NATION

From the 1960s to the ’80s, some 20,000 Aboriginal children were removed from their homes and placed with non-Native families. Now adults, many want redress for the loss of cultural identity.

By Anne Bokma Crystal Luxmore/Flickr/Creative Commons

24 www.ucobserver.org • APRIL 2015 ally Susan Mathias was four years old in vanished because of incomplete, falsified, sealed or missing 1967 when child welfare services removed records. (After Brown Martel reclaimed her heri- her and her six-year-old sister, Doris Lynn, tage as an adult and fought to win back her Indian status, from their home, part of the Beaverhouse she discovered the Canadian government had declared her First Nation near Kirkland Lake, Ont. They deceased under her original identity.) were put in a boat and, through a blur of Most Canadians believe the forced removal of Aborig- tears, watched as the solitary figure of their inal children from their communities and reserves was Smother receded into a faint outline and then vanished, limited to ’s 130 church-run, government-funded like a lost dream. Sally wouldn’t set eyes on her mother residential schools, which operated from the 1870s to the again until she was 18. 1990s and were designed to assimilate the students into Their five older siblings, inexplicably, were left mainstream society. But others argue that attempts to “kill behind. The two sisters stayed together in the Indian in the child” continued, with the child wel- until Sally, then nine, was adopted by a Catholic family fare system becoming the newest tool of assimilation and with four kids. Her new parents changed her name to colonization. The term “Sixties Scoop” owes its genesis to Marcia (she is known as Marcia Brown Martel today). a social worker who reported in a government study that She says her adoptive father treated her well. But Brown it was common practice in in the mid- Martel says her relationship with her adoptive mother 1960s to “scoop” almost all newborns from their mothers was very harsh, leading her to break off ties with her on reserves. Advocates say the removal of these children adoptive family at age 17. She says she remains com- from their communities had devastating consequences, pletely estranged today. including high rates of adoption breakdown (as great as By the time she returned to the reserve where she 95 percent by some estimates) and, as they aged, social was born, she could speak only English, and the absence problems such as addiction, depression, suicide, incarcera- of her original Ojibwa dialect made it difficult to con- tion, poverty, low education and unemployment. Even nect with family members, including her mother. “I could some Aboriginal children adopted into the most privileged not speak my mother’s language,” she says. “How do you of homes — such as former prime minister Jean Chrétien’s talk about your emotions when you cannot even speak the son, who was adopted as an 18-month-old — had lives words?” She discovered there had been alternatives to being marked by addiction and incarceration. whisked away as a little girl to the foreign territory of a Residential school survivors have had their day white, middle-class household where love was scarce and in court with a $2-billion class-action settlement, an loneliness a constant companion. “I know now that there apology from the federal government and the creation were many people in my community who could have raised of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Now adult me — my grandmother was one of them — and I could scoop survivors want the same recognition and redress. have known my language.” Brown Martel was part of what is becoming widely known as the “Sixties Scoop,” an era from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s when an estimated 20,000 Aboriginal children were They’ve been called a lost generation. removed from their families and communities Caught in limbo between a white world to be fostered and adopted, mostly by white families across North America. Some Aborig- where they didn’t fit in and an Aboriginal inal scholars say there is evidence these children culture they couldn’t access, were sometimes taken forcibly and without consent from their parents — often simply many had no sense of who they were. because they lived in poverty — while others argue they were removed primarily because of neglect and abuse. But both sides agree the wholesale Several thousand have signed on to class-action law- removal of these children resulted in the loss of their suits in a number of provinces. They want Ottawa held language, ceremonies and spirituality, and in many cases accountable for the impact of “identity genocide,” the their Indian status, which conferred privileges such as loss of culture they say Canada — with constitutional subsidized education. Contact with their natural families authority for Aboriginal people through its Indian and was severed. Northern Affairs department — condoned by allowing They’ve been called a lost generation. Caught in limbo them to be placed in non-Native homes. Federal initiatives between a white world where they didn’t fit in and an such as the Adopt Indian Métis program, for example, Aboriginal culture they couldn’t access, many had no aggressively advertised Aboriginal children in catalogues sense of who they were. As in Brown Martel’s case, names to appeal to white adoptive parents, including many in the of children were changed and personal histories simply United Church (see “The best of intentions,” page 28). Brown Martel is the lead claimant in a $1.3-billion lawsuit that received permission from a court Demonstrators march in support of Sixties Scoop survivors at a of appeal this past December to proceed with its unprec- Toronto rally in October 2011. edented case. It’s the first time in Canadian history that

THE UNITED CHURCH OBSERVER • APRIL 2015 25 the loss of cultural identity is being raised as an actionable system — who are now parents in a lot of trauma — legal wrong, says her lawyer Jeffery Wilson, who esti- and, instead of seeing that for what it was, they removed mates the federal government has already spent more than the kids all over again,” Cindy Blackstock, executive $1 million to have its legal team fight the case through director of the Child and Family Caring numerous appeals. Wilson says he was willing to negotiate Society of Canada, told the National Post. for a greatly reduced settlement — about $25 million — Children started being removed en masse. In 1959, that could have been put into a general fund to provide only one percent of children in care were Aboriginal; by counselling and support for people affected by the scoop. the late 1960s, this figure jumped to 30 to 40 percent — “The government’s position on this was essentially even though Aboriginals represented less than four per- ‘Get lost,’” he says. “Canada could have satisfied its cent of the population. At the scoop’s peak, one in four status Indian children were separated from their par- ents for all or part of their childhood — a fate that was in some ways worse than the plight Some believe these children may have of children in residential schools, who at least fared worse if they had stayed were surrounded by other Aboriginal children and had the benefit of living on the reserve with their natural families. and seeing their families during the summer (though some residential schools operated year- round). Wilson, the Ontario lawyer, says the mission to resolve this in a better way . . . but this action scoop saved the federal government money since many as it proceeds will have, as its measure of justice, money adoptees’ records were sealed and they lost their treaty for every individual claimant. But I’m not sure giving status and corresponding benefits. “This kind of assim- everyone $10,000 or $15,000 is the right answer.” (The ilation saved expenses, since adoption is the cheapest lawsuit calls for individual claims of $85,000, but Wilson form of childcare,” he says. “Somebody on some level estimates a more likely result will be the lower figures saved a lot of money.” he cites here. Residential school survivors, by compar- Raven Sinclair, an associate professor in the faculty ison, received a general payment of upwards of $10,000, of social work at the University of Regina who has done depending on how long they were in residence.) For extensive research on the scoop, says money and cul- her part, Brown Martel says money is not her motiva- tural superiority were the driving factors behind what tion in seeking justice for what happened to her as a girl. she views as the mass abduction of Aboriginal chil- She wants any financial award to be put into a founda- dren. “Children were apprehended by the thousands, tion that would provide support and healing for those in questionable circumstances, with economic incentive affected by the scoop. The federal government is now rather than neglect or abuse emerging as the motive for seeking permission to appeal the ruling that the class removing children from their homes,” she writes in a action lawsuit can go ahead. At press time, the decision paper titled Identity Lost and Found: Lessons from the about whether an appeal would be allowed had not been Sixties Scoop. “The white social worker, following on the made. Wilson estimates it will take until 2019 before this heels of the missionary, the priest, and the Indian agent, case is fully resolved. was convinced that the only hope for the salvation of the Indian people lay in the removal of their children.” he wholesale removal of children from reserves began But some believe these children may have fared Tin the mid-1960s when the federal government struck worse if they had stayed with their natural families. deals to delegate its authority and pay the provinces to Sherri Swidrovich, a lecturer in the department of Native deliver Aboriginal child welfare services, guaranteeing studies at the University of , wrote her funds for children who were removed from reserves and master’s thesis on the positive experiences of Aboriginal offering little money for preventive programs. This shift children in non-Aboriginal foster and adoptive care — a resulted in a sudden influx of keen, young, white social topic she admits hasn’t made her popular in Aboriginal workers who had never before stepped foot on a reserve. circles. The 13 subjects she interviewed for her thesis Many were shocked by what they found: dilapidated and generally had good outcomes as a result of their place- crowded homes (often designed by Indian Affairs) with ments. For example, she quotes “John,” who talks about no indoor plumbing; barefoot kids subsisting on dried the sense of security he experienced after being placed fish and berries; rampant poverty and alcohol addiction; in foster care at age six: “It made me feel safe, right, and a relaxed communal parenting style that was com- because there was no drinking involved. There was no pletely foreign to their Eurocentric view of the nuclear violence. . . . It was a lot better than the life I was living family. It was considered “in the best interests of the in the community.” child” to rescue the kids from this perceived neglect and She paints a picture that stands in vivid contrast to place them in white, middle-class homes with material claims of deliberate wholesale apprehension by over- comforts and access to opportunity. zealous social workers determined to swipe kids off the “They’d walk onto these reserves, see all this poverty reserve. “Contrary to the image of large scale unchecked and devastation and children from the residential school apprehensions, neglect and/or abuse was also a primary

26 www.ucobserver.org • APRIL 2015 contributor to the high numbers of First Nations chil- She herself was one of those children, having been dren who were placed into care,” she writes, adding in an removed from her family at age four after she and her interview, “Many had their lives saved.” six siblings were found living in a granary under the Swidrovich notes that federal-provincial wrangling care of her oldest sibling, who was 11. “Our mother over who was responsible for Aboriginal child welfare and father had gone into town drinking and left us — services meant there was actually reluctance on the part the youngest was just nine months old — and someone of child welfare authorities to intervene except “in ‘life finally reported us. It was cold out, and we’d been there or death’ situations.” As a result, many children who for a few days living on wild meat that had been buried entered care were already so emotionally damaged it outside.” Swidrovich, who bounced through seven foster was inevitable they would have adjustment problems. homes — the last of which was a happy placement with She also points to the role of fetal alcohol syndrome “young, hippie parents who treated me as one of their as a factor in adoption breakdowns. And while she own” — also endured traumatic experiences. She recalls acknowledges that Aboriginal children removed from one “wicked” foster mother who scrubbed her and her their homes would have been better off with Aboriginal sister with a vegetable brush until their skin was raw the foster or adoptive families, her research shows con- night they arrived. “She called us ‘dirty little Indians.’ She certed attempts were made to recruit such families but saw us as subhuman.” few could be found. Regardless of whether adoptive homes were kind “The Sixties Scoop ideology is strong because it fits or cruel, lawyer Wilson says the impact of the scoop in so well with current ideas of colonization of First was the same: a loss of heritage and personal history. Nations,” she says. “That ideology glosses over the fact “Yes, there are terrible stories of abuse, but there are that many children needed to go into protective care.” also wonderful stories where the adopted child greatly

Taught to HIDE her heritage gained back her Native status, which paid for a uni- Raised in a Jewish family, Nakuset says she ‘just never fit in’ versity degree. The only posi- tive thing about her adoption ittle effort was put into was the relationship she preserving adoptees’ had with her Jewish grand- LAboriginal culture once mother, who lived down the they were removed from street and doted on her. “My reserves. Some were not bubbe was the most incred- even aware of their Aborig- ibly loving woman. She was inal status. Others were told my salvation, and she saw to keep it quiet. greatness in me.” Nakuset, who goes Today, Nakuset, 44, is by just one name, was the executive director of the adopted at age three by a Native Women’s Shelter of Jewish family and raised in Montreal, co-president of the tony Westmount area the Montreal Urban Aborig- of Montreal. Her adoptive inal Community Strategy mother told her she was Network and host of the picked — because she was community TV show Indig- “cute” — from a catalogue enous Power. Last year, the of Native children circu- Montreal Council of Women lated by Montreal’s Jewish named her Woman of the Family Services. She was Year. In her speech at the told to tell people she was Nakuset then and now. Her childhood photo appeared in a awards event, she thanked adopted from Israel. She social services catalogue promoting Aboriginal . her deceased grandmother went to Hebrew school, for believing in her. Jewish summer camp and was changed to Miriam Like many Aboriginal As for her adoptive par- was encouraged to date when she was adopted adoptees, Nakuset left home ents, she says in an interview, Jewish boys, “but I just and changed again at age as soon as she could, when “I totally disappointed them. never fit in,” says Nakuset, 22 when a Mi’kmaq elder she was 18. She floundered There is no relationship.” whose birth name, Margaret, renamed her Nakuset. for a few years and then —A.B. Courtesy of Nakuset

THE UNITED CHURCH OBSERVER • APRIL 2015 27 benefited. The larger issue is about a process that inad- after ongoing criticism that included a judicial inquiry, vertently resulted in the loss of cultural identity.” He headed by Judge Edwin Kimelman. The and many others argue that child welfare efforts should inquiry led to policy changes resulting in more cultur- have focused on keeping children in their community ally sensitive legislation and a move toward Aboriginal- by finding relatives who could care for them and by controlled child and family service agencies. “Cultural offering supports such as respite care and addiction genocide has taken place in a systematic, routine and family counselling to their parents. In cases where manner,” Kimelman wrote. “The miracle is that there removal was essential, there should have been training were not more children lost in this system run by so for foster and adoptive parents to ensure they helped many well-intentioned people. The road to hell was these children preserve their heritage. paved with good intentions, and the child welfare The Sixties Scoop came to an end in the mid-1980s system was the paving contractor.”

The best of intentions of social work at the Univer- sity of Regina, was adopted Many United Church families adopted Aboriginal children during the at age five by Rev. Robert Sixties Scoop as a way to help children in need Bater, a United Church min- ister and former principal t isn’t difficult to find of Queen’s Theological Col- United Church families lege, and his wife. She and Iwho adopted Aboriginal her six siblings had been children during the scoop removed from their mother’s era. When contacted by The home in Saskatchewan due Observer, some were reluc- to neglect. Sinclair, 53, has tant to share their stories. nothing but good things to One parent, who adopted say about her late adop- two Aboriginal children who tive father, praising him for have since died — one had “doing some serious evalua- fetal alcohol syndrome and tion about the motive for my the other schizophrenia — adoption” and admitting he said it was too painful to had been “misled” about the discuss, stating simply in an Raven Sinclair was adopted by a United Church minister at age idea that she had been “res- e-mail, “Beautiful children; five. Today, she teaches at the University of Regina. cued” from the reserve. unhappy end to our story.” “He was accountable Margaret Ward and her early deaths. “I wonder what They had no concept of the and ethical and anti-racist. late husband, Jack, a psy- my daughters’ lives would extended family and the fact He recognized that our chiatrist, who were active have been like if they stayed.” that for a child to be without lifestyle, even in a well- at St. Andrew’s United in Very Rev. Robert Smith, their natural mother or father intentioned, United Church, Sudbury, Ont., adopted two a United Church moderator did not mean the child would white, middle-class family Aboriginal girls ages eight from 1984 to 1986, and his be raised poorly or deprived, was racist,” she says. “Growing and 12 and made an effort to wife, Ellen, adopted an infant because other members of up, I had so many people say expose them to their culture Aboriginal daughter, born the extended family could to me, ‘You’re not like other by bringing them to pow- to a teenage girl, 50 years take their place.” Adds Ellen, Indians. You’re lucky you were wows and on visits to their ago. Their daughter pursued “Children were taken out of adopted away from all that.’” home reserve. Ward, 79, a her Métis roots as an adult, homes with no appreciation Her father, she says, came retired college professor who earning a master of educa- of their culture. In most cases, to regret her adoption, even now lives in Arizona, says the tion with a focus on Aborig- people did it with good moti- though he loved her. “He adoptions were done “with inal art and reconnecting vation, but the philosophy knew that despite their good good intentions” and dislikes with her birth parents in her behind it all was that the intentions, they couldn’t the term “Sixties Scoop” since 40s. The Smiths aren’t sure child’s culture had nothing to give me what I needed: my it implies children were taken what to think of the term offer.” Robert Smith offered Indigenous heritage, my without good reason. “It den- “Sixties Scoop,” but Robert the United Church’s first language, my culture. People igrates the intentions of the says today he recognizes that apology to First Nations can have the best of inten- people who were involved.” “white social workers did peoples in 1986. tions, but that doesn’t mean She says several siblings of not understand the family Raven Sinclair, an asso- it wasn’t wrong.” her adopted daughters had structure of Indian society. ciate professor in the faculty —A.B. Courtesy of Raven Sinclair

28 www.ucobserver.org • APRIL 2015 The scoop era may be over, but its damage is long opposing the scoop lawsuits now before the courts, one lasting. Now those affected want the rest of Canada to wonders if it ever will. understand the impact of its legacy. In addition to class- Even if scoop survivors receive their measure of action lawsuits, a documentary, The Sixties Scoop: A justice, the problems continue today. The Sixties Scoop Hidden Generation, is in the works, and large gatherings has given birth to what some call the “Millennium of scoop adoptees are coming together to tell their stories Scoop,” referring to the high rates of Aboriginal chil- in an effort to heal. dren currently in care: according to a report by Statis- Last year, Eric Robinson, Manitoba’s minister of tics Canada, of the 30,000 children aged 14 and under Aboriginal and Northern Affairs, called for the coun- in Canadian foster care in 2011, almost half were try’s premiers to have a national discussion on the issue. Aboriginal. These children are part of the legacy of “This is one of the many arrows sticking out the backs disrupted parent-child bonds caused by past assimila- of Indian people,” he told the Winnipeg Free Press. “We tionist practices such as the residential school system, pulled out one with residential schools. There’s another which has cast a long shadow, affecting generations of with missing and murdered women. This is another Aboriginal people. arrow, an arrow of deep hurt.” Justice Murray Sinclair, “Those schools left us with terrible dysfunction in indi- chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for viduals and in the families raised by those individuals,” says residential schools, has said a similar process is needed Swidrovich. “They’ve had a multigenerational impact.” to understand the lessons of the scoop. Thus far, it isn’t happening. And with the federal government actively Anne Bokma is a journalist in Hamilton.

In August 2014, police shot and killed an 18-year-old youth in Ferguson, Missouri. The aftershocks continue. Watch Beyond Ferguson at www.ucobserver.org/video ObserverDocs encourage serious reflection and dialogue about things that matter. And ObserverDocs are free — as close as your nearest Internet connection.

READ THE STORIES. WATCH THE VIDEOS. START A CONVERSATION.

THE UNITED CHURCH OBSERVER • APRIL 2015 29