures should be established. The implication of this policy option is that in sorne areas livestock numbers may have to be curtailed in arder to preserve or improve pastures. Unfortunately, data on rainfall pattern is at present patchy so that studies on livestock carrying potential are incomplete. More work will therefore be required in this field to fill this critical gap in data in the medium and long term.

Development of adequate production facilities for stock feed, silage, and hay as weil as the improvement of pasture for ruminants, which are the main stock affected by drought and dry seasons, are also recommended. Improvement of the eco-system through afforestation and reclama tion and the use of fruit trees, and shrubs for sheep and goats should be introduced.

Attention is also required for the development of facilities for local cattle slaughtering and processing of meat to achieve self-sufficiency and reduce reliance on exports of the live cattle or carcasses to South Africa. ln addition, efforts should be made to improve the marketing of beef generally and to explore new markets. As more heads of cattle are slaughtered, utilization and processing of hides, bones and by-products, viz. leather goods, glue, gelatine, bane and meat meal, should be undertaken as one of the measures to promote agro-industrial development.

Dairying

In the past clairy production in the territory exceeded domestic consumption thus contribu ting surplus for export to countries such as Britain.6 However, colonial policy, introduced in the sixties, resulted in a drop in production. "Since then 20 percent of fresh milk supplies and prac tically ali supplies of butter and cheese have to be imported from the Republic of South Africa, in part even from overseas."7 After independence the growth of urban areas will create higher demand for clairy products. Therefore, there will be need for the development of clairy industry based on modern technology especially near urban centres. Apart from producing fresh milk, butter, and yoghurt, the industry could cater for dried milk requirements for the country. Due to the large investment in parlour facilities, milking machines, clairy animais and the intensive nature of the enterprise, the clairy farms must be aided through realistic priee structures acceptable to bath the producer and the consumer. In other words, there may be need for priee support policies for the clairy industry in particular. This could take the form of subsidizing inputs such as animal feeds and capital improvements. Milk priees could also be subsidized. A cross-breeding programme in rural area:s to improve milk production of local breeds should also be introduced.

Karakul Sheep

In the li ght of the present economie circumstances (i.e. the downtum in priees of SWAKARA pelts) the farmers should keep their karakul flocks pure (and not crossbreed) and provide sufficient grazing to main tain the quality of the stock. Production of natural col our pel ts should be increased considerably as these pelts are still in great demand in the international fashion market. Only lambs with acceptable pelt quality should be slaughtered for the fur market, whereas lambs with poorer quality should be reared for meat purposes. It is recommended to introduce a system of utilization of lamb carcasses slaughtered for pelts for the production of meat meal. Karakul farming within the small-scale farming sector should be continued.

Crop Production

To achieve. better production, considerable attention will need to be given to improving crop output. In the medium term, one of the most effective ways of increasing arable output as weil as rural employment would be to encourage doser settlement and intensive cultivation in the Otavi highlands (the maize triangle)--'-the area between the towns ·of Tsumeb, Otavi and Grootfontein in the northem part of the country where rainfed agriculture gives good reliable yields for cereals · and other crops. The sail and ground water are also of good quality in this region. Optimization of production could be achieved with mixed farming. The product mix would comprise maize, beans, groundnuts, simsim, cucurbits, cow peas, etc. A problem area in general is the fear of the damage due to deep ploughing. In Namibia, there are in general good soils on top, followed by three to

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 63 twelve feet of sand, followed by a pan especially in Oshana. Deep ploughing would bring up the sand which would then lead to Joss of moisture dawn the pan. The good top soils would also be inverted below sand. 1t is important therefore to investigate into the suitable cultivation techniques consonant with this type of soi! condition if damage to the land base is to be avoided.

Another effective strategy to expand crop production will be the net transfer of financial resources from the relatively well-endowed mining sector to the crop sector or the agricultural sector in general as indicated earlier. Examples of such a mechanism are cross-subsidization of inputs such as fertilizers, pestcides, machinery, etc. This is bath a development and a security measure in that domestic food supply would be increased, employment generated, and export remunerations achieved. Further, the balance of payments position would be protected from the vagaries of international mineral markets and priees. The experience of Zambia is a case in point.

One of the features of present day agriculture in Namibia is its narrow base, principally relying on beef, karakul and milk. Sorne of these products are dependent on South African market_con ditions whil.e other products, such as karakul pelts, are subject to the vagaries of cyclical priee variation in the world market conditions. Changes in incarne and purchasing power of the industrial nations as weil as fashions exert their own influence on product priees. Luxury goods are generally subject to these changes and consequently have greatly fluctuating priees. Such fluctuations in priees of agricultural products in turn cause flu ctuations in producer incarnes causing instability in farmers' investment plans that in turn affect product output. There is therefore need to diversify the agricultural product mix to include more crops relative to livestock, and to create a new inter national marketing structure to replace the South African oriented one. Diversification of farm enterp1ises has other merits as well - it is one of the measures to stimulate employment, reduc.e the risk of monoCJ·op fai lures, widen the scope for agTo-industries and reduce Joss of foreign exchange earnings from crop product imports. For example, cotton, wheat and tobacco could be introduced in the northem areas, while fru its and vegetables could be grown in the central and southern parts. 1t will be necessary, however, to precede su ch introduction by applied crop research. This research should result in specilïc recommendations and solutions regarding the type of crops which should be grown in the different parts of the country.

With respect to crop production, millet is clearly the most popular cereal but the production of the fo ll owing crops should be expanded immediately after independence since they are already growing in the country: cereals (millet, sorghum, maize), vegetables (melons, tomatoes, onions, cabbages), grain legume (beans, groundnuts), trees and fru it crops (oranges, guavas, pawpaws, pineapples, apples, peaches, palm, lemons). As a long term measure the following crops could be introduced or expanded: cercals (wheat), grain legumes (pigeon peas, cow peas), vegetables (ama ranthus), and oil seeds (sunflower, soyabeans, sesame, safflower), tree and fruit crops (bananas, grapes), fibre crops (cotton, kenaf, sisal), pastures (lucerne, improved grasses), roots and tubers (cassava, sweet potatoes, irish potatoes), and cash crops (sugar-cane, tobacco). Wheat production, for example, would guarantee ava.ilability of bread, and maize output would provide additional food. and valuable feed for livestock. The development of the livestock industry is closely related to the extent to which li vestock feeds, of which maize forms a major component, are made readily available to stock farmers at reasonable p1ices. Maize can also be stored to provide feed for live stock during the season when grazing is scarce or unavailable. Grazing of young maize standing in the field has also been practised successfull y on clairy farms in Kenya. Finally, the straw and husk provide additional feed, and straw can be used as bedding while the stubble when incorpora ted in the soi! helps to maintain soi! stmcture and organic matter content.

Area under cultivation should be expanded through increased irrigation facilities, machaniza tion, soi! conservation, and crop production support services. So far in Namibia dryland farming predominates with only about 11 000 hectares under irrigation. Given the potential of water resources, e.g. the Kunene and Okavango rivers, irrigation schemes could be expanded particularly in the northem part of the country. Since these border rivers are shared with the neighouring countries, there will be a need for regional co-operation in matters of water use. Similarly, mechani zation such as the use of tractors and ox-ploughs or the combination of the two could help bring increased area under cultivation. There is scope for increasing the use of ox-cultivation among the sm al! peasant farmers. Training programmes in the use of ox-teams should be encouraged or launched.

64 Development of the Agricultural Economy for Independent Namibia Increased crop production support services include the provision of credit, marketing, exten sion, research, and subsidy. ln addition, it is necessary to improve education and health services to make life casier, attractive, and more productive in the rural areas.

Increased use of agriculture inputs and new technology is also an important measure of agricul tural development. Since agricultural land suitable for arable cultivation in Namibia is limited, measures which aim at yield intensification would produce better results in the long run. Fertilizers (nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potash) should be used on farms to boost production, sin ce i t has been shown that sorne Namibian soils are deficient in these minerais. The soil texture also lacks humus. Phosphatic fertilizers are recommended for eastern and northeastern areas where phosphorus is particularly deficient. Nitrogenous manure (Guano) has been known to be applied in many parts of Namibia and this should be encouraged. Availability of crop protection chemicals to be applied on fields in the event of diseases or pest outbreak also needs to be ensured. The importance of fertilizers and other agro-chemicals is manifest in the experience of other countries where shortages or delays in supply have caused reduction in crop yield by about 30 per cent. The relatively high cost of fertilizers and crop protection chemicals has discouraged the wide use of these inputs in many African countries, there is therefore justification for subsidizing these inputs. New techno logies may also include the use of hybrid seeds. For example, the use of maize hybrid seed has been found useful in Tanzania at the Ilonga Research Station.

The kind of agro-industries that could be established in Namibia include: grain mills, fertilizer plants, timber mills, oil mills, ginneries, local assembly of imported agricultural equipment, bag making, processing and packing/canning of foods, e.g. vegetables and fruits, and production of simple agricultural equipment like hoes, axes, watering cans, etc. Such industries help to produce finished products either for local consumption or for export bence saving on import bills and adding on export realization. Second! y, they crea te employment. Sorne of the problems wi th su ch industries include the difficulty in achieving economies of scale, need for imported input, and sorne products from such industries have variable demand due to changes in tastes or consumers, caused due to variety of factors including the availability of substitutes, priee differentiais, and changes in income.

Horticultural production is generally profitable but highly specialized, and it is a somewhat fragile undertaking because of the high risks involved due to the perishability of the product. It may be necessary therdore to set up a horticultural production and marketing organization, as has been donc in sorne African countries where the industry is fairly successful, to assist farmers in the production of their horticultural products and the organization of marketing of the produce. Kenya and Tanzania provide good examples: farmers in Lushoto (Tanzania) formed a vegetable producti.on and marketing project. They own trucks to transport produce to Dar-es-Salaam whole sale market, and use cold storage facilities of the National Cold Chain Operations Company to store their produce.

Lastly, as a sound farming system approach, crop production should not be viewed, identified, or dealt with in isolation from other agricultural or non-farm activities. Components under the farmer's control, and environment should be interwoven to form a realistic farming system. "A good farming system is that one which examines the full range of household activities, including livestock, off-farm enterprises, domestic tasks and interaction among them rather than limiting to only cropping activities within the farm operation."8 In other words, crop production should form an integral part of the national integrated development strategy as well as integration at the farm leve!.

The options for crop development could be adopted in two phases, namely the short term period and l01,1g term period. During the first few years of independence emphasis should be given to equitable distribution and utilization of land, implementation of sound land reform policies, rendering of adequate support services like extension and inputs, and proper resettling and mobiliza tion of the people. In the p-eriod immediately after independence, there will be need to maintain production and ensure adequate food supply. In addition there may be need for food imports if production structures have been dislocated in the process of attaining political independence. In the event of any serious difficulties the need for international assistance may be necessary. This assistance could come through the World Food Programme, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and other sources including bilateral assistance.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 65 In the long term, comprehensive planning and development efforts should be geared to attain and sustain high crop production levels for bath cash and food crops through expanding areas under cultivation by way of irrigation and mechanization, research and training to provide for improved inputs and agronomie practices and adequate manpower, establishment of agro-indus tries, and diversification at both the production level and the processing level.

Nutrition

All the efforts to improve agricultural productivity and food production are designed ulti mately to improve the leve! of nutrition of the masses. At present the nutrition al problem in Namibia is primarily a qualitative one. The situation is seen as being worse in parts of Windhoek and in the entire southern areas than in the north. However, before nutrition policy can be developed, more research is needed to determine the type and extent of the nutrition problems and to identify them by population groups with different dietary patterns and socio-economic status in all ecological zones. In the initial stage of the problem appraisal, clinical surveys, and nutritional anthropometry would be of great value as indices of nutritional status. This would also assist the specification of sampling frames for continuation surveys such as food habit surveys or food consumption surveys. In Botswana, for example, such a study was concluded based on a food habit survey, in which information was collected about consumption patterns, intake frequencies, and feeding patterns for small children. A thorough food intake survey would require a large sample with many inter viewers over a long pcriod of time in order to be representative, and to take into account seasonal variations in food intake. A food habit survey correlated with clinical, anthropometrie, agricultural and socio-economic data will provide basic information for nutritional planning for the different ecological zones and for the who le country. As the present nu tri ti on data are grossly inaccurate, only sorne general recommcndations can be made to improve the nutritional status of the Namibians.

The traditional diet, with cereals as the staple food, can be considered satisfactory provided certain supplements are included. The consumption of millet and sorghum should be encouraged in areas where they are grown and traditionally used. The extraction rate in the preparation of flour from grain should not be tao law, whether the flour is pounded by hand or milled. A law extraction rate causes much waste in minerais and vitamins. The consumption of legumes, green leafy vegetables, wild foods, eggs, milk, and meat should be encouraged.

Particular attention should be given to the diet patterns of babies and children. Breast-feeding of babies should continue for as long as possible and should not be replaced by bottle feeding. Additional feeding of babies should start at the age of about six months. Gruel instead of stiff porridge is then preferable. In addition, cooked, mashed vegetables and soft fruit should be given. Protein rich foods, e.g. mashed beans, eggs, and milk are also essential. An important point in child feeding is the frequency of meals. Apparently breast-fed children get food on demand, however, after weaning the meal frequency becomes inadequate. Tt is recommended to feed a child more often than adults, the frequency depending on age. A sufficient quantity of high energy foods in addition to staple foods should be provided. School children should have ;:t morning meal and should also be provided with sorne form of lunch from home if the school does not provide a meal.

Nutrition and health education should be organized. Initially the mothers of young children should be primary targets for this educational effort. The front li ne health workers, women's organi zations, and educational institutions can al! play an important role in overcoming the malnutrition problem in the territ ory.

Agriculturallnputs

Because of its highly dependent character the commercial agricultural industry requires ex pensive inputs such as ar. imal feeds: veterinary drugs for bath preventive (immunization, vaccina tion) and curative purposes (treatment of contagious abortion, foot and mouth disease, etc.). In addition, nearly all inputs of fertilizers, seeds, and other chemicals have to be brought in from South Africa, involving considerable cast in transport alone. Furthermore, the market structures are heavily linked to South Africa. For instance, products such as beef, canned meat, canned fish, and fish meal have to be offered for sale on the South African market at government controlled

66 Development of the Agricultural Economy for Indepe~dent Namibia priees (below the world market) before they can be exported to third countries at higher world market priees.

If production is to be maintained it will be necessary to main tain the inflow of various agricul tural inputs from different sources. In the medium and long term it will be prudent to set up import substituting industries for these agricultural inputs. Because of the large size of the livestock industry import substituting industries will be particularly feasible in such areas as veterinary medicine, livestock feeds, and also fertilizers.

Land Use, Eco/ogy and Environment

Although rainfall in Namibia is generally considered scarce, it is probably not the most con straining factor on agricultural production. In Botswana, with similar agro-climatic conditions, it has recently been estimated that rainfall in the major cereal producing areas of eastern Botswana would be sufficient under modern conditions for yields in excess of 2 000 kg/ha-over six times the current average-in eight out of ten years. In addition, a considerable potential exists for more effectively utilizing water in swamps and rivers for irrigation.9

However, because of the sandy texture of soils, the low and variable rainfall, and the extremely high soi! temperatures during the summers, the ecological environment in Namibia is very fragile. Overgrazing and veld fires have damaged the range land resulting in decsication of the soils, bush encroachment, and sorne soi! erosion. There is moreover evidence of sorne pasture dege neration due probably, among other factors, to the depletion of underground water. Under these conditions desertification will continue to be a serious problem.

It has also been observed that "on marginal ranches especially, the drive to maximise output has been a powerful incentive to overstock. Since droughts mask long term degeneration in the vegetation, many settlers adopt a short term perspective increasing stock numbers rapidly before the pasture has had time to recover from drought; overstocking during good years and retaining too many animais when drought sets in once more."10 As has been indicated in a recent study, ali this has been undertaken at the expense of the environment.11 Consequently, pas ture degeneration has been accentuated and desertification has set in. "One of the most fundamental contradictions in a semi-arid environment is the ecological rigidity of relatively small-scale private enterprise farming in an environment which requires flexible methods and very extensive units of pasture management. The division of the hardveld into a mosaic of fixed separate ranches deprived stock farming of the mobility over wide areas which in pre-colonial times were a crucial means of coping with an un reli.able rainfall. " 1 2

During the post-independence period a weil articulated policy on land us e and ecology will need to be launched to arrest any further degeneration of pastures and the environment, and to retrieve the ravaged ecology. Correct stock carrying capacity of pastures should be established. It will also be necessary to rein force the se measures by sorne afforestation programme to control the advent of desertification and to improve rainfall.

Forests and trees play an. essential role as suppliers of basic products and services su ch as timber for building and furniture and fuel for energy, and have a very important environmental impact which is now more and more being recognized. They eontribute to maintaining the produc tivity of eco-systems and preventing soi! erosion by wind and water, regulating the quantity and quality of water flows, and preserving amenable conditions of li fe for man. Forests thus contribute in no small measure to rural development, and also in food production potential. They therefore make important contribution to rural communities, and to conserving valuable resources for future use.

In Namibia, at present, tht: only species commercially exploited for timber production is tambok (Spirotachys africanus) which is found in Grootfontein and Tsumeb. The local timber sawyers fell these trees and convert them into Iogs which are delivered to saw mills at Oshakati and Rundu. It is a high quality furniture wood with reddish brown to brown colour marked with clark streaks. Sorne small volume of teak is also exported, and the wood processing factory at Oshakaii provides wood products required by the building industry and furniture rnanufacturers. In addition, a

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 67 number of other tree species have specifie uses. Acacia albida is used for building huts while other acacia species are used for building·posts and roofing. Canoes are made from species such as kaffer· boom, erythrinia and African teak (Adina microphala). ln Okavango, dug-out canoes are made of jakkalsbessie (Diospyros m espilzformis) . The barks of various trees are used to make cord, and fibres are made into brushes and brooms. In addition to teak, the wild seringa (Burk ea afric.ana and Kirkia acuminata) are also used for making furniture. A major source of fuel wood is Acacia giraffae which is valuable for charcoal making.

In the absence of insufficient information, it will be desirable to start compiling inventories of forest resources and their potential. This potential should then be exploited to serve as a basis for forestry development programmes, and to help in the monitoring of the evolution of forest caver. Further, Namibia should initiate and intensify programme for integrating wood lots and trees in land use and agricultural practices at village and farm levels for the production of fuel wood, food, fodder, building materials, and for protection against desertification and erosion.

Water Resources

/ At present the research on water balance in Namibia is inadequate, and the availabili ty of a regular supply of water will continue to be a serious constraint on agricultural development in Namibia. The ID

Fis he ries

At present the Namibian fishing industry is entirely controlled by large South African corn panics and their subsidiaries which have their own processing facilities, storage, distribution, and marketing network. Independence will bring the fishing grounds and industry under the direct control of the government. Unfortunately Namibia will have very little capacity to manage and benefit from the pelagie fishing industry which has, in the past, been the country's largest earner of foreign revenue after mining. However, a package of reforms and sustained actions should in the long term, effectively revive the fishing industry. Building up a management strate gy for the fishing industry must take into account the present situation of the stocks, industry ownership and capital, labour, and technology. The new and appropriate fishin g polie y should be based on the facts that the pelagie fish stock (pilchard and anchovy) is already threatened, and its recovery is difficult and will take longer. Further the fishing fleet, the canning factories, capital and technology are owned by South Africa or transnational companies and most of the labour (especially skilled workers) is provided by South Africa tao. Long term possibilities for the development ofthe Namibian fisheries appear to be in the direction of exploiting new sources which seem to be available, for example crab fisheries, inland fisheries, the improvement of in-shore species such as lobster, and development of deep-sea fishing (trawling), and possible replacement of the foreign fleets.

The extremely high cast of investment in building up a Namibian trawling fleet notwith standing, it is recommended thaL after independence the government should start developing its own trawl fishery. In the short term it should obtain benefits from the foreign vessels through revenue from licence fees. It should also purchase hake and horse inackerel from other import

68 Development of the Agricultural Economy for lndependent Namibia sources to m.Lintain its present processing industry. Foreign trawl fish companies could be required to land an amount of their catches in Namibia and to hire a number of Namibians as crew members for training. Arrangements should also be made for training Namibians by the provision of scholar ships. These provisions would ens ure sorne bene fit to 'amibia from its fis hery res ource in the form of fees, job opportunities, scholarships, training, and raw fish for its own processing industry.

With respect to the small-scale and coastal fisheries, which in sorne African countries such as Angola play an important role in the supply of fish for local consumption, little effort has been made by the illegal regime to support this subsector, and yet, exploited with care, the inland fisheries would remain for long time the most accessible source of protein for the amibians. The develop ment of this sector does not, however, in the short run seem to have a high priority. An independ ent Namibia should set up a plan for the development of inland fisheries in connection with the overall decisions regarding water resource use. A distinction should be made between inland small scale fishing using local traditional craft and coastal fishing which needs mechanized vessels . Accord ing to present opinions in Namibia there are a number of fish species that lend themselves to fish culture, and despite high evaporation rate, northern Namibia has the potential to develop fish farming which could play a substantial role in the supply of food for local consumption.

If the fishing industry is to survive in the long tern1 strict conservation measures and continuous research need to be emphasized. These research efforts should lead to the establishment of a healthy management strategy. ln the immediate post-in dependence period it is unlikely that Namibia will be able to supply enough nationals with the necessary tech nic ai . expertise to man the fis he ries industry. Therefore, a num oJ er of experts should be brought in. The continuation of ICS EAF assistance to conduct stock assessment, and provide data on fishery would be desirable. Apart from ics collaboration with ICSEAF, amibia should develop regional cooperation with ii.s nejghbours for monitoring and data analysis re garding stock movements in the southeast Atlantic. The govern ment should also approach international agencies such as FAO to benefit from their expertise in the fields of fishery planning, developing statistical systems, enforcing regulations, and deter mining research priorities.

At present the road to the Namibian fishing industry seems not to be an easy one. Namibia needs to concentrate on essentials and to acquire experience and competence in the field of the fishery sector. However, the fishing resource off the desert coast possesses an enormous potential which in the long term and with careful management, stringent control, competent stock assess ment, and adequate legislation will continue to provide an important source of income and food for the independent country.

Rural Develop:nent

Rural development should be emphasized in the development strategy of the country. Rural people must be provided with incentives as weil as security if they are to make basic investments under conditions of risk. Creation of productive enterprises must be facilitated. Sorne examples include the promotion of cottage industries, and off-season horticultural production using irriga tion. Opportunities should be created for rural people to gain knowledge through broad participa tion in new activities. Rice cultivation under irrigation is an example.

The increases in arable land, the better quality of crops, and the possibility of double cropping resulting from improved water supply could be a major viable option in raising rural levels of living in Namibia, and for providing more employment opportunities and reducing the rate of out migration. This will help contribute toward meeting one of the main challenges for the future govemment of Namibia, viz . the creation of employment opportunities. In addition, there will be need for a concerted effort to restructure the economy so as to direct resources towards those sectors of the economy where the productive capacities of the poor can be best utilized, for in stance in agriculture, small-scale industries, and the in formai sector as is implied in the Polz"tz.cal Program of the South West Africa People's Organisation.13 The need for intersectoral resource transfers and flows into agricultural investments is therefore clearly indicated.

Much saleable agricultural produce .never leaves the villages but is traded in local markets. These local markets are important for sale or exchange of small stock, produce, milk, tools, and

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 69 crafts. These markets, because of their importance in enhancing rural-centred developments should be promoted. Indeed they provide considerable potential for growth.

Another important factor for improving agriculture is the expansion of the road system both for purposes of opening up previously isolated areas and for reducing time, expense and difficulty in transporting goods between the primary city and rural areas as weil as between farms and market places. The immediate results of extensive road construction can be the employment of large numbers of people. It is hoped that once easy communication is possible, it will open up new horizons for villagers whose entire lives have been virtually restricted to their community. Thus, in addition to facilitating economie and social development in rural areas, these roads will make it easier for the villagers to increase their contacts with nearby towns, regional urban centres, and the metropolitan centre. Increased population mobility should contribute positively toward national integration.

Agricultural Extension Services

Agricultural extension or advisory work, as it is sometimes ltnown, is the "provision to farm people of informai education, including advice and the information to help them solve their pro blems. It aims to improve the efficiency of the farm business, increase farm incomes and raise levels of living. " 1 4 Extension work does not therefore include formai school education in agricul tural subjects. ln many .African countries the early emphasis of extension service was aimed at exposing farmers to new methods of farming, and to new introductions such as new seed varieties, livestock breed, or a new technique of agricultural operation such as ox-ploughing. Other impor tant roles have included demonstrations of the impact of inputs (pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers, etc.) on agricultural production. In this production oriented phase the farmer increases his output through bettcr farming practices. As his output increases, the extension effort moves to the next phase . .The farmer is not advised on economie conditions such as market outlets, priees, quality, standard, etc. ln addition he becomes more skilful in the use of technology and receives more advice on resource allocation, and other farm management problems.

The organization of the extension service is normally pyramidal m structure with a broad base with ali extension services under one administration (forestry and fisheries normally have separa te organizations ). The dircctor or commissioner is normal! y at the apex followed by his assistants (one each for research, extension, administration, and land use). These assistants are based at the national headquarters. At the provincial level there are provincial agricultural officers, based at the provincial headquarters, and supported by subject specialists such as entomologists, soil scientists, plant brecders, pathologists, crop specialists, hydrologists, etc. At the district level are district agricultural officers with a number of agricultural assistants. The agricultural assistants or field assistants, as they are sometimes referred to, are in direct contact with farmers at the grass roots level.

During the carly stages of indepcndence advantage could be taken of the euphoria that will accompany political freedom and the need to consolidate it by instituting a number of voluntary schemes involving mobilisation of the people or mass participation to undertake certain needed rural development projects including sorne agricultural extension activities such as building dams, constructing dipping tanks, and constructing rural access roads. These extension activities should be guided by agricultural staff and the local politicalleadership. ln many cases, such as the Haram...,ee projects in Kenya, such an approach to mass participation has proved of great significance in laying the foundation for rural agricultural development activities.

It is of great importance that extension service is weil staffed. (Manpower issues and training have been considered elsewhere in this Chapter). The extension service should be weil supported in terms of housing, transport, and other conditiqns of service such as salary structures that reflect govemment priorities. The extension staff should be exposed to periodic in-service training and refresher courses.

It is also important that extension and research are closely co-ordinated to allow for a two-way communication between farmers and researchers, and vice versa. This is sometimes facilitated if extension agents receive part of their training at agricultural research institutions and attend regular refresher courses.

70 Development of the Agricultural Economy for lndependent Namibia The private commercial agricultural companies also provide a certain amount of extension service consistent with their promotional interest when launching new products such as seeds, equipment, fertilizers, e tc. This is usually ac hieve d through advertisements, demonstrations, agricul tural shows, and mass media including radio broadcasts. Companies usually provide their own trained staff for this purpose. In spi te of their bias towards commercialization they provide valuable leaming situations for farmers. Careful checks a r e ~ however, necess ary to verify the information provided to ensure that farmers are not exposed to inferior or h armful products.

In addition, agricultural cooperative organizations also undertake _extension work for. t~eir members to a limited extent with sorne anwunt of government support m terms of staff trammg, assistance with marketing, etc. In Tanzania, for example, cooperative ur~i o ns use demonstra~ion plots to teach farmers good crop husbandry practices . Th_e~c plots are s1tuated by the_ roads1de, and neighbouring farmers are encouraged to watch or VISit such plots and ask qu~stwns from extension staff. This method has been particularly successful in coffee and banana growmg areas.

Land Reform and Resettlement

The issues o f land reform and resettlement will closely be related to, and affected by broad objectives designed to ( i) increase the efficiency of agri~ultu~al production; (~) r e dir~~ t struct~ral changes to increase participation of the Namibian people 111 agn c_ultural productiOn d cCJSlü ~ makmg, and the sharing of the surplus; and (3) affect structural changes 111 the present system to bnng about overall strategy of rural development.

It has already been pointed earlier in this Chapter that in southem and central Namibia it is important to keep ranches large for them to be viable and efficient. ln the north, on the other hand it is pragmatic to have small holder farms which arc more efficient in tcnns of output per unit area, return on capital, and on labour. Structural ch anges to incrcase participation of the Namibian people in agriculture production and the sharing of the surplus rcquire that govemment sh ould take over the big ranches in the southem and central Namibia. These ranches coule! then be run as state ranches or cooperatives run by production teams who are currently running them, in many cases, for the absentee landlords. Zimbabwe's experience may be relevan t to Namibia if independence is achieved through negotiations and a significant number of whitcs a pt to stay at least for sorne time. On independence Zimbabwe opted a two-pronged approach to land distribution. "The first prong seeks to redress the imbalance in the past racial land allocation policics. Its objective is to trans fer land from those with tao much of it to those without it. The second prong seeks to main tain or increase agricultural production. The aim is thcrefore redistribution with production ... which is in line with·the govemment policy of 'growth with equity ' . . .. The policy which has emerge e! has therefore been cautious, pragmatic, but based on orderly and sound planning."1 5 While such a mixed strategy option has its advantages, the graduai approach adopted by Zimbabwe may not be relevant to Namibia because of the likelihood of the exodus of whites from Namibia even in the case o f negotiat'e d settlement. Thus, within the context of broad objectives, it will be desirable to promote state farms, cooperatives, peasant farming, and to a certain extent private commercial farming.

Though peasant farming is n ot very efficient due to law leve! of education, expertise, and operational capital of most peasant farmers, it hasan important place in the economy of the country for various reasons. Firstly, it provides employment, and if properly organized through infrastruc tur.al support, it can ebb the tide o f urban migration. Secondly, peasant farmers by their use of land pocket~ which would have been unexploited due to there being uneconomical for any larger sc al~ operatwn, ade! to the total agricultural land. Thirdly, dry land farming is most likely to be carned out by the small-scale farmers. It would therefore be necessary for the future Namibian govemment to give ail possible incentives, education, and equipment to dryland farmers.

It would b_e desirable to permit a_ certain amount of participation by large-scale farmers in arder to tap_pnvate funds and enterpnse. However, the extent of private participation should be closely mom tore? by govemmen ~ because historically the existence of large -scale farmers has tumed peasants mto landless agr1cultural workers thus perpetuating inequality of income and wealth distribution.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 71 The establishment of state farms and collective cooperative farming units, in combination with other options, viz. improved peasant farming and sorne participation by large-scale farmers, provides an ideal option for Namibia because (1) the Namibian eco-system allows only large units to be viable in most of the country; (2) the size of the units in tum will allow the economies of scale to be achieved; (3) govemmental control over the sector through state farms can direct overall strategy of rural development; (4) cooperative farms will contribute toward structural changes to increase participation of the Namibian people in agricultural production decision making and the sharing of the surplus; and (5) cooperative collectives will contribute to the govemmental effort to resettle the freedom fighters and retuming refugees. However, the success of the state farms and collective cooperative farming en terprises depends on good planning, efficient manage ment, and qualified personnel, or participants. ln spite of the best intentions, mismanagement, unqualified staff, and misuse of state property can readily bring state farms and collective cooperative units into disrep ute. For Namibia, these considerations are even more important because, with the abandon ment of large number of ranches on independence, there is a real possibility that this option of state farms and collective cooperatives will become a re ali ty.

Credit, Marketing and Pricing Policies

For sustained agricultural development, the provlSlon of credit, efficient marketing syst~m, and pricing policies are of great importance. Fairly large amounts of credit will need to be provided for rural farmers who have, under the illegal regime only marginally been catered for (e.g. through Ekuliko Kavango, Ltd. or ENOK), to purchase requisite farm inputs and to market their surpluses. As the costs of credit disbursement in small amo unts in scattered rural areas may tend to be high, it will be necessary to provide subsidy in arder to keep interest rates reasonably low. An effort should be made to ensure that the access of the peasant farmer to subsidized credit is not thwarted by the l.arge commercial farms th at may be considered to be more credit worth y.

New institutions and infrastructure will have to be created, such as the Cooperative Bank (in Kenya), the Rural Development Bank (in Tanzania), or the Agriculture Finance Company (in Zambia). Altematively, a much bigge r financial organization specializing in transac tions dealing with land and agricultural financing in general may be established. One of its major tasks must, howeve r, be the provision of credit to ·small holder agriculture. This financial organization could also be responsible for the purchase of larger ranches required for small holder as part of the land reform package.

The provlSlon of credit will need to be linked with extension, supply of inputs, repayment arrange ments, e ffectivc mechanism for re co very of loans, and marketing organization. An impor tant aspect of this is the pricing policy pursued. lndeed, statutory producer marketing boards can influence agricultural production through appropriate pricing policies. Preplanting priee announce ments can influence farmer production plans. Studies have now shawn that African peasant farmers react positively t o priee incentives . This policy instrument can therefore be used to stimulate agricultural output (including food production). The actuallevels of producer priees for agricultural products are important as a source of income for the farmers and they should therefore be fair or high enough to act as incentives for increasing production. If producer priees are fixed high relative to consumers priees, controls could be considered for basic items such as maize meal, sugar, cooking oil, milk, and meat, while subsidizing the farmers. In this way farmers receive high priees whilst consumers pay fair priees. This prac tice is common in many countries including developed co un tries and is financed by taxes on consumer durable goods which are mainly consumed by high incarne groups.

Transport and managerial manpower to run the various institutions will need to be provided in the rural areas to improve the efficiency of the marketing system. Expatriate managerial man power may be needed initially to sppplement local resources. Training could also, in the meantime, begin through attachment or employment to acquire experience in marketing institutions such as cooperatives and statutory marketing monopolies in friendly independent African countries, prior to independence.

72 Development of the Agricultural Economy for lndependent Namibia Cooperation with Neighbouring Countries

Severa! of the agricultural resources of Namibia can not be properly developed and utilized because of the inherited constraints and structural problems imposed by the illegal colonial regime. The direction of trade with South Africa for exports of raw materials, and imports of food and agricultural inputs that denies the country access to alternative sources of low cost imports or the opportunity for local processing of raw materials is only a manifestation of a broader colonial policy of subsidizing South African enterprises at the cost of the Namibians. For instance, 70 to 85 per cent of cattle culled each year for slaughter are transported on the hoof by rail to abattoirs in South Africa where they are slaughtered for fresh meat. "This uneconomic and costly procedure is imposed by the South African Meat Control Board, and the principal reason for maintaining the system i_s to fully utilize the capacity of the South African abattoirs and railways whose rolling stock would otherwise have to return empty from Namibia to South Africa. The railways have more or Jess a complete monopoly over the transport of livestock." 16

One way of facilitating solutions to these problems lies in cooperative arrangements in econo mie matters with neighbouring countries such as Angola, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The cooperation would be based on matters of mututal interest such as severing economie links with South Africa as is advocated by the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC),1 7 joint development and utilization of shared boundary water resources, control of animal diseases, and facilitating access to the sea by landlocked countries in the region. Possible are as of cooperation in elude:

Agro-industrial development: For example, combined processing of similar raw material such as hides and skins; processing of complimentary raw materials su ch as seed cotton and textile industry, and cotton oil seed cake. There could also be a division of labour in the setting up of import substitution industries.

Transport: Another are a of cooperation could be the use of N amibian ports by the land locked countries. This would generate extra incarne for Namibia in the form of transit traffic, and provide alternative routes for the neighbours attempting to sever their economie depend ence on South Africa. The proposed Trans-Kalahari railway line linking Francistown with Walvis Bay via Ghansi and Gobabis could contribute significantly toward economie independ ence of Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Water_ resource utilization: Coordinated efforts with neighbouring countries, viz. Botswana, Angola and Zambia in respect of the perennial border rivers will be fruitful for irrigated agriculture, urban and rural water supply, and power generation. The completion of the Ruacana hydroelectric project should greatly improve prospects for industrialization, and agricul tural developmen t.

l'Vlarketing: Namibia should consider participating in ACP because, as a member of ACP, the country could obtain high priees for its beef in the European Economie Community (EEC), while at the same time achieving diversification of ex ports away from South Africa. Similarly, participation in the Preferential Trade Are a (PT A) 1 8 and SADCC could assist N amibia in estab lishing food security 1 9 by importing cereals from, and exporting beef to other member states such as Zimbabwe. Joint ventures to achieve economies of scale could also become a reality through a membership in PT A and SADCC.

Research: The establishment of regional re se arch programmes in the field of agriculture would optimize the use of scarce scientific manpower, and financial resources. Sorne exam ples of cooperation such as the Desert Locust Organization of Eastern Africa, and the Integra ted Red Locust Control Organization already exist.

Training: There is tremendous scope for joint or coordinated efforts in developing training programmes in various fields such as crop science, veterinary science, fisheries and manage ment.

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 73 Manpower Needs and Training

Sin ce Africans were denied opportunity to be in tegrated in the modem economy, most of them lack training to take over specialist professional jobs in farming and agricultural commercial enterprises. While it is realized that training will be a slow process and that many of theNamibians working on white farms have sorne practical experience, the need and importance of job specifie training should not be underestimated; for the fragile eco-system of the country is unforgiving. Further, special products of Namibian agriculture such as karakul pelts are particularly sensitive to quality. The implications are th at extensive knowledge and experience are vital for the promo tion of agriculture in Namibia.

The provision of trainined cadres to run extension service would be critical. Opinions differ as to what the ratio between extension workers and farmers should be in arder to provide useful service to farmers. The ratio depends, among other things, on the distances between farms, the mobility of the extension workers, the receptiveness of the farming population, the availability of research results, and the potential for increased production. In Kenya, for instance, the ratio is roughly 1 to 2 000. In Tanzania it is about 1 to 1 500. Generally, however, it is recommended that the minimum ratio should be about 1 to 1 000.20 In the case of Namibia two additional factors influence the ratio, viz. the large size of the country and the small scattered farming popula tion. The initial re~uirements for extension workers and research staff in the agriculture sector will total at !east 1 000. 1 In addition, there will be need for farm managers, although in the early stages of independence sorne of the extension staff could be called upon to undertake farm management roles at !east on government and parastatal farms.

In the medium and long term it will be necessary to widen agricultural training to produce the necessary staff, and to intensify applied research in agriculture. A prerequisite to widening agricul tural training will be the need to improve basic education including functional adult literacy.

In respect of training of extension personnel, the selection of staff for training is of great importance. In Botswana, for example, and in many other African countries the criticism of poor performance has often been levelled against extension staff. However, the reason is often not any flaw in the training programmes in agricultural colleges, but the low entry qualifications; lack of supervision; and po or extension programme content. It is therefore necessary to develop sound extension programmes, and ensure effective staff management if agricultural extension staff are to be the instrument of agricultural development.

At present the extension service in Namibia suffers from an acute shortage of personnel. To fill the 1 000 vacancies, the intake of students in the three agricultural colleges should be expanded to accommodate about 700 to 1 000 students per year. A significant number of these students should specialize in extension work. Graduate and diplom~ pr~graml_lles sho~ld be_ unde:taken outside in friendly countries till such time as higher educatiOn 111 agncult~re IS av~I~able 111 t~e country. In providing the training, due attention should be given to the quality of tra111111g to av01d criticisms of poor performance which have been levelled against extension staff in sorne other African countries. Adequate supervision and the need to exan1me programme content are important issues.

In the field of veterinary medicine it is worth noting the report of the UNDP/FAO identifica tion mission on veterinary training, which in 1979/1980 visited Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, and Zambia, and evaluated aspects relative to animal health and veterinary services including the current veterinary manpower situation. It was found that the countries of the sub-region have on average a much higher number of livestock units per veterinarian than most other countries in the world, e.g. Botswana has one veterinarian to 65 607 livestock units, while the world average is 3 800 livestock units per veterinarian, and the average for developing co un tries is 11 000 live stock units per veterinarian. 2 2 Clearly the veterinary man power situation in Namibia is highly unsatisfactory, and there is an urgent need for more veterinarians to be trained. It must also be stressed that intermediate leve! personnel cannat be substituted for fully -quallfied professional veterinary surgeons.

In addition to the training of veterinarians, there will also be a need to train veterinary assist ants, and to provide in-service courses for livestock officers, tse-tse fly hunters, tse-tse control 74 Development of the Agricultural Economy for Independent Namibia guards, and education al programmes and opportun1t1es ( up-grading courses, broadcastings, clubs, etc.) for veterinary personnel at different levels to improve and upgrade their skills in various fields such as livestock husbandry, beef industry, karakul industry, and meat and pelts marketing. The creation of a veterinary faculty in the future University of Namibia will therefore be a priority. Given the adequate number of students meeting the entry requirements, an effort should be made to train them in the already existing veterinary schools in Africa prior to independence.

Similarly, manpower is an essential factor for the development of the fishing sector in Namibia. Training needs include fish processing, marketing, and the management of the stocks. The time to implement short and long term measures depends upon the appropriate frame within which Namibia can provide the labour force and the equipment to enter the fishing industry. As the manpower needs of the fishing industry in Namibia do not justify the creation of a faculty in the University of Namibia immediately, the potential students should be identified, selected, and sent abroad for training in various fields of the fishing enterprise. At the same time Namibia should seek ways in which it can ob tain the required qualified staff from friendly co un tries which do not have direct interest in fishery in the waters of Namibia. This can be clone through bilateral arrangements or through in temational agencies like F AO.

Due to the present situation of the pelagie industry it would be realistic initially to limit the catches of anchovy to 200 000 tons. The govemment of independent Namibia should therefore need a permanent fishing fleet of twenty small purse seiners of about 100 ton capacity each. This will require the employment of 200 employees on the fishing boats and about 70 skilled men in the fish canning and fish meal plants. The fish meal production proccsses about 5 000 tons of raw fish per employee per year while canning processes 50 tons of raw fish per employee per year. Careful training programme to make Namibia self-sufficient over a period of five to ten years in fishery skilled manpower should be designed with a view to providing the necessary staff with specifie capabilities as technicians, managers, analysts, and policy makers.

Finally, in forestry, it is suggested that one of the three existing agricultural colleges should initiate a programme for the training of forestry personnel. Initially, an intake of 30 students per annum for a three-year certificate programme should be adequate. Higher leve! man power in fores try could be trained abroad. Preferably, the ir training cou id begin al most immediately.

In addition to formai training to meet skilled manpower nceds, thcre is also a need for informai training at grassroots level. As illiteracy rate among Namibian adults is high, it will be useful to educate farmers in adult classes by using primers that contain material directly applicable to adult work. In the rural areas this will be largely farming. Crop farming techniques could therefore be incorporated in literacy and other adult classes. This has been adopted in Tanzania where the functionalliteracy project has been a tremendous success.

Research

ln spite of the importance of agriculture in the Namibian economy, very little agricultural research has been carried out. The emphasis so far has been toward maximizing output in the livestock sector. Hence there is a clear need to expand research and dcvelopment in various sub sectors of the agricultural sector so that practical farming, ranching, and fishing problems may be solved for the benefit of the Namibians. The areas that require research emphasis are outlined as follows:

Animal Breeding:. Comparison of meat and milk producing capacity of various breeds, and adaptive capability of different breeds and crosses (e.g. Afrikaner, Hereford, Simmental Brahman Bonsma_ra, Bro~ Sw~ss, Fries!an, Sanga); study of calf-mortality and the age of maturity 'of market~ able _animais.; mcreasmg calvmg percen tage,. and establishing the most economie and productive wean1!lg penod; and the evaluatiOn of the mfluence of the lactation period on production and capaCity of the parent stock.

Animal Feeding: Establishment of the correct land carrying capacity for different breeding stocks according to ecological conditions and uses; creation of an animal feeds industry utilizing local food stuff and re sources ( fish meal, meat obtained from lambs slaughtered for pelts, minerais from gu~o, etc.); and pasture improvement through a sound and long term programme of soi! conservation. Agricultural Economy of Namibia 75 Animal Health: Improvementandmaintenance of the standard of animal health care and hygiene; creation of a local veterinary drugs industry, especially vaccines; and collaboration with the neighbouring countries in the field of tse-tse fly control, and eradication of the main contagious diseases (foot and mouth, tuberculosis, brucellosis, rabies, etc.).

Fisheries Re se arch: Acquisition and analysis of basic' fishery data, stock assessmen t, fish supply and market demand studies; fish resource protection, fish production, fishing strategies and plan ning, optimum size of fleet; processing technology; and assessment of the short and long term capabilities with respect to the management of the fishing industry.

Crop Research: Determination of arable land, irrigable land, saline and acidic land; identifica tion of areas in the country where new crops could be introduced depending on the results of soi! analysis and rainfall patterns; soi! science research to determine land suitability, sail structure and f~rtility in different parts of the country for recommending proper crop diitribution, chemical input supply, and mechanization; crop research to improve crop adaptability, yield, maturity time, quality, disease resistance, new varieties, hybrids etc.; food processing and preservation technology, establishment of food security, storage; promotion of crop input use, e.g. chemical fertilizers, organic man ure, and insecticides; establishment of seed industry, and improvement stations.

Watcr Re se arch: Underground water resource surveys to establish new sources; water quality control to rem ove taxie substances from dom es tic supply; and devclopment of an economie solar distillation unit for converting brackish water into good quality water for dames tic use.

Market Research: Studies on product quality improvement, and to find alternative uses in cluding by-products; finding alternative markets especially for the main export products such as karakul pelts.

Forest Research: Selection and silviculture of fast growing species for fuel wood and pulp wood plantations; and the management of forests.

Nutrition Research: Strengthening of the data base-at present nutntwn data is grossly in accurate in Africa; and development of mass education carnpaigns in nutrition for adults and children.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1. W. Schneider-Barthold, Namibia's Economie Potential and Existing Economie Ties with the Republic of South Africa (Berlin, GDI , 1977) pp. 3 5-36. 2. F AO, Food Supplies and Nutrition in Namibia (Rome, F AO, 1982). 3. Private communication from R. I-1. Green. 4. R. Chambers and R. H. Green, "Agrarian Change." In R. I-1. Green, M. L. Kiljunen and K. Kiljunen, eds, Namibia: The Last Colony (Harlow, Longman, 1981 ). 5. R. Moorsom, Agn·culture: Transforming a Wasted Land (London, CUR, 1982) p. 106. 6. Schneider-Barthold, Namibia's Economie Potential and Existing Economie Ties With the Republic of South A/rica. 7. Ibid. 8. E. H. Gilbert, D. W. Norman and F. E. Winch, Farming Systems: A Critical Appraisal (East Lansing, Michigan State Univ., 1980) (M. S. U. Rural Development Paper No. 6). 9. Kristian Oland, Hoyt Alverson and Ralph W. Cumming Jr, Targets for Agricultural Development in Botswana (Gaborone, Dep. Agric. Res., 1980) p. 17. 10. Moorsom,Agriculture: Transforminga Wasted Land, p. 40. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 13. South West Africa People's Organisation, Political Pro gram (Lusaka, SWAPO, 1976) p. 13 . 14. N. Islam, ed., Agricultural Policy in Developing Countries (London, MacMillan, 1974) p. 450. 15. S. Mshonga, Determination of Land Policy in Zimbabwe. Paper presented at the lLO/SWAPO Workshop on Rural Development, Lusaka, 5-15 October 1983. Pp. 12-13. 16. Scheneider-Barthold, Namibia's Economie Potential and Existing Economie Ties with the Republic of South Africa, p. 24. 17. SADCC (The Southern African Development Coordination Conference) was formed on 1 April 1980. This grouping comprises nine states of southem Africa, viz. Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Its objectives include cooperation for economie development, 76 Development of the Agn:cultural Economy for Independent Namibia reduction of dependency on South Africa, mobilization of resources for regional development, regional integration, etc. 18. PTA (The Preferential Trade Area) was established with the objective of promo ting cooperation and develop ment in all fields of economie activity particularly in the fields of trade, industry, agriculture, transport and communication, and natural resources. By 5 November 1981 twelve countries had signed the agreement. These countries are Comoros, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Somalia, Swaziland, Uganda Zambia and Zimbabwe. 19. FAO, Food Supplies and Nutrition in Namibia. 20. Islam, ed., Agricultura/ Policy in Developing Countries, p. 458. 21. R. H. Green, Manpower Estimates and Development Implications for Namibia (Lusaka, UNIN, 1979). 22. F AO, Identification Mission to Southern Africa on Veterinary Training (Rome, F AO 1980).

Agricultural Economy of Namibia 77 .•

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