Rural-urban links, seasonal migration and reduction in Asia The role of circular migration in economic growth Rural livelihoods are far more multi-locational n the densely populated Asian coun- between agricultural work and unskilled tries the number of people engaged in work in Phnom Penh is very large: workers than is often assumed Iseasonal migration vary between in paddy fields earn 4,000 riels (roughly 1 30-50 million people in India; the num- USD) per day, while the prevailing wage with many rural people bers for are several times higher rate for unskilled/semiskilled workers in spending a part of the exceeding 120 million. Most of these peo- the city is 6,000 to 10,000 riels. ple travel from marginal areas variously Added advantages of urban and manufac- year outside the village termed «remote», «difficult», «weakly turing jobs are that they are not always working in non-farm integrated», or «less-endowed». They tied to the agricultural season and op- travel to towns, cities and industrial cen- tions for switching jobs and climbing up occupations. Contrary tres where they find jobs in a dynamic the social and economic ladder are often and expanding informal sector. Jobs greater. While older «pushes» from the Rural-Urban linkages Rural-Urban to early theory, include working as construction workers, countryside such as drought and popula- persistent circular or factory workers and workers in prawn tion pressure remain important and valid, processing units as well as porters, the new «pull» of growing urban wages seasonal migration domestic servants, drivers, bus conduc- and expanding job opportunities is an tors, rikshaw pullers, street hawkers and important driver of migration. Circular within countries or petty traders. migration has been greatly aided by rela- between neighbouring tively good road networks, communica- Circular migration is growing tion technology, and export market links countries is emerging that have emerged as many countries have opened up their economies. as the migration Rural-urban circular migration is the pattern of the poor. fastest growing type of temporary migra- Who migrates? tion in countries that are experiencing Nowhere is this more rapid and an increase in evident than in Asia. manufacturing. In Vietnam for example Early studies on migration showed that temporary migration of traders, labourers most migrants were young men. But and carpenters from rural areas to urban migration streams have become highly areas such as Ha Giang and Hanoi has diverse and there is no uniform pattern. increased perceptibly. Cambodia has also What is clear, however, is that the migra- witnessed a sharp increase in migration tion of women for work is growing almost recently as more young girls and women everywhere in Asia. More women are migrate to urban areas to work in gar- migrating for work independently and not ment manufacturing units (now under only to accompany their husbands. This threat with the end of the Multifibre so-called «autonomous female migra- Agreement) as domestic helpers, beer tion» has increased because of a greater girls and sex workers. The source of evi- demand for female labour in certain ser- dence is mainly village studies undertak- vices and industries, and also because of en by universities, rural development growing social acceptance of women’s agencies, labour research institutes and economic independence and mobility. NGOs. Even in societies where there are strong While these jobs have been characterized cultural restrictions on women’s mobility, as underpaid, dangerous and insecure, they are being allowed to move away they are very attractive to those who from the family because the gains are so

Photo: Deshingkar come from marginal areas where daily wages are too low to make a living. For example: an agricultural labourer in a semi-arid location in Migrant jobs are better paid and India who earns 35 rupees a day Priya Deshingkar (1 USD=50 rupees) can earn at more regular than agricultural Overseas Development Institute least 80 rupees a day in the city as London, United Kingdom a construction worker. Similarly in labour in marginal areas. [email protected] Cambodia the wage difference

54 agriculture & rural development 2/2006 Photo: Deshingkar Migration of women for work is growing almost everywhere in Asia. evident. In fact, the feminization of migra- China, conducted in the last five years, agriculture that were feared by many ana- tion is one of the major recent changes in strongly demonstrate that migrant lysts (the so-called lost-labour effect). population movements. households often have more disposable With a few exceptions, official statistics in income, are able to pay off debts and save most countries completely fail to capture Migration for accumulation not money. Many of the participatory poverty part-time and seasonal occupations. This assessments conducted by the World has the effect of making seasonal migra- just coping Bank (synthesized in «Crying out for tion invisible. Linked to the lack of visibil- Change») identified migration as an ity is a lack of awareness and political will There is tremendous diversity in internal important factor leading to upward at the policy level and when combined and south-south migration streams. mobility. with middle class urban bias and rural Some migration streams are undoubtedly The manner in which are uti- development optimism it has tended to negative, as early structural analyses had lized varies, and although much is used for yield policies that aim to discourage feared; stressing family ties and spreading sometimes criticized consumption pur- migration and keep the poor in the coun- poverty and disease. Here one could poses, these too can have positive impacts tryside. include brick-kiln workers in South Asia on sending households and exert a multi- While legislation does exist in some coun- who work in near-bonded conditions plier effect on the economy, in turn lead- tries to protect migrant workers’ rights, it because they usually take an advance ing to a virtuous circle of poverty reduc- is routinely disregarded due to the lack of from their employer and repay it through tion and development in the countryside, political interest. In addition, the occupa- work at very disadvantageous rates. They and eventually reducing regional inequal- tions pursued by migrant workers in the are always overworked and in debt. But ities. Substantial remittances can also off- informal economy such as street vending there are also many migration streams set the effects of the loss of labour on are declared illegal; this fuels rent-seeking that are accumulative i.e. actually under- taken to earn more, rather than just a way of coping with rural distress. A growing informal economy: Share of informal workers in various sectors by continent (in %)

Migration, poverty reduction Informal Workforce as share of Africa Latin America and Caribbean Asia and rural development Non-agricultural employment 78 57 48-48

There is now plenty of evidence to sug- Urban employment 61 40 40-60 gest that remittances from migration are contributing to poverty reduction at the New jobs 93 83 NA household level. A number of micro-stud- Source: Fact finding study: The Informal Economy, Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) ies from South Asia, Southeast Asia and

agriculture & rural development 2/2006 55 Migrant workers’ rights back earnings for a group of people are often mugged in Bihar) and delays. The feminization of migration are routinely violated and  Female migration is increasing Policy implications almost everywhere. they have few  Highest levels are found in Southeast Asia. entitlements to pro-poor First there needs to be a greater recogni-  The majority of female migrants in tion of the contribution of circular migra- East and Southeast Asia are young schemes. tion to poverty reduction in national and unmarried and the concentra- poverty reduction strategies and plans. tion of this group is greatest in the Attempting to control or reverse migra- mega cities. tion, as many rural development and  Socio-religious seclusion and other poverty reduction programmes do, would cultural restriction on women’s and corruption and also curtails economic in fact choke off a major livelihood oppor- mobility continue to constrain activity. The result is that migration often tunity that has become available to those mobility but are gradually breaking involves extremely high costs and risks to living in marginal areas. down as the gains from migration the migrant workers themselves. They Second there is a need to restructure large become evident. usually face harassment while in transit, scale demographic and employment sur-  Societal norms and gender stereo- unhygienic and unsafe living conditions veys so that they can capture part-time typing may exclude women from at their destination as well as a loss of and seasonal occupations. higher return work. entitlement to government services that Third, the existing negative policy and are based on residence. A particularly vul- institutional context in many developing nerable group of migrants are girls and countries imposes unnecessarily high women who are exposed to the danger of costs and risks on migrants. Ways need to approach to rural poverty reduction in sexual harassment. be found to support migration. Priority marginal areas aims to increase per capita Rural-Urban linkages Rural-Urban areas include reforming pro-poor pro- earnings through increased agricultural mechanisms are grammes based on residence criteria, investment. identity cards for migrants, skills enhance- In fact, there is renewed hope for margin- inefficient and unsafe ment and awareness creation about al areas after the International Food Policy migrants’ rights, migrant friendly person- Research Institute (IFPRI) argued that Formal banking channels are usually inac- al insurance schemes and support for increased public investment in roads, agri- cessible to migrant workers and many of those left behind through facilitating cultural research and education in less- them send money through friends, rela- remittances and understanding the spe- favoured areas may generate competitive tives or informal remittance mechanisms cial requirements of de facto female head- if not greater agricultural growth than such as the «hawala» system. In some ed households in areas with high male comparable investments in many high- locations such mechanisms are very prone out-migration. An example of this is the potential areas and that these invest- to theft (for example labourers carrying Migrant Labour Networking Unit recently ments could have a greater impact on set up by DFID-India to upscale a success- poverty reduction. The reality on the ful migrant support programme estab- ground however is that agricultural lished under its Western India Rainfed growth remains very low. Recent figures Farming Project. suggest that agricultural growth is less And finally the link between migration than 2 percent p.a. on aggregate, which is Urban manufacturing jobs are and marginal areas raises some important too slow for poverty reduction in many not tied to the agricultural questions about the course of future rural areas. We need to understand season. Young people can take poverty reduction efforts. The dominant whether this has any link with migration. the advantage of working in urban as well as in rural regions. Photo: GlobalAware

56 agriculture & rural development 2/2006