1 Catching Methods in Fisheries: an Introduction

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Fish Catching Methods of the World

Fourth Edition

Otto Gabriel

Klaus Lange

Erdmann Dahm

Thomas Wendt DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page ii

© 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-85238-280-6 (hardback : alk. paper) Editorial Offices: ISBN-10: 0-85238-280-4 (hardback : alk. paper) Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK 1. Fisheries. 2. Fisheries – Equipment and supplies. Tel: +44 (0)1865 776868 3. Fishing. I. Gabriel, O. II. Lange, K. (Klaus) III. Blackwell Publishing Professional, 2121 State Avenue, Dahm, E. IV. Wendt, T. Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA Tel: +1 515 292 0140 SH344.F57 2005 Blackwell Publishing Asia, 550 Swanston Street, 639.2 – dc22 Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia 2004024237 Tel: +61 (0)3 8359 1011 ISBN10: 0-85238-280-4 The right of the Authors to be identified as ISBN 13: 978-085238-280-6 the Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs, A catalogue record for this title is available from the and Patents Act 1988. British Library

All rights reserved. No part of this publication Set in 9.5/11.5 pt Times may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, Printed and bound in India mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, by Gopsons Papers Ltd, New Delhi except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper of the publisher. from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp First published 1964 by Fishing News Ltd, processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free Second edition 1972 practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the Third edition 1984 text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data For further information on Blackwell Publishing, Fish catching methods of the world / edited by O. visit our website: Gabriel, K. Lange, E. Dahm & T. Wendt. – 4th ed. www.blackwellpublishing.com p. cm. DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page iii

Contents

Preface to the fourth edition xi

1 Catching methods in fisheries: an introduction 1 1.1 Fisherman and hunter 2 1.2 From subsistence fishing to commercial fisheries 3 1.3 Sport fishing and commercial fisheries 4 1.4 Active and passive fishing gear 5 1.5 Basic ideas for fishing methods: their distribution and possible improvement 5 1.6 Division of labour and collective fishing 7 1.7 Manpower, mechanization and automation 9 1.8 Fishing technology 10

2 Fishing by gathering 12 2.1 Hand-picking 12 2.2 Stranded prey 16 2.3 Catching by bailing out 17 2.4 Implements for ‘gathering’ in fisheries 17 2.5 Fishing with the feet 18 2.6 Mechanization of gathering 19

3 Male and female divers 21 3.1 Divers catching fish and supporting fishing operations 21 3.2 Diving equipment 22 3.3 Female divers 25 3.4 Tools and collecting bags 26 3.5 Technological progress in diving 28

4 Animals as a help in fisheries 31 4.1 Horses and fishermen 31 4.2 Dogs used in fisheries 32 4.3 Fishing with otters 33 4.4 Fishing with birds 33 4.5 Cormorant fishing 34 4.6 Driving fish with diving birds 36

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4.7 Sucker fish for catching turtles 39 4.8 Fishing with octopus 39 4.9 Using the friendly porpoise 40

5 Fish harvesting after stupefying 42 5.1 Simple forms of mechanical stupefying 42 5.2 Stupefying with dynamite 43 5.3 Fish poisoning 44 5.4 Fishing with industrial chemicals 47 5.5 Deoxygenation or suffocation 48 5.6 Electrical fishing 48 5.7 Electrified gear in sea fisheries 51

6 Spearing, harpooning and shooting fish 53 6.1 Spearing with pushed gear 53 6.2 Fish plummets 58 6.3 Eel combs 58 6.4 Fishing with thrown spears 60 6.5 Fishing with bow and arrow 60 6.6 Harpooning 62 6.7 Whaling 65 6.8 Harpooning swordfish 68 6.9 Fishing with blowguns 70 6.10 Shooting fish 72

7 Fishing with clamps, tongs, rakes and wrenching gear 76 7.1 Clamps 76 7.2 Tongs 77 7.3 Rakes 80 7.4 Wrenching gear for harvesting seaweed 80 7.5 Further developments 81

8 Line fishing: basic implements 83 8.1 Bobbing 83 8.2 Gorges 86 8.3 Forerunners of modern hooks 88 8.4 Modern fishing hooks 89 8.5 Lines and casts 94 8.6 Swivels, stops, rotating links and snaps 96 8.7 Otter boards 97 8.8 The kite 100 8.9 Stabilizers 102

9 Line fishing: gear and methods 105 9.1 Handlines 105 9.2 Pole-and-line fishing 108 9.3 Set lines 112 DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page v

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9.4 Bottom longlines 114 9.5 Driftlines 118 9.6 Troll lines 121 9.7 Fishing with roundhaulers 126 9.8 Modern progress in line fishing 127

10 Fishing for sport and recreation 136 10.1 Rods and reels 137 10.2 Float fishing 141 10.3 Ground fishing and ledgering 141 10.4 Spin fishing and jigging 143 10.5 Fly fishing 146 10.6 Sport trolling and big game fishing 147

11 Attracting, concentrating and frightening fish 150 11.1 Optical lures 151 11.2 Light fishing 151 11.3 Chemical lures 153 11.4 Sexual lures 154 11.5 Acoustic bait 155 11.6 Lure lines and aggregating devices 157 11.7 Fish frightening methods 160 11.8 New ideas 161

12 Pole-hooks and rippers 164 12.1 Pole-hooks and gaffs 164 12.2 Fish harrows 166 12.3 Pilking with handlines 167 12.4 Rippers on stationary lines and troll lines 169 12.5 Rippers for cephalopods 173 12.6 Mechanization of jigging 175

13 Net material and the art of net-making 181 13.1 Stone walls, fences and netting 182 13.2 Primitive knotless netting 184 13.3 Knotted netting 185 13.4 Modern knotless netting 187

14 Natural and artificial shelters 190 14.1 Bundles of brushwood 190 14.2 Tubes for shelter 192 14.3 Octopus pots 195 14.4 Artificial reefs 197

15 Permanent and temporary barriers 199 15.1 Stone walls as tidal weirs and traps 200 15.2 Fish fences 202 DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page vi

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15.3 Gratings in flowing waters 204 15.4 Watched catching chambers 207 15.5 From barrier to fish trap 213

16 Trapping 215 16.1 Tubular traps and thorn-lined traps 215 16.2 Non-return devices 218 16.3 Trapping barriers made of fences 220 16.4 Wooden pots 221 16.5 Pots made of wire 227 16.6 Traps made of netting 229 16.7 Plastic pots 236 16.8 Ghost traps 237 16.9 Trap systems, weirs and pound nets 240 16.10 Mechanization in trapping 246

17 Fishing in the air 252 17.1 Salmon traps 253 17.2 Fishing with rafts 254 17.3 Boat traps 254 17.4 Veranda nets 257 17.5 Scoop nets for jumping fish 259 17.6 Angling in the air 261 17.7 Pitfall traps for fishes 262

18 Mechanical fishing gear: traps, lines and snares 264 18.1 Gravity traps 265 18.2 Box traps 266 18.3 Whippy bough or spring traps 268 18.4 Torsion traps 271 18.5 Snares 271

19 Gillnetting 275 19.1 Bottom-set gillnets and anchored floating gillnets 278 19.2 Driftnets in sea fisheries and in fresh waters 279 19.3 Dragged gillnets 281 19.4 Advantages and disadvantages of gillnets 282 19.5 Mechanization in gillnetting 283

20 Entangling nets 291 20.1 ’Mopping’ 292 20.2 Single-walled tangle nets 293 20.3 Tangle nets with snoods or frames 296 20.4 Trammelnets 297 20.5 Double-walled entangling nets 299 20.6 Combined entangling and gilling nets 302 20.7 Future trends and mechanization 303 DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page vii

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21 The drive-in fishery 305 21.1 Scare lines 306 21.2 Genuine drive-in nets 307 21.3 Encircling gillnets 310 21.4 Other gear for drive-in fishery 311

22 Cover pots and cast nets 314 22.1 Cover pots 314 22.2 Lantern nets 317 22.3 Cover nets 318 22.4 Hand cast nets 320 22.5 Boat cast nets 324 22.6 Polynesian rectangular nets 326

23 Liftnets and fish wheels 329 23.1 Portable hand liftnets 331 23.2 Stationary liftnets 333 23.3 Blanket nets 336 23.4 Modern boat liftnets 341 23.5 Fish wheels 346

24 From the scoop basket to the stow net 350 24.1 Scoop baskets 350 24.2 Scoop nets and skimming nets 352 24.3 Brail nets with purse lines 359 24.4 Push nets and dragged scoop nets 359 24.5 Scrape nets 362 24.6 Stationary stow nets in rivers 364 24.7 Stow nets with vessels 367 24.8 Stow nets in sea fisheries 369 24.9 Gape nets with wings 369 24.10 Closable stow nets 372

25 Dredges and beamtrawls 376 25.1 Hand-operated scratchers 376 25.2 Boat dredges 377 25.3 Beamtrawling 382 25.4 Electrified beamtrawls 389

26 Fishing with bottom trawls 392 26.1 Trawling with outriggers 392 26.2 Pair trawling 393 26.3 Otter boards for bottom trawling 394 26.4 Increasing the vertical trawl opening 398 26.5 Bottom trawls for sea fisheries 399 26.6 Shrimp trawling 408 26.7 Inland water bottom trawls 410 DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page viii

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27 Trawl fisheries in three dimensions: Fishing with mid-water trawls 414 27.1 Predecessors of mid-water trawls and semi-pelagic trawls 414 27.2 Aimed trawling 418 27.3 Two-boat and one-boat mid-water trawling 419 27.4 Mid-water trawls in fresh water 424 27.5 Problems of mid-water trawling 426 27.6 Progress of trawling in the future? 428

28 Seining in fresh and sea water 431 28.1 Simple seining gear and ‘baby’ seine nets 434 28.2 Seine nets in freshwater fisheries 434 28.3 Seining below ice 437 28.4 Beach seining 439 28.5 Boat seining in sea fisheries 441 28.6 Modernization of seine net fishing 444

29 Fish shoals and surrounding nets 449 29.1 Lampara-like surrounding nets 450 29.2 Purse seines 454 29.3 One-boat and two-boat seining 456 29.4 Variations of lampara nets and purse seines 461 29.5 Porpoises and tuna purse seining 462 29.6 Mechanization and improvement of purse seining 463

30 Fishing systems and harvesting machines 473 30.1 Pump fishing 474 30.2 Hydraulic dredges with pumps and/or conveyors 476 30.3 Harvesting machines for aquatic weeds 479 30.4 Fishing systems in the future 480

31 Fishery and gear research 483 31.1 General aspects of fishing gear research 483 31.2 Optimization of function 483 31.3 Optimization of operation 489

32 Fishing effects on fish stocks, other marine animals and the environment 493 32.1 Size selectivity 494 32.2 Species selectivity 499 32.3 Environmental impact 502

Appendix Classification of catching methods 507 A.1 Principles of classification 507 A.2 Main groups of catching methods 508 A.3 Revised classification 509 DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page ix

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Subject index 516

Species and product index 522 DFCPR 4/23/05 9:41 PM Page xi

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Even at the beginning of the new millennium there been omitted. The reader will find some aspects of are an almost unlimited number of new ideas, tools this chapter in ‘Fishery and Gear Research’ and in and techniques for harvesting fish and other aquatic some other chapters.The position of the chapter on organisms. However this is not only due to the the art of net-making has also been changed. development of technical equipment (new materials, In preparing the fourth edition, some improve- mechanized fishing techniques, modern fish detec- ments have been made. Photographs of low quality tion equipment). Declining stocks, enormous quan- have been replaced, new photographs added, and tities of by-catch and discard, and the negative the list of literature reorganized according to the environmental impact of towed fishing gear provide Harvard system. The classification of fishing gear the impetus to concentrate on finding a more respon- has been adapted to the FAO system. sible and sustainable basis for commercial fisheries. For the revision of the main work of A. von Therefore the special aim of the fourth edition of Brandt, a number of colleagues all over the world Fish Catching Methods of the World is not only to were asked to support the team of revising authors present the technical developments since the third in providing information and solving particular edition of 1984 but also to highlight the problems problems. In addition, commercial fishermen were of fish stocks and the connected marine environ- contacted to complete some aspects of the practi- ment and to illustrate some possible solutions to cal fishing described in the book. these problems. Important contributions were received from: Dr The increasing importance of research and devel- A. Berg, Langenargen, Germany; G. Brothers, opment is considered in two new chapters at the St John’s, Canada; E. Erkamo, Helsinki, Finland; end of the book, as are the technical measures Professor L. Karlsen, Trondheim, Norway; Profes- needed for the protection of fish stocks and the sor P. Suuronen, Helsinki, Finland; Professor Dr A. marine environment. Tokazc, Izmir, Turkey. The team of revising authors responsible for the Mrs H. Müller from the Federal Research Centre fourth edition – the late Dr O. Gabriel, Dipl.-Ing. of Fisheries, Hamburg, helped to complete K. Lange. Dr E. Dahm, and Dipl.-Biol. J. Wendt – and verify the list of literature citations; Mrs all work in the field of fisheries research and are B. Büttner and Mrs M. von Klinkowström pro- familiar with all the aspects of fishing described in cessed the electronically stored pictures and the this book. late Mrs I. Brandt undertook the text processing. It was the intention of the team not to change the Some new figures were prepared by Mr H.-J. basic concept of the book but to modify it only Kuhlmann. slightly with respect to the latest developments The revising authors thank them all. in fishing techniques where these seemed to be Last but not least, the team of revising authors useful. Adapted to the modern classification of thanks the publishers for their constructive co- fishing gear, the arrangement of chapters following operation during the preparation of the fourth Chapter 13 up to Chapter 30 has been revised. This edition of this book. also corresponds more closely to the relative importance of different fishing techniques. The On behalf of the revising team chapter ‘Gods, Fishing and the Captain’s Nose’ has Hamburg, Germany

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1 Catching Methods in Fisheries: an Introduction

Fishing is a form of primary production. Older than fishing methods in sea and fresh waters, but so too agriculture, the history of fishing, including that of are other animals such as sponges, coelenterates, catching methods, is as old as humankind. It may be molluscs, crustaceans, insects, amphibians, reptiles, that fishing was already practised by pre-hominids birds and mammals. Even frogs, crocodiles and before the advent of Homo sapiens.Their remains snakes are often considered as ‘fish’ in the laws of have been excavated, together with the prehistoric different countries though they are not fish from the bones of fish and pebbles that have been shaped in zoological point of view.In the following chapters of a simple manner, in Olduvai Gorge in northern this book, the term ‘fish’ may include many other Tanzania. These pebbles may have been used for products of the water. Not all of them are used for killing fish; they may have been the fishing gear of food, fodder or fertilizers. Some of these products the predecessors of modern humans. are needed to obtain raw materials for different In prehistoric times, and sometimes even today, purposes, including those which provide pharma- fishing is nothing more than gathering, one of the ceutical and cosmetic products. Others are sought simplest forms of economy. Every object is taken for decoration only, such as the vertebrae of fish, that can be used in any way. It matters not whether shells of mussels, corals or pearls and, as in the past, it is taken from the water or gathered from the dry shells are collected by children as toys (Kristjánsson land. 1980). Fish skin can be made into clothes, as well as When undisturbed and in natural balance, the being used as membranes for drums (Thiel 1977), waters of the world provide a rich choice of suit- and even as armour with the help of the scales and able materials, mostly of vegetable or animal origin. spines.There are many other ways in which humans Fish may be the most important product of fresh have used the products of fresh and sea water for and sea waters, but there may be some doubt that making tools, for building houses and boats, and for humans were always able to catch them in prehis- meeting their everyday needs. toric times. In general they are too fast-moving to To obtain all these desirable products from fresh catch by hand. It is more likely that prehistoric water and the sea, humans originally had to rely humans had to look for plants and their products, solely on their hands, occasionally also using such as the seeds of water nuts or reeds rich in their feet and teeth. It is understandable that these starch, or for sessile and slow-moving animals like methods soon became inadequate for their growing molluscs, worms, coelenterates and crustaceans. needs. Simple tools were invented to improve the A great number of algae and other water plants catching ability of humans. Some of these tools are, or have been, harvested for human food and for became so efficient that they are still used today. animal fodder as well as for fertilizer and for the They were the basis of better gear, but thousands extraction of various chemicals. Today fish provide of years passed before specific fishing gear was a high percentage of the animal albumen so developed. necessary for the whole of humankind. Not only The purpose of this book is to offer a review of are fishes and water plants the subject of modern fishing methods from all over the world. The basic

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2 Fish Catching Methods of the World

concepts of how a fish – in the broadest sense – can large-scale fishery. Therefore, all fishing methods be caught are discussed. It may seem impossible to are considered of equal value in one fishery or review all the fishing gear operated anywhere in the another. Before discussing the different fishing world, in use either now or in the past (much of methods and their catching principles, some general which is now only found in museums), but when dif- remarks are necessary about fishing, and these are ferent types of gear are compared, surprisingly the given in the following sections of this chapter. catching methods are limited to a relatively small number of basic techniques, as will be explained in 1.1 Fisherman and hunter the following chapters. There are only a few ways in which a fish can be caught; probably only a dozen For gathering, no specific fishing gear is needed, and and a half or even fewer. The basic ideas of how a even today the simple tools used for gathering fish or other prey can be caught are used for the seafood cannot be considered as genuine fishing classification of all fishing methods, given at the end gear (Chapter 2).This can also be said for the begin- of this book. A careful reader, comparing earlier nings of another old form of collecting economy – editions of this book with this one, will find that namely hunting. some revisions in the classification of gear have Fishing and hunting can be traced to the same been made. Though the principles of classifying origin. Even today it is difficult to explain why catching methods in general have remained harpooning a tunny is fishing and harpooning a unchanged for 30 years, this edition follows their swimming deer, often with exactly the same gear, development as documented in Nédélec & Prado is hunting, or to decide if catching waterborne but (1990). land-living crabs is fishing or hunting. Originally, Fishing gear belongs to the material culture of hunting and fishing may have been one, using most peoples, and fishing is a living occupation. similar methods. There have always been inter- Those who claim that fishermen are conserva- changing techniques between them as between the tive people who do not change their fishing gear catcher of animals on land or of fish from the water. for generations should visit any modern fishing Often it is not possible to distinguish whether a harbour. They will be surprised to find how much spear has been designed and used for fishing, fishing gear has been changed or varied to increase hunting, fighting, or only as a symbol for ceremo- efficiency or to improve handling, although the nial purposes. principles of the fishing methods may not have been Many methods of catching are known in both altered. For this reason, little information about the fishing and hunting, such as spearing, harpooning detailed construction of fishing gear is given in this and shooting (Chapter 6); catching with hooks book. The book may continue to be in demand (Chapter 8); trapping with different types of for many years, during which time fishing gear mechanical (Chapter 18) or non-mechanical traps will undergo many alterations. Thus, this book will (Chapters 15 and 16). Some hunting is even done explain the principles of catching only, and how with the help of netting, which is so important for they have come about. Other books on the con- most fishing methods. According to drawings in struction of fishing gear, its material and its size are Egyptian tombs, the use of netting is older in available (e.g. FAO Gear Catalogues: Schärfe 1972, hunting than it is in fishing! 1978; Nédélec 1975). It is quite futile to discuss whether hunting is Some fishing methods may be more economically older than fishing or fishing older than hunting.The sound than others under special conditions, and opinion is sometimes expressed that fishing must be these are therefore described in more detail. Nev- younger because it is easier to catch an animal on ertheless, there is no wish to make any distinction land than to win a fish from the sea. This is not con- between ‘important’ and ‘unimportant’ fishing gear. vincing. In primary and primitive lands there are This can change very quickly, and for many reasons. many inundated parts in the interior and on the Even a fishing method such as trawling can lose its edges of the sea that would facilitate fishery rather ‘importance’ as a result of an increase in the price than hamper it. Accordingly, there are some who of oil! For a small-scale fisherman, simple gear can strongly hold the contrary opinion; namely, that be more important than the sophisticated gear of a fishing is of older origin than the hunting of terres- DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 3

Catching Methods in Fisheries; an Introduction 3

trial animals because only simple tools are neces- branches of fishery should be to replace hunting by sary for its practice. According to these opinions, the management of controlled stocks in natural hunting requires the use of much better gear; waters and in artificial ones. We are still far from indeed, of equipment which sometimes resembles this objective even though there are stock assess- the weapons of war. Therefore it is understandable ments and calculations about the quantities which that some authorities consider hunting and making could be harvested. Recent failures in fishery man- war as different forms of ‘violent occupation of agement raise doubts as to whether it will ever be living creatures’ (Kuznetzow 1971) in contrast to possible to manage fish populations in the oceans the supposedly peaceful occupation of fishing. in the same way that cattle are herded on land. In another view, hunters – through the use of Because the hunter and fisherman in ancient their weapons – tend to become experienced times only had primitive gear, some modern fisher- warriors, while the fishermen, having less need of men seem surprised to learn that it was possible for aggressive action in their pursuits, would fall into them to achieve any worthwhile result. But the second place. As a consequence of this reasoning, ancient hunters and fishermen (and also some of the practice of fishing in some parts of the world is the small-scale fishermen today) have, in compari- carried out by people of a socially lower standing. son with modern people in industrial fisheries, a But although their beginnings were undoubtedly striking superiority that comes from their funda- essentially the same, hunting and fishing have mental understanding of the behaviour of their developed down the centuries on very different prey. With this knowledge they are able to outwit lines. The prestige attached to ‘royal’ huntsmen can the fish and catch it even with their simple gear. be contrasted with the lowlier plight and status of In highly developed industrial fisheries with many the ‘poor’ fisherman. According to the traditional sophisticated machines to operate fishing gear view, a huntsman (today sometimes replaced by a nearly automatically, and with electronic equip- cowboy or trapper) is considered to live a free and ment for searching and finding the prey, very often untroubled life, and the man who practises the royal the knowledge of fish behaviour has fallen into sport of hunting, even if he lives in a log house, oblivion. cannot be deemed to be poor. But the fisherman is always considered ‘poor’: the adjective clings to him 1.2 From subsistence fishing to as does blue to the sky and green to the meadow. Nevertheless, it seems that there is one exception commercial fisheries to this generalization, and that is the sport fisher- We do not know how long it was before a human man, who is usually considered to have the status made a gear which no longer proved as effective in of a hunter. hunting but was much more efficient than any other Interestingly, modern fishing with sophisticated gear for fishing. This may have been the beginning methods is considered as a form of hunting by the of a clear division between hunter and fisher.At this fishery industry itself. In this case, hunting is seen in stage of development, fishing with more or less spe- contrast to stock breeding.The hunter is looking for cialized gear was pursued by humans to provide single fish or small groups of wild animals – not food for their own needs and those of their family, tamed or domesticated, not controlled in their life community or tribe. Only single fish were caught, history, nor influenced in their behaviour or pro- maybe one large one and a few small ones. Today perties, and which may be living over a wide area. this would be a form of subsistence fishery – a The stock breeder manages more or less domesti- small-scale fishery for which only simple gear is cated groups of well-known and numbered animals, needed. As already noted, the knowledge of the bred according to some concept to get special fisherman about the behaviour of his prey was a bodily properties, and kept together in a more or major factor in his success. Spearing, and trapping less artificial limited area. These differences can be with plaited fences and baskets, may have been the compared with fishing for wild fish populations in most important methods during this time. The art open fresh and sea waters on the one hand, and of net-making (Chapter 13) was not developed with fish culturing in artificial ponds or controlled before the late Stone Age, and because it was diffi- waters on the other. Some think that the aim of all cult to get the right material for net-making, the DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 4

4 Fish Catching Methods of the World

first fishing gear made of netting rather than anization was introduced into fisheries. Deep-water crudely woven strips of wood was probably very fishing also extended to large lakes; so there is ref- small. erence to, for instance, a ‘deep-sea fishery’ on Lake Originally humans were interested only in catch- Constance even today, in contrast to the beach ing sufficient fish for their daily needs, and we know fishery.The same thing happened on the sea coasts. from some north European hunters and fishermen Here the development from the shallow-water that nothing was allowed to be wasted by catching fishery to the deep-sea fishery is still going on, more than was necessary. At some point, however, which means not only fishing over deep water but it became possible to barter fish for other things, also fishing at great depth. This brought new devel- and so it became desirable to catch more – espe- opments in bulk fisheries with beamtrawls and later cially when it was found that fish could be pre- large otterboard bottom trawls for demersal prey served and stored by drying, smoking, salting or by (Chapters 25 and 26); purse seines to catch large some simple processes of fermentation. This gave a quantities of pelagic prey in the upper range of the strong impetus for more fishing, and for better waters (Chapter 29), and mid-water trawls to fish in fishing gear to facilitate the development of a per- the area where neither purse seines nor bottom manent artisan fishery. To catch more fish required trawls could be operated (Chapter 27). not only more time, but also a larger quantity of Both small-scale artisan and large-scale indus- fishing gear – more pots, more traps, or more lines trial fisheries have an important place in the nutri- with more hooks. Not only was the amount of gear tion of people today and in the future; the one by operated increased, but its efficiency and size was its flexibility, even when sometimes only small also improved to catch bigger quantities of fish. quantities of fish (but higher quality) are landed, Fishing for single fish or for small quantities, as and the other by its large quantities of often in subsistence fishing, was replaced by an artisan cheaper products, which are needed to satisfy large commercial fishery sometimes related to special markets and to serve the needs of the fish process- markets. This gave new impetus to the improve- ing industry, including the production of fish meal ment of fishing methods. for cattle food. Both needs can give impetus to the The artisan fishery, mostly no longer in the old development and improvement of fishing gear and traditional form, has its importance even today in fishing methods as can be seen in the following modern society. The trade in fish became increas- chapters. ingly important and this gave rise to the develop- ment of large-scale fisheries based on bulk fishing. 1.3 Sport fishing and In the Middle Ages in Europe, the first large-scale commercial fisheries fisheries were already established to supply the markets with salted cod, salted herring and whale From the viewpoint of catching, sport fishing can be oil. These were also the first of the distant fisheries, considered a form of small-scale fishery designed fishing off shallow-water coasts, often of other con- not to make a living from the catch, but to con- tinents. For their management, large quantities of centrate skill for fun and pleasure (Chapter 10). gear as well as the material for making them were Both the commercial fisherman, setting lines with now needed by specialists. Lines and hooks had to hundreds of hooks or operating a handline with be produced for line fishing for cod; large quanti- only a few in the hope of getting a good catch, the ties of netting were needed for making driftnets sport fisherman waiting for a strong fighting game (Chapter 19) for herring; and spears and harpoons fish with his simple or sophisticated (sometimes had to be mass-produced for whaling. also expensive) tackle, are the descendants of the With the increasing demand, especially in indus- prehistoric hunter. trial areas, there came also another trend – the Originally, fishing with hook and line was the need for the large-scale fishery to abandon shallow method used by everyone.With the increasing priv- waters and penetrate greater depths to find larger ileges of the landowners, it became the sport of the supplies of fish. Greater depth also meant bigger rich well into the last century, but has now com- and heavier gear and greater manpower for its han- pletely changed from a derided hobby to an impor- dling. Nevertheless, it was a long time before mech- tant form of human recreation. As already DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 5

Catching Methods in Fisheries; an Introduction 5

mentioned, sport fishermen were considered as passive gear in such a manner that the prey will hunters, living in supposedly unrestrained freedom accept the gear and not be frightened by its con- like one of the last links between humans and struction, colour, visibility, smell or anything else. nature. There are few ideas that have changed so Knowledge of fish behaviour will help to make the completely in so short a time as those held by the most effective gear. The success of active gear, such public in regard to sport fishing! Therefore it is as dredges, trawls and cast nets, and also spears, har- regrettable that in the modern life of many coun- poons and some gear used for drive-in fisheries tries, especially the highly developed industrial (Chapter 21), depends more or less upon a human’s ones, the art and practice of fishing has been skill or perseverance. The fisherman can influence divided into two ostensibly diverse and even the success of active fishing gear by leading the gear adverse fields – sport fishing and commercial into the path of the fish, or by driving the fish into fishing. It must not be forgotten that both have the it by various methods. To influence the success of same origin, and from the viewpoint of fishing tech- passive gear is much more difficult, because not all niques, they represent only two variations of the stimuli affecting the behaviour of fish or other prey same principle of catching fish with hook and line. near fishing gear are known. It must also be con- Now it seems that there will be some change. Both sidered that the fish behaviour can change with age, sport and commercial fisheries are concerned to or with the season, or maybe also by learning. Pol- preserve nature against the worst influences of lution can also influence fish behaviour as can be civilization. Moreover, fishing waters cannot be demonstrated with electrical fishing (Chapter 5). managed solely with the methods of sport fishing. Grouping gear into passive and active has Other more effective methods, as operated in com- nothing to do with the basic principles of catching. mercial fisheries, must support the aim of managing Examples of both types of fishing gear are present fishing waters in a biological equilibrium. Sport fish- in many groups of fishing methods. In addition, ermen and commercial fishermen have to work sometimes not only the size but also the towing together not only to preserve, but also to defend, speed is critical to the efficiency of active gear. nature. Each simply represents a different variation Increases in size and speed need more power for of a fishing method.Thus, sport fishing is considered operating gear and this was often not available in in a special chapter (Chapter 10) in this book, but early fisheries. Therefore, in ancient times passive it is given neither more nor less importance than gear was probably operated more often than active any other fishing method. gear. Finally, it has to be stressed that active and passive fishing gear must not be confused with 1.4 Active and passive fishing gear moving and stationary gear. A stationary set line and a towed troll line are both passive gear – As mentioned before, there are relatively few basic passive fishing methods with hooks – which have to principles which can be used to catch fish, in spite be accepted by the fish. On the other hand, a of the enormous variety of fishing gear operated in ripping hook moved up and down is usually an the world. In the classification at the end of this active fishing gear, with more or less random catch- book there are only 16 different groups of fishing ing (in this case by fouling the fish) by a special principles, and maybe even some of these could be form of line fishing with hooks. grouped together for simplicity. Sometimes the same gear can be used for two or even more fishing 1.5 Basic ideas for fishing methods: methods with virtually no alteration in construc- tion, but simply a change in the method of their distribution and operation. possible improvement In this classification no account is taken of the At first glance a great many different types of fact that sometimes, in fishing laws, gear is grouped fishing gear seem to have been developed in fish- into ‘active’ and ‘passive’ equipment. For passive eries. The history of their creation, growth and dis- gear, the fish has to come voluntarily, e.g. traps, gill- tribution is still rather obscure. But when the fishing nets and also some types of fishing hooks. There- gear of various nations is compared, it becomes fore much experience is needed to construct a evident that fishing techniques have developed DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 6

6 Fish Catching Methods of the World

from only a few basic ideas for capturing fish, either the east coast of South Taiwan, know how to make singly or in mass, for the benefit of humans. Most of netting from hard laid polypropylene. Knowledge these basic ideas for the manner of capturing fish of the importance of new fishing methods, or of new are spread over the world and have become the net materials, spreads quickly, and their develop- common possession of mankind. ment and testing will be carried out simultaneously Ethnologists have discovered a striking similar- in many parts of the world. Overall, as well as the ity in the fishing methods of traditional, sometimes duplication or multiple invention of fishing tech- called primitive, fisheries. This cannot be explained niques, the often uncontrollable communication of by cultural exchange but rather by the like reaction fishing techniques from one country to another fre- of humans to similar problems.This is not surprising quently occurs. This is the simple phenomenon of for, from time immemorial, fishing has presented ‘borrowed culture’. similar problems again and again; and everywhere In each fishing area, the known fishing methods those problems have been solved by humans in the have been improved and altered, sometimes by a same or similar ways, just as an animal reacts in an single fisherman, according to local needs. Begin- experimental situation in rather the same way no ning with simple methods and primitive gear, matter whether the test is performed in Tokyo or in the more complicated techniques soon begin to Hamburg. Nevertheless, there may have been a emerge. This development has been hastened and more direct exchange of knowledge about fishing improved by various stimuli. Periods of explosive gear in the past, not only between neighbouring development have been followed by more stagnant areas but also between continents, especially in sea times, and this is so even today. Some of the fisheries, in spite of all contradictory discussions in impulses encouraging gear development have this respect. already been mentioned, such as the endeavour to Occasionally, the spread of a fishing method or a catch fish in larger quantities, or in deeper waters fishing gear is well known, especially when this has where more fish can be expected. In both cases, come about in modern times.A good example is the alterations in the construction of fishing gear are design of the so-called ‘Madeira trap’, made in a needed. Another stimulant for developing fishing typical form and manner (Figure 16.38) which can methods and gear is the desire to progress from the be traced from India via the Seychelles, Zanzibar original guarded or watched fishing gear needing Island, Madagascar, and Madeira to as far west as many helping hands, to automatic unguarded gear the Caribbean Sea. There is also good reason for that can be operated by limited manpower. To do supposing that the ancient oceanic fishermen with this, the gear must be designed in such a way their gear and vessels reached out on the one side that no special guard or watchman is required to to Madagascar and as far as South America on the observe when fish enter the gear and to close it in other side.The ice-fishing methods of the Arctic are time to prevent the fish from escaping. Moreover, a well known through all the polar regions. Cover watchman controlling the quantity of the catch in a pots (Chapter 22), well known in Asia as well as gear can work only during daytime and when the in Africa, were also found by the explorers of water is clear (Figures 15.20 and 15.25), which America. Therefore, it is possible that there were reduces the amount of time the gear can be better contacts in the past than are accepted today. operated. Nowadays, of course, the exchange of knowledge More suitable, and independent of daytime, is about fishing methods scarcely meets any difficul- another method for the control of the catch in a ties. International fishing areas, and worldwide gear by attaching to the gear so-called ‘feeler lines’ organizations like FAO, facilitate very close con- held in the hand of the watching fisherman (Figure tacts. The Republic of South Africa has adopted 24.37). Such lines have been used not only in fresh purse seining from California, and in the eastern waters but also in sea waters with the aim of detect- Baltic, large pound nets of Japanese design have ing fish entering the gear so it can be closed and been used. Isolated fishing tribes of the south-west hauled at the right time.To save time, some gear has coast of Madagascar now make their netting of been adapted to register the catch automatically, polyamide monofilaments, and a Stone Age tribe on warning the fisherman to come and secure the the forgotten island of Lan Yü (Botel Tobago), off catch. Bells fixed to the gear announce the catch, as DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 7

Catching Methods in Fisheries; an Introduction 7

the Chinese have done and as some sport fishermen the children; for tending the garden; for the home also do today (Figure 9.16). Of course such alarm and similar things. The man is considered responsi- devices help, and in some large Japanese pound ble for hunting; defending his family, his tribe or his nets, sonar buoys have been placed to allow remote living area; and for many types of hard work like control of the catch. On the other hand, it may be grubbing, house building (sometimes), and other better to construct the gear in such a manner that work which needs more physical power. An analo- the fish can be held alive by the gear for some time gous development can be seen in the operation of so that they can be taken at any convenient time the different fishing methods. Gathering is done by later. Especially in trapping (Chapter 16), auto- women only (Chapter 2) in so far as this method matic catching gears were devised like mechanical of collecting is not combined with diving, but traps (Chapter 18) – known also from hunting – and even here some exceptions are known (Chapter 3). traps with non-return devices (Chapter 16), which Fishing by stupefying, in the original form of poi- proved so effective that they have been used not soning, shows no strong separation, although today only for traps but also for other gear. electrical fishing is in general done by men only This gives a hint of another interesting develop- (Chapter 5). In line fishing (Chapters 8 and 9), ment in fishing gear. Apart from the principles of small-scale methods with a limited number of catching, a limited number of single elements in the hooks can be used by women and men, but large- physical construction of fishing gear crop up in scale fishing, e.g. with longlines, is typically a fishing many different fishing methods. The use of a non- method for men only. This cannot be said of trap- return device such as the funnel is one of these ping (Chapters 14, 15 and 16) where small traps are single elements that can be found in many types of also set mainly by men. In fishing with bagnets fishing gear. (Chapter 24), the small hand-operated gear is often used by women, while the operation of large-scale 1.6 Division of labour and bagnets is a job for men. Fishing with dragged gear (Chapters 25–27), seine nets (Chapter 28), collective fishing surrounding gear (Chapter 29) and generally also Some fishing methods need little manpower and drive-in nets (Chapter 21) are fishing methods for can be operated by a child; in others even the power men. With liftnets (Chapter 23), we again see that of a strong man is not sufficient. This is why very hand-operated smaller gear can be also used by often, in traditional fisheries, a clear division of women while large ones are operated by men only. labour on a sexual basis can be found. There are Falling gear (Chapter 22), such as cover pots, are some fishing methods considered suitable for operated by men as well as women, but cast nets women (and children) while others are reserved for are operated by men only. Fishing with gillnets men only. This sex-based division of labour may be (Chapter 19), entangling nets (Chapter 20), and as old as mankind. In general, the more exhausting especially fishing with modern computerized sys- work needing more physical strength is done by tems or with harvesting machines (Chapter 30), men only; other work, requiring less bodily seems to remain for men only, even when the phys- strength, is within the range of women. This has ical power needed is very low. The conclusion can nothing to do with the quality of the status of be that not many fishing methods are suitable for women and men. This separation is based on the women. They operate small gear in most cases, but physical differences between men and women – there are no statistics available about the quantities often forgotten today with an increasing misunder- of food taken by fishing women to feed their fami- standing of man and nature. This old knowledge lies day-by-day all over the world, especially for the about the need to separate duties between men and people of Africa and Asia. Some people think that women to overcome the physical demands of life is the quantity taken by women in this manner is not considered as one of the earliest recognitions of much less than that which the commercial fisher- mankind (Koenig 1975). men land with their heavy gear all over the world. In general, women are responsible for the col- When, in contrast to men, the work of women is lecting of food such as vegetables or small animals; considered on an individual basis (Nachtigall 1966), for food preparation; for bringing up and rearing it can be seen that very often the women do not fish DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 8

8 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 1.1 Collective fishing by women and children with cover pots and scoop nets in Mali (1962). (Photo: FAO, P. Pittet.)

alone, but in a group like a loose collective, each tion and maintenance of the gear, especially in woman with her own gear (Figures 1.1 and 22.3). trawling (Chapters 26 and 27), seining (Chapter 28) This is done not just to chat during fishing but to and purse seining (Chapter 29). As in hunting, secure a better catch by driving the fish together, sometimes dozens of fishermen had to work and to prevent their escape when only a single gear together to get and to secure the catch. It seems that is operated. It is also used to stupefy the fishes to the voluntary alliance of men, even when for a some extent (Chapter 5) as when many persons limited time only to do common work, is elemen- disturb the mud by trampling. tary to the behaviour of humans (Koenig 1975). Fishing in a collective with a single large gear is Such voluntary collectives that are not controlled more typically the work of men. In fisheries, co- by anyone outside the group, or by the state, survive operation is very often needed for the construction in some fisheries today. Often these communities of gear, especially when larger ones are needed. It are for large-scale trapping, such as on the Isle of may be a large barrier made of heavy wood for Rügen (Peesch 1961) or in the Mediterranean for catching fish, or a large net with thousands of large tuna traps. Even when two fishermen with meshes. Co-operation is also needed for the opera- their vessels work together, e.g. in pair trawling, this DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 9

Catching Methods in Fisheries; an Introduction 9

can be considered as a survival of the old group matic catching gear requiring nobody to be in atten- hunting of ancient times. Often such co-operation dance. It seems that since olden times fishermen is necessary because even today, despite mecha- considered physical manpower as unavoidable in nization, many fishing methods cannot be carried fishing. When larger catches were needed, and the out by a single person. On the other hand, increas- amount of gear was increased or enlarged, it meant ing mechanization progressively reduces the num- that more people had to co-operate. The problem ber of people working in a collective. of reducing manpower with the help of machines in Increasing mechanization is also the reason fisheries seems not to have been resolved before why women can now become more engaged in the 18th century, when capstans with a vertical axis fish catching. Until recently, wives could help only were introduced in the large-scale herring driftnet by rowing and steering a small vessel while the fishery. The Chinese may have known of mechani- husband set the gear. Nowadays, women can also cal help in fisheries long before. Manpower winches work in large-scale fisheries when the physical work with a horizontal axis came later, perhaps first in is taken over by machines. It should not be forgot- coastal fisheries for the operation of beach seines. ten, however, that there are other sections of fish- At the turn of the 20th century, fishing vessels eries where for a long time women have had a became motorized and the winches motor-driven, dominating and sometimes commanding position, which very much reduced manpower requirements such as in marketing the fishery products. This is in gear operation. Originally the idea was to ease especially so in Africa.Women have also dominated handling of the gear by winches, but with increas- fish processing, not only in northern but also in ing catch value and the rising cost of manpower, many tropical countries. Only in a few cases are powered machines also had to replace people women engaged in net-making: often they are not without decreasing the yield. In this development, allowed to do so for religious reasons (Chapter 13). motors replaced oars and sails, and power-driven Speaking of manpower and catching methods, a winches reduced the number of crew while increas- third group of people must be mentioned who, ing profit and safety at the same time.The catch per sometimes, can have a special position in fishing. person, per vessel or per tonnage of a vessel was These are the older men who can no longer partic- increased rapidly and is still increasing. This devel- ipate in the usual fishing methods, especially in sea opment became very important in the increasing fisheries. Sometimes they operate smaller gear, e.g. mechanization of large-scale and small-scale fish- spears, as in northern Europe up to the 1970s, with eries.The modern operation of gear in trawling with special permission because they are generally pro- large stern trawlers; the handling of large purse hibited. The most important contribution of the old seines with power blocks on modern seiners; the men of a fishing community may be net-making and introduction of powered drums for netting and mending. The very quick introduction of monofila- lines, and reels for ropes for seining, are all exam- ments for the making of gillnets in south and East ples of successful methods not only to facilitate the Asia may be because of the ability of the old fish- work of many, but also to decrease manpower. ermen in thousands of villages to knot more effec- To reduce the number of crew by machines is tive netting with the new material – even though especially important in industrial countries with a this material is stiff and not easily knotted. lack of, or very expensive, manpower. Mechaniza- tion is not so much of interest to developing coun- 1.7 Manpower, mechanization tries, which try to keep as many people as possible in fisheries to give them labour and food, and also and automation not for industrial countries during periods of reces- The wish to improve the efficiency of fishing gear sion with high unemployment. In these cases the stimulated the development of the known fishing jobs may be more important than a fishing method methods and, as far as possible, the effort to find made labour-extensive by mechanization. new fishing techniques. Many impulses pushed The most recent tendency in gear development is forward this tendency not only to catch more, but to alter fishing methods so that they operate auto- also to catch in deeper waters, and to replace matically with little effort by humans. Especially labour-intensive attended fishing gear with auto- in the operation of handlines, the slogan became: DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 10

10 Fish Catching Methods of the World

‘push a button and let it fish’; computers are used with properties in accordance with the needs of dif- to make decisions to steer the gear. In the new ferent fishing gear. There is no doubt that methods systems, the overall operation of the gear is divided like mid-water trawling would not have been pos- into a number of different steps, and each step sible without the introduction of finer and stronger runs automatically. That does not mean robots are synthetic twines, apart from the invention of echo replacing fishermen; they help not only by doing the sounders. Also, the improvement in purse seining work, but also by ‘thinking’ more quickly than was not possible without these new fibres, quite humans. In any case, the fisherman has the final apart from the introduction of the power block. A decision! The transfer of such ideas to trawling last example is the recent success of gillnetting, occupied the minds of fishermen and fishing gear which was not possible without the use of twines technologists for a number of years following the made of fibres with low visibility, or even those that first publication of this book (Chapter 26) until it are transparent, such as some monofilaments. This became clear that the present fishing productivity is now known more or less all over the world. surpasses the presently available fishing possibili- The improvements in the properties of the fibres ties. In small-scale fisheries ‘harvesting machines’ and also by the mixture of different fibres used for have been developed (Chapter 30), which can netting yarns and ropes still offer reasons for sur- provide a basis for computerization in the future as prise such as, for example, the recent fantastic has already been achieved with many agricultural success of the gel-melted polyolefin fibres. This, machines. For the time being, in most fisheries of however, can only continue as long as the raw the world, manpower, experience and knowledge of materials for the new high-technology fibres are fish behaviour are decisive in the construction and affordable. The development of fishing methods, successful operation of fishing gear. especially in sea fisheries, would not have been pos- sible unless there had been a parallel development 1.8 Fishing technology of more and more specialized fishing vessels, from rafts and rowing boats to sailing vessels, to steam- One and the same fishing gear can be used in ers and motor vessels with increasing power, several different ways. When the method of fishing and eventually, perhaps, to vessels driven by atomic is not known it is hopeless to try to decide if, for power. Thus, parallel with the development of example, a net is to be used for seining or dragging, fishing techniques, the development of fishing craft for drive-in fishery, or even for gilling or entangling. is ongoing. This extends from the bamboo raft still This is one of the reasons why the classification of much used in Asia for short-term fishing, to the fishing gear and methods given at the end of this factory vessel operating with a catcher fleet or the book is based not on the gear construction but on self-catching factory ship capable of staying at sea the principles of how the fishes or other prey are in far distant fisheries for many months and pro- caught. These principles of catching can be used in cessing the catch immediately on board.The fishing different ways and sometimes the gear operation is vessel is therefore no longer an all-purpose vessel supported by special fishing tactics, mostly based on from which it was possible also to do some fishing, methods of luring the prey, not so often on fright- but a specialized vessel with many typical arrange- ening them. ments. Nowadays, in modern sea fisheries, the Gear construction, gear operation and fishing fishing vessel and the fishing gear have become one tactics are considered as parts of fishing technology unit. and so are considered together in this book. But The development of fishing gear and fishing fishing technology also includes the materials used methods cannot be seen as an isolated process. in gear construction and – as far as necessary – also Success and progress in fisheries is based on the the fishing vessels (Schärfe 1979). As regards net harmony between humans, their surroundings and materials, it seems that the problem of replacing fish, all three influencing the construction and oper- natural fibres by synthetic ones has been solved ation of fishing gear and fishing vessels. In a situa- with the introduction of netting twines, e.g. tion where the exploitation of many fish stocks has polyamides (PA), polyolefins such as, for example, passed a critical threshold, progress cannot lie in an polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and others increasingly productive fishery. Responsibility for a DFC1 4/23/05 8:00 PM Page 11

Catching Methods in Fisheries; an Introduction 11

sustainable yield in a fishery where the collateral Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale damage to the ecosystem is reduced to a minimum Fishing Gear.Food and Agriculture Organization, must become the prime objective of fishermen and Farnham. Nédélec, C. & Prado, J. (1990) Definition and classifica- fishing gear technologists. tion of fishing gear categories. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 222 Rev. 1. Peesch, R. (1961) Die Fischerkommünen auf Rügen und References Hiddensee. Berlin. Schärfe, J.(ed.) (1972) Catalogue of Fishing Gear Designs. Koenig, O. (1975) Urmotiv Auge. Neuentdeckte Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Grundzüge menschlichen Verhaltens. Munich/Zurich. Schärfe, J. (ed.) (1978) FAO Catalogue of Fishing Gear Kristjánsson, L. (1980) Islenzkir Sjávarhaettir,Vol. 1. Designs.Food and Agriculture Organization, Farnham. Reykjavik [in Icelandic]. Schärfe, J. (1979) Fishing technology for developing coun- Kusnetzow, Y.A. (1971) The behaviour of fish in the zone tries. Oceanus 22 (1), 54–59. affected by a curtain of air bubbles. In: Fish Behaviour Thiel, J.F. (ed.) (1977) Haus (der) Völker und Kulturen, and Fishing Techniques (ed. A. P. Alekseev), 103–110. Führer 1977: Afrika, Neuguinea, Christl. Kunst. St. Jerusalem. Augustin/Bonn. Nachtigall, H. (1972) Völkerkunde, von Herodot bis Che Guevara. Naturvölker werden Entwicklungslaender. Stuttgart. DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 12

2 Fishing by Gathering

Long before any fishing gear was invented, humans does not aim to get foodstuff, but to collect nice- used their hands along the shores of lakes, rivers looking shells or corals for decoration, or to catch and seas to capture fish and other aquatic animals; living animals for the aquarium at home. The to collect mussels or seaweed; and to harvest amber animals are mostly tropical fish but also include or minerals thrown up by tide and wind. In a word, crustaceans and other animals of the lower orders. they gathered everything useful to their needs, from In some countries of southern Asia, beautiful little the river banks and the beaches and from shallow fish are collected for fighting contests for enter- waters or flooded areas that were drying up. Some tainment (Mohsin 1978). Many of these animals are people think that gathering is the oldest and most found in small pools and are caught in a simple important human activity and one to which we owe manner without any typical fishing gear. Another our present existence (Bolloré 1960). This old form reason for fishing by gathering is to collect ‘bait of harvesting water products by walking along the worms’, the more northern and less valuable sand- dry beach looking for something that might be worm, Nereis virens, and the more expensive south- needed for food or as a working material, or wading ern bloodworm, Glycera dibranchiata. It has been for the same purpose in shallow waters, or diving in calculated that, in the USA, bloodworms bring the deeper ones, and doing this mostly without the help highest price for weight of any fishing product! of boats or rafts, without tools, and using only Beside bait worms, other types of bait are also the hands, has been known perhaps for millions of sought for line fishing by commercial and sport fish- years, from the time of prehistoric humans and their ermen. Such simple collecting can form the basis predecessors right up to the present day. of a profitable job in centres of sport fishing all over Today, gathering by hand is not only done in the world, such as the trade in fish and other countries with a low level of economy but also in animals for aquariums which has big centres in highly developed industrial countries, though some- Hong Kong, Singapore, Djakarta, the Caribbean times for different reasons. Also, modern people and Manila. Unfortunately this form of fishing, like gather foodstuffs by hand (Figure 2.1) or other other forms, shows symptoms of ‘over-collecting’ apparently useful objects which can be brought in some areas, especially on the sea coast (Joyner home, not because of need but more for fun or for 1971). So far stocks of the interesting living souvenirs. Today, at suitable places, holidaymakers resources in shallow, coastal and fresh waters have and hobby fishermen have replaced the hunters and not yet been diminished by increasing pollution. collectors of the past. Even today commercial fish- ermen may continue to fish by simple collection, 2.1 Hand-picking especially in tropical countries. In some areas the inducement to continue fishing Gathering by hand can be considered the simplest by simple gathering by hand, and with nearly no form of fishing, surviving the centuries and modern tools, was created by new ideas such as the so-called developments. Of course, what can be picked up is ‘aesthetic’ fishery (Wood & Johannes 1975) which limited to some objects only and to the zones within

12 DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 13

Fishing by Gathering 13

Figure 2.1 Sunday morning on the French Atlantic coast. Father and son digging for shells.

the manual reach of humans. The largest quantities brown algae, principally kelp. Last, but not least, collected are from animals that may be sessile or seaweeds are also collected for agricultural fertil- only slow moving. Therefore it is understandable izer. Heavy gales at sea tear seaweed off the rocks that mussels and snails, echinoderms and some and, when it drifts ashore, people need only to small crustaceans are the main animals caught by collect it (Figure 2.2). At some places the seaweeds hand-picking. Most fish, even when trapped in small can be harvested very easily from the rocks during pools, but in good physiological condition, are too ebb tide or in shallow water and brought ashore quick and sensitive to be caught by hand. So it is (von Brandt 1956). In such places the Icelanders known from former inhabitants of Tasmania that brought or bring their sheep and horses to graze on because of their inefficient fishing technique, their algae (Kristjánsson 1980). fishery concentrated on snails, mussels and crayfish. The most interesting areas for hand-picking are There were only a few scaled fish which the those sea coasts that enjoy great differences in the Tasmanians could get, maybe in the same manner rise and fall of tides, and where wide muddy areas (by bare hand) as their neighbours, the Maoris, in are exposed twice a day.Here many species of shells New Zealand are catching eels even today (Best can be collected or dug by hand from the sand or 1977). Some fish may be grasped easily, as well as mud. Sometimes narrow populated mussel beds are frogs, small alligators, crocodiles, turtles and other hidden in the ground. In contrast to muddy areas, animals living in or near water. Fish roe is among sandy beaches are of less interest. Nevertheless, it is the objects easy to collect by hand. Alaska had an known that on nearly all sandy beaches crabs can be important ‘herring-roe-on-kelp’ fishery until the dug out by hand during the daytime. Catching them turn of the last century. with bare hands when they run over the beach Objects that can be collected by hand also during daytime or at night is difficult, but this is include plants, especially seaweeds, many of them possible with the slower-moving hermit crab. In used for human consumption or as fodder for cattle, general, sandy beaches from which, during low tide, or for the extraction of other products such as animals coming in with the flood can return un- iodine, agar from red algae, and alginic acid from hampered with the ebb tide are not considered DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 14

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without a boat and this can also be catching with typical fishing gear, which will be shown later (Sinsoilliez 1968, 1970). On the other hand, hand- picking is also carried out from boats in the open sea, e.g. for catching garfish. When taking turtles by hand, care must be taken to avoid being bitten (Chen 1976)! It is easier to catch small fishes by hand. It has been suggested that survivors of a ship- wreck on a raft or in a lifeboat can pick up such fish which nibble the nails of their fingers (Robin 1977)! According to the same author, sharks up to 1.50m long can be taken without difficulty by their dorsal fins! To avoid being bitten, a piece of wood or a Figure 2.2 The spear and rake came about to lengthen rolled towel should be pushed into the mouth of the the reach in retrieving fish or seaweed. These Breton fishermen harvest seaweed for fertilizer with long- shark. (Unfortunately, it is not stated which type of handled rakes. shark can be caught by hand picking!) Gathering by hand can be found on all sea coasts and also in freshwater areas. Here of particular favourable for fishing by gathering by hand (Koll- interest are flooded territories adjoining rivers mannsperger 1972). Rocky coasts with many small which regularly overflow after heavy rainfall. Like pools, areas prolific in seaweed growth, or caverns the sea, fresh waters offer many valuable products. and cliffs favourable for the growth of aquatic To ensure their usefulness even more, many little plants and with hiding places for animals, are all artificial pools are constructed in which the animals ideal areas for gathering. Here, molluscs, mussels as or products desired are left behind when the water well as snails and sea urchins, are the main objects falls. The water can be bailed out to gather the fish, harvested by hand-picking (Figure 2.3). Moreover, as is done even today in the small ponds which various species of crustaceans, and even barnacles remain when rice fields are drained to permit the and fish, left behind in little pools or caverns, are flowering and ripening of the paddy. Manual col- secured when the water recedes. Mussels and snails lecting is used where lagoons or annually flooded are preferred, especially in low tide areas, because lands dry out, as along the great rivers of Asia, they move so slowly. Mussels are dug from the Africa and tropical South America (Lagler 1968). bottom, while snails are removed from the stones to It has been said that the greatest of all tropical which they adhere or are gathered from the ground. inland fisheries is that where, at the time of the In France, with large areas of low tides off the floods, many fishes are caught by hand. But this Atlantic coast, a special term is used for this fishery: fishery will be doomed in the future when the rivers this is the ‘peche à pied’ (fishing by foot) which still are restrained between embankments and the land plays a great part, not only for the benefit and inter- settled for intensive cultivation. est of occasional visitors or poachers and beach- Areas of hand-picking can also include all combers, but also for meeting the practical needs of shallow waters (Figure 2.4), and deeper ones as far commercial fishermen (Renard 1955). The phrase as the fishermen can wade in. In water that reaches ‘fishing by foot’ is not to be confused with ‘fishing up to the chest or higher, the fisherman has to find by horse’. That too is practised, for instance, where his prey, e.g. clams, by feeling them with his feet. He horses are used to frighten the fish by their move- can lift them from the bottom with one foot or by ments in the water, or to drag a fishing gear. The raking them with a foot into a basket held on the term ‘fishing by foot’ is really thought of as a con- bottom (Figure 24.3). Sometimes the fisherman or trast to ‘fishing from the boat’, which method is woman dives briefly to pick up by hand what has obviously a step up in activity in the eyes of the been found with the feet. Of course, hand-picking poor.A restriction has to be made nowadays:‘pêche in deeper water without a boat is also possible by a à pied’ no longer means only hand-picking or gath- swimming and diving fisherman, as will be discussed ering; nowadays it means any fishery operated in Chapter 3. DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 15

Fishing by Gathering 15

tival in the River Argungu (Nigeria), the contest between fishermen includes not only the usual boat racing but begins with fishing by hand.The first man to catch a fish is the winner, thereby honouring one of the oldest fishing methods. Old European fishery books mention that this method of grasping the fish is the simplest method of fishing. But note this: a famous fish booklet of Nuremberg, dated 1758, comments rather disdain- fully: ‘...that is a fishery of the poor common folk who sometimes wish to bring home a small meal’. The simplicity of hand-picking has the disadvan- Figure 2.3 Chinese women use simple implements to tage that it is not only used all over the world but gather shellfish. In the foreground is the typical collec- very often not by regular, authorized fishermen, but tor’s basket. by big – and more often by smaller – poachers or fish thieves. If a Chinese philosopher failed to mention fishing as among those activities bestow- Hand-picking along the beach in sea water and ing great happiness, it certainly means that he never fresh water, in shallow water or by diving in deeper roamed along brooks as a little boy tickling trout or ones, is not only known all over the world today but grasping crayfish with his hand. This practice is uni- also since prehistoric times. The prehistoric impor- versal; from Greenland, the Kuril Isles, and other tance of such collecting activities is revealed by the northern areas it is known that even salmon can be monuments left behind in the form of so-called caught by hand. ‘Tickling’ is the English expression kitchen middens ‘kjökken möddinger’ found at for this method of fishing. To do this, the fisherman various points in Europe, East Asia, North Africa (or boy) dips his arm quite slowly into the water and both of the Americas.The heaps of garbage left and tries very cautiously to approach a stationary behind by the fishermen and huntsmen of that later salmon or trout.When he succeeds in touching it he mesolithic period are primarily composed of shells moves his hand very carefully along the belly of the of sea mussels gathered and eaten then. The huge fish until he reaches the gills. Then, with thumb and mounds of marine shells, sometimes up to 6m thick, middle finger grasping the gill openings, he endeav- represent the accumulated food debris of centuries, ours quickly to whisk it on to the bank. He does of coastal fisher-collectors from c. 6000–7000 years not always succeed. The bigger the fish, the more ago (Cornwall 1968). But shell mounds have not chance it has of freeing itself at the last moment by only been found from prehistoric times. Hills up to struggling and, not infrequently, the fisherman, in 120m long and 8m high made of shells have his excitement, finds himself in the water instead been found near the old Phoenician town of Sidon of seeing the salmon on land (Conrad 1905). The (Kramer & Matschchoss 1963), but at this time the Lengua Indians in the Gran Chaco guard against shells were gathered not for food but to gain the losing the fish by fixing a ribbon around the hand desired purple colour to dye the clothes of the dig- to which small vertebrae are fastened. This gives nitaries of this period. Hills of shells can be seen them a firm grip which prevents the fish from escap- nowadays where large quantities of abalone are ing (Krause 1904). Nowadays, gloves or a scouring caught by modern diving food gatherers, such as in clout are recommended when there is some chance California or southern Africa. Not all abalone fish- of catching fish by hand – especially conger! ermen, however, are as lucky as those of New In general, hand-picking is a small-scale fishery, Zealand, who collect a type of abalone with a won- but it can become big business when precious prod- derfully coloured shell that fetches a high price on ucts are collected, such as pearls, mother-of-pearl the world market. or corals. Marco Polo mentioned some Arabian Hand-picking was formerly considered an impor- islands where large quantities of ambergris had tant method of catching fish and one demanding been collected along the coastlines, and this valu- great skill. During the famous Nigerian fishing fes- able material must have also been collected by the DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 16

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Madagascans. Today there is big business in the rights’ and could be important for surviving when, field of fishing by gathering where the mass col- in late winter, food supplies often ran low and lection of seaweed or shell grit can be carried out weather conditions made fishing impossible from the shore. To do this economically, large-scale (Kristjánsson 1980). Beside capelin and cod, other enterprises are developed. Large harvesting fish have also been mentioned as swimming ashore machines dredge tons of seaweed or shell debris – such as spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), saithe from the low tide area or in shallow water, and so (Pollachius virens) and even redfish (Sebastes replace the human collector and his hand (see marinus) and wolf-fish (Anarhichas lupus). Chapter 30). The Maoris of New Zealand use a form of artifi- cial stranding of fish in which stones dam up 2.2 Stranded prey running water, which can then flow only in a trench excavated at the side. The fish are guided into the Fishes or other water animals can become stranded channel, and then the stone barrier is removed to involuntarily on beaches. Small fish can be seen re-route the water back along its former course and jumping onto shore when frightened by predators, the trench suddenly runs dry. The stranded fish or flying fish, attracted and disorientated by light, cannot escape and are gathered by hand (Best landing on the deck of a vessel. Then even quick- 1977). moving fishes are easily caught by hand. This can Finally,whales can also be ‘gathered’ on the beach happen even with large fishes such as salmon when when involuntarily stranded in shallow waters or they fail to jump over an obstacle during migration. when driven inshore by humans, as formerly hap- It has been said of old Indian fisheries in North pened frequently on certain islands in the Pacific America that some tribes simply collected salmon and is still practised with pilot whales in the Faeroes which failed to jump over obstacles and thus fell (Figure 2.5). The use of stranded whales is consid- on land or became stranded and exhausted after ered as the first form of whaling. From time to time spawning (Treide 1965).Sometimes large schools of news goes around the world that schools of whales small fishes are driven by predators into shallow or dolphins run themselves aground as an easy prey water and many are washed up on shore. The next for humans. The reasons for this behaviour are not wave may wash them back into the water if they known. Nowadays, oil pollution is considered as a are not taken by birds or humans. Here a strange possible reason for the disorientation and stranding fishery has to be mentioned although it is not strictly involuntary stranding on the beach. This is the fishery for grunion (Leuresthes tenuis) when, during the night, this strange fish comes on to land to spawn along the coast of California (Walker 1952; Idyll 1969). In this case, catching with bare hands is the only method allowed by law. The use of nets is illegal. Not only fish can be stranded: this can happen also with swimming snails and squid. In northern New England and eastern Canada strand- ings of enormous quantities of living shortfin squid (Illex illecebrosus) have been noticed (Lux et al. 1978). The causes of such mass strandings remain unknown. This is also the case with the ocean sunfish (Mola) and a few kinds of sea turtle which can be easily caught by hand after stranding. Not so widely known is the fact that in Iceland well-known food fish like capelin (Mallotus villo- sus) and cod (Gadus morhua) can be washed up by Figure 2.4 Women of the Zulu tribe collecting mussels the sea. In the 12th century the harvesting of this on the coast of KwaZulu Natal near Durban, South Africa. (Photo: South African Panorama, 1979.) ‘drift food’ was combined with special ‘drift-fish DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 17

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of whales, but such events were already known to Aristotle (394–322 BC) and, like him, modern scien- tists can give no convincing answer for the stranding of large schools of these sea mammals, though people try to return them to the sea.

2.3 Catching by bailing out Fully active fish are difficult to catch by hand even in small water areas. An old method of overcoming this difficulty is by bailing out the smaller pools until the fish can be caught by hand in the remain- ing water or until they strand themselves (White 1956; MacLaren 1958; Solymos 1976). This is a simple fishing method without specific fishing gear. Figure 2.5 Stranded pilot whales in the Faeroe Islands. It is known all over the world, especially in Africa (Photo: B. Ulrich.) and southern Asia. Smaller fish can also be drawn with the pot used for bailing. To get the fish, the water will be filtered through a basket or netting It must, however, be conceded that this collect- worked like a strainer. Such simple filters are ing fishery is not carried out only by hand. Special also used when directing water in which fish are auxiliary gear has been developed, usually quite expected to be found from one field to another.This individually, but is of such a general nature that it also can be an effective fishing method without any cannot be recognized exclusively as fishing gear. To specific fishing gear. facilitate the work with the hand when digging out shells from the ground, or to loosen or cut some 2.4 Implements for ‘gathering’ sessile animals or plants from stones and rocks, in fisheries or for bailing out small pools, simple individual selected tools can give some help (Fleury 1981). As can be seen by the examples of gathering quoted Shovels, spades, scratchers and hoes (Figures earlier, until now no special fishing gear has been 2.7–2.9) are used for digging out mussels and also needed. The main tool is the human hand. Every- sand eels. These tools, well known to gardeners, are thing that humans can reach by hand, and which seldom made especially for this form of fishing. Sea- they consider useful, can be taken.The term ‘fishing weeds are gathered with rakes and forks. Knives, by foot’ simply means not only fishing without a and even screwdrivers, crowbars, chisels and boat but often also without gear, as far as this gear hammers or similar instruments are used to remove is considered as typical for fisheries in general. animals from the rocks. Tweezers, spoons and even More important for success than the gear is the sticks originally used for fruit picking can be seen endurance and fitness of the collector. Of the in this fishery. Hooks and pokers are needed to dis- French ‘bassiers’ (which means those who fish lodge octopi, crawfish and eel-like fish from their during low water, or ‘basse mer’), it is said that the hiding places (Figure 2.9). Pokers can also be con- secret of their success lies in the way their legs have sidered as small gaffs (Chapter 12). Some collectors developed a resistance to cold, in their good eyes, also use, with or without permission, real fishing and in their quick perceptive senses. A symbol of gear such as spears, percussion instruments, small their collecting activity is the possession of a little stow nets, scoop nets and pushnets, minute dip nets, basket or a bag of netting for taking home the col- and special lines with hooks, all of which are lected products – and this is general the world over described later. and not only characteristic of the French Atlantic Sometimes bleach, bluestone or salt are used to coast (Figure 2.6). Interestingly, California imposes drive octopi out of their holes, or shells such as limits on the size of such bags to prevent overfish- razor-shells out of, or off, the bottom mud (Nadaud ing of the shellfish stocks. 1979). In fishing by gathering, individuals have a DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 18

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Figure 2.6 Japanese women seeking shellfish from the Figure 2.9 Note the hooks which French fishermen use sandy shore use a small hand tool. for fetching octopi out of their holes.

Figure 2.7 Simple tools for gathering molluscs, espe- cially abalone: (a) California; (b) South Africa; (c) Japan.

Figure 2.10 Washing baitworms out of the mud with the help of an outboard motor fixed on a tripod or towed on a sledge. (From Hutzfeld 1977 with permission.)

wide field in which to invent useful tools, and there are very seldom regulations to control the quality or quantity of the gear used by collectors.

2.5 Fishing with the feet Some fish dig themselves not too deeply into the bottom mud in shallow water. The ground is then searched with the feet or hands to find the fish. On the East Friesian (North Sea) coast, taking turbot Figure 2.8 Long-handled tools to gather molluscs in from the pools that remain as the tide ebbs was deeper water: (a) Madagascar; (b) Japan; (c) USA; (d) called ‘Buttpetten’ – treading or trampling to find Japan; (e) Thailand. flatfish such as flounder, plaice and turbot. When a DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 19

Fishing by Gathering 19

fish is found, it is held firmly by the feet till it can – initially by hand-operated implements such as be grasped with the hand (Mitzka 1940). This winches, and later by machine-driven ones. The last method is known in many parts of the world; it has stage is a fishing system automatically steered by been used by the Indians of the Pacific coast of computers that take over some human reasoning America and in many Asian fisheries (Underhill or, at least, make decisions more quickly and with 1944; Gudger 1951, 1952; Nishimura 1964). Aus- more certainty. tralian aborigines grope carefully along muddy Hand-picking may be a long way from such ideas shores and so secure with their feet a sort of catfish because it is carried out by people who can be to be found there. In modern Egypt it was common likened to gardeners in comparison to farmers who for a fisherman to try to feel with his naked feet the have to cultivate large areas in an economical spawning holes of breeding tilapia. When such star- manner. But there is no doubt that hand-picking shaped holes were found he grasped the female can be replaced by mechanical methods. There are with his hand (Elster 1959). a few examples where mechanization can support Fishing for sponges is now in the hands of divers hand-picking (especially hand-digging for shells with good diving equipment (Chapter 3). Neverthe- and other bottom-hidden animals) by mechanically less, it is known that the earliest and most primitive washing out and collecting the creatures. This method of collecting sponges, which has been prac- simple method can also be used when collecting tised in parts of Tunisia,is by wading in the shallows bait worms (wanted by sport fishermen) with the and collecting sponges with the toes (Firth 1969). help of a small outboard motor (Figure 2.10). The The feet are also needed in another fish catching propeller of the running motor stirs up the mud and method. The true African lungfish (Protoptorus) brings the worms to the surface where they can be and the catfish (Clarias) burrow into the mud as the collected by hand or in small scoop nets (Hutzfeld waters dry up. Lungfish enclose themselves in a 1977). After World War II a similar method was cocoon-like sheath made from the slime secreted used in northern Germany for washing out clams by their own bodies.Their position in the dried mud with the help of the running motor of a cutter (Kühl is located by stamping with the foot on the hard- 1950; NN 1948). Large quantities of clams can be baked mud surfaces. When this is done in the right washed out by this system; far more than could be place, over a fish, a distinct rumble is heard as it collected by hand or with scoop nets. Therefore, wriggles and grunts at the disturbance.The fish thus other ‘wash-out’ methods have been devised, found is dug out by hand or with a hoe (Brelsfjord combined with dredges and collecting bags, but 1946; Hickling 1961). Digging out fish in the dry these are not gathering as discussed in this chapter, season without specific gear is also known in south- but a fishing method using dragged gear, which is east Europe in the wide inundation area of the considered later (Chapter 25). Danube (Antipa 1916; Hochheimer 1954). Here loaches also hide in the mud during the dry season References and are dug out by hand or with simple gear. Antipa, G.R. (1916) Pesca˘ ria si Pescuitul in România. Bucharest [in Rumanian]. 2.6 Mechanization of gathering Best, E. (1977) Fishing Methods and Devices of the Maori. Wellington. Fishing without gear but only by means of the hand Bolloré, G.-A. (1960) Guide du Pêcheur à Pied. Paris. was the very beginning of the fishing activities of von Brandt, A. (1956) Fischerei zu Fuss. Bilder aus der humans. It is the purest form of gathering economy, bretonischen Fischerei. Die Fischwirtschaft 8, 132–133. although some people think that the fishery, con- Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu Swamps; a Study of Fishing Activities of the Unga Tribe. sidered as a whole, cannot be regarded as having The Rhodes–Livingstone Papers No. 12. Rhodes–Liv- passed beyond the lowest level of this appropriat- ingstone Institute, Livingstone, Northern Rhodesia. ing form of economy. But from this primitive Chen, T.P. (1976) Aquaculture Practices in Taiwan. method of collecting by hand, all other fishing tech- Farnham. Conrad, C.R. (1905–06) Lachsfang und Lachsschiessen. niques have developed.The basic ideas for progress Deutsche Jägerzeitung 46, 751–753. have been to replace the hand by better manmade Cornwall, I.W. (1968) Prehistoric animals and their tools and to decrease manpower by mechanization hunters. London. DFC2 4/23/05 8:45 PM Page 20

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Elster, H.-J. (1959) Einige Beobachtungen über die in fall 1976. Marine Fisheries Review 40 (1), 21– Binnenfischerei Ägyptens. Fischwirt 9, 345–356. 26. Firth, F.E. (ed.) (1969) The Encyclopedia of Marine MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Resources. New York. and Southern Africa.The occasional papers of the Fleury, G. (1981) La Pêche à Pied. Les dossiers des Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Northern éditions du pen-duick. Paris. Rhodesia. Gudger, E.W. (1951) La pêche à la main en Europe. La Mitzka, W. (1940) Deutsche Fischervolkskunde. Nature No. 3190. Neumünster. Gudger, E.W. (1952) Fishing with the hand in certain Mohsin, A.K.M. (1978) Some aquarium and food fishes Asiatic countries. Journal of the Zoological Society of of Malaysia. In: The Livestock Industry in Malaysia, India 3, 357–363. 53–70. Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Science, Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. Universiti Pertanian Malaysian, Serdang/Selangor. Hochheimer, H. (1954) Die Geschichte der Grossen Nadaud, J. (ed.) (1979) La pêche. Paris. Ströme. Köln. Nishimura, A. (1964) Primitive fishing methods. Hutzfeld, H.H. (1977) Wattwurmsuche mit Aussenbord- Ryukyuan Culture and Society, 67–77. motor. Fisch und Fang 18 (10), 744. NN (1948) Die mechanische Gewinnung der Idyll, C.P. (1969) Grunion, the fish that spawns on land. Klaffmuschel. Die Fischwoche 3 (7/8), 53. National Geographic 135 (5), 714–723. Renard, M. (1955) La Pêche à Pied au Bord de la Mer. Joyner, I. (1971) Resources exploitation – living. In: Paris. Impingement of Man on the Oceans. Hood, D.W. (ed.), Robin, B. (1977) Survive à la Dérive. Paris. 529–551. New York. Sinsoilliez, R. (1968) La Pêche à Pied, Coquillages et Crus- Kollmannsperger, F. (1972) Die Seefischerei in der Mang- tacés. Paris. garai, Westflores, Indonesia. (Unpublished report.) Sinsoilliez, R. (1970) La Pêche à Pied, des Poissons de Kramer, H. & Matschchoss, O. (1963) Farben in Kultur Mer. Paris. und Leben. Stuttgart. Solymos, E. (ed.) (1976) Studien zur Europäischen Krause, E. (1904) Vorgeschichtliche Fischereigeräte und Traditionellen Fischerei. Baja Dolgozatok 3. Baja. neuere Vergleichsstücke. Zeitschrift fuer Fischerei 11, Treide, D. (1965) Die Organisierung des indianischen 133–300. Lachsfanges im westlichen Nordamerika. Veroef- Kristjánsson, L. (1980) Islenzkir Sjávarhaettir,Vol. 1. fentlichungen des Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig Reykjavik [in Icelandic]. 14. Berlin. Kühl, H. (1950) Studien über die Sandklaffmuschel Mya Underhill, R. (1944) Indians of the Pacific Northwest. arenaria. Archiv fuer Fischereiwissenschaft 2, 25–39. Washington. Lagler, K.F. (1968) Capture, sampling and examination of Walker, B.W. (1952) A guide to the Grunion. California fishes In: Methods of Assessment of Fish Production in Fish and Game 38, 409–420. Fresh Waters. IBP Handbook 3 (ed. W. E. Ricker), 7–40 White, C.M.N.T. (1956) The role of hunting and fishing in (45). London. Luvale society. African Study 15 (2), 75–86. Lux, F.E., Uzmann, J.R. & Lind, H.F. (1978) Strandings Wood, E.J.F. & Johannes, R.E. (1975) Tropical Marine of shortfin squid, Ilex illecebrosius, in New England Pollution. Amsterdam. DFC3 4/23/05 9:18 PM Page 21

3 Male and Female Divers

The ‘gathering activity’ of fishermen who work with 2. Finally, as a sad symbol of the post-war period, almost no gear and without a boat is not restricted fishermen (especially in the northern seas) have to the beach or to shallow water. By adopting made a good business from diving for submerged the practice of diving, particularly in the warmer ammunition and scrap. Even earlier, fishermen regions of the world, they have been able to pene- dived in the harbour of Mindelo (Cape Verde trate into deeper water to gather and grasp what Islands) to collect coal fallen overboard from the they cannot secure from the shore. Long before the old steamers which bunkered there before leaving currently popular sport of scuba diving began, there for South America. existed underwater hunting wherein men moved, as one says today, ‘as fish among the fishes’. 3.1 Divers catching fish and supporting Even today divers are active in carrying out, by fishing operations simple diving, a number of important fisheries. Diving for pearl oysters in Japan, Indonesia, Divers can, under some circumstances, also catch Australia, Sri Lanka and south India is famous fish (Figure 3.1). Of course it is much more difficult and important, but fishing for sponges by divers in to catch very quick ones in their own surroundings the Mediterranean and Caribbean Sea is also well than those hampered by physiological unfitness known. Diving for corals is also famous: the red one when spawning, or weakened by sickness or of the Mediterranean, the black one of the Red Sea exhausted by migrating. It is reported that the and the Pacific Ocean (Hawaii), and last but not Indians of the north-west California coast, while least the red and white ones of the Pescadores operating as divers, sometimes grasped sturgeons Islands in the Formosa Strait. Corals can be taken weakened by spawning and guided them to the by divers without, or more thoroughly with, com- bank (Kroeber & Barrett 1960). Catching carp by plicated equipment without destroying coral stocks, hand is sometimes referred to in old Japanese doc- which may happen when entangling gear is used uments (Nishimura 1971). In the Japanese book (Figures 20.2 and 20.3). Chat about the Southern Islands published nearly Other marine products are also harvested by 150 years ago, it was mentioned that around the divers working in many areas of the tropical and Ryukyu Islands some sea fish were caught by divers sub-tropical seas. These products may be mussels, with the left hand whilst swimming with the other abalone or clams, not to forget also giant clams and (Nishimura 1968). A strange story in this connec- pearl oysters, sponges for human and technical uses, tion is also told from Easter Island. In the olden octopi, sea urchins and sea cucumbers (‘trepang’ or times there were so many fish in this area that ‘bêche-de-mer’), several types of crustaceans (espe- swimmers could squash them between their legs. cially lobsters and spiny lobsters) and turtles. Also Even today a special place in these islands is called gathered are edible seaweeds found in shallow ‘Fish-catching-with-thighs’ (Felbermayer 1971). waters, and others used for a variety of industrial In addition to ‘dive fishing’ for molluscs, corals, and agricultural purposes as mentioned in Chapter sponges and other sea creatures, the co-operation

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Diving fishermen can also examine artificial fish shelters and stationary gear. It has been reported from the fisheries in central and southern Africa that sometimes, when seining, a man dives to find out if there are enough fish in the gear and if the time is right for hauling. This may be the most reli- able method of determining the quantity of the catch, which is also urgently needed in the modern large-scale fisheries of industrial countries (MacLaren 1958). Indonesian fishermen are known to dive to inspect their gigantic weirs. In northern Europe some fishermen operating large pound nets in the western Baltic are trained to dive to inspect the best working of their gear. In modern fisheries, the help of divers is often needed for clearing netting from propellers, for retrieving lost fishing gear, and for making minor hull repairs from below the water level (Hardy 1981). Moreover, one deci- sive reason for the co-operation with divers in fish- eries is because in some tropical countries, before the gear is set, they dive to listen to determine whether there are suitable fish in the neighbour- hood. In Thailand, purse seiners are sometimes accompanied by a diver specializing in fish location by underwater listening. Listening for fish by divers is also known in Malaysia in the seine-net fishery. A small sampan with low sides is used on which the swimming fisherman can hold fast. From time to Figure 3.1 Diving to catch fish is an old-established time he dives his head underwater to look for fish technique as shown by this woodprint from the famous but also to find them by listening. Experts affirm early Japanese sketchbook, Manga, by Hokusai, pictur- that they can determine by the noises caused by ing divers at work. some fish not only the type of fish, but also their location and the size of a school. It has been of divers can be helpful in other fisheries. There are declared that up to six types of fish can be distin- many fishing methods in use, particularly in tropi- guished by their different noises. According to cal areas, in which divers or swimming fishermen Malaysian fishermen, fish noises vary when they are help to operate fishing gear. They can set and haul swimming near the water surface or on the bottom. fishing gear such as pots for rock lobsters in India and other places with small fisheries, where even a 3.2 Diving equipment simple boat may be too expensive and the gear is operated only by divers. Divers can also drive fish Divers have been working since olden times com- into a gear, remove them from a net, frighten them pletely without any auxiliary means for prolonging from the bottom to the surface (Koch 1965) or their stay under water. Naked diving is still under- collect stupefied fish from the bottom. Divers can taken all over the world today, even though the also direct fishing gear to the right place, such as famous divers of the Arabian Gulf have exchanged plummets for sea cucumbers (Figure 6.13), or place their hard and dangerous job for the more attractive handlines before fish as is done in Japan. When living of oil exploitation. Formerly pearl diving was operating some types of drive-in gear in tropical carried out from dhows, 20m long, and with a crew waters (Figure 21.3) the co-operation of large of up to 30. Two men, a diver and a hauler, worked groups of swimming divers may be necessary. in teams. The diver descended on a weighted line, DFC3 4/23/05 9:18 PM Page 23

Male and Female Divers 23

became popular with sponge and abalone fisher- men both in the Far East and in the New World. Such diving apparatus is not new, but it was a long time before it was introduced into fisheries. Among others, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) made a sketch of a diving suit for an Indian pearl diver (about 1488–1497). The suit was made of water- proofed leather. To protect the diver against attack by fishes, especially sharks, or other animals, the suit was designed to have long spines. The tube for breathing, reaching to the water surface, was stiff- ened with rings of metal to resist the compression of the water. The diver had diving spectacles with magnifying glasses (Feldhaus 1970). Leonardo’s proposal for a diving suit was not realized until the 19th century. The equipment is known as a ‘scaphander’ and is used today especially for tech- nical work under water. The helmet is replaced by a mask for breathing connected to a hose up to Figure 3.2 Diver of the Taiwanese island Lan Yü, for- 100m long. Owing to the similarity of this equip- merly called Botel Tobago, with hand-made wooden- ment with the Turkish water-pipe it is also called a framed diving goggles (1969). ‘hookah’ in some fisheries. At first, only hand pumps were used to supply air the end wound round his foot. Experienced divers to the diver (Figure 3.3). Power compressors began could plunge up to 15 m. Some divers stayed down to replace hand pumps in c. 1913. After World War for 4 min though some for only 1.5 min. For hauling, I, high-capacity compressors were introduced (Firth the diver tugged on the rope and the hauler pulled 1969). These improvements provided greater secu- him up. Some divers dived about 40 times a day rity for the divers, and their working time under (Frazer 1969). The only external aid in the past has water was prolonged.A diver can work under water been that of diving spectacles, but these have been for varying times depending on the depth of the in use only in comparatively recent times – in Japan water and his physical condition.As an example, on since the beginning of the 20th century. They are, average a British diver-fisherman spends 1.5 h a day however, very desirable and the fishermen on even on the bottom to collect 350 scallops (Hardy 1981). remote islands manufacture their own divers’ spec- In Korea, divers can work for as long as 25–30 min tacles (with wooden frames) if they can obtain plain at depths of 30 m. Generally they work 8 h a day, glass (Figure 3.2). This is necessary because it is not making 8 to 10 dives. Nowadays the safety of diving possible for the human eye to see clearly under with air hose has been increased by winding a tele- water without divers’ spectacles. phone cable around the hose so that the diver can Nose clips made of horn, as used by the Arabian be in permanent speaking contact with his vessel. divers of India, or any protection for the ears, such From available data it seems that diving dress in as modern water-pressure regulation balloons com- the Mediterranean has been in use in the sponge bined with mask and glass window, were unknown fishery since 1860. In 1874 it was introduced into the to early diving fishermen and this remains so today USA (Firth 1969), and since 1879 in the Swedish in many parts of the world, particularly in south fishery (for oysters) off the western coast (von Asia where most divers have no equipment other Yhlen 1881). In Central America, diving suits have than diving spectacles. been in use since the beginning of last century,espe- An important development in diving was the cially in the sponge fishery off Florida in the Gulf introduction of a diving suit equipped with helmet of Mexico (Stelzner 1943). Diving for abalone off and hose connected to a pump for respiration. California was established by Japanese divers Installed aboard small open boats, this equipment when it became unlawful to fish for abalone in the DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 24

24 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 3.3 Korean diver with diving suit and an air supply provided by a hand pump. South Korean coast (1972).

shallow intertidal zone (1900). Before this law, it is known that Australian aborigines used long abalone had been gathered by Chinese fishermen pieces of hollow reed as a means of approaching with the help of hooked poles – without diving. wildfowl under water (Hardy 1981). Today, Japanese divers introduced diving suits to gather migrating Greek sponge divers use simple snorkels abalone in deeper water. The diving suit with its for searching, as well as breathing tubes with old hose connection in modern form avoids many compressors, but also with transportable modern dangers which threaten the naked skin diver. On scuba equipment with oxygen breathing. Skin the other hand, the disadvantages of this method divers can be seen as well as divers with helmets are that the boat has to be anchored and that the and air tubes. Often they have only a mask with a diver’s range is limited by the length of the air hose. large glass visor and a connection tube to the air Moreover, when more than one diver is working compressor. from the same vessel their air lines can entangle Divers working as skin divers or in suits from with each other (Hardy 1981). Therefore the boats usually now have a double rope connection increased mobility gained ensured that when, after with the boat. One rope is loaded with a weight by World War II, independent, autonomous, diving means of which the diver can descend by himself equipment such as scuba (Self-Contained Under- without any effort.The other rope serves as a signal water Breathing Apparatus) was developed, it was line. The weighted line (usually attached to a stone immediately widely used – not only for submarine or a heavy lead) is also useful for anchoring the sport fishing but also for commercial fishing by boat. Moreover, this line provides a permanent con- professional fishermen. nection to the boat so that the diver can easily find Autonomous deep-diving systems reduce costs it or, by giving a signal on the second line slung considerably, and increase productivity. On the round his body, he can be hauled up by means of a other hand, scuba diving needs expensive equip- winch on the boat. This help is especially neces- ment, which is why older methods with suits are still sary for divers working in suits with rubber tube practised alongside modern scuba diving. Simple connections. By this means of facilitating his snorkels are also widely used around the world and descent and ascent the diver is able to stay under DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 25

Male and Female Divers 25

water for a longer period. Nevertheless, the under- sea activities of divers in diving suits are mostly limited to 60m with only 30 min of useful work. A scuba diver may dive 50m and even more, but once he dives >10m he already needs one or more pauses of 5 min each for decompression during ascending. Before about 1917, divers in heavy diving suits with breathing tubes walked along the seabed looking for shells, etc. Later the method of ‘working to windward’ was used. In this method the diver is towed, by his vessel, a few feet from the bottom, while the vessel drifts at low speed, maybe under sail. When the diver sights the wanted shells he signals the surface and is lowered to collect them. Where the water was warmer the diver did not use a full diving suit but often the helmet or the corse- let only. Generally speaking, diving is daytime work, but Figure 3.4 Indonesian scuba divers in Flores, Lesser in Italy commercial divers catch big fish during the Sunda Islands. (Photo: Kollmannsperger, 1975.) night by shooting with the aid of underwater lamps. Fish, as well as crustaceans and octopi, are worried by the light and mesmerized. The use of lights by divers is forbidden in some countries. Sometimes 3.3 Female divers diving, at least free diving, is completely forbidden, or the length of the surface-connected hoses can Diving is mostly done by men, but there are famous have a legal minimum length to protect some stocks female divers, particularly those of Japan, – the against overgathering, especially by sport divers so-called ‘ama’ (sea-women; Bartz 1959). They also (Felbermayer 1971). In some countries, particular operate in Korea and this probably arises from the types of diving are restricted or forbidden, as in Japanese influence. Korean female divers operate New Zealand and Australia where compressed air especially from the Isle of Cheju, situated off the diving for crawfish is banned. south coast. They collect mainly abalone, trepang, The problem of how to protect the diver against seaweed and molluscs as well as fish. The ama dive attack, especially by sharks (considered earlier by without any special equipment in shallow water Leonardo da Vinci) is still of topical interest. (5–10 m) and only for short times of 50–90 s. Like Australian divers operate from self-propelled shark sports swimmers they dive into the water head first, cages; those in South Africa wear rugby boots to in contrast to the Arabian and Sri Lankan pearl kick away sharks if they are disturbed while under divers who dive feet first (Bartz 1974). water! Accidents caused by sharks, even in shallow In the Japanese fishery women are obviously waters, can lead to them being chased furiously, more suited to diving than men because they have whether the species is dangerous or not, especially a better fat layer which insulates their bodies. It off the Australian coast. On the other hand, is quite understandable that economic conditions commercial divers are blamed for the decreasing make it necessary for the women to undertake this numbers of shark populations, while abalone divers diving for food because the men are frequently are blamed for the recent decline in the catch of absent from their villages for a long time while abalone because they fear attacks by sharks. There fishing for tuna.The fact that, for practical purposes, are, however, more accidents resulting from the only women undertake diving has led the not very failure to observe the time needed for decompres- prudish Japanese to invent stories of explanation sion in coming up from a dive of >10m than that that would not be appreciated by the puritanical caused by shark attacks. inhabitants of the western world (Hornell 1950)! DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 26

26 Fish Catching Methods of the World

On the other hand, fishermen diving off the Mauretanian coast use leather trousers for protec- tion against curious small sharks! Kuwait pearl divers use three-quarter length black trousers, pos- sibly for the same reason. When they are diving, Japanese women divers work either independently (‘kachido’) or mother and daughters work from a boat with a male assis- tant, who is usually the husband. The Japanese call this group of sea women ‘funando’ (Clark 1971). But even the independent women divers seldom fish alone, but prefer to operate in groups. In Korea there are usually ten female divers working together. Company is essential in the submarine world in order to have a feeling of safety. Sport divers customarily are not allowed to dive alone. If there is some fellowship or company, they can help each other. In tropical areas some dangerous marine organisms can cause many difficulties. Even small organisms, which are poisonous and ven- omous to humans (such as some nice-looking cone Figure 3.5 Small tools used by Korean women divers: shells) can cause accidents or even death. In these spear for fishes, hook for shells, tool for loosening cases, divers working in groups can give that timely abalone, and hook for octopus. (Courtesy of Mr Lee, help which may avert disaster. Chang Ki.) Regarding the sea women ‘ama’, it is said that their knowledge of the diving techniques is handed 3.4 Tools and collecting bags down from mother to daughter. Thus diver families and whole settlements are to be found who fish Like the collectors on the beach or in shallow together. This highly desirable and necessary co- water, divers originally had no specific gear to operation has led to the development of profes- scrape together shells, to loosen sessile animals, or sional castes or caste-professions – depending on to cut seaweed. Kuwaiti divers collecting pearl whether the profession has caused the group to oysters used leather thimbles for finger protection combine with a caste or whether membership of a only. They needed no other tools for hand-picking. caste has led to the adoption of the profession of Nevertheless, some types of more or less specialized diving (Westphal-Hellbusch 1960). There are some gear have been introduced in other types of diving suggestions that women divers also work in other according to whatever is to be collected. A knife, a parts of the world, e.g. in the Torres Strait between hook, tweezers or similar tools suffice to remove Australia and New Guinea (Marshall 1904). In mussels or sponges or to draw crayfish out of their Taiwan, women divers often work in shallow waters holes. Figure 3.5 shows some of the tools used by where diving is needed to pick up by hand what has Korean women divers to loosen shells, to catch been touched by foot as mentioned before. In octopi and to fish them. There are also more spe- Tasmania, the women of the extinct aborigines cialized tools, e.g. sickles for seaweed, hook-like were said to have been strong swimmers and excel- implements to loosen sponges (Figure 3.6), iron lent divers, who procured most of their food (like bars to prize off abalone fixed to rocks, and small shellfish and crayfish) by diving in rocky areas. On hooks to draw animals out of their hiding places, as the Island of Santa Cruz (in the eastern corner well as short hand-held rakes for dislodging sea of Melanesia) women started diving equipped with urchins from the substrate. rubber catapults (Figure 6.23) for underwater har- As with the collectors of the beach, some divers pooning in the second half of the 20th century like to use genuine fishing gear such as snares and (Koch 1971). also fishing spears and harpoons to catch fish. Even DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 27

Male and Female Divers 27

Figure 3.8 The equipment of a Korean female diver near Pusan consists of a collecting bag with float, goggles and a sickle-shaped knife. Figure 3.6 Tools for divers: left, for loosening shells (Japan); right, for loosening sponges (Greece); (1977). Nyassa cyprinids are caught by two divers towing a small bagnet of mosquito netting between them. The bag is held open by a spreading stake at either side of the opening and is folded up at the end of the dive (MacLaren 1958). When rising out of the depths, African divers are told to retain the catch with their teeth. Usually, however, like the collec- tors on the beach, they have bagnets fastened to their bodies or to a float or a barrel which rests nearby on the surface of the water. The bagnet can be held open like a scoop net by a wooden ring; or, as can be seen in Figure 3.8, the bags are closable and have a small hole to put the prey through into the bag. There may also be a container, usually a wooden tub floating on the surface.The diver keeps contact with the floating tub by a rope so that he can find it easily to deposit his catch. The container also serves as a raft when he wants to rest. Formerly, the unprotected diver had to come to the surface at short intervals to breathe, and also to put the catch in the container or in the accompanying vessel. Modern divers using diving suits with a piped air supply are able stay longer under water with less frequent visits to the surface. They may also carry a basket or net bag for their catch, which is hauled Figure 3.7 Diver of Manila Bay with a hand-made harpoon and collecting bag (1960). to the surface by their assistants. Thus very effective harvesting systems have replaced the old forms of collecting foodstuff and other material in some remote areas, submarine harpoons with under water. Australian divers have used plastic elastic triggers, as originally invented by sports bags inflated from the diver’s air supply to lift the divers, can be found in use (Figure 3.7). Sometimes full net to the surface (NN 1972). When harvesting gear made of netting is operated by divers. In Lake seaweed, Japanese divers tie 10–20 pieces of DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 28

28 Fish Catching Methods of the World

seaweed together by a rope.When the stems are cut off, signals are sent and the seaweed is pulled up by the fishermen on the accompanying vessel. Other products, such as sea urchins, are harvested in a similar way in California (Kato 1970).

3.5 Technological progress in diving Progress in diving for fishing purposes is linked with the development of diving techniques, especially diving suits and breathing devices. But there is also a desire to improve the tools used, especially for collecting shells. Biologists claim that the usual clam forks and hoes used yield only c. 60% of the marketable-sized clams of the dug-over soil, but kill almost half of all the clams left behind (Dickie & McPhail 1957). This has led to investigations into how to increase the harvests of shells collected by shore gatherers in tidal areas or by divers. One idea is to use water nozzles attached to a water hose that has a pump on board the vessel attending the Figure 3.9 Operating principle of a Venturi dredge. divers.These washout nozzles are helpful in digging out the larger clams which are usually deeply buried in the substrate. The diver grasps the clam siphon with one hand and washes the material away from the animal with the nozzle until it is free. Another idea is to use a hand-operated venturi dredge. This is a sucking device working on the same principle as some vacuum pumps. An engine in the supporting vessel pumps water under high pressure through a water jet, which creates a sucking action in a connected flexible pipe (Figure 3.9). By this means, material, including clams, can be sucked off the bottom into a screen mesh con- tainer for separating and cleaning.The same system is also used for large harvesting machines which are discussed in Chapter 30. Quite another problem of diving is the descent into deep water. It has been mentioned that divers with air-breathing apparatus can dive to depths of 60 or 70 m. This depth is considered to be a dan- gerous limit. At greater depths the diver can suffer intoxication sickness which can cause loss of con- sciousness. But corals, especially the more precious types, grow in deeper waters in the Pacific. Coral divers try to descend to 90 or even 100 m. With a mixture of oxygen and helium, divers can reach depths of >100 m, and even 200m is possible. But these depths invite accidents and it seems wiser to Figure 3.10 Small submarine for coral fishing in Formosa Strait. operate with small submarines in coral fishing at DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 29

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Figure 3.11 Modern deep-sea submersible operated in the coral fishery of Hawaii, transported on a special vehicle towed behind the mother ship. To launch the submersible, the transporter is sunk to about 18 m, where the sub- mersible is launched under its own power. The procedure is reversed for recovery. (Courtesy of Maui Divers of Hawaii Ltd, 1979.)

those depths (Figure 3.10). These can be small harvest red and white corals off the western coast vessels 7m long with two or even three operators. of Taiwan. Nevertheless, the experiments in the The boat is driven by batteries and can work at Pescadores Islands (Penghu) in the Formosa Strait depths of up to 200 or 250 m. To cut off and collect have shown that a strong current can hamper nav- corals, the submarine has a special mechanical grab igation of this type of diving vehicle, so that har- arm (manipulator) with a striking mechanism to vesting corals is nearly impossible. Navigation of remove the precious ‘loot’. The corals are collected the diving vehicles from the shore with the help of in a bag of netting fixed to the outside of the sub- TV, as proposed recently by the Japanese, will not marine. Such submarines built for coral fishing may help to solve the problem. be less dangerous than diving with the usual equip- Before finishing this chapter about diving it ment, especially with mixed gases. Moreover, such should be mentioned that in some countries non- vehicles can dive to greater depths. Large ones can commercial and commercial fishermen are antago- dive to 550 or 600m with an inside pressure of 1 nistic towards each other. This is because some atmosphere. Submersibles, mostly for two people irresponsible amateurs, such as hobby fishermen, and with a ‘launch–recovery–transport vehicle’, are scoop up everything in sight including shellfish and operated in the fishery for black corals off Hawaii fish at weekends, sell their harvest indiscriminately (Figure 3.11) (Grigg 1979). Experiments have also to the detriment of full-time fishermen, and then been made with a small type of submersible to return to their main jobs during the week. Discus- DFC3 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 30

30 Fish Catching Methods of the World

sions are ongoing on to see how the interests of full- Kato, S. (1970) Catching squid by the ton with pumps. Nat. time fishermen can be safeguarded. This discussion Fish. June. also includes the problem of how to protect fishing Koch, G. (1965) Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-Inseln. Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde gear against curious hobby divers, who can cause Berlin NF 6. considerable damage in addition to the loss of Koch, G. (1971) Die materielle Kultur der Santa catches. Cruz-Inseln. Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde, Berlin NF 21. Kollmannsperger, F. (1975) Die Seefischerei in der References Manggarai, Westflores, Indonesia. (Unpublished report.) Bartz, F. (1959) Bevölkerungsgruppen mit besonderer Kroeber, A.L. & Barrett, S.A. (1960) Fishing among the gesellschaftlicher Stellung unter den Küstenbewoh- Indians of north-western California. Anthropological nern und Fischern des Fernen Ostens. Erdkunde. Records 21,1. Archiv für Wissenschaft Geographie XIII Slg. 4. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Bartz, F.(1964–74) Die Grossen Fischräume der Welt,Vols and Southern Africa. Occasional Papers of the I–III. Wiesbaden. Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Northern Clark, G. (1971) The Stone Age Hunters. Library of Early Rhodesia. Civilisation. London. Marshall, W. (1904) Die Erforschung des Meeres. In: Dickie, L.M. & McPhail, J.S. (1957) An experimental Weltall und Menschheit,Vol. IV (ed. H. Kramer), mechanical shellfish digger. Progress report and reports 245–382. of the Atlantic coast stations. Fisheries Research Board Nishimura, A. (1968) Living Fossils of Oldest Fishing of Canada No. 66, 3–8. Gear in Japan. Vlllth International Congress of Anthro- Felbermayer, F. (1971) Sagen und Überlieferungen der pological and Ethnological Sciences.Tokyo and Osterinsel. Nürnberg. Kyoto. Feldhaus, F.M.(1970) Die Technik Lexikon der Vorzeit der Nishimura, A. (1971) Ishihiki, the oldest fishing gear, its Geschichtlichen Zeit und der Naturvölker. Munich. morphology and function. Studia Ethnographica and Firth, F.E. (ed.) (1969) The Encyclopedia of Marine folkloristica in Honorem Béla Gunda, 619–629. Resources. New York. NN (1972) Diving for abalone in Australia. Fisheries News Frazer, J.E. (1969) Kuwait. National Geographic 135 (5), International 11 (4), 39. 336–365. Stelzner, H. (1943) Tauchertechnik. Lübeck. Grigg, R.W. (1979) Precious corals. Hawaii’s deep-sea Westphal-Hellbusch, S. (1960) Berufs-Kasten im Irak. jewels. National Geographic 155 (5), 719–132. Umschau 60 (24), 755–758. Hardy, D. (1981) Scallops and the Diver Fisherman. von Yhlen, G. (1881) Die Seefischerei an der Westküste Fishing News Books, Farnham. Schwedens. Internationale Fischereiausstellung Berlin Hornell, J.S. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. 1880. Amtliche Berichte. Berlin. DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 31

4 Animals as a Help in Fisheries

Humans very soon learned to capture animals, to work in large flocks, such as cormorants, pelicans, tame them and to use them for their own purposes. darters and snakebirds. Reptiles and amphibians But the capacity and inherent ability to do this also fish, such as many water snakes, older croco- varied greatly between different tribes and nations. diles, turtles and frogs, not forgetting the many The ability of the Hindus, for example, to tame and predatory fishes which catch others, or cannibalis- handle animals is to be noted. They succeeded in tic older fish which feed on the young of their own taming young wild elephants much earlier than did species. To complete the list, even some spiders and the peoples of Africa. The African elephant is insects catch small fish, sometimes by quite compli- considered more difficult to tame (Zeuner 1967), cated methods. There are a great number of fish- but nevertheless they became famous in the armies catching and fish-eating animals all over the world, of North African potentates and even crossed the but most of them are considered by humans to Alps with Hannibal’s army. be competitors and predators. Only a few can be There is a distinction between tamed and trained tamed and trained for direct fishing, although wild animals, and animals that are definitely domes- others can help indirectly in fisheries. Nevertheless, ticated. The first are to be seen in the circus or in a horses as well as dogs are engaged in fishing variety theatre. But domesticated animals in the directly, along with otters and birds such as cor- real sense are not those animals which live with morants and waterfowl. Moreover, people have humans, either tolerated or unwanted, but those learned to fish even with suckerfish and octopi and which humans have tamed and bred for their own also, by understanding the behaviour of many other benefit or pleasure.The practice of domestic breed- animals, how to find the prey wanted by careful ing may deliberately change the animal’s charac- observation. teristics. Through selecting special animals as parents, breeding is carried out with the specific 4.1 Horses and fishermen purpose of developing special qualities in the off- spring. Modern domesticated animals are simply Before the invention of motorized transport there the product of many generations of animals that were only a few animals, such as donkeys, horses have been bred and used by humans throughout. and cattle, to transport fishing gear and the catch Animals have also been tamed and trained for and to carry fishermen to their fishing grounds, use in fisheries. Training animals to catch fish may which could be some kilometres away (Hurlburt not be that difficult because many are known to 1975). Animals are sometimes also used indirectly catch fish naturally. These animals include many in fishing, e.g. cattle towing boats in and out of the mammals, e.g. cats, otters, bears, seals and rats. water on the Portuguese coast. Horses are directly There even exists a species of bat which can fish. connected with fishing, towing long seine nets in There are also some animals which can be fed on Argentine rivers such as the Rio de la Plata and the fish but do not normally catch them, such as rein- Rio Uruguay. Well known on the Belgian coast deer and dogs. Many birds dive and fish, and some were the famous horses of Oost Duinkerke ridden

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by shrimp fishermen when fishing (Boudarel 1948). been trained to catch fish directly and to bring them The heavy horses towed a small trawl-like gear for to their masters. Dogs cannot take fish with their catching shrimp in shallow water (Figure 26.16). claws, as bears and cats do, because they are not The net with the otter boards could be towed either curved. They have to catch fish with their mouths. by a single horse or by two horses as in pair trawl- The Ainus, those mysterious European-like aborig- ing (Chapter 26). Interestingly, this fishery was ines of north Japan and Sakhalin in the USSR, pos- prohibited from operating at the beginning of sessed the art of training dogs to the extent that by November to prevent chilling the horses, and they order and by swimming in packs, they could fished only in c.30cm of water for the same reason. frighten fish into shallow water where they were The co-operation of horses in catching snappers caught and retrieved (Weyer 1959).As a reward the has been recorded from the Maoris of New dogs were given the fish heads. Similar observations Zealand. The men would ride into shallow waters have been made in other countries such as Ireland, and, when a snapper was spotted, they would follow Scotland, England and Wales as well as in Nor- the fish until the exhausted animal tried to find a mandy, France. It has also been reported that the hiding place in the mud stirred up by the horse. dogs of Hungarian shepherds could be trained to Then the Maori would dismount with his pitchfork catch single fish (Gunda 1974).That dogs can be fed and wait till the snapper tried to escape. As soon as with fish is generally known; the Inuits do so with the fish made its escape attempt it was speared by their sledge-dogs. Dogs of the Kamchatkans in the the waiting Maori with the fork (Doogue 1974). USSR, which are fed nothing but lightly salted and dried or smoked fish in the winter, are said to fish 4.2 Dogs used in fisheries successfully in the summer on their own behalf. Half-wild dogs on the Turkish Black Sea coast feed The dog is a typical example of a domesticated on fish and porpoises left by the fishermen on the animal. His association with humans reaches back beach. From Malaysia it is reported that crabs are many centuries since first the wild dogs were tamed, caught by dogs (Burdon 1951). In referring to dogs handled and began to develop into the useful com- in fisheries we have to mention, too, the dogs which panions they are today. In their original free life, towed mud-sleds for transporting shrimps from the dogs were accustomed to unite in packs for hunting, traps to the shore during low tide on the German and to follow a leader, and it is this inherited char- Bay (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). acteristic that makes dogs suited for accompanying huntsmen. Pictures of Diana as the hunting goddess generally also show quick, slender whippets accom- panying her. Dogs help the huntsman by nosing out, scaring, encircling, chasing and retrieving the prey. But to the fisherman the dog is no natural com- panion. In general, such animals do not catch fish; even the ancestors of dogs, like wolves, catch fish only when they are ravenous. It is not just because dogs can be afraid of water. They are helpful in hunting waterfowl, but using them for fishing seems to be against their nature. Nevertheless, it is some- times reported that dogs have been known to retrieve living fish in shallow water and to help the sports fisherman to land fish taken by line (Gudger 1941). Dogs can be trained to drive fish into a fishing gear and this trait has been seen in many different Figure 4.1 Dogs towing a mud-sled for the transporta- parts of the world. The inhabitants of Tierra del tion of shrimps from the traps to the shore during low Fuego used dogs to drive fish into nets placed on tide at the German Bay in Wremen near Bremerhaven (1965). small beaches (Gudger 1923). But dogs have also DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 33

Animals as a Help in Fisheries 33

European countries kept otters for catching trout – for instance in Scandinavia. The famous book by Olaus Magnus, De Gentibus Septentrionalibus, gives a sketch of a fishing otter in this area (Olaus Magnus 1555). Fishing with otters was also known in Central Europe (Germany and Poland) and especially in England and Scotland. Here using the otter for fishing was mentioned for the first time in 1480. Izaak Walton describes the training of otters for fishing in his book, The Compleat Angler, written in 1653. There he says that young animals of 3–4 months of age were caught and trained like dogs. The otter can become very tame and trusting and will stay with his master during some 15 or 16 years of active fishing. The normal practice was for the otter to be muzzled to prevent its eating the fish Figure 4.2 The catch of shrimps is reloaded from the and to be fastened by a line to its master. Released mud-sled to a small barrow, both towed by dogs. into the water, it scared the fish and chased them into set nets, or else encircled them over dipnets set in the river, like a dog rounding up sheep. Then, 4.3 Fishing with otters when sufficient fish were over the net, the catch and the otter were hauled in together (Walton 1950). Otters are also included among those animals Very little information exists about the use of otters which can be trained for frightening and sometimes in the New World, but apparently otters were also even for retrieving fish. There are many species of used in Central and South America (Gudger 1927; otter in different parts of the world. Two of them Wilbert 1955). The fishermen of Guyana are said to may be used especially in fisheries. In India, Burma use the otter as an indirect means of obtaining fish. and south-west China, and as far south as Malaysia By watching the place where the otter leaves its and Sumatra, the ‘smooth otter’, Lutra perspicillata, prey after capture, the fishermen can confiscate the has been used by fishermen to drive fish into nets. booty for their own use (Hickling 1961). In more temperate Asia, in countries as far south as Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and Sumatra, the 4.4 Fishing with birds common otter, Lutra lutra, has been used for fishing as it has in Europe and in northern Africa (Medway The method of obtaining fish not by catching them, 1978). Marco Polo, in his travels >600 years ago, saw but by stealing them out of the burrows and lairs of Chinese people fishing with otters in the Yangtse fishing animals such as otters, is also known for Kiang River. Other travellers have also reported birds. It was stated in 1827 that Hungarian poach- this type of fishery being carried on today (Perosino ers had taken fish out of the nests that eagles had 1963). Fishing with otters seems to be especially built for their nestlings (Gunda 1974). It seems that restricted to the Yangtse area, where it was known this method of ‘indirect’ fishing was widespread in before AD 600. The Chinese are reputed to have the past and is also described by the famous scien- developed commercial fishing with the aid of otters tist Albertus Magnus (1193–1280). from the inhabitants of Indo-China and the It is known that many birds catch fish. These are Malaysian area. In India otters were used for fishing powerful birds of prey such as eagles and hawks, in areas of the rivers Indus and Ganges and else- but also small birds like halcyons and kingfishers. where in Bengal. Their use was also known Herons and storks are well-known for fishing as are in southern India, particularly in the bays of the cormorants (see Section 4.5), as well as many types Cochin Coast. From there, English sportsmen of waterfowl, and therefore they are very often sometimes took such trained animals back to unwanted in ponds and lakes. There are also fishing England with them. In early days, people in many owls in Asia, Africa and Europe. DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 34

34 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Not that many birds have been tamed for direct like that of fishing with otters, was and is very con- fishing or who can give indirect help in fisheries. venient because the first commandment of their This seems to be also true for pelicans. These birds religious laws prohibits the killing of living crea- are known for their collective fishing system. Swim- tures which, of course, includes fish. Thus, when the ming in a semi-circle they can drive fish into shallow killing was done using animals and not by humans, waters where they can easily be taken. However, he was free of guilt. pelicans are said never to have been domesticated The cormorant fishery in Japan is the best known or tamed to help humans in fisheries. On the other (Gudger 1929; NN 1957). The year AD 813 is hand, the Sumerians, aware of the successful fishing reputed to be the historical beginning of the Japan- activity of these birds, took the fish caught out of ese cormorant fishery. Nevertheless, nocturnal the throats of white pelicans. No further details cormorant fishing seems to be much older; it is about Sumerian fishing are known, but direct mentioned in a historical report, named Kojiki, fishing with cormorants in Japan, the use of water- completed in AD 712. At any rate, the fishery was fowl in Lake Dojran in south-eastern Europe, as known in Japan before the Heian period, which well as the fishery with ducks known in one part of extends from the 9th to the 12th century. A record Indonesia as discussed in the following section, may from 1028 states that at Gifu the cormorant fisher- be more successful than the method using pelicans. men operated with 12 birds each – and that is how it is still done today. Europeans did not learn about 4.5 Cormorant fishing cormorant fishing until the 14th century, but since the beginning of the 17th century they have also Far more is known about fishing with cormorants caught and used cormorants for fishing purposes. (Figure 4.3), which by now are a serious competi- But for Europeans, its practice was more a sport, tor of inland water fishermen in Europe, than about like that of falconry.This has been particularly true fishing with any other bird. The Chinese knew and in Belgium, France and England. Here, similarly to practised this fishery with cormorants practically fishing with otters, fishing with cormorants has from time immemorial (de Thiersant 1872; Gudger remained a hobby and has not become a general 1926; Kahlke 1964). Probably the Hindus, Indo- method. For some time fishing with cormorants Chinese, Koreans and Japanese learnt this method became a royal sport like hawking. A ‘master of of fishing from them. For the Brahmins and all cormorants’ was a member of the English Royal Buddhists, the practice of fishing with cormorants, Courts of James I (1566–1626) and Charles I (1600–1649). Also Louis XIII of France (1610–1643) had, in about 1625, some tame cor- morants in Fontainebleau, which are said to have come from Flanders. This may be a hint that they came from China, because Jesuit priests from the Spanish Netherlands were sent as missionaries to that country. Cormorants used for fishing are not always of the same species. There are 26 species in the world. The Japanese use only four in their fishery, but principally the Chinese cormorants Phalacrocorax capillatus and Phalacrocorax carbo (sinensis). The latter is also the species most widely spread throughout Europe, and it was this species that was used here for fishing. Unlike the practice of other countries which also know of and use cormorants for fishing, the Chinese have domesticated their birds in the real sense. Whereas in other countries young cormorants have Figure 4.3 Before the cormorants are released for been caught and trained, the Chinese actually breed fishing they are securely tied. them from eggs. In west and south China the cor- DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 35

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morants that are held in captivity lay from three to ten eggs in a season and these are then hatched by hens because cormorants in captivity neglect their eggs. Captive Japanese cormorants very seldom lay eggs. They must therefore be caught as young birds and tamed and trained. In Japan, wild cormorants breed in the north of Hokkaido and on the Kuril islands. In winter (middle of October to the end of January) they migrate to central Japan. In the past, young cormorants were only captured in the Ise Bay on the Pacific coast of central Japan, but since 1922 cormorants have also been seen during winter on the Ibaraki Prefecture north of Tokyo, and have been caught there exclusively for fishing purposes since 1950.To catch them,the migrating cormorants are lured using living or stuffed birds to prepared Figure 4.4 The Japanese cormorant fisherman in his places and there caught with twigs coated with bird typical dress. In the foreground are the baskets in which lime. the cormorants are transported. Much effort and care is needed to satisfactorily tame and train cormorants. The birds are inspected fishing is allowed only during 3 months in winter; daily and nursed so that they get used to people. during the other 9 months the birds have to be fed For that purpose the fisherman, in the beginning, and this is a heavy burden on the fisherman, as each tends them every 2–3 h, talks to the birds, and rubs cormorant needs 800g of fish per day. them gently so that they become more and more As with many animals that live in a community, tame. Their beaks are filed so that they are unable the cormorants have a strict order of precedence. to hurt their masters and their wings are clipped. The birds must always sit in the same order on the This training takes 7–8 months. They are taught to edge of the boats, otherwise there is trouble. Only sit on the edge of the boat and to fish by order and sociable or mutually friendly birds can be placed also have to get used to their neck ring and line. together in a transport basket. These are baskets Cormorants can live many years in captivity and, which will carry two and sometimes four birds according to some reports, often attain 20–30 years (Figure 4.4). The Chinese operate in daylight some- of age. From the age of 3 to 8 years, however, they times with completely free-swimming birds. This are at their best for fishing, although it is expected can be a single cormorant only.The bird has, on the that they can be used for 10 years. A Japanese fish- right foot, a line 1m long. If the cormorant does not erman possessing 20–22 birds must reckon to lose return to the boat with its prey immediately after three every year so that each year several new birds diving, the fisherman can catch this line with a hook must be procured. on a long stick (Kahlke 1964). The principle of the cormorant fishery is that a In Japan, 10 to 12 cormorants are fastened to string is tied around the base of the neck before the lines and are directed by the fishermen in night bird is released for fishing. This permits it to fishing when the river is illuminated by torches or swallow only small fish. It is trained to deliver up to fire baskets to attract fish. However, fishing by day- its master larger fish which it cannot gulp down. It light with free-swimming cormorants from the bank is then rewarded with small fish. The birds can be or from the boat is also practised in Japan.The main taken to the river for fishing any day, but in bad centre of the Japanese cormorant fishery is on the weather caused by wind or snow, or when the water Nagara River, notably around Gifu and Inugama in is turbid, they cannot fish, but still have to be fed the Gifu Prefecture. This fishery is there only as an and watered. This also applies, of course, in the attraction for tourists, and the fishermen, who are period when fishing with cormorants is prohibited, members of certain long-established families, are as it is in Japan during certain periods. At Gifu, this paid for their work of attracting visitors. The is from 15 March to 10 May. On the Takatsu River cormorant fishermen wear an ancient traditional DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 36

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costume with a black pointed cap and a straw apron areas of fish within a short time, or at least to thor- (Figure 4.4). It is said (and readily believed) that the oughly frighten away all the fish in those waters. cormorants know exactly who their keepers are. Humans recognized this fact very early and have Usually several boats operate together in a certain sometimes used it for their own purposes, using formation.As the first boat takes the better catches, diving birds to drive fish into fishing gear erected to turns are taken in that position. Every year over trap them. The birds used in this way are not per- 100000 visitors, Japanese as well as foreigners, secuted as fish thieves but, on the contrary, are travel to the Gifu Prefecture to see the nocturnal greatly valued. spectacle of the cormorant fishery in the light of the In some areas of Finland and Sweden, the burning fire baskets. It is certainly an attractive and goosander, Mergus merganser, has been protected interesting sight. only because fish flee from them into artificial twig Fishing with cormorants has become too com- huts or shelters which are then encircled by fishing plicated and unprofitable in modern times to be gear (Sirelius 1934; Thienemann 1951). Thus the carried out by any large-scale fishing enterprise. diving birds indirectly help the fishermen to scare However, it still pays to catch high-priced fish such various species of freshwater fish into these artifi- as the ayus, Plecoglossus altivelis,a trout-like fish cial shelters from which they can be taken from famous for its annual anadromous migratory time to time. This method was apparently formerly behaviour, which is considered a delicacy when widely used, at least in some parts of Europe. smoked or cooked. The cormorants, of course, also In this connection, the fishery with birds on catch other less valuable fish. According to Japan- Dojran Lake (Apostolski & Matvejev 1955; ese experience, efficient cormorants are able to Meschkat 1957, Gliewe 1976), situated between catch up to 150 fish in an hour, and that catch rate Macedonia and Greece, is very interesting.As early easily explains why fishermen consider free-living as the 3rd century BC, Herodotus praised this cir- cormorants to be one of the greatest menaces to cular lake and its good fishery.The lake has a nearly their fisheries. uniform depth of 10m and is therefore all accessi- Interestingly cormorant fishing was known not ble to the diving birds that come from the north to only in east and south-east Asia, but also on the winter there. The fish flee before the birds and this other side of the Pacific Ocean. It was apparently is used by the fishermen, especially on the Mace- developed and practised in Peru where ancient donian beaches, to drive the fish together and con- vases show painted scenes in which fishermen on centrate them in traps. About 50% of all fishes, rush rafts have birds with string round their necks, primarily roach, carp, perch and bleak, are caught which suggests that they might have been trained on the Dojran Lake through the agency and help exactly like the cormorants (Krickeberg 1939; of birds. For this purpose, certain areas of the beach Wilbert 1955). are fenced with mats before the migrating birds It seems that today fishing with cormorants is arrive, so that only one entrance remains open operated in commercial fishing in continental towards the lake. The fenced area is kept free from China only. In Japan it has become purely a tourist birds by special watchmen so that the fish can attraction. Japanese, and visitors from overseas, like retreat further away from the birds, which are then to go out during the night with a pleasure boat to diving freely out on the lake. Meanwhile some of have a drinking party and to see the cormorants the birds are caught in special traps (Figures 4.5 and fishing in the light of the open fires which attract 4.6) and their wings are clipped. These birds, which the fish. are unable to fly, are called the ‘working birds’. Par- ticularly valued for this purpose are the mergansers 4.6 Driving fish with diving birds Mergellus albellus, Mergus merganser and Mergus serrator; and of other diving species, particularly the Tamed and trained cormorants are, or have been, crested grebe Podiceps cristatus; of the cormorants, useful for fishermen in the Far East, but in general Phalacrocorax carbo, and of the loons, Colymbus wild cormorants are detested by all fishermen. This arcticus and C. seellatus.These last, however, come is understandable because cormorants and other to the Dojran Lake only in very cold winters. Other diving birds are able to completely clear small lake birds, such as Arctic diving ducks and also bald DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 37

Figure 4.5 On the Dojran Lake in Yugoslavia, birds are lured into special traps shown, and then placed in a succession of chambers to drive the fish into other chambers where they can be caught. (Photo: B. Drnkov.)

Figure 4.6 Working birds trapped at the Dojran Lake. (See Figures 4.5 and 4.7). (From Apolstolski & Matvejev 1955 with permission.) DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 38

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coots, are used only as ‘emergency help’. Each the mats are used at other places. In this way the working group of birds is composed of various fish are driven progressively towards and into the species, the proper composition of which is essen- last chamber where all the remaining fish in tial for an efficient working team. Mergellus albel- the area are concentrated. From that last chamber lus is considered to be the most important working the fish are taken by means of a fyke-net-like bird. construction. After several weeks, when sufficient fish have When the winter fishery is over, spring fishing for gathered within the protective fence, the entrances spawning fish begins using the same method. When to these fishing areas are completely closed off by that fishery, too, is finished the working birds are set rush mats. Each area is then sub-divided into 20 or free. It is reckoned that about 30% of the birds will 30 chambers. Each chamber is separated from the have died before this time. The working birds next one by loose open mats through which the fish remain on the lake until their wings have grown can pass but not the birds. When the now-hungry again and they are once more able to leave their working birds are brought into an outer chamber involuntarily prolonged winter abode. they soon begin to dive after the fish, thus chasing There may be many more such tactics for catch- them from that chamber through the mat into ing fish with the help of birds in small-scale the next one. Only the fish that are too big to go fisheries. It is reported from Indonesia (South Kali- through the mats are then left. These fish – which mantan) that in fishing for snakehead, Ophio- cannot be swallowed by the birds – (in particular cephalus sp. – an air-breathing fish in tropical inland large carp) are then speared by the fishermen waters – ducks have been trained to chase their fry. (Figure 4.7). The loose mats are replaced by dense This causes the male and female snakeheads guard- ones and the working birds are brought into the ing the young fish to turn furiously on the duck subsequent chamber. Here the hunt for the fish which is then hauled aboard the canoe by a line at begins anew. The empty chamber is broken up and the end of a long bamboo pole attached to the boat.

Figure 4.7 The working birds are shown in this chamber, while fishermen with spears for catching the bigger fish can be seen in the background. (From Apolstolski & Matvejev 1955 with permission.) DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 39

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The fish follow the withdrawn bird, snapping in Columbus reported it as practised by the Indians in their rage at unbaited hooks, and are caught the Caribbean Sea (de Sola 1932) and Alexander (Pownall 1975). von Humboldt reported that this method was used Such fishing methods as those mentioned above in Cuba for catching turtles. Today this fishing tech- are based on a great knowledge of the behaviour nique is unknown in the Caribbean. It was formerly of fish and birds, and are a clear proof of how probably known also in Venezuela and Columbia much, even today, fishing methods are related (Wilbert 1955).The Chinese are said to have known first to biology and only second to engineering about fishing with sucker fish, as did the dark native technique. fishermen of Australia in the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea. On the east coast of 4.7 Sucker fish for catching turtles Africa, fishing with sucker fish was carried out from Zanzibar, Kenya and the Comoro Islands. In earlier This story about using animals to scare and capture times, sucker fish were also probably used for fish and other aquatic animals is not yet finished. catching crocodiles in the estuaries of the Strait A rather strange method involves the use of the of Mozambique. sucker fish or remora, Echeneis sp. These fish Remoras have been mentioned, too, as fish which belong to the perch family, in which the anterior can be caught by wrecked survivors drifting on a dorsal fin is transformed into an adhesive disc.With raft, when the fish try to fix themselves onto the that disc they attach themselves to large fish, raft. But it must be remembered that these fish for instance, pelagic sharks, tuna and swordfish, in would transfer immediately from the raft to a order to be transported by them. This phenomenon passing faster-moving fish or turtle (Robin 1977). occurs both in aquatic animals and also in some living in the air – such as insects which are towed 4.8 Fishing with octopus from place to place. Sucker fish are a well-known example of this phenomenon. They can attach Certainly there are many other occasions when themselves by suction, even to the bottom of ships, fishermen make use, directly or indirectly, of and it was believed in the ancient Mediterranean animals or their behaviour, although in a less that large specimens could even stop or hinder demonstrative manner than has so far been vessels. Mark Antony is said to have lost the battle described. Only one other strange fishing method of Actium (31 BC) when his vessel was stopped by has to be mentioned here, even though no fish are these fishes, and it is claimed that Caligula was cap- caught! It is related that Japanese fishermen used tured for the same reason on the voyage to Ostia. octopi as divers to collect porcelain from a wrecked This ability to adhere powerfully is used for catch- ship which had a cargo of valuable porcelain bowls. ing turtles and even sharks (Weule 1921; NN 1926; This was in the Inland Sea, between the islands of Hornell 1950). Honshu and Shikoku. For this purpose an octopus For this purpose, remoras are caught with hook was fastened to a line and lowered to the wreck. and line, fastened at the tail by a line, and set free Because of its wish to seize hold, and so escape, the from a boat when the sighted victim is near.The fas- octopus became attached by suction to the porce- tening is usually made by means of a rope bored lain in or near the wreck. When it was lifted out through the peduncle or by a ring through or of the water it brought with it the cups and vases around the tail to which a line is attached.When the to which it had sought to cling. During the sucker fish have fastened themselves, for instance, First World War the Cretans used tethered to a turtle, a sort of drill begins until the victim is octopi in the same manner to retrieve coal which hauled alongside the boat, or at least so near that had fallen overboard from warships (Lane 1960; it can be speared.The attaching power of the sucker Radcliffe 1969)! Nowadays, when fishermen in fish is considerable and the one mainly used, Ech- Japan and Korea are trolling for octopi (Figures eneis naucrates, which is c.60cm long, can easily 12.31 and 12.32), a hooked animal can be hauled up stand a pull of 9–10kg. with its hiding place, which can be an old teacup, It is most remarkable that fishing with sucker fish but unfortunately today it is usually made of has been known in so many parts of the world. plastic! DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 40

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sea if they became stranded or entangled in the nets 4.9 Using the friendly porpoise by accident (Bert 1886). Animals can often help indirectly to catch fish. Something similar can be read in the old Norwe- There is, for instance, the detection of fish by gian king’s book, Konungsskuggsja (Meissner observing the concentration of birds. Before the 1944), which reports that friendly relations existed invention of our modern fish-detecting devices, between the fishermen and the fish-hunting whales. this was the practical fisherman’s most important Such a whale, it is said, method of finding fish shoals. Even today the obser- ‘drives herring and other fish from the high sea vation of bird flocks is used for recognition and towards the land, and it has such an admirable identification when airplotting shoals (von Brandt nature that it knows how to steer men and ships and 1976; Sams 1971). drives herring and other fish towards them, as Not only birds but also porpoises are used to find though God has sent it and ordered it to do so and tuna, since it was discovered that shoals of these fish as though it be his duty as long as the fishermen are were very often accompanied by porpoises (Perrin fishing in a peaceful way. But when they are quar- 1968). It is an old story that porpoises and fisher- relling and thrashing until blood runs, it appears men are friends, especially in the Mediterranean. that the whale is feeling it and it swims then The Roman historian Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) between the land and the fish and drives them all stated that the fishermen of Gallia Narbonensis away from the fishermen to the high seas ...’. (the Mediterranean coast of southern France) caught mackerel driven into their nets by porpoises It was therefore forbidden to hunt that whale near to the shore. The Greek poet Oppianos (2nd during the herring season. A similar story is told by century AD) mentions with enthusiasm this uncon- the Indians in the Gulf of Mexico. In this case scious aid of porpoises for the fishermen of Euboea killer whales drive the fish to the beach (Lips in his didactic poem ‘Halieutica’ about fishing 1961). In Oceanic myths, tuna drive fish towards the (Oppian nd). It has been stated that porpoises were coast, and also in Tasmania similar stories are first used to drive fish into nets thousands of years told. ago in India (Hood 1971). Even today, sardine fish- More modern and realistic is fishing for mullet ermen like to see these animals near their boats with the help of dolphins, as carried out by the when they are fishing with lights and surrounding fishing tribe of Imraguan of the village of El gear. The porpoises are shy of light but, according Mahara on the Mauretanian coast. The fishermen to fishermen, they circle round in curiosity at a dis- beat the water to imitate the noise of jumping tance from the lamps and thus help to round up and mullet, which attracts the porpoises to catch them. concentrate the sardine shoals. When they are con- By this means the mullet are driven towards the centrated the fishermen surround the sardine shoal coast where they are caught in gillnets. Sometimes with their nets. killer whales, Orcinus orca, hamper the porpoises in The fishermen off the Turkish coast of the Black doing this valuable work which the fishermen need Sea believe that porpoises used to practise driving in order to have a successful catch of mullet. This is fish towards the coasts but, becoming frightened by nearly the same tactic as mentioned before from fishermen using dynamite on shoals near the sea Gallia Narbonensis and known to the early writers. shore, now stay out in the open sea. The result is The relationship between humans and dolphin that the fish schools no longer come to the coast. behaviour has been exploited for many centuries This is quite understandable as porpoises are very and it may be possible to develop and extend this sensitive to all kinds of noise. There is a story from kind of fishing co-operation with dolphins to the old fishery of Indo-China that their fishermen other species of migrating fish (Busnel 1973). This, learned that porpoises fed on mullet in the morning however, exceeds the theme of this chapter, which and evening. To escape their persecutors the mullet should really deal with animals used for helping in swam near to the coast at those times and there the fishing. Moreover, the hunting and fishing folk of fishermen were waiting to catch them with cast nets. past times had the imagination to believe that the At the same time, boys set to work frightening the animals which helped them were really the ghosts porpoises away and helped them to reach the open of humans hiding themselves in animal bodies.They DFC4 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 41

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guided the booty to huntsmen or fishermen, like the mariculture of the edible blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). minke whale did with the herring. Marine Fisheries Review 37 (10), 10–18. Kahlke, H.D. (1964) Die Kormoranfischerei in Lutschou. Natur und Museum 94, 131–138. References Krickeberg, W. (1939) Amerika. In: Die Grosse Völ- kerkunde III. (ed. H. A. Bernatzik), 18–367. Apostolski, K. & Matvejev, S. (1955) Fischfang in Umzäu- Lane, F.W. (1960) Kingdom of the Octopus. New York. nungen mit Hilfe von Vögeln am Dojran-See. Izdanija Lips, J.E. (1961) Vom Urspung der Dinge. Darmstadt. I (3). Medway, Lord (1978) The Wild Mammals of Malaya Bert, P. (1886) Pêches et pêcheries de l’Annam. La (Peninsular Malaysia) and Singapore. Kuala Lumpur. Nature. Meissner, R. (1944) Der Königsspiegel. Konungsskuggsjà. Boudarel, N. (1948) Les Richesses de la Mer. Paris. Halle/Saale. von Brandt, A. (1976) The use of new methods for locat- Meschkat, A. (1957) Fischtreiben mit Vögeln und andere ing fish over large areas. Applied Science and Develop- absonderliche Fischereimethoden auf dem Dojran-See ment 7, 112–124. in Jugoslavien. Fischwirt 7, 113–121. Burdon, T.W. (1951) A consideration of the classification NN (1926) La Pêche aux Colonies. Paris. of fishing gear and methods. Proceedings of the Indo- NN (1957) History of the fishery for cormorants. Tokyo [in Pacific Fisheries Council Sect. II/21, Madras. Japanese]. Busnel, R.-G. (1973) Symbolic relationship between man Olaus Magnus (1555) De Gentibus Septentrionalibus. and dolphins. Transactions of the New York Academy Rome. of Science 35 (2), 112–131. Oppian (nd) Halieutica. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard. De Sola, C.R. (1932) The fisherman fish of the West Perosino, S. (1963) La Pesca. Navara [in Italian]. Indies. Bulletin of the New York Zoological Society 35, Perrin, W.F. (1968) The porpoise and the tuna. Sea Front 75–85. 14 (3), 166–174. Doogue, R. (1974) Hook, Line and Sinker. Wellington. Pownall, P.(1975) Ducks help Danau Panggang fishermen Gliewe, S. (1976) Am Dojransee in Macedonien. Allge- to catch fish. Australian Fisheries 34 (2), 29. meine Fischerei-Zeitung (Fischwaid) 101 (7), 352– Radcliffe, W. (1921/1969) Fishing from the Earliest Times. 353. New York. Gudger, E.W. (1923) Dogs as fishermen. Natural History Robin, B. (1977) Survive à la Dérive. Paris. 23 (6), 559–568. Sams, M. (1971) Southeastern Pacific aircraft assisted Gudger, E.W. (1926) Fishing with the cormorant. I. In purse seining. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World, China. American Naturalist 60, 5–41. Vol. 3. London. Gudger, E.W. (1927) Fishing with the otter. American Sirelius, U.T. (1934) Jagd und Fischerei in Finnland. In: Naturalist 61, 193–225. Die Volkskultur Finnlands,Vol. 1. Berlin. Gudger, E.W.(1929) Fishing with the cormorant in Japan. Thienemann,A. (1951) Bilder aus der Binnenfischerei auf Science Monthly 29, 5–37. Java und Sumatra. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie Supple- Gudger, E.W.(1941) Canine fishermen.Accounts of some mentband 29, 529–618. dogs that went a-fishing. Natural History Magazine 47, de Thiersant, P.D. (1872) Le Pisciculture et la Pêche en 140–148. Chine. Paris. Gunda, B. (1974) Beziehungen zwischen den naturbe- Walton, I. (1950) The Compleat Angler. London. dingten Faktoren und der Fischerei in den Karpaten. Weule, K. (1921) Die Anfänge der Naturbeherrschung I. Acta Ethnographica Slovaca I, 111–121. Stuttgart. Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. Weyer, E. (1959) Primitive Völker heute. Gütersloh. London. Wilbert, J. (1955) Problematica de algunos métodos da Hood, D.W. (ed.) (1971) Impingement of Man on the pesca de los indios sudamerica as. Memorias de la Oceans. New York. Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales de Salle 15, 41, Caracas Hornell, J.S. (1950) Fishing in many waters. Cambridge. [in Spanish]. Hurlburt, C.G. & Hurlburt, S.W. (1975) Blue gold, Zeuner, F. (1967) Geschichte der Haustiere. Munich. DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 42

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The fisherman who collects from the beach or the native fishermen of Australia, who threw shallow water can secure only sedentary, stranded, boomerang-like wooden projectiles at fish. If the or slowly moving organisms, and active living fish fisherman was lucky enough to hit it, the fish was will seldom be caught. The collecting activity of the stunned and could be caught by hand (Weule 1911). diver is scarcely different, and fish caught in this It must be remembered that most boomerangs used way represent only a small percentage of the catch. as missiles by native Australians in war and hunting To prevent the escape of fish – which is possible do not return to the thrower. The famous returning even in small pools – humans have developed boomerang of Australia was mostly a plaything. It methods to paralyse or to stun and stupefy the fish was seldom used for hunting except for spinning and thus ensure their capture. above flocks of ducks which mistake the gear for a hawk and are driven down into nets strung from 5.1 Simple forms of trees. Boomerangs or other thrown wooden mis- mechanical stupefying siles for hunting were also known in Europe, India, ancient Egypt and Central America. The simplest method of stupefying small game from Another simple method, widespread in some a distance is by throwing a stone, provided the game areas that have cold winters, is mechanical stupefy- is hit! Stones are considered as the first long-range ing. Burbot and pike can be found spawning just weapon of prehistoric man and they are used, even beneath the ice in shallow water during the early in modern times, in fisheries. The result may be that spring. The fish can be seen through the ice if it is the game is stupefied, or that it is injured, hamper- transparent, but any attempt to make a hole in the ing its escape, or even that it is killed. A similar ice and capture the fish would be useless because, result can be reached by striking the prey with a despite their stupor resulting from the low water short stick, a club, the blunt side of an axe or even temperature, they would escape immediately. In the a quick kick. Seals are stupefied by a blow from a fisheries of north-east Europe as well as in North hard wooden club followed by stabbing through America, however, it was discovered that the fish the heart with a sharp knife, which is considered could be temporarily stunned or narcotized, and a rapid, highly efficient and humane method of thus prevented from escaping, by beating heavily killing. Fish in the water are more or less protected on the ice over them with clubs or mallets. Wooden by this element against the efficiency of a blow and hammers were used for this purpose even in may not be killed but stunned only. As the blow is the 1970s by non-professionals (Znamierowska- made mechanically it is named ‘mechanical narco- Prüfferowa 1976). To do this successfully, however, sis’. Fishing by means of throwing stones can be the ice must not be too thick, should already be observed all over the world. Children especially slightly brittle and the fish should be located just throw stones at fish in an effort to stun or stupefy below where the ice is struck (Rostlund 1952). The them. The same result can be achieved by throwing vibrations from by the blows on the ice cause tem- clubs or other pieces of wood like those used by porary stupefaction of the fish, which lasts long

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enough for the fish to be retrieved from below the ice. Sometimes, two people fish together; one looks for the fish, to beat the ice above them with a wooden club or hammer, and the other makes the holes with an ice-axe and catches the stunned fish by hand or with a scoopnet. This can also be done during the night using lights. Sometimes fish are also caught by children from under the first ice of autumn. As children are light, they can move over thin ice by crawling. The ice breaks with the first strike made to stupefy the fish, which then has to be captured very quickly by hand without the catcher falling into the water(Ligers 1953).This ice- beating method of stupefying the fish was men- tioned by Olaus Magnus (1555). The technique is not only known in northern countries but also in the area of the Danube (Gunda 1974). An equiva- Figure 5.1 Home-made dynamite bomb for fishing off lent method of mechanical stupefying was known the Turkish Black Sea coast (1963). in the ancient Chinese fishery in which one knocked with a hammer on the stones in a river to stupefy fish which might be hiding beneath them (de Thier- years to life. If the use of explosives results in the sant 1872). This method of catching is also known loss of human lives, the penalty can even be death. in southern Asia. In Nepal, ‘rock striking’ with a This prohibition is because the method is very dan- hammer is considered a very harmful practice, like gerous and because young fish and fish fry are also poisoning and dynamiting (Shrestha 1981). destroyed by the explosion. Also, many useable fish sink to the bottom because their air-bladders are 5.2 Stupefying with dynamite destroyed, so they are lost unless collected from the bottom by divers. We know now that fish stupefied Fishing by mechanical narcosis has also been devel- for a short time only by explosion can swim away oped in modern forms. When shooting at fish with apparently undamaged only to die some days later rifles and shotguns the intent is not so much to hit as a result of internal injuries (Meyer-Waarden the fish as to put a charge of bullet or shot just 1966). Off the Black Sea coast, Turkish fishermen before its head so that the concussion caused in the made dynamite bombs by pressing the dangerous water temporarily stuns or stupefies the fish. To aid material together, with a fuse, in the form of a great shooting salmon in this way, for instance, a special egg (Figure 5.1), which is held together by paper small dam is often built so that the fish must come and twine. The fisherman with the bomb takes his to the surface to leap over it. Before it leaps, a shot place in the bow of a boat which is rowed very can be fired into the water near it and the stunned slowly and quietly. As soon as a good school of fish fish is then either caught by scoopnet or retrieved is discovered, the fuse must be ignited from a ciga- by dogs. Mechanical narcosis in fisheries is often rette constantly smoked by this fisherman. The produced by using explosives. Explosives are bomb must then be thrown immediately to prevent thought to have been used for fishing as early as c. accidents occurring – lost fingers on the right hand 1600! Fishing with dynamite is known all over the are typical defects of dynamite fishermen! Fishing world and it is usually prohibited, unfortunately with hand grenades as practised during both World very often without success. Today fishermen can Wars was particularly damaging. The hand grenade often obtain dynamite without difficulty, sometimes was actually called the ‘soldier’s fish hook’. When a in exchange for fish, from people working in mines, hand grenade was exploded in an experiment, a quarries or in road-making, although some coun- diver brought up from the depths ten times more tries impose severe punishments for its use. In the fish than was gathered on the surface (Cousteau Philippines, the penalty is imprisonment from 20 1953). Fishing by dynamite in Greece became DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 44

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rather notorious, but now it has also been prohib- are thereby narcotized, or at least so affected that ited there for the reasons mentioned. Sharks, they rise to the water surface for air and can be cap- however, are attracted by such explosions since tured easily. This fishery, however, must take place they have learnt that the acoustic stimulant means in small areas of stagnant or slow-running water. that they can easily get fish for themselves. Fish poisoning is generally used in small bodies of Dynamite explosions are therefore now used in water, up to about 500 ha, or in the bays and arms some places to attract sharks. In small quantities, of larger lakes (Ricker 1968). Pools too large to be however, dynamite can be useful for frightening bailed out can be treated with poison. In running fish. Purse seiners in California used small bombs water, barriers are installed downstream from to frighten the fish away from the opening of the where the poison is to be used to catch the more or net before the gear is completely pursed and closed. less floating, helpless fish.To make this fishery more These bombs are called ‘cherry bombs’ according profitable, the fish are driven together in certain to their original form. In the Philippines, where sections of a brook or lake before the poison is fishing with large dipnets called ‘basnig’ is prac- applied. To catch larger fish in deeper waters, poi- tised, a small explosive charge was used to stun the soned mixtures are put into the bellies of bait fish, encircled fish and so prevent their escape when a method known in many tropical fisheries. The the net is lifted. This too, however, is now illegal, stomach of a dead squid, for example, is filled with although it is well known that the use of dynamite a mixture of poison and the flesh of small fish may possibly determine whether any particular (Burdon 1954). As soon as the larger fish have operation is a success or not. taken this bait, the poisoning effect makes them rise to the surface. Using poisonous bait, or if divers 5.3 Fish poisoning take poisonous substances down with them, as is done in Samoa, enables this type of fishing to be The mechanically achieved narcosis of fish is, carried out in the deeper waters of the sea. Fish poi- however, far less important than that produced soning with ichthyotoxic plants provides perhaps chemically by fish poisoning. For this purpose, poi- one of the most interesting chapters in the story of sonous material from so-called ichthyotoxic plants native fisheries. Plants containing saponin and is crushed, cut to pieces, or pulverized and sprinkled those containing certain lactones are especially on the water or added to bait (Figure 5.2). The fish used in this method. These are very strong proto- plasma poisons which have a stupefying effect on the peripheral, sensory and motor nerves and muscles of the fish caught.As fish suffer from cramp and suffocation because of the breakdown of the red blood cells, it is a very cruel method of fish catching. It is therefore understandable that in many countries this, as well as fish poisoning in general, is prohibited or is only permitted under certain conditions. It is difficult to explain how these ichthyotoxic plants with their specific poisonous effect on fish were first discovered. Probably their properties were found by chance, perhaps during washing, because many plants containing saponin were used for that purpose. As the primitive races, of course, could not comprehend the connection, it is readily understood how native ‘magicians’ effectively used poisons in their exercise of fishery ‘magic’. It was their knowledge of poisonous plants which gave the Figure 5.2 Aborigines of the Xingu area fishing with magicians or medicine men the power to influence ichthyotoxic plants. (Photo: E.J. Fittkau.) their tribesmen and appear to dominate the fish. DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 45

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Various stories exist about how fish poisoning was invented. A very nice one has been told by the Indians in Guyana (Kunicke 1912).A long time ago a father was going out with his little son to bathe. The father was astonished to see that the fish always died when the boy was swimming in the water. It was easy to collect the fish and they were found good to eat. Therefore the father practised this method of fish catching. But the fish decided to prevent the future death of members of their fam- ilies, so one day when the boy was sitting on a wooden block before jumping in the water, some sting-rays came and jumped together out of the water against the boy,wounding him with their hard spines. These wounds were very dangerous and the Figure 5.3 ‘Fish-seeds’ and ‘crow’s eyes’ for fish father was naturally anxious to carry home his poisoning. dying son. As he did so the lad’s blood dropped on the ground and each spot became an ichthyotoxic plant (Loncho carpus).That plant has been used by been known in Europe for centuries and their use the Indians for fish poisoning in rivers ever since was prescribed for fishing in Brunswick in 1528. that time. Fishing with poison is particularly preva- Fish are said to recover from this narcosis when lent in tropical areas such as Asia and South brought into fresh water and, to assist that recov- America, but it is also used in the temperate zones ery and to provide good quality fish, it is reported of Asia, Europe and North America. It has been a from Bosnia that liquors were poured into the fish’s matter of discussion whether the absence or disap- mouth (Brühl 1913). Sports fishermen also note pearance of some fishing methods from the fishery that when pike fishing it is very important that the of the Indian tribes of North America could pos- bait is lively, even if it has to be enlivened occa- sibly be traced to their having discovered the sionally by a nip of brandy (Trench 1974). So it is substantially more successful and easier method to be feared that this striving for the attainment of of using poison (Rostlund 1952). The number of high quality was only an excuse for the fisherman ichthyotoxic plants useful for fishing seems to be to provide himself with the spirits he himself quite considerable (Umali 1957). The stupefying needed or desired! chemicals can be concentrated in the stems, roots, The so-called ‘crow’s eyes’ or nux vomica is leaves, seeds or berries of these plants.A list of such another fish poison that is equally well known in names would, in fact, run into many hundreds – European fishing practice. These are the flat seeds maybe even thousands. Only a few of them have of a shrub growing in Indo-China and Australia. It become widespread and some have even been is called Strychnos nux vomica and is sometimes introduced into European fisheries (Figure 5.3). even cultivated in order to produce the alkaloid Among these plants are kokkelseed. These are also brucinum and strychnine. The seeds contain up to called ‘fish seeds’ or ‘lice seeds’, and in the boiled 5% of alkaloid, of which a little less than half is form the liquid is used for exterminating vermin. strychnine. Finally, there is rotenone, a very impor- Kokkelseeds are the fruit of Anamirta cocolus,a tant fish poison also known in Europe. Many plants creeping shrub with cork-like bark which grows in contain this poison and are used in fishing, includ- Indo-China and Sri Lanka.The seeds contain picro- ing the native fisheries of South America as well as toxin, of which small doses cause narcosis. Black those of southern Asia. In Malaysia it is especially Sea fishermen roasted the seeds before crushing the root of tuba or derris that is used. Derris is a them, the powder was carefully mixed with dough, name applied to several tropical twining plants of from which small pellets were made and thrown the great family Leguminosae from southern Asia, into the water where the fish were expected. This particularly those found in India – Derris elliptica bait quickly stupefied the fish. The seeds have also (Beuth), D. uliginosa (Beuth) and D. lagensis DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 46

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(Prein) (Holttum 1973). Derris elliptica is used of 1 kg per 100 m3 sufficient to kill or facilitate the especially to extract rotenone which is also known removal of all fish from a particular water. Besides as a valuable insecticide. The roots of these plants those plant poisons originating from tropical zones, contain up to 10% of rotenone, the greatest amount there are quite a number of indigenous plants in being found in the bark of the root (Plomann 1958). Europe that have also been used for fishing, Derris roots are called ‘akar tuba’ in Malay, there- although these are fewer than the thousands of fore it is also known as tuba root. Rotenone has ichthyotoxic plants found in the tropics. There are been used for fishing in south-east Asia from time lists in both old and modern literature of the plants immemorial as a fish poison for individual fishing, used for fish poisoning in Europe, but very often even when now forbidden – and also for festive many dubious names are included, and also plants occasions. (For the festival of ‘Fish Drive’ in attracting fish are mixed with ichthyotoxic ones. Pahang, a state on the east coast of Malaysia, ‘tons The best-known ichthyotoxic plants in Europe are of tuba roots are crushed and pounded for a juice the following: that intoxicates the fish, causing them to zigzag merrily to the surface …’.) Rotenone, like other 1. Yews (Taxaceae) ichthyotoxic materials, is not only used for catching Common yew (Taxus baccata) fish but also for the eradication of unwanted 2. Spurges (Euphorbiaceae) species, e.g. the piranhas, Serrasalmus sp. in Brazil Spurge (Euphorbia esula) (Welcomme 1979), and unwanted fishes in pond 3. Daphne plants (Thymelaeaceae) fisheries. Fish are extremely sensitive to rotenone Common daphne (Daphne mezereum) poison, so a very small amount is enough to stupefy 4. Primroses (Primulaceae) them. Bundles of derris roots can be bought either Cyclamen (Cyclamen europaeum) fresh or dried in the south Asian markets. For 5. Borage (Borraginaceae) fishing purposes the roots are crushed and pulver- Ox tongue (Anchusa officinalis) ized in water, and exude a milky juice. This juice is 6. Shade (Solanaceae) also used by Chinese gardeners as an insecticide on Thorn apple (Datura stramonium) plants. Dried roots must be soaked first. In Guyana, Tobacco (Nicotina tabacum) the bundles of roots are pounded with a stick or Common henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) stone in water, producing a thick milky juice. The 7. Scrophularia (Scrophulariaceae) roots are wrung out in the water until all the juice Mullein (Verbascum nigrum) has been extracted.The milky emulsion is then scat- Mullein (Verbascum undulatum) tered over the water. In 1–2 h, when the fish are swimming violently about near the surface, they can This list is far from being complete even for be caught by hand, with spears or with scoop nets. Europe. There are some ichthyotoxic plants more In some places in south Asia derris is cultivated for especially in south-eastern Europe (Gunda 1967; the production of rotenone. This is done in open Diaconescu 1976). Some of these plants, such as ground and the derris is not allowed to grow into yew, daphne, cyclamen, thorn apple and henbane, large plants. In the forest, related species of these are also dangerous to humans. The effect of yew as plants grow into enormous lianes (Holttum 1973). a fish poison is disputed: in place of it, juniper and Nowadays rotenone can be produced synthetically. arborvitae, or the etheric oils contained in their As it is a poison specifically affecting fish, and is leaves, are mentioned as being preferable for their relatively harmless to men and warm-blooded poisoning effect on fish. Irish salmon fishermen animals, it has become important in modern fishery used the crushed roots of the Irish spurge (E. practice as it can be used when it becomes neces- hiberna). These roots were dug up, allowed to decay sary to remove bad fish stocks or those of minor and then crushed. The mass was then put into bags quality from certain waters or areas. Rotenone, as and trodden into the water of the river in which it well as other poisons, can be used in circumstances was desired to kill salmon (Went 1964). For daphne, where fishes have to be harvested very quickly, e.g. the poison is produced by boiling the blossoms. when a stretch of water dries up (Au Lai-Shing According to tradition, daphne was used in China 1970). Rotenone is highly efficient, with a dilution for fishing as long ago as 2200 BC.The sap of cycla- DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 47

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men tubers is also used in poison fishing. This was Aleutian Islands, hunters planted poisoned spears known to the Romans – and their descendants are in the whales and returned to the shore. In 2 or 3 still aware of it. The leaves and roots of ox tongue days the infected whale died and was washed can also be used, and it has been said that fish- ashore where it was claimed by the owner of the thieves rubbed their feet with the leaves of this spearhead, on which he had cut his mark.The points plant before wading into the forbidden water of arrows were also poisoned by these people using (Boeck 1972). From Solanaceae plants particularly, roots of aconite, Aconitum sp., a member of the the seeds are used for fish poisoning. In Romania, family Ranunculaceae. For this purpose the roots the seeds of thorn apples were removed and mixed were dried and pounded or grated, water poured with the bile of pigs.This concoction was mixed into upon them and then kept in a warm place until small balls of maize meal and then thrown into the fermented. The German traveller G.W. Steller water (Diaconescu 1976). The poison from daphne, (1709–1747) wrote the first report about whaling and also mullein, is obtained by boiling the blos- with poisoned arrows from the Kuril Islands but his soms. The poisoning effect of mullein blossoms work was not published until 1774. Poison whaling (which contain saponin) was known to the Greeks, was carried out, as far as is known, not only on the who learned it from the Phoenicians. Old fishery coasts of the Aleutian Islands and Kuril Islands, books give many formulae for the use of various but also on the Kodiak Islands and the coasts of poisonous plants in fishing. The object was always Kamchatka and off Hokkaido in northern Japan. to stupefy the fish in such a way that they rose to Another special form of working with poisoned the surface and could be easily captured by hand. wounding gear is the infection of whales with a As in hunting, poisons of animal origin, as distinct lethal bacteria. The Norwegians have known this from those made from plants, are rarely used method for at least 500 years in whaling practices. for fishing. Occasionally gallic acid from various In one isolated district, shooting whales with poi- animals such as sheep, cows, or carp is employed, soned – or better, infected – bolts was used until the e.g. in Egypt or, as mentioned before, in Romania. 1890s (Rausing 1967). For this purpose the fjord The effect is similar to that of saponin as it destroys with a whale in it was closed by netting and the the blood cells, affects the muscles and deadens animal was infected using arrows contaminated the circulation and nervous system. In some cases, with bacteria from swine suffering from anthrax. water in which black trepang has been boiled is The whale became sick after 1 or 1.5 days, rose very used for fish poisoning. Ryukyuan fishermen poison often and could be killed easily (Brinkmann 1964). fish by throwing trepang pieces into the sea, and it Fishermen remembered this method during World has been claimed that then a large number of fish War II, when whales could not be killed by shoot- rise to the surface. This method has been well ing with rifles or other guns, and only crossbows known in the fisheries of the Indian and Pacific were available to them. Oceans since olden times. In small ponds it seems to be sufficient to hang such animals in the water 5.4 Fishing with industrial chemicals or to use fluid squeezed from the intestines, or the secretion of the skin. In many countries fish poi- Spreading industrial chemicals on the water is soning has been forbidden for a long time. In another way of catching fish. By this means the fish Germany the use of the fruits of yew and daphne are not only stupefied but can also suffer irre- for fish poisoning has been forbidden since 1912. versible damage. The so-called lime fishery is one Nowadays, more effective chemicals have replaced of these methods of affecting fish by caustic sub- the ichthyotoxic plants. Nevertheless, in tropical stances. For this purpose quicklime, i.e. dry lime areas fish poisoning may remain a very useful and before it is slaked with water, is thrown into the simple method of catching fish, especially if the water. As it slakes, the gills of the fish are cauter- poison is used carefully and economically.A special ized and they rise to the surface. In a dictionary for method of fishing must be mentioned here, and that hunting and fishing, published in 1772, the follow- is fishing with poisoned wounding gear (Chapter 6). ing direction for using lime is mentioned (NN Especially in whaling, poisoned heads of spears 1772): ‘Two people drag a sack of lime to and fro in or arrows have been used in some areas. On the the water, thus all fish become blind, and rise to the DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 48

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surface so that they can be caught by hand.’ This Many African people undertake collective fishing method, too, is prohibited in most countries. In by partially suffocating the fish by muddying up the Egypt lime is used to remove predatory fish such as water of small pools. This principle of suffocating eel and catfish from fish ponds. After the ponds the fish by stirring up the mud may underpin many have been drained, the eels and catfish dig into the of the big communal fish drives, so much a feature soft mud to c.1m deep. Burnt lime, c.1 ton/ha, is of primitive tribal custom, especially in tropical then spread over the mud. The predatory fish begin countries. This method is also known in temperate to appear on the surface of the mud within 24h and zones. Stupefying the fishes by deoxygenation has can be collected.Another method of using unslaked been reported from some areas of Hungary with lime for fishing is to use it to create an explosion. small shallow waters full of plants and rich in fishes, In this case a bottle is filled with quicklime and where fishing with usual fishing gear is not possible. submerged. As water enters the bottle the lime is Farmers with their whole family stir up the mud by slaked and the bottle explodes. The fish are stupe- trampling around in the water. Here as elsewhere fied in a mechanical manner, but they are also muddying is also often produced by driving a herd damaged by the caustic chemical. A similar effect of cattle or horses to and fro in the pool (MacLaren can be caused using carbide. Copper vitriol is 1958; Hickling 1961; Gunda 1974). During the another chemical used for killing fish in water, but hauling of purse seines for large tuna, some fisher- it is mostly used to frighten animals such as octopi men jump into the water inside the closed gear full out of their holes. For this, divers put a cloth bag of large fish to catch them by hand.This is only pos- containing copper sulphate crystals into a cave sus- sible because the fish, being pressed together in the pected of harbouring an octopus. The dissolving gear, are nearly half dead from lack of oxygen. chemical contaminates the water, forcing the crea- ture to come out into the open where it can be 5.6 Electrical fishing caught. Also, mussels burrowing in tidal areas can be brought out with the help of this chemical. In addition to stupefying fish by mechanical and Sodium hypochlorite, bleach, is also used for scat- chemical means, it is also possible to narcotize them tering in the hiding places of some water animals. with electricity. This is done by one of the most Nowadays so-called ‘chemicals for collectors’ are modern fishing methods – electrical fishing. In prin- offered with different trade names for harvesting ciple its aim is the same as the mechanical and ‘ichthyological specimens’ during scientific expedi- chemical methods just described; otherwise unob- tions. The chemical is spread in different concen- tainable fish are narcotized so that they cannot trations over the water surface, or by divers, in the escape, and can thus be easily caught. That some likely hiding places of fish. The chemicals are said fishes have the ability to produce electrical current to be of rapid stupefying power without toxic has already been reported by writers of some 1000 hazards to collectors, divers, or people who may eat years ago. It was known that some rays such as the fish gained by this method. Torpedo sp. produce an electrical current for their partial orientation, to locate their prey, and to 5.5 Deoxygenation or suffocation stupefy or even kill it. Although the practical use of electrical fishing methods began after World War I, Finally, another ‘chemical’ method has to be men- it was not before the end of World War II that tioned. It is well known that after a violent storm research work enabled humans to imitate the tech- has caused deoxygenation through the stirring up nique of the electric ray to use electricity for fishing. of the bottom mud, fish die in great numbers. This Scientists interested in physiological problems principle is known in many parts of the world – studied the reaction of aquatic animals to direct and even when the reason for this effect is not under- alternating currents and, since 1912, also to the so- stood. The Indians in Guyana trample the mud to called interrupted current discovered by the stir it up until the fish are suffocated and can be Frenchman Leduc in 1900. In the meantime, it was caught easily. Australian aborigines muddy the found from the accidental breaking of an electrical water in the same way with their feet and then club cable which fell into a river, that fish could be or spear the half-stupefied fish (Roughly 1968). caught very easily after stupefying by electricity. DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 49

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The result was that people, with or without permis- ful. The fish to be caught, its type, its physiological sion, tried to catch fish with the help of electrical condition, and its position in the electrical field also current.A report from Romania (Diaconescu 1976) influence the success of the operation. Direct gives an impression of how this has been done there current is used for this type of fishing, i.e. in the and elsewhere. ‘An electrical cable transmitted the form of interrupted direct current as the so-called electricity to a river, where it was turned around the impulse current has a greater physiological effect. shaft of a hay fork, touching the iron parts. In some It was seen very soon by practical fishermen that villages a stick with a breadbasket made of wire fas- the direct current interrupted by switching off and tened on one end is used like a scoop net for catch- on had a greater effect than the uninterrupted ing the stupefied fish.’ This was of course a very current, but it was not before 1948 that impulse gear dangerous form of electrical fishing used before the was introduced in practical fishery by C. Kreutzer. first transportable generators or powerful batteries Direct current has a really narcotizing effect, were introduced as sources of energy. Originally, whereas alternating current produces only cramps practical fishing with electricity was applied only in the muscles, possibly with the fish retaining full to fresh water. Its development required not only consciousness (Vibert 1967; Halsband & Meyer- co-operation between fishermen and electrical Waarden 1975; Menzebach 1979). Four stages can engineers, but also the aid of physicians and neu- be distinguished in the effect which direct current rologists. Nevertheless till now many questions has on fish. When the fish enters the electrical field, have remained unanswered. The basic principle is it feels the first stage of agitation. In the marginal that an electric field develops when both the anode zones of the field, this may have a frightening effect (+) and the cathode (–) of an electrical system are and thus allow the fish to escape. The second stage put into the water.As soon as a fish enters that field, is ‘galvanotaxis’ when the fish reacts anodically; i.e. two things may occur. If the conductivity of the it swims towards the anode. This is a great advan- water is low the current will use the fish as a better tage because the fish is guided to the desired place. conductor and flow to a great extent through it: if When the fish approaches the anode, the third the conductivity of the water is much better than stage, narcosis, occurs (‘galvanonarcosis’). The fish that of the fish, the current will then flow around begins to sink and has to be caught quickly. The the fish. In the first case the current has a stupefy- anode is therefore usually designed to be attached ing effect on the fish, but not in the second case to a scoop net (Figure 5.5). Finally, the fourth stage (Figure 5.4). This also explains how it is that varying occurs when the power used reaches the killing results are frequently obtained from electrical threshold. With alternating current the first stage is fishing and that difficulties must occur in sea water also convulsion only. In the second stage, the so- which has a high conductivity.This conductivity also called ‘oscillotaxis’, the fish is turned vertically to depends on the temperature. A low temperature the electrical field, and does not react anodically. In increases the conductivity so that electrical fishing the third stage the fish will be stupefied (‘elec- may not be successful in certain waters during tronarcosis’) and may be killed. If the current is summer but would be so in winter or in unexpected switched off at the right time, some fish are not cool seasons when other methods are not success- killed but remain narcotized for some minutes before they recover and can swim away. The reac- tion of the fish in the pulse current is similar to that for the interrupted direct current. The fish reacts anodically, but the physiological effect is much higher. It also becomes possible to catch fish under unfavourable conditions such as in waters with higher conductivity. Hitherto electrical fishery as a fishing method has been carried out mainly in fresh Figure 5.4 How electrical current introduced into water water from the banks or from a boat. Figure 5.6 affects fish: (a) in water with low conductivity the current shows examples of electrical fishing in small fresh flows through the fish; (b) in water with good conductiv- waters. In each case a scoop net is an integral part ity the current flows round the fish. of the anode. The cathode can be stationary or DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 50

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Figure 5.5 Team of men operating electrical fishing in fresh water. The fish are forced to congregate round the anode beneath which a scoop-like net is suspended for lifting them out of the water. (From Meyer-Waarden 1957 with permission.)

towed netting made of wire, or a sheet of metal, or netting with wires placed inside. Figure 5.6a shows a fishery from the shore, where the aggregate is set on shore. Electrical fishing with a boat is much more flexible (Figure 5.6b). The electrodes can be placed like those shown in the figure, or the anode Figure 5.6 Different types of electrical fishing in fresh is guided by hand and the cathode is towed at a dis- water: (a) from the shore; (b) by boat; (c) driving with tance of two or three metres behind the boat. A electrified netting. special form of shore fishery is shown in Figure 5.6c, where the fish are frightened into a scoop net or trast to all other fishing methods does not disturb, another gear is set on the end of the section to be drive or press the prey. It cannot be denied, fished. Electrical fishing is often the only possible however, that there are sometimes unexpected method of fishing waters that are otherwise inac- difficulties with electrical fishing. Therefore some cessible because of many obstacles and underwater experience is needed to understand why, in some growth. It is a method that is useful for controlling cases, the method cannot work or in others why and ascertaining the extent of stocks of fish. success at the beginning of an operation later Through it, fish regarded as vermin, as too old or diminishes. Unfortunately, these difficulties have sick, or of poor type, can easily be removed. Spawn- increased in some countries owing to the amount of ing fish can also be carefully procured and the pollution in fresh water. Pollution influences the fingerlings easily caught. In an emergency a fish physiological behaviour of the fish in a manner population can quickly be saved or damage can be disadvantageous for electrical fishing. With direct controlled immediately by the use of electricity. At current, the typical anodical effect can sometimes present it is perhaps the only fishing method used be lost owing to the influence of pollution. This in fresh water fisheries that permits the genuine means that the fish no longer swims under the influ- management of a fish stock – at least in cases where ence of electrotaxis in the direction of the anode it can be correctly applied. Electrical fishing in con- (e.g. a scoop net), but remains at a distance. Never- DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 51

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theless, with the pulse current, the reaction of the fish in polluted water has proved to be nearly References normal (Halsband 1977). Au Lai-Shing (1970) The long-line fisheries of Hong Kong. Part 1: Golden-thread long-lining. Fisheries Bul- letin 1, 5–18. Hong Kong. Boeck, J.A. (1972) Die Nasse Weyd.Vienna. 5.7 Electrified gear in sea fisheries Brinkmann, A. (1964) Hansen’s basill og Nielsen’s basill to Bergenske opptagelser. Naturen 88, 375–288 [in The use of electrical fishing as discussed in the last Norwegian]. section becomes difficult in the open water of fresh Brühl (1913) Der Fischfang mit Giften am Kongo. Der Fischerbote V, 100–102. water lakes and in the sea. Here electrical fishing Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. in the pure sense is not possible for the reasons Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 mentioned before. But in sea fisheries electricity (2), 5–76. can often be combined with more usual fishing gear Cousteau,Y. (1953) Die schweigende Welt. Berlin. to improve its efficiency as well as its selectivity. Diaconescu, I. (1976) Geräte und Methoden der volkstümlich-bäuerlichen Fischerei im Südwesten This has been done with success with harpoons, Rumäniens. In: Studien zur Europäischen Tradi- stow nets, trawls (including beamtrawls), seine nets, tionellen Fischerei (ed. E. Solymos). Bajai Dolgozatok and fish pumps as will be discussed in later chap- 3, 73–87. ters. When, in sea fisheries, towed gear is combined Gunda, B. (1967) Fish poisoning in the Carpathian area with electricity the aim is to prevent the fish escap- and in the Balkan peninsula. In: The Kroeber Anthro- pological Society Papers. Special Publication No. 1. ing from the opening of the gear and being lost and Gunda, B. (1974) Beziehungen zwischen den naturbed- to improve the selectivity of the gear. During ingten Faktoren und der Fischerei in den Karpaten. the 1970s the research activities of some west Acta Ethnographica Slovaca I, 111–121. European fisheries research institutes concentrated Haasteren, L.M. (1977) Elektrisch vissen in Nederland. Visserij 30(2), 63–74 [in Dutch]. on electrified beamtrawls. The high prize of the Halsband, E., Halsband, I. & Meyer-Waarden, P.F. (1975) target fish (sole) justified the research in this field. Einführung in die Elektrofischerei. In: Schriften der Successful scientific investigations were performed Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei,Vol. 7. Berlin. (Horn 1976, 1982, 1985) but the introduction of the Halsband, E. (1977) Die stoffwechsel- und nervenphysi- gear into the commercial fishery failed. When envi- ologischen Gesetzmäßigkeiten der Elektrofischerei in mit ‘Abwassergiften’ belasteten Gewässern und deren ronmental aspects became predominant in fishing Anwendung für die Praxis der Elektrofischerei. Fis- gear research in the 1990s, research with electrified chwirt 27 (4), 20–22. beamtrawls was started again by the Rijksinstituut Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Island Fisheries. London. voor Visserijonderzoek, Ijmuiden (Netherlands) Holttum, R.E. (1973) Plant Life in Malaya. London. but by 2002 no results had been published. When Horn,W.(1976) Rationalisation of sole fisheries by means of electrified beam trawls. In: ICES C. M., B7, Report harpoons or hooks are electrified, the aim is to kill of the Working Group on Research on Engeneering the prey to prevent struggling and fighting by which Aspects of Fishing Gear, Vessels and Equipment. lines can be broken and the quality and appearance Horn, W. (1982) Fortschritte bei der Electrifizierung von of the fish can be reduced. Electricity can often be Baumkurren für den Plattfischfang. Fischerblatt 30 helpful for stunning or shocking fish already caught (12), 309–311. Horn, W. (1985) Fortsetzung der Versuche mit elektri- by other gear. In sea fisheries, electricity can also fizierten Baumkurren. Fischerblatt 33 (2), 40. be used in stirring up shrimps or fish with the Kunicke, H. (1912) Der Fisch als Fruchtbarkeitssymbol help of an electrical field. Very often this is referred bei den Waldindianern Südamerikas. Anthropos VII, to as electrical fishing (see also Figure 26.26). A 206–229. successful training course in electrical fishing Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en Lettonie. Paris. techniques is needed to gain permission for MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central electrical fishing in any form in most countries. and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the Moreover, the apparatus offered by factories for Rhodes–Livingstone Musem. Livingstone, Northern fishing, frightening or killing with electricity must Rhodesia. Menzebach, F.(1979) Gerätekunde. In: Handbuch für den have passed stringent safety regulations to exclude Sportfischer, 256–302, 370–377. Munich. accidents during fishing as far as possible Meyer-Waarden, P.F. (1957) Electrical Fishing. FAO Fish- (Haasteren 1977). eries Study 7. Rome. DFC5 4/23/05 9:26 PM Page 52

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Meyer – Waarden, P.F. (1966) Beobachtungen und de Thiersant, P.D. (1872) La Pisciculture et la Pêche en Versuche an Fischen die durch reflektionsseismische Chine. Paris. Messungen verletzt bzw. getötet wurden. Veröf- Trench, C.C. (1974) A History of Angling. London. fentlichungen des Instituts für Küsten und Binnenfis- Umali, A.F. (1957) Plants used in fishing in the Philip- cherei. No. 37. Hamburg. pines. Proceedings of the Eigth Pacific Science Congress NN (1772) Onomatologia forestalis-piscatorio-venatoria IV, 309–336. oder vollständiges Forst-, Fisch- und Jagdlexikon. Vibert, R. (1967) Fishing with Electricity, its Application Frankfurt/Leipzig. to Biology and Management. FAO/EIFAC, London. Plomann, J. (1958) Das pflanzliche Gift ‘Rotenon’ und Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain seine Bedeutung für die Fischerei. Deutsche Fischerei- Rivers. London. Zeitung 5, 22–25. Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- Rausing, G. (1967) The bow. Some notes on its origin and ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect.C., No. 6, development. Acta Archaeologia Lundensia, Series 8, 6. 191–244. Ricker, W.E. (1968) Methods for Assessment of Fish Pro- Weule, K. (1911) Kulturelemente der Menschheit. duction in Fresh Waters. Oxford/Edinburgh. Stuttgart. Rostlund, E. (1952) Freshwater Fish and Fishing in Native Znamierrowska-Prüfferowa, M. (1976) Bemerkungen North America. Los Angeles. zur traditionellen Fischerei in Polen. In: Studien zur Roughly, T.C. (1968) Fish and Fisheries of Australia. Europäischen Traditionellen Fischerei (ed. E. Solymos). Sydney. Bajai Dolgozatok 3, 17–34. Shrestha, T.K. (1981) Wildlife of Nepal. A Study of Renewable Ressources of Nepal Himalayas. Katmandu. DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 53

6 Spearing, Harpooning and Shooting Fish

The range and capacity of humans to seize living developed to satisfy the need to extend the range fish, or fish that have been stunned or narcotized by and reach of the human arm. It is the same devel- some means from a distance, is limited by the length opment which led to the use of a club or hammer of his arm. By using a stick, the fisherman who is instead of the fist; the development from the cupped gathering or collecting his catch can reach objects hand for lifting water to the creation of the bowl, the from further away and possibly even secure them. spoon and the shovel. Using a spear in water, The simplest implement for such purpose is a however, is not as easy as it is on land. The refrac- pointed stick – a kind of lance or spear, which can be tion of light in the water must be allowed for, and it used to touch, hook, spear and catch fish and other needs experience to compensate for it exactly. This aquatic animals further away than his arm can is all the more necessary when fishing is practised stretch.The spearhead has to be formed in a special with spears under artificial light at night (Figure manner to secure the prey.Japanese have compared 6.1). In an old German book, spear fishing in Lake the spear with the lengthened human arm and the Constance is described as a difficult method of spearhead with the nails of the fingers (Nishimura fishing, which needed a lot of experience and power 1964).The range of a spear depends on the length of (Klunzinger 1892). Spearing should be carried out its shaft and this depends on its purpose. The range in calm and shallow waters and large fish need to be of a spear can be further extended when the spear is still for some time if they cannot be found in a large not only pushed but thrown as a ‘manpower gear’ or school. shot like a missile with the help of some device such Fishing with spears has certainly been known for as a catapult. In this way the range of the fisherman over 10000 years (Znamierowska-Prüfferowa 1957; can be doubled, tripled or extended even further. Chen 1960) and such spears are indeed found in all Spears have been known since time immemorial. the fisheries of the world. Islamic fishermen some- Unfortunately, in prehistoric finds as well as in col- times hesitate to use fishing spears. On the Turkish lections of spears obtained from primitive people, Black Sea coast there is a legend told about a blas- it is often not clear if the object found is a fish spear phemous pharaoh who wanted to kill the Lord of or a weapon, a ceremonial implement, an agrarian Abraham. When he was shooting an arrow, angels fork, or a device for offering meat in a sacrifice. were ordered to keep a fish (Zeus faber) in the way Even in European museums, eel spears are con- of the missile and the fish was pierced instead of sciously or unconsciously sometimes exhibited as God. In gratitude for this service the Lord ordered candlesticks of the Middle Ages! that never more should a fish be pierced by a spear or arrow. This is one of the stories why the ‘John 6.1 Spearing with pushed gear Dory’ has its characteristic spot. Today, primarily larger and more valuable fish such as salmon, tuna, The fishing spear in its simplest form is the fisher- swordfish, sharks and eels are speared in commer- man’s most primitive gear and is known from pre- cial fisheries in inland waters and off the coasts. historic times. Like the hunter’s spear, it was However, other fish, especially when spawning,

53 DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 54

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Figure 6.1 Hundreds of years ago it was found that fish were attracted by light. This engraving by the Frenchman, Duhamel du Monceau, shows vigorous fishing with spears by torchlight (1776–79).

are also speared. Moreover, spears are also used by commercial fishermen to catch slow-moving octopus, sea cucumbers and sessile sponges. Spear- ing has also become a form of sport fishing (Chapter 10), but in many countries spearing, and the use of other instruments which penetrate or mutilate, is forbidden. (Sometimes this is not done to protect fish but because such spears can also be weapons of attack against humans!) In various other countries special permission for spearing is or was needed.For instance in Poland, older fishermen who could no longer go out with a boat during winter were given special permission to use spears up to the 1970s.This Figure 6.2 Owing to the refraction of light by the water was also done for social reasons in the previous surface, the fish seems to swim higher and further away than its true position. Federal Republic of Germany and in Schleswig- Holstein for the Baltic Sea up to 1979 (pers. comm.). Spears range from the simple pointed hardwood refraction of light by water. The fish is not exactly stick, such as Australian natives use even today, to at the place where it is to be seen from outside the the more complicated many-pronged spears. The water, but appears to swim higher and further away wooden point of a lance was doubtless first replaced (Figure 6.2). An experienced spear fisherman will by a point made of bone, stone or some other hard know this, but the fish may still escape if the calcu- natural material, and finally by metal. The simplest lation of its position is out even by a small amount. forms of spears are only sticks with a single sharp- For this reason, for catching fish as well as birds ened point. As mentioned before, the success of or bats, the single prong of a spear is inadequate. spearing is determined by correctly allowing for the The same is true when spearing blind, e.g. in turbid DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 55

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Figure 6.3 A Danish fisherman spears eels through the ice on a frozen lake in Jutland.

water, in mud, or under ice (Figure 6.3), when a single prong will not give much chance of hitting a fish. Therefore spears are often provided with several prongs to increase their accuracy (Figure 6.4). The number of prongs varies and their arrangement can be in a row like a comb or in a bunch. The latter arrangement seems to be pre- ferred in tropical areas (Figure 6.5), where many prongs are fixed around the head of a stick rather like a yard broom, thus increasing the spear’s effec- tiveness. Many prongs are the same as a bundle of Figure 6.4 In every corner of the world fishing spears single one-pronged spears.The bundle arrangement were evolved: (a) simple fish-stick of Guinea; (b) fish spear with three points arranged as a bundle; (c) trident is used in some African areas where one person spear with barbs; (d) Arabian spear of Syria, without can fish with as many as six spears held in a bundle barbs; (e) fish spear of Northern Germany; (f) Italian (MacLaren 1958). In temperate countries such as in spear for cuttlefish; (g) spear for sponge fishing off the Europe, spears with prongs arranged in a circle are coast of Libya. seldom used (Figure 6.6). The more modern iron spears, so-called ‘fish irons’, with five, seven or even can be prevented by barbs. Barbs are a feature used twelve prongs are frequently found. Very often not only for fishing spears but also for the con- the trident can be seen, today more for decoration struction of various other gear. The barb, however, than for practical use. This symbol of Poseidon or is not restricted to fisheries but is an equally impor- Neptune is simply the ancient tuna spear of the tant element of hunting gear. Without a barb, a Mediterranean. Some people think that the trident spear is more generally called a lance. The fishing is too inaccurate for fishing (Koenig 1975) and spear may have a single barb on one side; there may therefore that its origin lies not in fishery but as a also exist several such barbs arranged in a row protective symbol in the form of a spear. Never- along the point of a spear (Rau 1884). When the theless, two-pointed spears as well as tridents are points are arranged in a row all barbs can be used even today in practical fisheries; although directed in the same direction (Figure 6.7) or they there is no doubt that more prongs and points may be arranged quite arbitrarily. Barbs can be not invariably give more success. only bent to one side but also in pairs, as is usually When a fish is speared it can escape from a simple the case for the point of an arrow. With spears and point by vigorous wriggling and twisting, but escape similar gear, a special movable barb can be used DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 56

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Figure 6.6 European multi-pointed spear with barbed points.

(Figure 6.8) which penetrates the body of the prey and stays in under tension, thus firmly anchoring the spear in place. Figure 6.5 Multi-pointed fishing spear without barbs as The range of size of pushed hand spears in fish- used in many tropical countries. eries can be considerable. They can have shafts of 6, 10 or 12m long or even more. Very long spears are especially useful when fishermen are trying to spear at random under ice or in turbid water or even at great depths (Figure 6.3). The buoyancy of a spear increases with the length of the wooden stick and, to overcome this, larger and heavier prongs are used in deeper waters (Kishinouge 1941; Went 1964; von Brandt 1966), or some extra weights Figure 6.7 Heads of harpoons made of bone, double- are added. On the Baltic coast of northern and multi-pointed as used in Tierra del Fuego. Germany, long spears are tarred very carefully, making them nearly weightless in deep water. Therefore it is helpful, when describing spears with long shafts, if the weight of the iron prongs and also any additional load is given. Note that the points and the shaft of a hand spear do not always lie in the same line. Because spearing is seldom done in a perpendicular direction but more or less Figure 6.8 Spear with movable barb. The barb will pivot obliquely, not all points of a spear can work simul- in the fish or whale when the spear is pulled back after taneously. For this reason spearheads with a curved piercing. neck are sometimes used (Figure 6.9). Rarely, bait DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 57

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they burnt too quickly (Ligers 1953). In the past, fishermen in Europe knew which material was the best for torches or fire baskets, but nowadays gas lamps and electric light have replaced the naked flame (Chapter 11). Another well-known use of the hand spear in fresh water is for eel fishing.This can also be carried out with light during the night and, especially in northern Europe, by blind spearing under ice in wintertime. The inactive eels will be found con- centrated around entrances to lakes or rivers or streams, or in deep holes near tidal entrances to fresh water or estuaries (Lane 1978). To catch the eels, a hole is made in the ice and spearing is done systematically by pushing the spear into the mud in Figure 6.9 North European spearhead with curved a circle (Figure 6.3). Not only spears but also clamps neck. (Chapter 7) are used to bring the eels out of the mud. Fishing with pushed hand spears is better known in sea fisheries where they are used to capture is used to lure the prey into a position favourable smaller and slower fish rather than stronger, more for spearing. Sometimes, the spear itself can attract valuable ones. In the USA (North Carolina) floun- fish when plunged several times and at random into ders are speared in shallow coastal waters (Warlen the water. Fishes can be attracted into striking 1975). This is a night fishery operated with trans- range not only by the splash but also by the flash of portable underwater lamps by wading fishermen. the spear (Brelsfjord 1946). Sometimes, artificial Only a short spear of 1–2m is needed. This can be baits are used, as in the fisheries of Hong Kong for an iron rod sharpened to a point at one end, often catching pomfrets (Liu 1940). The lures are made fashioned with a barb, but spears with many prongs of an oval-shaped thin board of any kind of wood, and barbed points are also used. When a fish is cut to the approximate shape of a pomfret and detected, the spear is brought directly over it and painted white. From five to seven are strung in a plunged into it with a quick thrust. Unlike the tech- long line and towed slowly through the water.When nique described earlier, the fish is speared in the fish are seen chasing the lures, they are speared or head region to minimize the damage to the edible caught by other methods. portion of the fish. It has been already stated that spearing can also An example of a fishery for large sea fish using be done with artificial light at night (Figure 6.1). A pushed spears is that for the ocean sunfish, Mola description of night fishing with a hand spear for mola.This nearly circular but very flat fish swims salmon, formerly carried out in Finland (Vilkuna near the surface in small schools where it can be 1975), says that two men fished together. One oper- caught very easily. In the Strait of Messina the ated the boat while the other stood with the spear fishery for this fish is operated from small motor behind the light. As soon the fish was seen, it was boats with a characteristic low mast (see Figure speared, if possible in its tail so that it could not flap 6.32) which gives a high platform for an observer. as much as when speared behind its head, when As soon as the sunfish are seen near the surface the lifted into the boat. Originally the attracting light observer directs the boat towards the fish to be used for this process was torchlight. In the fisheries speared. The spear is made of an iron tube of about of many countries torches were made of pine splin- three metres in length and fitted with seven barbed ters c.70cm long, burning with a small flame. The prongs. The speared fish is hauled, with the help of material for them was collected in wintertime.They the spear, on board the boat. To prevent the loss of could also be of other resinous wood. Splinters of the spear a line is run along the shaft connecting it fir or birch were not considered as good because to the vessel. DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 58

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Figure 6.10 Fish plummets. Again the need produced the same answer in different areas of the world: (a) Figure 6.12 Older European plummets for: (a) flounder; Mediterranean plumbline of Malta (from Burdon 1956 (b) halibut. (From Duge et al. 1902 with permission). with permission); (b) Norwegian ‘pigglodd’ (from Brobak 1952 with permission); (c) Japanese ‘yasu’ (from NN 1959–65 with permission). so-called plummet is tied instead of having a spear- head. Plummets are heavy weights, mostly made of metal but also sometimes weighted with stones, with one or more barbed points, which can be dropped down in deep water to pierce flat fish and other crea- tures lying on the bottom. Quite remarkable depths can be worked successfully with plummets – deeper than is possible with any spear, as long as the water is transparent enough to allow visual control of the plummet. This special form of fishing gear has been invented and applied in several parts of the world, in east and south-east Asia as well as in northern Europe (Figures 6.10–6.12). From the early Euro- pean ones some were like short-handled spears or Figure 6.11 Fish plummet of the Sunda clamps with additional weights added (Figure 6.12) Islands. (Courtesy of the Museum für Völk- erkunde, Berlin-Dahlem.) operated over a roller on the gunwale (Duge et al. 1902). In general, plummets are operated from a boat, directed by a fisherman controlling the opera- 6.2 Fish plummets tion with a looking-glass. Therefore clear water is needed to fish with the gear in anything other than As mentioned before, the length of a pushed spear shallow depths. An interesting variation of this is limited in deeper water by the buoyancy of the method is used by the fishermen of the South Pacific wooden shaft. Moreover, a spear several metres where a diver guides the plummet to catch sea long is difficult to handle in a small boat.Thus other cucumbers in deeper waters (Figure 6.13) (South devices are needed to bring up the prey from the Pacific Commission 1974). bottom. This can be acheived with the help of fish plummets or plumb lines (Figures 6.10–6.12).These 6.3 Eel combs are operated according to the principle of the spear- ing gear, but the stick is replaced by a rope. Now the There is a curious group of instruments which are depth of the fishing water is no longer a problem.A considered as a special form of rake, or horizontal- rope can be almost weightless, is easy to store, and working, multi-pronged gear, wounding and can be as long as needed. On the end of this line, the piercing the prey like a spear (Znamierowska- DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 59

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Figure 6.14 Eel combs: (a) Finnish eel comb (from Jankó 1900 with permission); (b) ‘Hölger’ from the German Baltic coast (from Znamierowska 1957 with per- mission); (c) Japanese eel fork with two points; (d) Thai eel fork with one point (from NN 1953 with permission).

Figure 6.13 A diver directing a plummet to catch sea cucumber in deeper water off the Solomon Islands. (Courtesy of South Pacific Commission 1974.)

Prüfferowa 1957). The so-called eel rakes or eel combs, which are comb-shaped implements espe- cially useful in eel fishing, are mentioned here together with spears and other wounding gear. In operation they are pressed into the mud and pierce the fish with their prongs when towed sideways. Two types of this gear are fairly widely distrib- uted: the eel combs found in Europe, and the Chinese form found in east and south Asia (Figures 6.14 and 6.15). The European eel comb is an iron Figure 6.15 Fish scythe and eel comb of Northern comb with many prongs, often of uneven length and Germany. mostly without barbs. In the past this instrument (which is now forbidden) was handled from a sailing boat by being pressed vertically into the sea-bed escape. This, together with the fact that very young mud with the prongs facing forward while the boat eels were also pierced, caused the implement to be was slowly sailed on. A precondition for the suc- condemned and banned many years ago. Owing to cessful use of that instrument was, of course, that the its simple design, however, it has been used again bottom was soft and even. This comb, named the and again (Benecke 1881), very often by crews of ‘Hölger’, was used off the east Friesian coast and in sailing transport vessels who were not entitled to the waters of the Baltic bays.The fisherman holding fish in territorial shallow waters, but who sought a the handle immediately felt when an eel was pierced private fish meal using their eel combs. by the comb scraping the ground and hauled up the Asiatic eel forks, with only one or two sharp implement, but often the injured eel was able to prongs on a handle of up to 5m long, resemble DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 60

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the European eel combs (Figure 6.14). They are can move. There are better and more powerful handled in the same manner but without the move- instruments for increasing the speed of a spear and ment of sailing. The fisherman presses the fork into its piercing power, but they will be mentioned later, the soft ground where he suspects an eel to be and because nowadays they are used mostly with har- moves it through the mud by bending the upper poons (see Section 6.6). part of his body backwards. Such forks are still in With the exception of the shorter length, the con- use in Japan and Korea and as far away as Thailand. struction of a spear or dart thrown by hand or with Such comb-like gear has also been used in open a spear thrower is the same as for a pushed spear. waters by moving the implement like a scythe The only difference is that a pushed spear remains through dense fish schools, piercing with their sharp in the hand of the hunter and generally will not be pointed teeth any fish which came within their lost, but a thrown spear, especially when thrown range (Figure 6.15). Such scythes for fishing are into water, can get lost or become unreachable. known in northern Europe but they may be used Therefore the thrown spear is usually fastened to a much more widely. Rau (1884) reported that, rope (retrieving line) of suitable length. It can thus according to the notes of James Cook (1728–1779), be recovered after being shot, especially if the shot he met some people in the Pacific Ocean fishing fails. This ability is particularly valuable to the fish- with an instrument 6m long similar to an oar.About erman because one cannot traverse water as easily two thirds of its length was set with sharp bone as one can land, but with a retrieving line the spear, teeth and it was used to attack smaller fishes by with or without the prey, can be recovered even striking it into the schools of fish so that some were under difficult conditions. A simple form of opera- caught either upon or between the device’s teeth. tion is to fix a line of c.10m near the head of the spear, to throw the spear with the right hand, to 6.4 Fishing with thrown spears guide the retrieving line with the left, and to hold fast the end of this line with the foot (Ligers 1953). The reach of spears pushed by hand can be Interestingly, retrieving lines for thrown spears extended by their being used as casting gear. For (and also harpoons) were already known in early casting by hand to be reliable the spear shafts must Egyptian fisheries and even before this. not exceed a certain length. The relation of spear Some African peoples can operate not only a length and its reach regulates the size of javelins single spear but many at the same time. It has been used in sport. The reach of a spear thrown to reported from the fishery in KwaZulu Natal that capture fish or prey can considerably increase by small spears used by children are also employed the use of a casting mechanism. Such casting mech- by men who use a handful at a time and throw anisms or catapults again have an influence on the them blindly into the marshes and marginal aquatic form of the spear. The catapults or throwing sticks growth (Tinley 1964). In localities where crystal- of the Inuits and Australians, for instance, provide clear shallows often occur next to deep water, men the spear with a much longer flight and greater and/or boys walk and run through the water in a striking power than mere casting by hand. The line and throw their spears at any fish they see. spear thrower – also called a throwing board, propulseur or atlatl (the Aztec name for this throw- 6.5 Fishing with bow and arrow ing gear) – is c. 0.5m long and works like a lever, giving the spear more speed. This implement was A spear in the form of a small arrow can be shot invented in the middle or later Palaeolithic times from a bow.The bow differs from all other weapons and this knowledge was spread all over the world. in being able to store the energy supplied by human In tropical areas, throwing boards are made of a muscles. On release, this pent-up energy is suddenly bamboo tube at the end of which is cut a hook to transferred to the arrow, which can thus be pro- engage the shaft (Thiel 1977). The throwing board jected at much higher velocity than that at which it increases the efficiency of the spear immensely. can be thrown by hand even with a spear thrower However, the propelling power is supplied by the (Marcotti 1958; Rausing 1967; Helgeland 1975). human arm, which means that the velocity of the No special advice for the construction of bows and spear is limited by the speed with which the arm arrows formerly operated in fisheries has been pub- DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 61

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Generally, slow-swimming fish were preferred for this method and shots were usually made from c. 5–6m away, as shooting a fish from a greater dis- tance than this was considered too difficult. As in spearing, shooting fish with a bow and arrow requires clear water and an appropriate allowance for the refraction of light. The young men of the Amazon region learn accuracy by first holding the arrow point in the water when they are shooting to gain experience in allowing for the refraction of light (Professor Sioli in Plön. pers. comm.).To over- come this difficulty the use of multi-pointed arrows has already been mentioned. This problem is also the reason why fishing with a bow and arrow is seldom carried out during the night. Not only fish are shot with bow and arrow; but sometimes also crabs and other water animals, even sea mammals, are hunted. In Mesopotamia, Tiglat- pileser I (1170–1090 BC) claimed to have killed not Figure 6.16 Fish bow and arrow with float and retriev- only wild bulls, elephants and lions with bow and ing line. Kerala, southern India (1973). arrow, but also from his ship off Arvad on the Syrian coast (Rausing 1967), a ‘nose-blower’, which is considered to have been some form of whale. lished. Arrows seem to have been used longer in The crossbow, which was developed from the fisheries than for hunting. When used in fisheries simple bow, has also been used to shoot fish. In they have no feathers, or only very small ones, on Europe, crossbows replaced simple bows by the their trailing end.Also the feathers are not arranged 12th century. Until recently, crossbows were known in such a manner as to give stability and some twist on the Philippines in the Laguana de Bay (Umali to the arrow in flight. For the same reasons men- 1950), in western Africa (Hornell 1950), and also in tioned for spears, arrows can have more than one Norway for shooting whales with poisoned arrows. point to increase their chances of impaling a fish In the Fishery Museum of Bergen, Norway, a cross- (Andreska 1976; Thiel 1977). Shooting fish with bow can be seen which was used during World War arrow and bow is widely known in many areas such II when guns could not be used to kill whales. Poi- as Oceania, southern India (Figure 6.16), Nepal and soned arrows were used which did not need much Sri Lanka, Burma, on the Andamans (Hornell power because the arrows did not have to penetrate 1950), in Indonesia and in Formosa (Buschan 1935). to a vital area in order to kill; sometimes a mere The bow and arrow are also known in the New scratch is enough (Rausing 1967). The crossbows World as used by the Indian fishermen of North and used in southern India are especially interesting South America on the Pacific coast (Rostlund 1952), because they are the same as those used in Europe but in particular by the native fishermen of the in the 16th century, and were then taken to India Amazon basin in Brazil and Guyana.Alexander von by the Portuguese (Figure 6.17). An old French Humboldt observed and recorded that he saw publication of 1834 (Figure 6.18) shows a very Indians on the Orinoco River shooting fish with elegant crossbow (arbalète) with a very long arrow, bow and arrow. Fishermen in the Xingu area are at least 1.20m long with a strong iron point espe- said to be able to strike a fish at a distance of 100m cially used for catching frogs, Rana esculenta,in – which may be doubtful! In central Asia, fish were freshwater ponds (Pesson-Maissonneuve 1834). shot with arrows up until the 19th century (Jankó With arrows, as with thrown spears, when shoot- 1900; Sirelius 1934). Bows have also been used to ing from the shore into swamps or deeper water, catch fish in Europe – pike and carp, as well as the problem is to retrieve the missile, especially salmon and huchen, were caught in this manner. when it hits prey. The problem is resolved in the DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 62

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Figure 6.17 Striking and throwing spears, useful as they were, led to the crossbow being adapted for throw- ing harpoons at fish. This specimen is from the Malabar coast, southern India. Under the top of the crossbow is a small bamboo box for the retrieving line. Figure 6.19 American fish bow with retrieving line (from Helgeland 1975 with permission).

(Figure 6.16). Interestingly, the native fishermen of North America and Alaska (Rostlund 1952) also had such retrievable arrows as did some Oceanic fishermen (Koch 1965). Even the Bushmen in southern Africa were originally familiar with these fishing methods before being forced into the desert. They fastened a light line to the shaft of the arrow, which they shot at small surface fish (Carter 1965). Small harpoons can even be shot by bow and cross- bow and these are considered in the next section. In modern times, archery became a sport influ- enced by Japanese customs. In the USA, hunting and fishing with bows has been revived. Very modern and expensive bows are used for bow fishing in fresh and salt waters (Figure 6.19) (Helgeland 1975). The fibreglass arrows are fitted with easily removable heads, which may be double barbed. The fishing targets are mostly coarse fish according to the different laws in the American states. These may be carp and eels as well as sharks and rays, migrating saltwater fish (when found in inland waters) but also frogs (e.g. bullfrogs) and turtles (e.g. soft-shelled ones).

Figure 6.18 Old French crossbow (from Pesson- 6.6 Harpooning Maissonneuve 1834 with permission). Beside barbless one-pointed lances, and spears (with many points mostly with one or more barbs same manner as with thrown spears. A retrieving each; with or without retrieving lines), harpoons are line is tied to the end of the arrow and the other widely used in fisheries. This gear has replaced the end to a float or to the bow. Figure 6.19 shows such older spears in many instances and is today known an arrangement for retrieving the arrow, just like not only in small-scale but also in large fisheries, the children’s bow still used in southern India and in sport fishing. DFC6 4/23/05 9:28 PM Page 63

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Figure 6.20 Special points for harpoons: (a) for turtles in Madagascar (from von Brandt 1964 with permission); (b) Japanese trident harpoon with electrified points.

Figure 6.21 Example of the rigging of a Chinese harpoon. The iron point is held by the harpoon line to the shaft of the harpoon by knot (a). When the point is in the prey, knot (a) is loosened, separating the point of the harpoon from the shaft, but the shaft is also fixed on the harpoon line by knot (b) so as not to be lost. (Courtesy of Captain L. C. Hu, Christchurch.)

Harpoons differ from spears in that the point of the shaft, both connected to the harpooner becomes separated from the shaft when it pene- (Figure 6.21). It is much simpler to use one line con- trates the victim, and the shaft floats to the surface nected with the head or heads of the harpoon and – both the point and the shaft remaining connected running through a ring on the shaft to the hands of by a line (Figure 6.20). The shaft floating to the the fisherman. Between the harpoon head and this surface tells the fisherman where his victim is and ring on the shaft, the line has a stopper, so that when acts as a brake or retarder to impede the fish’s flight this line is retrieved, not only the harpoon head but and tire it. also its shaft is hauled in (Figure 6.22). Modern har- The fisherman then follows to pick up the floating poons, especially when shot with rifles or guns, are shaft and to haul it in together with the harpoon line like thrown spearheads because there is no separa- connected to the separated harpoon head in the tion between the head and the shaft. Nevertheless, prey. In this case after shooting there is no direct the traditional name harpoon has continued in use, contact between prey and fishermen. It may be e.g. in whaling (see Section 6.7). better not to lose such contact, as with a thrown The shaft of the harpoon is shorter than that of spear which remains directly connected to the fish- the spear and the detachable point is necessarily erman by a retrieving line.Therefore harpoons often barbed (Kishinogue 1941). Often a movable barb have two separate lines; the harpoon line tied to the like a toggle is used (Figure 6.8), reducing the risk head of the missile, and the retrieving line to the end that the harpoon may be pulled out. Generally, DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 64

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Figure 6.23 Simple types of catapults with rubber bands: (a) Japanese underwater gun with elastic cord (from NN 1959–65 with permission); (b) Hawaiian sling gun (from Ivanovic 1954 with permission); (c) harpoon used by divers of Botel Tobago (Lan Yü, pers. comm.).

Figure 6.22 Retrieving line of a harpoon connected not only with three points but also by a stopper (a) and a ring (b) with the shaft of the harpoon.

harpoons have one point only but there are a few two- and three-pointed types (Figure 6.20b). Nowa- days the points are made of iron but points made of bone and the horns of deer and reindeer were known and handed down from ancient prehistoric fisheries (Krause 1904). Inuits are the masters of harpooning and in the past their gear was made partly from walrus ivory and their line from walrus rawhide. Archaeologists consider these lines as the strongest known before the invention of the steel Figure 6.24 Harpoons used by sport divers: (a) French cable. It has therefore been suggested that the elastic-powered harpoon (from Ivanovic 1954 with per- harpoon line was actually the first line to be used mission); (b) spear gun powered by compressed air (USA); (c) Italian spear gun with gas propulsion. in fisheries. Like lances and spears, harpoons can be pushed or thrown by hand as well as by various casting by a line as is usually the case (Ivanovic 1954). The mechanisms. In extreme cases, harpoons can simple harpoons with an elastic pull and a trigger become quite small projectiles (see Figure 6.40). to release the arrow at the right moment, the so- Harpoons have become a favourite gear for under- called ‘fish guns’, have been adopted especially in water fishing, although they are illegal in many south-east Asia from the Ryukyu Islands to the countries. Commercial fishing divers as well as Philippines in the 20th century (Hart 1956). Nowa- sports divers use harpoon guns. There are very days fish guns are even used by the natives of the simple catapults propelling a projectile towards the most remote fisheries for shooting fish from both fish by the action of stretching a piece of rubber above and below the surface of the water (de Beau- (Figure 6.23). clair 1957). Sport divers use more sophisticated This projectile can be a spear when released underwater spear guns for propelling the spear by freely (seldom) or a harpoon connected to the gun means of a metal spring or powered by compressed DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 65

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Figure 6.25 Hunting sperm whale with the hand-thrust harpoon of the Azores. (Photo: T Housby, Lymington.)

air and gas springs or even real shotguns with a pro- The first whalers in the Azores were Basque fish- pelling charge (Figure 6.24). Over water, harpoon ermen who arrived in the 15th century. From the guns with particularly strong missiles are required 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century, for killing large fish such as tuna, swordfish, shark American whaling fleets with their typical Indian or sea mammals such as porpoises, whales or seals. canoes visited the Azores every year to catch sperm Especially well known in some areas around the whales. Both have influenced the catching method, North Sea were the Norwegian rifles for shooting which was operated in the 20th century (though on harpoons to catch tuna. a much reduced scale). The whale is located by one of the observation points (vigias) and the catching 6.7 Whaling canoes are towed by a motor vessel near to the place where the animal may be expected. Each In commercial fisheries harpooning is no longer canoe has two or four harpoons. Two form one set, used, except for large species having high individual connected with each other by lines stored very care- value (Cordini 1955), owing to the cost of gear and fully in two wooden barrels (Figure 6.26). Only fishing vessels.The most important harpoon in com- when the canoe can come within a distance of 2–3m mercial fisheries is the whaling harpoon. In 1660 the of the whale can one or both harpoons be pushed Dutch whalers first ceased throwing their whaling – with both hands. Much power is necessary harpoons by hand and began firing them from blun- because only when the head of the harpoon has derbusses. The fishermen of the Azores and pierced the blubber can it be anchored in the flesh Madeira even in the 20th century used hand-pushed of the animal without being pulled out again. Here harpoons to catch sperm whales (Figure 6.25). should be mentioned that originally the hand- DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 66

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Figure 6.27 Norwegian harpoon gun for catching small types of whales. (Photo: G. Hass 1942.)

made the first attempt to design a whaling harpoon in the head of which was placed a grenade.The idea was that when the grenade exploded the whale would be killed quickly. The black-powder bomb in an 1870 shoulder gun became the main whale- hunting weapon of the Inuit. At the beginning of the 1870s, Foyn owned a factory for whale process- ing, operating two small steamers. These catching boats were already fitted out with a gun turntable Figure 6.26 Position of the harpoons and their lines in of 360° for shooting the harpoon (Figures 6.27 and the bow of a canoe used for catching sperm whales 6.28). With this newly developed equipment Foyn off the Azores in 1962. (From von Brandt 1973 with was successful in the seasons of 1873 and 1874 permission.) (Marshall 1904). Harpoons with grenades are also used today, but the form has been changed. The pointed grenades (Figure 6.28) have been replaced thrown harpoon with strong barbs did not kill, but by truncated ones. The reason is that pointed simply caught the whale on a line to prevent its grenades sometimes can pierce the tail of the whale escape. The line of the harpoon remained attached without exploding or be bounced off the back of a to the vessel and the whale could tow the boat like diving whale. a retarder, maybe for hours.The killing of the whale Otherwise the construction of the whaling was, and is, done by hand with a long barbless spear harpoon has not changed much since the times of or lance, piercing the lungs or heart of the animal. Foyn. It has an iron head with two movable barbs, In 1731 the first whaling canoe was constructed, spreading in the body of the whale by a pull on the but it was not until 1772 that it was generally used line, and firmly connected to the shaft (Figures 6.29 (Weber 1938). In 1864, the Norwegian Svend Foyn and 6.30). Attached to the shaft is the whale line, DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 67

Spearing, Harpooning and Shooting Fish 67

Figure 6.28 Whaling gun with pointed grenade (Photo: Erste Deutsche Walfang Gesellschaft.)

Figure 6.31 Leading a harpoon line from the gun (1) over a block (2) hanging on the mast and connected to a tension absorber (3). The line is coiled with the whale winch (4) and stored in the hold of the vessel.

called a retrieving line, beginning with what is known as a ‘forerunner’ made of manila or polyamide of best quality, 100–120m long. The forerunner is connected with the real whale line running up to an accumulator on the mast (Figure 6.31). This is an arrangement for adjusting differ- ences in the pull on the line, to prevent breaking by Figure 6.29 Icelandic whale gun in Reykjavik (1970). sudden shocks. From here the whale line is led round the drum of the whale winch and then down to the hold of the vessel. So the full retrieving line, now with a total length of 1000 m, became a deci- sive – and expensive – part of whaling equipment. Much greater success in killing whales has swiftly been achieved by the use of electrified harpoons. Electrical killing of whales is much more satisfac- tory than by using grenade harpoons which can cause tearing or infection of the interior parts of the animals. Electrical harpoons are equipped with a cable which conducts the current into the body of the whale. The particular species of whale, the age of the animal, and its physiological condition all have a bearing on the success of catching and killing by electricity. Using electrified harpoons avoids Figure 6.30 Harpoons on an Icelandic whaler. The the destruction of the intestines and blood vessels harpoon heads are stored separately (1970). caused by the explosion of a grenade (Schubert DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 68

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1955). Killing whales by electricity dates back to is attached to a float (formerly seal skin, now experiments first carried out in the 19th century. plastic). The whaling harpoon is also an example of the The float replaces the shaft of the harpoon or the way in which the most primitive fishing gear, retarder. Then a bomb can be shot with a shoulder like the original fishing spear, can be developed to gun into the whale and if properly placed may kill become a fishing instrument of the greatest impor- the whale. Otherwise a further shot with the shoul- tance in the modern fishing industry. Commercial der gun may be necessary to finish off the whale. whaling as a large-scale business is diminishing owing to declining stocks of whales and for this 6.8 Harpooning swordfish reason hunting some species of whales, or in some areas, is forbidden. Even the old coastal whaling Swordfish fishing is known not only in the is diminishing for the same reason. Nevertheless, Mediterranean but also on both sides of the some exceptions are made for the Indians of Alaska Atlantic; off the coasts of California, Peru and and inhabitants of the Aleutians, and the Inuits, Chile, as well as in Japanese waters (Steuben & who were allowed to continue traditional whaling Krefft 1978). Swordfish are mainly taken by hand- for their own benefit (Fiscuss & Marquette 1975). thrown harpoons, a technique which is also used for Their aboriginal technique of whaling is a combi- catching other fish. The following example is based nation of tradition and modern equipment. They on a fishery for swordfish and tuna in southern Italy use harpoons and bombs, which have continued between the Calabrian coast and Messina, Sicily. in use almost unchanged since their introduction This fishery developed quickly in the last century. by commercial whalers in the late 19th century. The original size of the vessels used was not much They hunt from skin-covered boats, the old umiaks, more than that of rowing boats with small masts – and also from wooden and aluminium boats – all not so different from the boats still used for sunfish of which are now fitted with outboard motors. spearing (Figure 6.32). The size of vessel gradually When the harpoon is fastened in the whale the line increased up to 20m long. This fishery was influ-

Figure 6.32 Boat with lookout for spearing sunfish in the Strait of Messina (1979). DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 69

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Figure 6.33 Italian vessel for spearing swordfish and tunny in the Strait of Messina (1979). Note the elevated lookout and the spearman on an extended bowsprit.

enced by other fishing techniques, as can be seen pooner as close to the fish as possible before the from older literature (Gudger 1940, 1942; Sund- arrival of the vessel’s hull (Figures 6.33 and 6.34) strom 1957; Coggins 1967; Ligreci 1967; Blair & (Frey 1971). This principle was also used on vessels Ansell 1968). The Italian swordfish industry in the for harpooning sharks off California (Figure 6.35). Strait of Messina used characteristic vessels with a Taiwan Chinese used this principle for catching very high mast and a very long bowsprit (Figure marlin during the winter season (Figure 6.36). In 6.33). The mast, the so-called ‘antenna’, roughly in this instance two harpooners stand side by side, the centre of the boat with a lookout for one to four secured to the platform of the extended bowsprit observers or ‘speculatores’, can have a height of up by sticking their feet into loops and operating a to 30m and more. This very much elevated crow’s long harpoon with three points, the overall length nest permits a greater field of vision for spotting being >4 m. fins. The boats are steered by a simple arrangement In the Italian swordfish fishery, a bifurcated of lines from the crow’s nest. The motors are also harpoon with two detachable harpoon points, each regulated from the same position by a similar with two or four movable barbs (Figure 6.37) was arrangement. The boats have two motors (each used. 100–150 hp) with one propeller each which give the When catching large tuna with the same vessel, a boats not only a high speed but also the necessary single-pointed harpoon is preferred. The harpoon flexibility and manoeuvrability. has a shaft made of an iron tube of up to 4m long. As mentioned before, the vessels have a remark- The two heads of the harpoon are tied to a line with ably long bowsprit, or ‘passeralla’, ending with a two branches (Figures 6.38 and 6.39). As soon as a small ‘pulpit’ for the harpooner or striker to stand fish is hit, the heads break from the shaft and the on. The reason for this platform, swinging more hunting line from the harpoon heads runs out. A than 30m in front of the vessel, is to place the har- large plastic buoy marks the way of the line and DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 70

70 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 6.34 On an Italian swordfish vessel. In the foreground, storage of different types of spears. The harpooner stays ready for throwing in the ‘pulpit’ of the long bowsprit (1979).

then one or more iron barrels (formerly wooden Thailand and southern India (Figure 6.40). It seems kegs) are thrown overboard. By this method the that blowguns were also known for fishing in the stricken fish quickly tires itself out. The separated Philippines (Umali 1950). The blowgun consists shaft is hauled in by the retrieving line. Barrel, buoy of a tube made from bamboo or similar material and fish are towed by a small rowing boat to the and with a mouthpiece, sometimes decorated in an vessel and hauled on deck by a winch. It may be artistic manner. The tube has a length of c. 1.8m added that a harpooner will only strike fish of a rea- into which a small harpoon is so fitted that it com- sonable size, meaning that fishing with spears and pletely closes the pipe with a tassel at the end from harpoons is not carried out in an indiscriminate which one blows (Figures 6.40 and 6.41). To fill out manner.Therefore, spearing and harpooning can be the space between arrow and tube completely, and considered fishing methods that have a good degree in addition to the tassel, a netting yarn is wound of selectivity. very carefully around the shaft of the little harpoon, with the tassel on the one end and the detachable 6.9 Fishing with blowguns point on the other. Although mostly called an ‘arrow’, the missile of the blowgun used in the fish- Generally speaking the blowgun is known as gear eries of southern Asia is a true, but very small, used for hunting birds in the virgin forests of harpoon c.15cm long. Central and South America and of southern Asia. The operation of the blowgun in fisheries is the But this gear is used just as frequently for fishing in same as in hunting; the arrow is forced out of the DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 71

Figure 6.35 Californian vessels with long bowsprit and high lookout for spearing sharks (1962).

Figure 6.36 Chinese vessel with two harpooners for spearing marlin around Taiwan. (Courtesy of International Com- mission on Rural Reconstruction, Taipei.) DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 72

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6.10 Shooting fish Fish shooting includes some of the fishing tech- niques mentioned before in which spears or har- poons are propelled by rifles or guns. Fish shooting also includes a technique designed not to wound or kill the fish, but to stun it by the shock of the bullet hitting the water near its head (Chapter 5). In some cases rifles are also used to kill fish caught by another method; to avoid a long struggle and/or the fish’s escape by, for example, breaking the line by which it is hooked. In the Danish fishery, tuna caught by line have sometimes been killed by shooting, and the same method is known in shark fishing. As soon as the fish can be gaffed, it is killed by shooting (Steuben & Krefft 1978). Today most people will not agree to porpoises being killed by shooting. Dolphins are mostly protected, but Italian ‘sports fishermen’ have said that every year they have killed many dolphins off the Ligurian coast by shooting at random into schools of these animals. Also the fishermen of the eastern part of the Turkish Black Sea coast hunt porpoises (Tursiops truncatus and Delphinus delphis) with rifles. Offi- cially hunting of porpoises is forbidden in Turkey and there is no market for its meat. But the pro- tection of porpoises and seals (Phocoena pho- coena) led to a much enlarged population of these Figure 6.37 Italian harpoon for swordfish. (From Ghigi piscivorous animals and losses of fish for the 1966 with permission.) fishermen were the consequence. Therefore illegal hunting is also a practice today (pers. comm. 2000). When perched on a small platform on the bow of the boat, or on the roof of a wheelhouse, hitting a fast-moving animal such as a porpoise is not easy. On average, to hit about one in ten is a good success rate. These experienced fishermen also shoot large fish such as mullet, but they have to be trained from their boyhood and become very fond of this prac- Figure 6.38 Older American swordfish harpoon. (From tice. In many cases the harpoon, formerly used for Dumont and Sundstrom 1961 with permission.) hunting larger fish and water mammals, has been replaced by rifles.The rifle is now used by the Inuits tube by a strong blow. When the little arrow when hunting seals. Also crocodiles are no longer (harpoon) has pierced a fish, the point will be sep- speared but shot in the night with the aid of spot- arated from the stick which is towed behind the lights. (There may be some doubt if this can be fleeing fish like a retarder. The fisherman will try to included in ‘fish shooting’!) The prey will normally pick up this floating stick and sometimes a hook is remain fixed in one spot as long as the spotlight is fixed to one end of the blowgun (Figure 6.42) to held steady and if, when hunting from a boat, the assist in this operation. The floating missile shows motor does not change pitch and startle the the position of the prey in the water. animal. DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 73

Spearing, Harpooning and Shooting Fish 73

Figure 6.39 Modern harpoon fishing off the coast of North America. (New Foundland Student Handout 2000.)

Figure 6.40 Indian fisherman with blowgun shooting fish on the Malabar coast, south India.

Figure 6.42 Blowgun of the type used on the Malabar coast of southern India. At one end the wooden tip is sometimes wonderfully carved. On the other end is a Figure 6.41 Harpoons for blowguns from: (a) Thailand; hook to retrieve the line of the floating harpoon. (b) (c) south India. All with iron points. DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 74

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References Monograph of the Institute of Science and Technology No. 4. Manila. Andreska, J. (1976) Archäologische Funde von Hass, G. (1942) Der Kleinwalfang in Norwegen. Deutsche Fischfanggeräten in Mikulcˇice in der Tschechoslowakei. Norwegische Wirtschafts-Zeitschrift 3, 213–217. In: Studien zur Europäischen Traditionellen Fischerei Helgeland, G. (ed.) (1975) Archery World’s Complete (ed. E. Solymos), Bajai Dolgozatok 3, 89–94. Baja. Guide to Bowhunting. Englewood Cliffs. de Beauclair, I. (1957) Field notes on Lan Yü (Botel Hornell, J.S. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. Tobago). Bull. Inst. Ethnology, Academia Sinica,No.3. Ivanovic, V. (1954) Modern Spearfishing. London. Benecke, B. (1881) Fische, Fischerei und Fischzucht in Jankó, J. (1900) Herkunft der Magyarischen Fischerei. Ost- und Westpreussen. Königsberg Pr. Budapest/Leipzig. Blair, C.H. & Ansel,W.D. (1968) A Guide to Fishing Boats Kishinouge, K. (1941) Prehistoric fishing in Japan. Journal and Fishing Gear. Cornell Maritime Press. of the College of Agriculture Imperial University Tokyo von Brandt, A. (1964) Madagaskar, fischereiliche II, 327–382. Reisenotizen. Protok. Fischereitech. IX (41), 148–196. Klunzinger, C. B. (1892) Bodenseefische, deren Pflege und von Brandt, A. (1966) Die Fanggeräte der Kutter- und Fang. Stuttgart. Küstenfischerei. Schriftenreihe der AID,No. 113. Koch, G. (1965) Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-Inseln. von Brandt, A. (1973) Spermwalfang in der Küsten- Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde fischerei der Azoren. Archiv fuer Fischereiwissenschaft Berlin NF 6. Berlin. 24 (1–3), 41–50. Koenig, O. (1975) Urmotiv Auge. Neuentdeckte Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu Grundzüge menschlichen Verhaltens. Munich/Zurich. Swamps; a Study of Fishing Activities of the Unga Tribe. Krause, E. (1904) Vorgeschichtliche Fischereigeräte und The Rhodes–Livingstone Papers No. 12. Rhodes–Liv- neuere Vergleichsstücke. Zeitschrift fuer Fischerei 11, ingstone Institute, Livingstone, Northern Rhodesia. 133–300. Brobak, K. (1952) Fartøy og Redskap. Oslo [in Lane, P.(1978) Eels and their utilization. Marine Fisheries Norwegian]. Review 40 (4), 1–20. Burdon, T.W. (1956) A report on the fishing industry of Ligers, Z. (1953) La cueillette, las Chasse et la Pëche en Malta. Lettonie. Paris. Buschan, G. (1935) Die Völker Asiens,Australiens und der Ligreci, F. (1967) Brevi notize a documentazione icono- Südseeinseln. Berlin. grafica sul settore peschreccio in Sicilia. Revista delta Carter, P. (1965) Bushman fishing, as depicted in rock Pesca VIII,4,1045–1093 [in Italian]. paintings. Science South Africa 578–581. Liu, S.Y. (1940) The fishing industries of Hong Kong. A Chen, C.T. (1960) A Survey Of Fishing Gear used in the general survey Part V.Description of gear and methods. Coastal Fishery of Taiwan.Taipei [in Chinese]. Hong Kong Fisheries Research Station Journal 1 (2), Coggins, J. (1967) Nets Overboard! The Story of the 107–135. Fishing Fleets. London. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Cordini, J.M. (1955) Rio Parana, sus peces mas comunes and Southern Africa.The Occasional Papers of the pesca commercial. Publication Miscelanea No. 410. Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Northern Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Buenos Aires Rhodesia. [in Spanish]. Marcotti, T. (1958) Bogen und Pfeile. Munich. Duge, P., Henking, H. & Wilhelms, O. (1902) Bericht über Marshall, W. (1904) Die Erforschung des Meeres. In: die Internationale Fischerei-Ausstellung in St. Peters- Weltall und Menschheit IV (ed. H. Kramer), 245–382. burg 1902. Berlin. Nishimura, A. (1964) Primitive fishing methods. Dumont, H. & Sundstrom, G.T. (1961) Commercial Ryukyuan Culture and Society, 67–77. fishing gear of the United States. Fish and Wildlife Cir- NN (1953) Handbook of Fishing Gear in Siam. Bangkok cular 109. [in Thai]. Fiscus, C.H. & Marquette, W.M. (1975) National marine NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and fisheries service field studies relating to the bowhead Fishing Gear.Tokyo. whale harvest in Alaska, 1974. Northwest Fisheries Pesson-Massonneuve, M. (1834) Manuel du Pêcheur. Center Processed Report. Paris. Frey, H.W. (ed.) (1971) California’s Living Marine Rau, C. (1884) Prehistoric fishing in Europe and North Resources and their Utilization. California, Department America. Smithsonian Contributions of Knowledge of Fish and Game. XXV, Article I. Washington. Ghigi, A. (1966) La Pesca.Turin [in Italian]. Rausing, G. (1967) The bow. Some notes on its origin and Gudger, E.W. (1940) The perils and romance of sword- development. Acta Archaeologia Lundensia,Ser.8,6. fishing. The pursuit of Xiphias gladius with the trident Bonn/Lund. in the Strait of Messina. Science Monthly 51, 36–38. Rostlund, E. (1952) Freshwater Fish and Fishing in Native Gudger, E.W. (1942) Swordfishing with the harpoon in North America. Los Angeles. New England water. Science Monthly 54, 418–430, Schubert, K. (1955) Der Walfang der Gegenwart. 499–512. Handbuch der Seefischerei Nordeuropas 11, No. 6. Hart, D.V. (1956) Securing aquatic products in Siaton Sirelius, U.T. (1934) Jagd und Fischerei in Finnland. Die municipality, Negros Oriental Province, Philippines. Volkskultur Finnlands Vol. 1. Berlin. DFC6 4/23/05 9:29 PM Page 75

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South Pacific Commission Publications Bureau (1974) A Vilkuna, K. (1975) Unternehmen Lachsfang. Die Handbook for Fishermen. Bêche-de-mer of the South Geschichte der Lachsfischerei in Kemijoki. Studia Pacific Islands. Haymarket/Australia. Fennica. Review of Finnish Linguistics and Ethnology Steuben, K.S. & Krefft, G. (1978) Die Haie der Sieben No. 19. Helsinki. Meere. Arten. Lebensweise und Sportlicher Fang. Warlen, S.M. (1975) Night stalking flounder in the ocean Hamburg/Berlin. surf. Marine Fisheries Review 37 (9), 27–30. Sundstrom, G.T. (1957) Commercial fishing vessels and Weber, A. (1938) Die Jagd auf Wale. In: Der neue gear. US Fish and Wildlife Service Circular No 48. deutsche Walfang (ed. N. Peters), 142–152. Washington. Hamburg. Thiel, J.F. (ed.) (1977) Haus (der) Völker und Kulturen, Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- Führer 1977: Afrika, Neuguinea, Christl. Kunst. St ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No. 6, Augustin/Bonn. 191–244. Tinley, K.L. (1964) Fishing methods of the Thonga tribe Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, M. (1957) Rybackie in northeastern Zululand and southern Mocambique. Narzedzia Kolne w Police i w Krajach Sasiedhich. Lammergeyer III (1) 9–39. Studia Societas Scientarum Torunensis Suppl. 4 [in Umali, A.F. (1950) Guide to the Classification of Fishing Polish]. Gear in the Philippines. Fish and Wildlife Service Research Report No. 17. Washington. DFC7 4/23/05 9:30 PM Page 76

7 Fishing with Clamps, Tongs, Rakes and Wrenching Gear

It has already been noted that spears with one or aging grasping instruments all have the same aim – more points, without or with barbs, are used for to pick up the wanted prey in deeper water – but securing fish and crawfish and also for catching they are constructed in different ways according to other aquatic animals such as sponges and sea the animals or the plants which are to be taken. cucumbers.This method involves some injury to the animal being captured and it would be unwise to 7.1 Clamps use spears to pick up molluscs, sea urchins or small crabs. To pick up delicate prey without damage, a Clamps are well known in many parts of the world, number of grasping instruments have been devel- especially for taking mussels out of the water oped and these enable fishermen to capture aquatic without injury. The simplest forms are hand- animals such as mussels, snails and sea urchins. The operated sticks with one end split into at least two instruments are usually simple, as complex instru- branches (Figure 7.2). Mussels, snails, sea urchins, ments are unnecessary for the prey cannot escape or any other prey can be jammed between the and there is usually sufficient time to trap them branches.To give the grip more security some barbs properly.When searching for prey in shallow water can help (Figure 7.2a). Other hand-operated gear is with the help of a boat, so-called ‘water-searchers’ used by fishermen in the Mediterranean to collect (Figure 7.1) are commonly used to overcome the fan mussels. Their implement looks like a two- refraction of the water surface and are used to find pronged fork. Big mussels are clamped between the animals such as octopus, sea urchins and shellfish. prongs and pulled up from the bottom. The stick These water-searchers – also called ‘look-boxes’ or may have a length of as much as 9 m. ‘water-glasses’ – can be a simple box, tube or bucket Clamps can be used also for catching fish when made of wood or metal with a bottom of glass and stronger implements made of iron, looking like are known in not only coastal waters but also some- multi-pointed spears, are used. The gear does not times in fresh water, e.g. in Finland where they are pierce the fish to avoid damaging the flesh as much used to locate pearl mussels, Margarita margari- as possible, but presses it between the more or less tifera L. To use this equipment the water must be elastic prongs. To prevent escape, especially in eel clear and the surface should be smooth. Sometimes fisheries, the sides of the prongs are barbed or ser- fishermen spray a few drops of oil, maybe mixed rated and look like a saw (Figures 7.2 and 7.3). with sand, on the water surface to quell small waves. The distance between the prongs can be regulated The prey found in this manner can be hauled out by law. This implement is also known as a spear or of the water with the help of one of the grasping fish iron. For fish, pointed spears combined with instruments mentioned in this chapter. Like pushed elastic clamps can also be used. The clamps are spears and harpoons, these instruments are prefer- like arms guiding the fish on to the central ably long-handled for operating as deep as possible. point (Znamierowska-Prüfferowa 1957). Figure 7.4 As for pushed spears, the length of the handle is shows such grasping or gripping implements with restricted to what is manageable. These non-dam- squeezing devices and piercing points, which can be

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Fishing with Clamps, Tongs, Rakes and Wrenching Gear 77

Figure 7.1 Bucket with glass bottom operated by a Greek fisherman of Mithymna, on the island of Mytilini, searching for sea urchins (1958).

Figure 7.4 (a) Eskimo spear of Arctic Canada; (b) eel spear of the Baltic coast (1970).

also equipped with barbs and may, in this form, wound the prey considerably. A similar implement for catching fish was shown (Figure 6.4e) in the section on fishing spears. Clamps, like spears, can also touch the bottom not vertically but slanting at a slight angle. To equalize the movement of the prongs, one of the two elastic prongs of the com- bined clamp/spear can be shorter than the other.

7.2 Tongs Objects may be taken uninjured from the water using tongs, i.e. with instruments provided with two Figure 7.2 Types of fish clamp: (a) clip of Eskimo clamp tong-like clasps moving towards each other. Origi- (from Rau 1884 with permission); (b) fork for shrimps of nally their form and construction was similar to Tierra del Fuego (from Gusinde 1946 with permission); (c) Japanese shellfish clamp (from NN 1959–65 with the tongs used in any workshop (Figures 7.5 and permission); (d) eel clamp of northern Europe. 7.6). Later their construction was more adapted to fishing conditions (Figures 7.7 and 7.8). Tongs are used especially for mussels, and 200 years ago small tongs were the main gear of fishermen looking for freshwater pearl mussels, Margaritana margari- tifera, in some Saxon areas of Middle Europe (Figure 7.6) (Rudau 1961). Today tongs with long handles are used to bring oysters and other types of shellfish to the surface (Figure 7.8). They may be cross-shaped forks with two or even several points, Figure 7.3 Danish clamp with flexible sprung points for the rigid levers of which – several metres long – are catching eels (1979). operated from a boat (Figures 7.7 and 7.8). The DFC7 4/23/05 9:30 PM Page 78

78 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 7.5 Old Danish fishing tongs. (From Olavius 1787.)

Figure 7.6 Saxon pearl-fisher with mussel tongs (1726). (From Rudau 1961 with permission.) Figure 7.7 Tongs for gripping: (a) long-handled Japan- ese type for shellfish; (b) French tongs with a movable arm for lobsters (from Boudarel 1948 with permission); (c) Maltese tongs with two movable claws (from Burdon used on the coast of Chile to collect colonies of 1956 with permission); (d) North American shellfish mussels.Three people have to operate this gear: one tongs; (e) Mexican tongs made of two rakes (from Sanchez 1959 with permission). operates the stick of the tong, another its line, and the third has to take the mussels out of the cross- shaped forks when the gear is lifted up.Also, mussel deeper the water the more difficult, however, it is to tongs are used which can be operated by two lines use tongs with two rigid arms.A depth of 7m is con- (Figure 7.7c) which increases the depth that can be sidered to be the limit of practicability (NN 1953). reached (de Angelis 1959). The same developments Tongs can be designed, howver, so that only one side occurred with this implement as those which led is rigidly attached to a rod while the other is moved from the use of spears with a rigid shaft to the adop- by a line (Figures 7.5 and 7.7). Tongs of this sort are tion of the fish plummet operated by lines, as DFC7 4/23/05 9:30 PM Page 79

Fishing with Clamps, Tongs, Rakes and Wrenching Gear 79

Figure 7.9 Tonglike clamp from Indonesia: left, stretched; right, closed. (From Yamamoto 1975 with permission.)

Figure 7.8 Rake-end, scissor-like tongs are used to bring mature oysters to the surface by Canadian fisher- men. (Photo: FAO.)

described in the previous chapter. The line thus replaces the rod and allows the animal to be grasped at greater depths than is possible using rigid gear. This, however, can only be done vertically. Such tongs are widely used in the mussel fisheries of East Asia, Europe (mainly Mediterranean but formerly also on the coast of the North Sea),on the west coast of North America, and in Central America. Figure 7.10 Danish mechanical eel clamps from The shape of the tongs may differ very widely. Bornholm Island. (Photo: K. Larsen, Copenhagen.) They can be made up of two forks, or of two scoop nets.There is even a report of a type formed by two short-pointed rakes (Figure 7.7e) (Sanchez 1959) eel fishery of Bornholm Island. These tongs close that is used in Mexican fisheries. Essentially the mechanically by a spring or rubber band when an shape of the tongs depends on the specific purpose eel is between their claws and the trigger is set free for which they are to be used. A gear similar to a (Figure 7.10) (Larsen 1968). Occasionally rough double tong is known in Indonesia for grasping tongs made of wood, short-handled and with strong mussels seen from the water surface. The gear is metal teeth, have been used to catch eels, conger lowered over the mussel with the clasps pressed and other fish when they are lethargic in wintertime open and the animal is taken from the bottom when (Jenkins 1974; Znamierowska-Prüfferowa 1976), the clasps are closed by a simple mechanism, which and sometimes heavy damage to the fish cannot be can be seen in Figure 7.9(Yamamoto 1975). Not avoided. surprisingly, some types of tongs are damaging to The same may be true for other wooden tongs the prey. The Danes used mechanical tongs in the with sharp iron teeth (Figure 7.11) that are used, for DFC7 4/23/05 9:30 PM Page 80

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Figure 7.12 Rake for catching edible jellyfish from the surface waters off the western coast of Malaysia (1978).

Figure 7.11 Azores tongs with sharp iron teeth to hold moray eels.

example, by the fishermen of the Azores to hold and to kill ‘murries’ (Moray eels) that are lifted out of the water after being caught with hook and line. These fish have always been considered dangerous.

7.3 Rakes Figure 7.13 Rakes for fishing: (a) simple rake; (b) French ‘grappin’ for sea-urchin (from Naintre et al. 1967 Instead of tongs, simple rakes may also be used to with permission); (c) ‘bull rake’ of the North American catch the desired aquatic prey. Primitive and also Atlantic coast for shellfish (from Sundstrom 1957 with modern complicated rakes have already been permission); (d) English mussel rake with bagnet. mentioned in Chapter 2, dealing with the collecting fishery. There they are used for raking and digging rakes to scrape up the floating seaweed stranded animals hidden in the mud at the bottom. Rakes so along the beach. There are dredging machines such described are generally used in seaweed and mussel as those used off the French coast to collect crusta- fisheries in different parts of the world (Figure 2.2). ceous algae like Lithotamnium calcoreum, which Off the western coast of Malaysia, large-sized edible can be harvested like sand. But seaweed harvesting jellyfish are caught with long-handled rakes of a is mostly concentrated on large sessile algae such as type formerly used for the harvesting of seaweed Laminaria sp. for which another method is used. (Figure 7.12) (Burdon 1954). For deeper water the With a special implement, operated from a boat, the handles of rakes can extend to > 10 m. To make the seaweed is twisted together and removed from the capture of mussels, sea urchins and so on by rakes bottom with a sharp jerk. This gear for wrenching easier, the prongs are either bent, or the rake is the plants can be an agricultural fork which is equipped with a collecting bag (Figure 7.13d), but struck into the bulk of the plants before twisting. then the gear has already assumed the shape of a Usually, especially in the Far East, this wrenching dredge, which is discussed later (Chapter 25). gear is a stick up to 6 or 7m long.To facilitate twist- ing, the stick has a handle on one end and some 7.4 Wrenching gear for branches or a spiral on the other (Figure 7.14). To harvesting seaweed overcome the buoyancy of the wooden stick, some weighting may be necessary (Figure 7.15). Many methods have been used for harvesting A wrenching or twisting method was also known seaweed and other water plants. Different types in western Europe in the 19th century, not for har- of gear can be used such as scythe-like tools for vesting water plants but for catching the small fish harvesting sessile underwater algae by divers, and hidden within them (Chapter 20). In the 1970s in DFC7 4/23/05 9:30 PM Page 81

Fishing with Clamps, Tongs, Rakes and Wrenching Gear 81

7.5 Further developments Of the gear mentioned in this chapter, only those used for harvesting mussels and seaweed are of any great importance. Like the spearing and shooting gear described in the previous chapter, they have been invented to extend the range of the human arm and to grasp, scrape and secure more than is possible with the bare hand.They are thus improved auxiliary instruments of the collector and are in the early stages of further development. From the prim- itive rake, however, the development leads on to the creation of the dredge (Chapter 25) and from that to the dragged stow net and the trawl (Chapters 26 and 27). Fishing gear, invented originally for secur- Figure 7.14 Wrenching gear for gathering seaweed, ing small quantities of personal food, has thus grad- used in Japan and Korea. ually been converted into larger gear working on the same principles for mass production to supply wholesale markets. But this does not mean that the simple gear used for gathering has made no further progress. Hand-picking and gathering is of some value even today, especially for harvesting shellfish. Here the simple rake became the basis for a Cana- dian development of new harvesters, replacing manual methods to some extent and reducing the problems created by the lack of manual diggers.The simplest and least costly of this new type of devel- opment may be the clam rake (MacPhail & Medcof 1963). As can be seen in Figure 7.16a, these rakes have tines which are water jets designed to wash the clams out of the sand.The water to operate the rake is forced from an engine-driven pump (carried in a dinghy) through a hose in the handle of the rake and down through the nozzles. A sturdy type of this

Figure 7.15 Russian wrenching gear, with weight to overcome buoyancy, for harvesting algae. (From Spakov 1977 with permission.)

France and the USSR the wrenching method for harvesting seaweed was mechanized by turning the wrenching or twisting spiral, the ‘scoubidou’ of the Figure 7.16 Canadian hydraulic gear for clam fishing: French fishermen, with the help of a motor (see (a) hydraulic clam rake; (b) hydraulic clam digger. (From MacPhail & Medcof 1963 with permission.) Chapter 30 (Figures 30.12 and 30.13). DFC7 4/23/05 9:30 PM Page 82

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apparatus can flush clams out of the sand in shallow Larsen, K. (1968) Amator Fiskeri i Havet. Copenhagen [in water of up to 50cm deep. A mixture of water and Danish]. sediment is produced and the clams, having slight MacPhail, J.S. & Medcof, J.C. (1963) A new digger for softshell clams. ‘Trade News’, Department of Fisheries buoyancy, float to the top of the mixture where they of Canada, March. can be collected. Naintre, L., Addenio, C.J. & Brunand, T. (1967) La Pêche There are more ideas for such types of clam en Mer. Collection l’escapade. digger in Figure 7.16b, which shows how a simple NN (1953) The Commercial Fisheries of Maryland. Education Series No. 30. but useful fishing gear can be the origin of very NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and modern harvesting machines for fisheries. But there Fishing Gear.Tokyo. is one problem. In some countries, such as Malaysia, Olavius, O. (1787) Oekonomische Reise durch Island to protect natural and cultured shellfish beds, the in den Nordwestlichen und Nord-Nordöstlichen use of mechanical apparatus for clam digging is Gegenden [translated from Danish into German by J. Jasperson]. Dresden & Leipzig. strictly forbidden.Also, until 1964 manual hydraulic Rau, C. (1884) Prehistoric fishing in Europe and North clam diggers were forbidden in Canada by fishery Amerika. Smithonian Contributions of Knowledge regulations for the same reason. XXV, Article I. Washington. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that mechanized Rudau, B. (1961) Die Flussperlmuschel im Vogtland in harvesting machines, including those for clam Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. Museumreihe H.23, Plauen i. Vogtl. digging, in spite of some temporary and local objec- Sanchez, P.M. (1959) Breve reseña sobre las principales tions, will become more important in the future (see artes de pesca usadas en Mexico. Mexico [in Spanish]. also Chapter 30). Spakov, G.T. (1977) Some problems about the mecha- nizaion of laminar harvesting. Rybnoe Hozjajstvo 5, 63- 65 [in Russian]. References Sundstrom, G.T. (1957) Commercial fishing vessels and gear. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Circular No. 48. de Angelis, R. (1959) Fishing installations in saline Washington. lagoons. GFCM Studies and Reviews,No.7. Yamamoto, I. (1975) Ketentuan Kerja Buku I, Standard Boudarel, N. (1948) Les Richesses de la Mer. Paris. Statistik Perikanan.Jakarta [in Indonesian]. Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, M. (1957) Rybackie Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 Narzedzia Kolne w Police i w Krajach Sasiedhich. (2), 5–76. Studia Societas Scientarum Torunensis Suppl. 4 [in Burdon, T.W. (1956) A Report on the Fishing Industry of Polish]. Malta. Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, M. (1976) Bemerkungen Gusinde, M. (1946) Urmenschen in Feuerland. Berlin. zur traditionellen Fischerei in Polen In: Studien zur Jenkins, J.G. (1974) Nets and Coracles. Newton Europäischen Traditionellen Fischerei. (ed. E. Solymos) Abbot. Bajai Dolgozatok 3, 17–34. DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 83

8 Line Fishing: Basic Implements

In his book Den store Slaederejse [The Great Sledge Many primitive line fisheries operate in this way. It Drive], the famous Danish explorer of Greenland, is a method that will suffice provided the prey main- Knut Rasmussen, describes how the Eskimos tains hold of the bait until it can be pulled from the caught trout by luring them from their hiding places water onto the shore or into the vessel.This method with small fish-shaped lures. The trout were then is practised not only in commercial fisheries but caught while their attention was fixed on the bait also in sport fishing. Crustaceans and molluscs, (Rasmussen 1946). The fish are taken with a clamp more than fish, are caught in this manner (Sunder (see Figure 7.4a) as is done by the Inuits of the Lal Hora 1935). Canadian Arctic. The bait serves only for attracting Crayfish especially can clasp and hold the bait the fish; subsequently they are clamped, speared or so fast with their claws that they can be caught in caught by any other method. It seems that this this way without any difficulty. In lobster fishing fishing method has spread all around the northern at night, a line with a small sinker and sufficient hemisphere. It is believed that the neolithic hunters mussel meat attached to it is released from a cata- of Siberia in the area of Lake Baikal used artificial maran to the bottom of the fishing ground. As soon fish-like baits made of stone or bone in the same as the bite of a lobster is felt, the line is hauled up manner to attract and catch fish (Okladnikow very slowly and the lobster is caught with a scoop 1972). net before reaching the water surface. This method The bait may also be presented to serve directly is used in many countries. Even today (pers. comm. for fishing. This is done by securing the bait in such 2000) Finnish fishermen use sticks set with bait for a manner that the fish can neither carry it away catching crayfish (Figure 8.1). The stick extends freely nor escape once they have taken it. So pre- above the surface of the water and sometimes sented, we think immediately of the line fishery leaves are attached whose movements show if a where these conditions are fulfilled. The principle crayfish is gnawing at the bait (Lehtonen 1975).This of line fishing is to offer a partly fixed bait to the idea is widely known, as shown by the use of a fish (or any other aquatic or non-aquatic animal similar method for catching crabs in Hawaii; a bait, which might be attracted), which accepts it and then marked by a float, is put on the sea bottom and finds itself unable to release the bait so that it can hauled carefully with the help of a scoop net be lifted from the water together with the bait. This (Hosaka 1973). The Finns know how to use single chapter will deal with the different implements or and multiple lines with bait for catching crayfish. fishing tackle which may be used to succeed in this Such lines can be replaced by the long intestine of method of catching. an animal. The crayfish will take the intestine and can be caught. This recalls a strange story told by 8.1 Bobbing the Greek poet Oppian who lived c. 149–179 AD (Oppian 1928). A long clean intestine was used for To meet this principle, nothing but attractive bait catching eels. The catching principle was explained fastened to a line of adequate length is necessary. by Oppian in the following manner: as soon as an

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Figure 8.1 Different types of Finnish set lines for fishing crayfish. Left, bait fixed directly on the stick without any line. (From Lehtonen 1975 with permission.)

eel begins to swallow one end of the gut, the fish- Figure 8.2 Trailing lure known as the ‘swimming rat’ for ermen blows it up from the other end, so that the catching octopus in Oceania. (Photo: G. Croom, eel cannot let go of the intestine! The Finnish Museum für Völkerkunde, Abt. Südsee, Berlin-Dahlem.) description of how this method works for catching crayfish will give a better explanation! Not only are crustaceans caught by using a line for their own benefit with the ‘swimming rat’ lure. and bait only, but also gastropods. Whelks fasten To catch the octopus the gear is moved up and themselves so firmly onto submerged pieces of down in a water depth of 20–50cm to imitate the crabs by the sucking action of the foot that they can swimming movements of a rat. If an octopus takes be drawn with them from the water. Octopi hold so the gear, it will be killed immediately under water fast to a supposed prey such as the boat-like lure by the fisherman pressing his fingers into its head named ‘specchio per seppie’ provided with mirrors (von Brandt pers. comm.). Nowadays, this gear is and towed by Italian and other Mediterranean also used in Hawaii, combined with a fishing hook fishermen, that to catch them is no trouble at all. in contrast to the other gear discussed in this Similar gear is the octopus trailing line used in section which is hookless. Oceania (Figure 8.2). This gear is made of a large A much simpler method is used by French fish- cowrie shell (Cypraea tigris) and a polished lime- ermen for catching cuttlefish with a hookless line. stone, fixed together with a wooden stick with the A small fish is split and attached to a fine nylon help of fibres of coconuts and hibiscus. This gear netting yarn. The cuttlefish will attack the bait and imitates a swimming rat which, according to fisher- begin to feed even as it is hauled in (Sinsoilliez men, will be attacked by the octopus as these 1970). The method for catching squid is similar. In animals are alleged to have hated each other since the coastal fishery of Dar-es-Salaam a red mullet time immemorial. Tradition has it that a long time is tied to a line and thrown out to attract squid ago a rat wanted to travel from one island to (Wenban-Smith 1963). When the animal has another but the distance was large and the rat was attached itself to the bait, the line is gently drawn afraid of the long swim. The rat told the problem to in. In all these cases the animal to be caught is an octopus offering help. The rat was asked to sit endeavouring to keep the bait and retain it, even if on the head of the octopus, which brought the faint- it is removed from the water together with the bait. hearted rat safely to the other island. The rat was It is easy to catch some species of crab, snails or happy to jump to the shore but then the octopus octopi in this way by bait alone. was asked to touch his head. When he did so he Attempting to catch fish in a similar manner is found that the rat had been not clean! more difficult. They let the bait go when they are Therefore it is not surprising that the octopus lifted from the water or, feeling some resistance, hates the rat even today, and fishermen exploit this they spit it out before they are lifted, and so escape. DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 85

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Figure 8.4 Eel bob; 30–40 sand worms threaded lengthwise on a twine.

lines without hooks, but with bait only, should be called ‘bait-lines’ (Lundbeck 1972). Even if this des- ignation may be the right one, it could be mixed with ‘lure-lines’ and ‘luring’, therefore the name ‘bobbing’ for this method of fishing has been retained. Bobbing as a method for catching fish seems to be practised all over the world. Different materials are used to make the bob: wool, hemp, hair and many others. Bobbing is practised in Turkey, by the Australian aborigines (Roughley 1968) and also in the aboriginal fishery of southern Africa (White 1956; MacLaren 1958). The Indians of California attached a bundle of vegetable fibres Figure 8.3 An eel taken by eel bobbing is hauled into a or human hair to the line, sometimes with a live wooden box. (From Quedens 1963 with permission.) worm fastened to the bundle (Hurum 1977). In eel bobbing the bait is either made from a piece of meat or more often from lobworms or sand worms, To prevent escape, the bait can be presented in such 30 to 40 being threaded lengthwise on a piece of a way that the fish hangs on to the bait involuntar- twine. This twine can be either single, as is often ily with its backward-pointing teeth and is thus made of rough hemp twine, or double. In double unable to let it go or to spit it out. A clear descrip- twine, a stronger twine is combined with a rougher tion of this method was given > 200 years ago in one such as a woollen thread. Some people think a German book (Schreber 1772) based on a pub- that it is essential to use woollen twine. The ‘eel lication of the famous Frenchmen, Duhamel du bob’ is ravelled up into a bunch, weighted with a Monceau and de la Marre (Duhamel du Monceau lead of 100–500g, and fastened to a strong line at 1769–82; Duhamel du Monceau & de la Marre least as long as the pole being used or usually much 1776–79). According to them a bunch of the moss longer, c. 9–14m (Went 1944) (Figure 8.4). The bob used for caulking vessels is fastened at the end of is lowered into the water until it rests on the bottom a long line and towed through the water behind a using a short, strong angling rod of c. 1–3 m, and vessel. Fish taking this ‘bait’ become entangled by then it is slowly moved up and down a handbreadth their teeth and are quickly taken by the fisherman. over the bottom. If an eel bites it, its incurved teeth A similar device is well-known today as an ‘eel become entangled in the rough threads of the bob bob’, used for eel fishing on dark stormy nights in long enough for it to be drawn from the water and north-west Europe (Lane 1978; Münster 1979) thrown onto the bank.This must, of course, be done (Figure 8.3). Accordingly this method is known as very quickly before the eel gets loose. Sometimes ‘bobbing’ or ‘blobbing’. It has been suggested that an old open umbrella is held upside down under the DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 86

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Figure 8.5 Yarn of silk for fishing Belonidae when towed by Turkish fishermen in the Bosphorus. The yarn is inge- niously wound around the hand and tied together for this purpose.

Figure 8.6 Spider-web bait designed to entangle the teeth of fish. This is used on some islands of Oceania. (Photo: Übersee-Museum, Bremen.) Figure 8.7 Gorges were used before hooks: (a) wooden gorge hidden in a bait which, when swallowed, is pulled eel so that it falls into it, as into a funnel, even if it across the gullet of the fish; (b) gorge from France for does get loose from the bait. Hobby fishermen eel, made of steel. make eel bobbing bags out of pieces of nylon hose with bait and weights (Loebell 1966). Turkish fish- bow, are rowing. The third man in the middle of ermen practise a more modern form of bobbing each of the two boats is responsible for a line by by ingeniously laying together small bunches of which the two boats are connected. Usually, five silk which they use when fishing for garfish in the baits of spider-web are fixed on this connecting line. Bosphorus (Figure 8.5). Nowadays this is used more The bait jumps over the water surface as the boats by hobby fishermen (pers. comm. 2000). are rowed forward, thereby attracting the garfish. Another fishery which uses bait into which the The fish try to take the bait and hang themselves fish pierces its small pointed teeth is perhaps better on the line. When the fish is removed the bait can known. This is the garfish fishery by aborigines in be used again. the north of Australia (Roughley 1968). The bait here is made of a ball of thick spider-web threads 8.2 Gorges (Figure 8.6) and has the same function as the rough twine of the eel bob. The garfish remain hanging The danger that the fish may let the bait go and with their small teeth entangled in the spider-web. escape is, of course, very great even with the Fishing with spider-web is known in New Guinea, methods just described. Effort has therefore been the Solomon Islands and Santa Cruz Islands. The made to find safety devices which will completely use of spider-web bait on Santa Cruz island was prevent the bait from being released by the prey. described recently. Two boats work together with The oldest device of that kind is apparently the three fishermen in each. Two, on the stern and the gorge (Figure 8.7).This is a small straight or slightly DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 87

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bent stick, pointed at either end, tied at the middle, and neighbouring countries (Figure 8.9) as well as and inserted lengthwise into bait held more or less from the northern areas of Asia, Europe, America, parallel to the line. Thus the gorge goes easily into Africa (MacLaren 1958) and the Arctic (Anell the fish when it swallows the bait. But when the fish 1955). In Europe, gorges have been used since the swims away or the line is pulled, the gorge takes up Palaeolithic period. They were made of wood, stiff a transverse position in the victim’s throat or belly grass, bone, horn, flint, and later, up to the present so that it cannot spit it out. Gorges have been used time, of metal. Gorge fishing is certainly one of the in all five continents, not only in fishing but also in oldest fishing methods of all. Besides the wooden hunting, especially for taking birds and sometimes gorge pointed at either end with a line fastened in also for catching larger beasts of prey. the centre, there are also gorges with only one Very often gorges and gorge-like devices are used pointed end and a line fastened at the other end. for catching crocodiles (Figure 8.8). Gorges used in Finally there are cross-shaped gorges which spread line fisheries are especially common from Oceania open when the line is pulled, and others in the form of arrowheads which have the same effect. In books on angling, especially in those written in the 19th century, there are usually descriptions of how to use darning needles for ‘sniggling’ – primarily for eels (von Ehrenkreuz 1852; von dem Borne & Quint 1974). In the French fishery, metal gorges with central fastenings were recommended even in the middle of the last century for catching eels (Figure 8.7b) (Geuenich 1940; Renard 1955). A special form of this gorge method of fishing is the ‘spring angle’, and this was also still used in the 1970s in China (Kasuga 1975). The catching or, better still, the holding device of the spring angle consists of a small bent wooden stick pointed at Figure 8.8 Mustad double hook for catching crocodiles. both ends and bound in the bent position. It is either covered with bait or the bait is fastened between the tied-up sides of the spring gorge (Figure 8.10). As soon as the bait is swallowed, the fastening becomes loose and the small piece of wood springs open in the throat of the fish. This, too, is a gorge, since the

Figure 8.9 Gorge-like implements from Botel Tobago (Lan Yü) for catching flying fishes (1970). The small yarn Figure 8.10 Chinese spring gorge for catching carp. on one end is for fastening the bait. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.) DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 88

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elastic material such as bamboo which is used, takes as a part of a twig with a thorn, can be considered up that special form. Spring gorges are also known like a stick with a point or even barb. Maybe man for hunting and fishing from many widely separated learned by chance how useful this pointed or places such as Australia, Indonesia, India, the barbed stick could be in fishing, but larger ones Congo, southern France, Alaska and northern have not been found. Man had to make them Canada and south-eastern North America. himself by joining two pieces of wood together to form a compound hook (Figure 8.12). The result is 8.3 Forerunners of modern hooks not exactly a ‘bent hook’ because the point is attached to the stick at a narrow angle. The bent hook is another and even better-known Wooden hooks have been known not only in device for holding a fish captive once it has taken small-scale fisheries, e.g. in Scandinavian countries the bait. The gorge is certainly older than the from the end of the 19th century (Hurum 1977), but curved hook. Some people think there could be also in developed fisheries such as those for stur- some relation between a W-shaped gorge (Figure geon, halibut and oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus). But 8.8) and a curved double hook (see Figure 8.15e). the problem with wooden hooks, in contrast to The modern angling hook has probably not devel- hooks of metal, is that they may float, and this had oped from the gorge, but was a different solution to an influence on the construction of fishing gear, as the same problem. Also the curved hook is not a will be shown with the sturgeon hooks in Chapter specific fishing implement. Like the gorge it is also 12. Humans learned to make hooks from materials used in hunting, especially for catching birds. There more durable than wood. The hooks, of compound have been many theories on how the bent fishing structure or in one piece, were made from shells, hook, as the basis of modern hooks, came to be invented. There is some evidence that implements like a bent fishing hook may originally have been made of various perishable materials of plant and animal origin. Hooks of thorn were used.They were made of small parts of plants with thorns such as hawthorn (Figure 8.11). These thorn hooks were still used in Europe up to the last century. They were even described as being used around the Thames estuary up to 1895 (Bickerdyke 1895). On the coast of Wales, wooden hooks made of black- thorn, Prunus spinosa, were still used in 1929 (Matheson 1929). The thorns were hardened by baking and were considered ‘fairly effective’ for longlining. Such a wooden hook, grown naturally

Figure 8.11 Natural thorn hook of a type used in Figure 8.12 Compound steam-bent halibut hook made the Towy estuary, Wales. (From Matheson 1929 with of cedar wood by the Bella Coola Indians in Western permission.) Vancouver. DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 89

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cially human bones, as made by the old-time craftsmen of Oceania, are to be found only among the carefully protected treasures of fishery collec- tions. These hooks, especially the compound hooks of Polynesia used for trolling bonito, may be among the most highly specialized fishing hooks in Oceania (Nordhoff 1930) and, not surprisingly, some knowledge of their construction has survived. After the end of World War II, compound hooks for poling skipjack and small yellowfin were found in use on the Gilbert Islands and had a shank roughly made of mother-of-pearl and an unbarbed point made of plastic material. The hook ended as usual had some feathers.In another case,the same trolling lure for tuna had a hook made of aluminium from a downed World War II aircraft and the twine needed for lashing, as well as the decorative ‘feathers’, had been replaced by plastic material (Carver 1980). In 1975, FAO in Rome published a gear catalogue to help small-scale fishermen (Nédélec 1975). This Figure 8.13 Compound hooks used in the spinning catalogue includes a modern compound hook from fishery for bonito in Oceania: (a) big hook – the shank Tahiti for pole-and-line fishing for skipjack (Figure is made of whalebone and mother-of-pearl, the barb of tortoiseshell; (b) hook made of mother-of-pearl; (c) small 8.14). The shank is made of shell, but the earlier hook made of bone and mother-of-pearl; (d) small hook form of point is replaced by a long hook of metal of mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell. fixed to the shank by a synthetic line. A bunch of monofilaments forms the lure instead of feathers. bones and other animal products. Even bent hooks of stone have been found. In general, compound (or 8.4 Modern fishing hooks composite) hooks are considered to be cultural ele- ments of northern Eurasia (Anell 1955). Their use Important progress in line fishing came with the was widely spread and they probably reached their invention of bronze. Now hooks in many forms maximum development in the bonito fishery of could be made in one piece; compound ones, labour- Oceania (Lagercrantz 1934). The compound hook intensive in their construction, were no longer nec- spread as far as Madagascar. The Oceanian bonito essary. Metal replaced the former materials. Iron hooks are of great interest (Figure 8.13) as they hooks were used for fishing as were hooks made of combine an attracting lure with a point. The shank copper or brass. Even hooks made of gold, originat- of the hook is a glittering lure made of shell and/or ing from prehistoric times in Europe or from pre- bone; the point is sometimes made of stronger European times in other continents, have been material, and also shell, turtle shell or other mater- found.The modern curved hooks used nowadays in ial. To increase the luring effect, some feathers, commercial fisheries are always well-tempered hackle and also pearls are fixed to the end of the metal hooks. They should be neither too soft, to hook. The most popular Polynesian type of hook avoid their straightening out by pulling, nor too has the line attached to the head of the shank hard to prevent their breaking under strain. Iron with a lashing of fine cord (Nordhoff 1930). The hooks, however, become rusty, especially in sea knowledge of how to make such compound hooks, water, if not made of stainless steel or nickel alloy. however, had almost vanished from Oceania by the They must be protected by one of several different second half of the 19th century because of the intru- methods including galvanizing, tinning, gilding, sion of European influence. bronzing, enamelling, plating with gold, silver, Thus today the beautiful hooks composed of nickel, cadmium or copper, lacquering (japanning) mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, whalebone and espe- or by simple ‘blueing’. Generally, tinned hooks are DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 90

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Figure 8.15 More variations of the simple hook: (a) hand-made iron hook without barb from Lake Tanganyika; (b) hook made in Norway for the Japanese tuna fishery with a point like a barb; (c) shellfish hook of Oceania with the barb outside, from the Island of Yap; (d) hand-made Japanese iron tuna hook with the barb inside; (e) double hook; (f) triple hook; (g) Chinese quadruple hook.

Figure 8.14 Compound hook used for skipjack in Tahiti. (Photo: FAO.)

preferred. Some manufacturers have acquired great skill and experience in this field and supply com- mercial and sports fishermen all over the world with their hooks. Before describing the modern bent form of hooks, the circular ones made of metal can be men- tioned (Figure 8.15a–d). These more or less com- pletely round hooks are found in different places and are considered very effective as the fish, when caught, slide towards the centre of the hook and cannot escape (Brelsfjord 1946). This is why circu- lar hooks are also used today in tuna fishery. More- Figure 8.16 The parts of the modern bent fishing hook. over, Norwegian investigations showed that hooks with the point in the line of the pull, or with the point in the direction of the hook eye, have a higher point (Figure 8.16).The head of the hook serves for hooking frequency than conventional ones. Never- fastening the line and is shaped as an eye, loop, theless, modern hooks are more V- or U-shaped. plate, or is simply notched on the front of the shank Different parts are distinguishable and are named so that the line can be fastened on properly. The for comparison: head or eye, shank, bend, crook and shank can be of varying length and form. Its cross- DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 91

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Hollow Tapered Tapered point eye shank Curved Marked Ball eye shank in point Kirbed Reversed Superior Looped Marked Straight point eye tapered shank Shank cross sections Dublin Needle Flatted point eye shank Knife Flatted Knobbed Regular Forged edge point Hole in flat shank

Four slices Turned down in shank ball eye Ringed hook Turned up tapered eye Turned up ball eye Tipped shank Turned down bent back Eyed hook tapered eye Figure 8.17 Terminology of fish Sliced hook features. (From Bjordal & shank Løkkeborg 1996 with permission.)

section can be round (regular) or flattened eye of the fish when the bait is taken or the line is (forged). Especially long shanks are designed to pulled, so that the fish becomes fast. For this reason prevent a fish, after swallowing the hook, from a good hook needs to have a needle-sharp point for biting the line and escaping. The bend and crook of effective penetration, correct shape for holding the the hook varies in shape: round or angular with all catch, perfect hardening to avoid breaking, and possible variations. The point of the hook may be high rust resistance. To make the hook corrosion either straight or even reversed and curved. Major resistant, it is coated using electrolysis with differ- variations within the basic hook shapes and fea- ent metals such as tin, nickel, cadmium or combi- tures are shown in Figure 8.17. nations of these or other anticorrosive materials. There are well-known hook types in many dif- One of the weak areas can be the point. In many ferent sizes but, unfortunately, different systems of fisheries, sharpening the point is carried out regu- numbers are used for hook designation. Very often larly and needs much working time, particularly in no detail is given about the form, size or real length the sturgeon fishery.A sharp point depends also on of either the hook, or (which is much more impor- the material of which the hook is made.Those made tant) its gap and especially its spread (Figure 8.16). of nickel alloy do not rust, but their points cannot Sometimes the throat is mentioned – that is, the be as needle sharp as required. One of the common depth between the gap and the inside of the bend. characteristic features in modern hook design is There is no way of knowing something about a that the point of the hook is bent towards the eye hook by the number alone, unless the name of the or the shank (Figure 8.18). A hook with such a manufacturer and the type of the hook (quality shape has the point towards the line of pull which number) is also given and a catalogue is available. ensures that the tension placed on the snood is The number alone indicates only if a hook of the more effectively transferred to the point of the same type is smaller or larger. In general the higher hook. The penetrating force applied by the point number indicates a smaller hook and vice versa, but and the hooking probability will therefore be larger this is not always so! Usually No. 20 is the smallest than for a usual J-hook. size and hooks increase in size from No. 20 to No. Even though the history of fishing hooks goes 1, beyond which larger hooks are designated 1/0, 2/0 back thousands of years, it is well known that the and so on, sometimes running up to 16/0 and more. first bent hooks were barbless. Older Egyptian and The purpose of a fishing hook is to ensure that Roman hooks made of metal were without barbs, the fish is unable to spit it out with the bait after which were introduced later. In southern and biting or swallowing it. It penetrates into the mouth central Africa, no barbed hooks were known until DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 92

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J–hook

Figure 8.18 Different types of fish hook designs developed from the traditional Rush EZ J-hook (From Bjordal & Løkkeborg 1996 with permission.) Wide gap Circle–hook

imported hooks from Europe became available to useful, but it is not necessary for the barb to be be copied (MacLaren 1958). There are different fitted directly to the point of the hook.This explains reasons for attaching barbs on fishing hooks. The why in some hooks of ancient fisheries, the barb is most important is to prevent the fish slipping off further away from the point than in the others. Its the hook. In Chapter 6, about spears and harpoons, purpose then is mainly to secure the bait and less the barb was mentioned as being a method of pre- to effect the catch; the hook, but not the barb, does venting the prey from escaping. But as long as the that. Usually the barb for holding the fish points to fishing line can be kept under tension, no barb is the inner side of the hook, that is, it is fitted into the required on the hook.Accordingly, in some modern bow of the hook in Europe, Asia and Africa. It can, line-fishing methods where it is desired that the fish however, when made to secure the bait, also be be removed quickly from the hook – such as with pointed to the outside, as for hooks from large areas the commercial tuna pole-and-line fishery – the of South America, Oceania (Figure 8.15c) and in barbed hook is abandoned and only a plain hook is the ancient Japanese fishery before the Buddhist used. This is because a barb would hinder the oper- era. There is always one barb only pointing to the ation of freeing the fish and releasing the line for inner side, but there can be as many as three on the further catches. In this case tension must be kept on outer side (Kishinouge 1941). Modern hooks with the pole-and-line so that the fish does not slip off additional barbs are nowadays called ‘sliced’ hooks. the hook before being landed on deck. Some sports There can be up to four ‘slices’, two inside and two fishermen also use barbless hooks or those with outside (Figure 8.17). The slices were, it is said, wavy points, especially when they wish to return originally made for very special bait, namely small, undersized fish to the water without injury. salmon roe. But now sliced hooks are also made to Nevertheless, most modern hooks made of metal secure other types of bait such as worms, mussels are, with few exceptions, barbed. Even older types flesh, etc. (Figures 8.17 and 12.29). For use with of fishing hooks like the compound ones, which dough baits, cheese, blood baits, marshmallows, etc., were originally barbless, can now have a barb for trebles were developed that are fitted with a brass this reason (Figure 8.13a). spring for holding all kinds of soft baits (Figure But there are other reasons why a fishing hook 8.19). can be barbed. The hook also has to serve the func- Bait can be fixed on a hook also in quite another tion of holding the bait for which a barbed hook is manner. A special form is the rubber-covered hook DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 93

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Figure 8.19 Special barbed hook for soft bait.

Figure 8.20 Rubber-covered hook.

Figure 8.22 Fish hook from Botel Tobago with a piece of yarn to fix the bait, here a flying fish, which is also secured to the line by a gorge. The line is used to catch dolphin.

rotating hook enables the point of the hook to twist and to penetrate the jaws of the big bass. Another method is to provide the hook with a little piece of yarn to fix the bait. Such ‘bait cords’ are known from Oceania and up to Taiwan and Hawaii in the north (Figure 8.22).There are two other reasons why hooks have a barb besides securing the hooked Figure 8.21 Hook with plastic worm for catching giant bass. fish or the bait. First, a barb can be required to prevent the point of a hook penetrating too deeply into the fish (Nordhoff 1930), even though this used in cod fishing. In this case the shank of the seems to be in contrast to the idea that the barb has hook is curved in a special way to keep the rubber to anchor the hook into the fish. The second reason ‘worm’ in its place (Figure 8.20). Mostly the bait has relates to ripping hooks (Chapter 12) for sturgeon no influence on the form of the hook. Another lines (Figure 12.16), which have a barb designed to plastic worm was developed for catching giant bass prevent the line of a little float, fixed on the bend (Figure 8.21). The pertinent so-called automatic of the hook, from slipping away. DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 94

94 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 8.24 Tandem hook for catching trout and Figure 8.23 Turkish tandem hook (1971). salmon.

In general, fishing hooks are used singly, but which take the place of money (south India several bent hooks of the same type can also be 1600–1900). Therefore, as such hooks are never combined in a bunch. Double and triple hooks, and used for fishing, they not only have strange forms in some places also quadruple hooks (Figure 8.15g) but are also made of unusual and often precious are used. Hooks of the same type and size can also materials. be combined one after the other. For instance the Turkish fishermen use such ‘tandem hooks’ (Figure 8.5 Lines and casts 8.23) where three hooks are soldered to two or three pieces of connecting wire (Mengi 1977). This Fishing with bait, with or without a hook, or with a tandem can be considered as one multiple hook, hook, with or without special bait (sometimes the because all the hooks are hidden in one fish, which hook itself can be an attractive bait) is known as is used as bait. Moreover, there is a little barb above ‘line fishing’ or ‘hook-and-line fishing’, but the the hooks to attach them to the bait.Tandem hooks gear is called only ‘line’. This method of fishing is are also used in other places for catching trout with considered inexpensive because little capital is worms or salmon with cut or whole herring baits required to obtain the simple but effective gear and (Figure 8.24). a vessel, if one is needed. Therefore line fishing is There are many complicated hooks with and used all over the world with the exception of fishery without barbs both on the outer as well as on the which is practised in virgin woods. For obvious inner side, but often hooks are made for ceremo- reasons, a line that would be easily entangled in nial and other purposes only.There are even hooks trees and bushes is unsuited for such areas. DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 95

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In the past, lines were made from many different natural plant fibres such as cotton, linen, hemp and even manila, or from fibres produced by animals, such as silk and hair. Nowadays, fishing lines are made of synthetic material, especially transparent monofilaments of polyamide (PA) but also of twisted polyethylene (PE). The breaking strength of lines in commercial fisheries must be high enough to cope with the weight of the fish to be caught to avoid losses by breaking, but on the other hand they should not be excessively thick as this can decrease their efficiency nor too fine, to allow for ease of handling. Nevertheless, some fish can bite a line in two, especially after swallowing the hook, which may have a short shank. To avoid this, hooks with longer shanks can be used or a special strong section of line, known as the ‘cast’ or ‘leader’, is fixed between the hook and line. This cast can be made of wire or even chain (Figure 8.25) and be of more or less rough structure, depending on the size of the hook and the biting power of the fish that is to be caught. Horse-hair, whalebone, leather strips, rubber cord, silk or, as is usual today, synthetic monofilaments, are also used as casts. In addition to chains, piano wire is also used for catching sharks, because they can destroy the line not only with their teeth but also with their hard, rough skin (Steuben & Krefft 1978). Generally, a long line will let the hook sink in deeper water and also allows the hook to be cast further from the fisherman on shore or in a boat. This is also why lines are fixed on long rods as for so-called pole-and-line fishery. It is also possible to fish without line, with a hook fixed directly on the end of a pole.The Japanese use poles of c.4m long, on the end of which are very short lines with weighted quadruple hooks, to catch bullfrogs at night with the help of lights. They also use a hook on the point of the stick, baited by a frog, to catch catfish. This method of ‘lineless line fishing’ was known in ancient times. A pre- Columbian vase with a relief showing a Peruvian fisherman with a stick in his hand has even been found. This pole ends in the mouth of a fish which may have been caught in the same manner (Nachti- Figure 8.25 Chain leader between hook and swivel. gall 1966). It seems that lineless line fishing was spread over wide areas. In a report about endemic lineless gear was then used for angling (MacLaren fishing in central and southern Africa, such a 1958). Finally, an old German report (Schreber method is mentioned, in addition to hookless 1772) describes catching eels using a pointed stick angling. In this case, men of the BaVenda tribe cut on which a fat worm has been pierced. The eels are all the thorns off a branch except the last one. This so eager to take this bait that they can be lifted with DFC8 4/23/05 9:31 PM Page 96

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Figure 8.27 Attachment of swivels to a monofilament mainline (a–c) and a twisted multifilament mainline (d–f).

swivel connection. This gain was explained by the reduced loss of fish during hauling, as the swivel prevents twisting of the snoods so that their flexi- Figure 8.26 Different types of swivels for line fishing. bility is maintained. When using swivel-connected snoods, fishermen also found that the work of de- twisting snoods was significantly reduced. The the stick out of the water, similar to bobbing. Such swivel also makes it possible to use monofilament gear without lines is exceptional; however, they are snoods with multifilament mainlines, and this has a form of line fishing in spite of the misleading become common practice in the Norwegian coastal name. fisheries for cod and haddock (Bjordal & Løkke- borg 1996). 8.6 Swivels, stops, rotating links To fix the swivel with the hook line at the main- and snaps line at a determined and constant distance, differ- ent types of single or double stops are used (Figure Like the hook, the swivel is also a basic implement 8.27). The stops can be made of different materials in all kinds of line fishing and serves to prevent (yarn, plastic, metal). The advantage of the types in twisting or entangling of a line or snood. Some prin- Figure 8.27(c), (e) and (f) against those in Figure cipal types of swivels are shown in Figure 8.26. The 8.27(a), (b) and (d) is that during mechanized swivel size is adapted to the necessary strength, hauling, the mainline forms an almost parallel diameter of line and size of bait. Swivels must rotate trace with the snood. In the other types, an angle easily. They can be arranged at the change of one between the swivel-eye and the mainline can kind of snood to another (Figure 8.25) or, for negatively influence the de-twisting function or longlining, attach snoods to the mainline. With the the slide through any guide rollers. The quick-snap- introduction of monofilament lines, traditional line with one metallic or plastic stop, a rotating snood attachment by tying was difficult because of link and a clip also has this advantage (Figure the stiff and slippery character of the monofilament 8.28d). In this type, the clip eye not only enables a material. The common solution was to use swivels quick clip in of a monofilament snood with a on the mainline to which the snoods were attached knotted end, but also the rotation of such a snood (Figure 8.27a–c) and later this connection was also without a swivel. Some other types of lines with a favoured for multifilament lines (Figure 8.27d–f). quick-snap mechanism for the snoods and hooks Norwegian researchers showed in the mid-1980s are shown in Figure 8.28(a)–(c). If the snood is that catch rates could be increased by use of a detached during hauling and only the mainline is DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 97

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Figure 8.28 Quick-snap connection of a snood to the mainline. DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 98

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have been at least two independent developments, for lines first and later for other fishing gear. It is on record that the old English or Irish sport Mainline fishermen used small boards shearing sideways (now forbidden in Britain) to carry their lines out from the bank into the current of a river for catch- ing trout and pike (Davis 1958). If there is some current to tow a line away from the bank, it is only necessary to fix a small board,fastened to a so-called ‘crow’s-foot’, at an oblique angle to the current.The more oblique its position, the more will it be pressed Clip (snap) to one side. But it should not be put into the water too obliquely (the so-called ‘angle of attack’). The aim is to maintain the sideways pressing power of the current as much as possible but to suffer from the backward pressing power as little as possible. A board held directly across the current is pressed backwards only and no longer has any shearing power.A board held in line with the current also has no shearing power. So a mean or compromise posi- tion has to be found. Otter boards operate on the principle of the kite, but it is the water and not the Branchline (snood) wind which creates the shearing effect. Water cur- rents permit otter boards to shear both vertically and horizontally. The purpose of the otter board in line fishing, here described first, is to shear in the horizontal direction. The same effect can also be Figure 8.29 Quick-snap connection without swivel. achieved by towing a line with a shearing board through the water, e.g. by a person moving along the shore, or in a boat. In either case the line will be stored on a drum, other special clips are also used moved away from the fisherman by the board as far (see Chapter 9). as the length of the line will allow.Short branch lines For a quick attachment of long baited snoods in with hooks at intervals are tied on to the line con- pelagic longlining (see Chapter 9) special snaps necting the board with the boat or the fisherman (Figure 8.29) in different sizes were developed. and in this way four or more artificial flies, spinners These snaps are also used for the attachment of or other lures can be operated. Sometimes flies are traps, pots or shelter boxes to the longline type of attached directly to the otter board. The wooden such fisheries (see Chapters 16 and 17). board has a strip of lead on the lower side, so that it floats upright. It may also have a strip of cork on its 8.7 Otter boards upper side for the same reason. As far as is known, the oldest publication describing the use of otter Some people may wonder why otter boards and boards in this way by sports fishermen appeared in other types of shearing device are mentioned as 1855 by von Schmidt, i.e. at least 20 years before the accessories of line fishing. There is evidence that otter board was first mentioned for use with trawls these implements were used in line fishing before (Holdsworth 1874). It has also been stated that the they were used with other types of fishing gear such weighting of the board and the movement of the as trawls (Chapter 26), stow nets (Chapter 24) and water would be sufficient to allow the board to drift seine nets (Chapter 28).This does not mean that the completely free like a floatline, and that safe return other fishing methods have acquired the use of to the bank was assured (Jenkins 1974). In commer- otter boards from line fishing. It may be that there cial fisheries such boards have been, and still are, DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 99

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Figure 8.31 Swedish otter board for fishing for char in Lake Vättern or for salmon and trout on the Swedish sea coast.

such as California. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the Finns catch grayling with troll lines equipped with simple shearing boards and artificial flies. But this catching method is no longer a remarkable method but rather an extreme hobby for a few fishermen in the northern parts of Bothnia Bay and in some lakes where grayling are still abundant. It is forbidden in running waters in Finland. Altogether trolling for Figure 8.30 Equipment for directing horizontal shear- trout, salmon, perch and pike became very popular ing: (a) shearing boats with troll lines for mackerel in the Bay of Kiel, Germany; (b) otter board for mackerel lines; in Finland in the late 1980s. Before that, most (c) mackerel fishery with otter boards; (d) Swiss trolling was operated from small rowboats and only ‘Seehund’ (seal) for troll lines for catching sea trout. a few lines were used. Today the vessels are highly (From Hunziker 1950 with permission.) equipped motor boats and fishing is much more efficient than it was previously (pers. comm. 2000). The shearing equipment may be a simple board used for a slightly different purpose. When trolling only, but there are also more complicated ones many lines behind a boat, it is necessary to keep the such as the Swedish otter board used for catching lines clear of each other to avoid entangling, and for char in Lake Vättern or for salmon and trout on the this reason shearing boards were used off the coast Swedish sea coast (Figure 8.31). Compared with of south Devon. The implements were operated these boards, some of the so-called ‘Seehunde’ with the concave side facing toward the direction of (meaning seals) of the Swiss lake fishermen, which the towing vessel (Peters 1935). are used for catching single lake trout, must be Until the 1950s, the German mackerel fishery in regarded as perfect. As can be seen from Figure the western Baltic used small wooden boards towed 8.30(d), the connecting line between vessel and behind a boat (Figure 8.30a).The branch lines were board is connected to the top of the mast. This is to not hung on the connecting line but on the board prevent the resistance of the line towed through itself (von Brandt 1952), the advantage being that, the water from decreasing the shearing effect of when the fish bites, the board is tilted and rises flatly the board. Newer rules in Germany (1997) prohibit to the surface, thus signalling that a fish has been troll lines for sailing vessels in Lake Constance and caught by that line.The same method is also known only motor boats can use them. The so-called in the lake and river fisheries of Norway, Sweden ‘Hund’, which is used as an otter board, is shown in and Finland, and also in other parts of the world Figure 8.32. The special design of some of these DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 100

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Figure 8.33 Equipment for causing vertical shearing in deep water: (a) Japanese type; (b) surfing paravane for sport fishermen; (c) Swedish paravane for mackerel.

Figure 8.32 Double otter board for fishing with troll lines on Lake Constance (Institute in Langenargen 1981). and third, to announce the catch. When a fish takes the hook, this is shown by the board tilting and rising to the surface. Several hooks can be towed with this line. It is interesting to note that dummy boards, which is favourable for steering, makes baits (but without hooks) are also attached to the them, of course, far more expensive than the simple towing line in front of the board. The Japanese use boards used by mackerel fishermen.They are there- these shallow-depth shearing boards, also called fore much more suited to the sports fisherman than divers, for catching small tuna and dolphin and also to the commercial fisherman, who prefers simple for catching large mackerel. boards. As the shearing boards are made of wood, fish- Besides lateral shearing boards, boards are used ermen can make them themselves. But if wood is in line fishing, that shear downwards to take the line not available, a new idea conceived by Captain Hu down to certain predetermined depths. The macke- (Hu 1974) in 1974 showed how such a diving imple- rel paravane developed in Sweden is an example ment for a troll line can be made in a simple manner of such a device (Figure 8.33c). When the fish (Figure 8.34) using a tin can. The tin can, with top strikes, the paravane returns to the surface and the and bottom removed, operates as shearing device, line is hauled in. Better known in commercial fish- held with a line system by a clip. To keep the can at eries are the shallow-depth shearing boards used the right angle, some lead is fixed to the lower side by Japanese professional line fishermen (Figure (Figure 8.34a). When a fish takes the hook, the 8.33a).They are narrow boards either flat or slightly shock releases the can from the clip and the shear- bent, and weighted with lead at the lower side of ing device comes to the surface announcing the the front edge. At the rear end the boards have two catch (Figure 8.34b) (Ben-Yami 1980). wings. These little boards are towed by a connect- ing line which begins quite near the anterior edge of the board. The line with the hook is fastened to 8.8 The kite one of the two rear wings or else in the centre The description of shearing devices used in fisheries between the two wings. This board has three func- with troll lines would be incomplete without men- tions: first, to take the fishing line to the desired tioning an instrument which may be called the depth; second, by wobbling, to move the hook so mother of all shearing devices; namely, the kite. that it simulates the actions of a tumbling, sick fish; China is thought to be the homeland of the kite DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 101

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and from here the knowledge of how to make and or from the Banda group. Like children’s kites, the use it has gradually spread throughout Asia and Indonesian kite is made of paper or dried pandanus beyond. Originally the kite may have been used for leaves, sewn together and set in a bamboo frame. religious and ceremonial purposes only. Kites were Such a kite can be quite large, c.1m long and also used for prize-fighting in Japan, and are used 50cm wide. The line for taking the kite into the air as toys all over the world. Kites have been used for is c. 100m long.The tail line runs to 75m and carries physical experiments and for meteorological obser- the spider-web lure or a ball of cotton waste at its vations. In the past, kites have also been used for end. Fishing is operated from small boats or canoes operating lines in the fisheries of south-west Asia, with a crew of two (Figure 8.35). One person keeps especially to catch garfish, sometimes bonito and the boat up against the wind, or if the wind is too other fish in Micronesia, Polynesia and the Philip- strong, then athwart it. The other person handles pines (Forbes 1946; Anell 1955). Formerly kite fish- the kite. The line must be continuously pulled to eries may have been widespread, even though it keep the bait moving on the water. Once the fish may be presumed to have been hampered for reli- (garfish) has been caught, both kite and line are gious reasons (Lundbeck 1972). According to tra- hauled on board for the fish to be removed and the dition, kite fishery was introduced into Indonesia kite prepared for another flight. This type of fishing from the Philippines, from the Larantuka Islands, takes place from about May until October when the easterly and south-easterly winds are the right strength. The fishermen operate c. 200m from the land. In general the different reports and observa- tions of kite fishing repeat this description, but the techniques may have been different in some areas. The kite is generally made of leaves strengthened with palm veins and is flown at the end of a line of sufficient length, when the boat is rowed against the wind. In some areas of Indonesia the first part of the line was led through a ring at the top of a bamboo stick (Doogue 1974), looking like a fishing pole held by one person in the anchored boat. A second line with the bait at the end hung from the tail of the kite. This bait could be, as mentioned, a bunch of spider webs (Figure 8.6) to catch garfish, or a hook with a piece of sharkskin to catch bonito. The bait can also be a small fish with a snare to catch garfish, Belone belone. Reports agree on the fact that the kite has to fly in such a way that the bait more or less dances on the surface of the water and thus induces fish to snap at it. When the fish is taken, the kite has to be hauled in to get the prey. abThis old method includes much observation of Figure 8.34 Troll line for tunny: the diving can, accord- fish behaviour and has not disappeared completely ing to Captain L. C. Hu, Christchurch, New Zealand. in commercial fisheries. On the contrary, the method has been improved as can be seen from the

Figure 8.35 Fishing kites operated from little boats or canoes. DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 102

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following report published about 30 years ago from improvement of a very old fishing method. As will the Santa Cruz Islands (Koch 1971). Here also two be shown later (Chapter 10) kite fishing has sur- people, a man and his wife, are needed for the oper- vived not only in some commercial fisheries but has ation of the gear. One person sits in front to row also been adopted in modern sport fishing. the boat against the wind while the other person operates the kite flying at 10–29m high. As usual, 8.9 Stabilizers the ideal technique is considered to be the spider- web bait jumping over the water surface. If the bait Stabilizers are not shearing boards and they do not is taken, the line of the kite is hauled in by rowing work directly with the fishing gear, but they are backwards, but only so far as necessary to reach the often mentioned with troll lining, especially for line with the fish, leaving the kite flying so that salmon trolling. They consist of two boards hanging fishing can be resumed immediately after the catch from the main poles of the troller, one on each side is removed. This can be considered as a modern of the vessel. Originally made of wood, they are

Figure 8.36 Sea anchor to adjust the drifting speed of a fishing boat jigging for squid.

Plastic float

Retrieval rope Tightening rope Float rope Anchoring rope

Swivel

Guy ropes Sinker(lead)

Parachute

Sinker(lead)

Figure 8.37 Modern parachute type of sea anchor. DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 103

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now made of galvanized metal and are available in Duhamel du Monceau, H.L. (1769/82) Traité des pêches, different sizes according to the size of the trolling et histoire des poissons. Neuchâtel. vessel. von Ehrenkreuz (1852) Das Ganze der Angelfischerei und ihre Geheimnisse. Quedlinburg/Leipzig. The purpose of the stabilizers is to eliminate Forbes, M. (1946) Fishing with kite and spider web. jerking and to minimize the roll of the vessel when Natural History 56, 488–489. cruising or trolling during poor weather conditions. Geuenich, E. (1940) Moderne Knebelangeln in The boards are mostly triangular, with a vertical Frankreich. Monatshefte für Fischerei 8, 96. Hamabe, M., Hamuro, C. & Ogura, M. (1982) Squid vane on the upper side that serves to keep the Fishing from Small Boats. FAO Fisheries Technology board on course. The stabilizers make it possible to Service.Fishing News Books, Farnham. work more safely on the deck of the vessel in rough Holdsworth, E.W.H. (1874) Deep-sea Fishing and Fishing waters, and so probably increases the time that can Boats. London. be spent at sea. Hosaka, E.Y. (1973) Shore Fishing in Hawaii. Hawaii. Hu, L.C. (1974) Diving lines for tuna. World Fishing Stabilizers are also known in squid jigging with 32 (7). boats (see Chapter 12). To adjust the drifting speed Hunziker, H. (1950) ABC für Sportfischer. Zürich. and direction of the boat towards the squid, the sea Hurum, H.J. (1977) A History of the Fish Hook and the anchor was introduced (Hamabe et al. 1982). In Story of Mustad, the Hook Maker. London. addition a mizzen sail was rigged near the stern to Jenkins J.G. (1974) Nets and Coracles. Newton Abbot. keep the boat with its bow into the wind (Figure Kasuga Osaka, L. (ed.) (1975) Catálogo de Artes y 8.36). This original sail type sea anchor was later Métodos de Pesca Artesanales de la República Popular replaced by the parachute type (Figure 8.37) which China. Instituto Nacional de Pesca, México [in is more convenient to handle. Both types require a Spanish]. simple method for collapsing the sail or a parachute Kishinouge, K. (1941) Prehistoric fishing in Japan. Journal of the College of Agriculture Imperial University Tokyo for hauling in with the least possible force. In addi- II, 327–382. tion to keeping the vessels with the bow into the Koch, G. (1971) Die materielle Kultur der Santa wind, the mizzen sail also serves to dampen rolling Cruz-Inseln. Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für in a seaway and thus reduces the risk of entangling Völkerkunde Berlin NF 21. Berlin. and breaking the jigging lines. Lagercrantz, S. (1934) Fish-hooks in Africa and their dis- tribution. Ryksmuseets Ethnografiska Avddelning No. 12. Lane, P.(1978) Eels and their utilization. Marine Fisheries References Review 40 (4), 1–20. Lehtonen, J.U.E. (1975) Kansanomainen Ravustus ja Anell, B. (1955) Contribution to the History of Fishing in Rapujen Hyväksikäytto Suomessa.[The Popular Southern Seas. Uppsala. Methods to Catch Crayfish and their Use in Finland.] Ben-Yami, M. (1980) Tuna fishing with pole and line. FAO Helsinki [in Finnish]. and Fishing News Books, Farnham. Loebell, R. (1966) So fängt man Aale. Hamburg. Bickerdyke, J. (1895) Sea Fishing. London. Lundbeck, J. (1972) Die Fischerei von den Naturvölkern Bjordal, A. & Løkkeborg, S. (1996) Longlining.Fishing bis zur modernen Technik und Wirtschaft: Fangver- News Books, Farnham. fahren und-Geräte der Fischerei. Mitteilungen des Insti- von den Borne, M. & Quint, W. (1974) Die Angelfischerei. tuts für Seefischerei 13, 37–142. Hamburg/Berlin. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu and Southern Africa.The Occasional Papers of the Swamps; a Study of Fishing Activities of the Unga Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Northern Tribe. The Rhodes–Livingstone Papers No. 12. Rhodesia. Rhodes–Livingstone Institute, Livingstone, Northern Matheson, C. (1929) Wales and the Sea Fisheries. Cardiff. Rhodesia. Mengi, T. (1977) Batikçilik teknigi.[Fishing Techniques.] Carver, A. (1980) Australian fishermen could learn from Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of islanders’ tuna techniques. Australian Fisheries 39 (7), fishing gear. Istanbul [in Turkish]. 18–19. Münster, H. (1979) Mit dem Pödder auf den Aal. Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England Fischwaid 104 (3), 135. and Wales. Fishery Investigations Ser. II, Vol. 21, No. 8. Nachtigall, H. (1966) Indianische Fischer, Feldbauer und Doogue, R. (1974) Hook, Line and Sinker. Wellington. Viehzüchter. Beiträge zur Peruanischen Völkerkunde. Duhamel du Monceau, H.L. & De la Marre, L.H. Marburger Studien zur Völkerkund 2. Berlin. (1776–1779) Traité Général des Pêches Maritimes de Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Rivières et des Etangs etc. Paris. Fishing Gear. Farnham. DFC8 4/23/05 9:32 PM Page 104

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Nordhoff, C. (1930) Notes on the off-shore fishing of the Duhamel du Monceau und de la Marre. In: Schauplatz Society Islands. Journal of the Polynesian Society der Künste und Handwerke,Vol. 11. Leipzig/ XXXIX, 2–3. Königsberg. Okladnikow, A.P. (1972) Der Hirsch mit dem Goldenen Sinsoilliez, R. (1970) La Pêche à Pied, des Poissons de Geweih, Vorgeschichtliche Felsbilder Sibiriens. Mer. Paris. Wiesbaden. Steuben, K.S. & Krefft, G. (1978) Die Haie der Sieben Oppian (1928) Halieutica. Loeb Classical Library. Meere. Arten. Lebensweise und sportlicher Fang. Harvard. Hamburg/Berlin. Peters, N. (1935) Angeln. Handbuch der Seefischerei Sunder Lal Hora (1935) Crab-fishing at Uttarbhag, Lower Nordeuropas, Vol.. 4, No. 4. Schweizerbart’sche Ver- Bengal. Current Science III (11), 543–546. lagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart. Wenban-Smith, H.B. (1963) The coastal fisheries near Quedens, G. (1963) Aalpödderei. Fischwaid 211–212. Dar es Salâam. Tanganyika Notes and Records 165– Rasmussen, K. (1946) Die Grosse Schlittenreise. 174. Essen. Went, A.E.J. (1944) The Galway fishery. Proceedings of Renard, M. (1955) La Pêche à Pied au bord de la Mer. the Royal Irish Academy XLIX, Sec. C., No.5. Paris. Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- Roughley, T.C. (1968) Fish and Fisheries of Australia. ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No. 6, Sydney. 191–244. Schreber, D.G. (1772) Allgemeine Abhandlungen von den White, C.M.N.T. (1956) The role of hunting and fishing in Fischereien und Geschichte der Fische von Luvale society. African Study 15 (2), 75–86. DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 105

9 Line Fishing: Gear and Methods

Various methods have been developed for line by the prey. Furthermore, equipment for landing fishing. There are simple ones for the needs of the prey such as gaffs (Chapter 12), scoop nets small-scale fishermen and for ‘mini-fishermen’, (Chapter 24), and even liftnets (Chapter 23) may be fishing for subsistence only, with little capital and needed. no specialized boats. There also exist complicated Handlines may have a single hook, but they and expensive tackle for sports fishermen fishing usually have several. The additional hooks can be for fun and recreation (Chapter 10). And finally, fixed on the weighted main line at short intervals there are methods of line fishing for large-scale with short branch lines (Figure 9.1g, h). Another commercial fisheries operating some thousands of form is to arrange more than one hook on the so- hooks on lines several km long. Whether in large- called ‘balance lines’, where the hooks are mostly or small-scale fisheries using lines, each fish is attached in pairs and consist of several balanced caught individually and the catch is considered of a parts. In this case a slightly bent metal or wooden better quality than when caught by other methods spreader, provided with casts and hooks, is put in which large quantities of fish may be pressed through a weight (Figure 9.1e). The bent spreader together. With line fishing it is possible to catch fish instantly adjusts any sudden loads. ‘Balance’ fishing on rough ground, even in their hiding places lines are found especially in the northern fisheries. between rocks. On the other hand, line fishing is A secondary balance can be attached to the main labour-intensive, and therefore, simple mechanical balance device, so this method of fishing with more fishing methods were soon devised. Today, in large- than one hook can lead to the development of a scale fisheries, more or less completely automatic whole system of fishing hooks (Figure 9.1f). line fishing equipment is used. Whatever method is Balance lines have the advantage that a sudden jerk used, natural or artificial bait is needed. The lack of caused by a biting fish can be compensated for. natural bait can sometimes hamper this fishery – a Another method is known to achieve the same problem which has not yet been resolved satisfac- purpose in eastern and southern Asia, and also in torily. African and European fisheries. Here a bow-shaped or moon-shaped implement – sometimes a strong 9.1 Handlines wire bent in this shape – can be tied between the line and the cast so that a sudden strain or load can The simplest form of fishing line is the handline. It be adjusted (Figure 9.1c, h, i).This material also has is composed of a line of certain length, a sinker to serve as a weight and nowadays it is therefore (lead, chain or any other weight), a cast snood often made of lead.When it is made of wood or wire, (usually) and at least one hook (Figure 9.1). There an additional weight is fastened to it (Figure 9.1c). may be added swivels, special lures, and possibly This is also done with the modern Malaysian ‘rang- floats – especially for some handlines used by sports gong’ made of buffalo horn combined with syn- fishermen (Chapter 10). There may also be thetic material (Figure 9.2). This implement gives other devices to equalize the sudden jerks caused the line not only the necessary elasticity, but also

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Figure 9.2 Handlines with ‘Ranggong’ made of horn and plastic. Malaysia (1978).

cal longline’ (Figure 9.1h). The Chinese use vertical longlines carrying hooks at either end of the line Figure 9.1 Handlines: (a) simple handline of Ireland; (b) (Figure 9.1i), especially for catching sea bream, handline for mackerel of Heligoland; (c) handline of Restrelliger sp., and mackerel. Guinea (Sahrhage 1961); (d) Japanese handline with The operation of a handline is very easy. In ring; (e) balance line of Faeroe Islands; (f) Icelandic handline for sharks with main and secondary balances general the fisherman holds one end of the line (Peters 1935); (g) English paternoster; (h) vertical long- (possibly wound on a reel) in his hand, feeling with line; (i) Chinese double handline of Formosa. the finger for the bite of the fish. He then tries to ‘set’ the hook at the right moment to prevent the fish from escaping. As can be seen in the next keeps the snood and the hook free from the lead section, the handline can also be used with a pole (Hurum 1977). It also serves to prevent the line or stick. twisting. Another reason why a curved wire is used Handlines are not always held by hand during in this manner, e.g. in cod fishing, is that it can give fishing. Canoe fishermen of Madagascar, working the hook an attractive movement (Burgess 1971). alone in outrigger canoes, wind the end of the line The same objective is achieved using a lead ring around their naked bodies to feel the bite of the fish with an excentric weight to which the fishing line is – a method which leaves the hands free for attached on one side and the cast with the hook on manoeuvring the boat with the paddle. A special the other (Figure 9.1d). Handlines with more than ‘handline’ used in Formosa is actually manipulated one, or only a few, hooks are not used so often. In by the toes, and a practised fisherman can work this case a main line with an end-lead can have many several lines with each foot. This method is espe- hooks on smaller branch lines as a so-called ‘verti- cially used for eel fishing and it is remarkable in DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 107

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The bait is sometimes attached to the top hook only and it is the bottom hook that usually secures the fish. Fishing with the foot was also known in Euro- pean fisheries. People swimming had lines attached to their big toes, especially when fishing was not allowed (Welchert 1963)! Another strange method of using a ‘handline’ was known in Rumania. The fisherman rowed his boat with his two hands and held the end of the line in his mouth. From there the line ran over one of his ears and when a fish took the hook he could feel it (Antipa 1916). To ‘shoot’ the line, the weight is dropped into the water at places where fish are expected, although when fishing in deeper water it may be better to get the hook down to the required depth as fast as pos- sible.This may prevent other fishes or crabs gnawing away at a slowly sinking baited hook. Even the fish- ermen of ancient times knew how to increase the sinking speed of the line with the hook by winding it around a stone. When thrown into the water the line unwinds as the stone falls to the bottom and the Figure 9.3 Chinese handline of Formosa held with the toes. Three hooks are joined to each other. hook rises by means of a fixed float to the surface. This is a technique also much used in Oceania (Müller 1917; Nordhoff 1930; Koch 1965) but is also known in other parts of the world. The people of Heligoland used a similar method, casting a stone with a very long line wound around it from the beach into the water. The line rolled off the stone and released the hook a long way out. This form of line fishing was called ‘Hogeln’ (Schnakenbeck 1953). In the Amur area, sturgeon hooks were used from which the weight separated only after a fish had taken the hook, and a float rose to the surface as a signal for the line to be hauled in (Anell 1955). Theoretically, with handlines, the hook can be lowered to any depth provided the line is long enough. Owing to the effect of currents and the drift of a vessel, however, a line needs to be much longer than the depth of the water. It has been sug- gested that in line fishing the maximum length of a line should be about six times the expected maximum depth of water (Burgess 1971). A line 120m long may therefore be used to fish in a water Figure 9.4 Chinese fisherman using his toes to hold the depth of only 20m or less. There are handlines of line. astonishing length operated in commercial fish- eries. In winter 1973–74, some fish were caught at a that three hooks, hanging one upon another, are depth of up to 180m in Lake Constance, and fish- hidden in the bait (Figures 9.3 and 9.4). Multiple ermen of Senegal catch fish with handlines near hooks such as ‘tandem hooks’ (Figure 8.23) are also Dahomey at depths of 200m. The famous coela- known in other parts of the world (Roughley 1968). canth, Latimeria, has been caught near Comores DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 108

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with handlines as long as 390m (Millot 1954), and men of the Caroline Islands in Micronesia have fished for the escolar, or oilfish, at depths of 100–400 fathoms (180–720m) (Miller 1966). In Japan, the handlines for bottom fish are operated at depths of up to 990m, while the fishermen of Madeira catch Aphanopus carbo, living at depths of 700–1000m, with lines of up to 1000 fathoms (1600m) long. How did the fishermen ever become aware that there were fish to be caught at such depths, so far away from their own coasts? The Indians of the north-west coast of America made a handline for halibut with a curved wooden hook which had a barb of ivory or bone. The hooks were baited with squid and weighted with a stone sinker so as to float a few feet off the bottom. How did they know that they should float a few feet off the bottom? How did they know, in the first place, that the halibut were there, living on the bottom of a Figure 9.5 Hand-operated reel of Mexican vessel for rough and stormy sea? These are questions that will line fishing of snapper and grouper in the Gulf of Mexico never be answered unless we believe that old-time (1976). fishermen, like former hunters, had presentiments and instincts (Beurmann 1961; Heitman 1962). When fishing offshore, hauling some 100m of line Originally, only simple wooden sticks were used by hand and winding it up on a square wooden but soon it was discovered that for successful oper- frame is tiring work. Therefore commercial fisher- ation of a fishing line, a pole with a good balance, men quickly introduced mechanization for hauling lightness, pliancy and strength was required the line. This was achieved by small hand-driven (Hosaka 1973). However, in primitive times fisher- reels mounted to the gunwhales of the boat. Figure men had to use what they could get, even though 9.5 shows such a manually operated hauling device that may only have been ribs of the leaves of palm for handlines used, in this case, by snapper fisher- trees. Special techniques are used to overcome loss men setting their lines in the Gulf of Mexico. A from rods breaking. In the Cape Verde Islands, even small pulley is incorporated, hanging on an elastic large tuna have been caught with weak rods by spring outrigger to give the hook an attractive avoiding lifting the fish out of the water with the vibration and also to absorb the shock when it is rod, and by leading it instead to the vessel and then taken. This may be the basis of further mechaniza- taking the heavy fish out with the help of a gaff tion in line fisheries which will be discussed in (Chapter 12). Another method of avoiding losses Section 9.8. from weak fishing rods is to strengthen them with wire. In general, strong material is chosen for 9.2 Pole-and-line fishing fishing rods such as special types of bamboo or good wood or other natural materials like whale- It has already been stated that the line itself is not bone (Münzing 1978). In commercial fisheries, always held in the hand of the fisherman, but may fishing rods are made not only of simple naturally be fixed to a pole or rod instead. By this means the grown poles of wood or bamboo but are also con- line with the hook is taken further away from structed of split cane and increasingly of fibreglass. the fisherman, whose figure or movements may In commercial fisheries, many different sizes of rods frighten the fish away. This method is common to are required: very short ones for fishing in ice holes sport fisheries (Chapter 10) but it is also used in (Figures 9.6 and 10.2), or very long ones (7m and commercial fisheries and is a technique known for more) for surf fishing. In the commercial pole-and- > 4000 years. line fisheries, the line is fixed to the end of the pole DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 109

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and its length is nearly the same as that of the rod. No reel or other mechanism to wind up and store the line is used; neither are floats used as they are in sport fisheries. Usually one pole has only one line of equal length and one hook (Figure 9.7), but there are also bifurcated sticks with two lines operated by com- mercial fishermen. On Lake Tanganyika the fisher- men sometimes use rods made of bifurcated or even trifurcated branches, so that two or three lines with their hooks can be used for fishing simultane- ously (Poll 1952). Two-armed fishing rods are also known in the East Asian squid line fishery (Figure 12.24). On the other hand there are also single poles to which more than one line is attached (Brelsfjord 1946). Fishing rods with more than one line are known from paintings found in Egyptian tombs of c. 1400 BC (Figure 9.8); it is not known whether these were used for sport only or also for commer- cial fishing. Moreover, there are also paintings of fishing rods with one line ending in two branches with one hook each (Figure 9.9). The use of a pole Figure 9.6 Korean fisherman fishing on the Han River with more than one line is also reported from during winter. The special form of the rod allows the line to be wound up for storing and drying. (Photo: Chun another African location where the Batra of Lake Nam Cho.) Bangweulu fish with a tough reed to which are tied three lines, one carrying two recurved barbless hooks, and two with one hook each (MacLaren

Figure 9.7 Fishing for small fishes on the surface concentrated near a large vessel off the coast of Praia, Cape Verde Islands. DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 110

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stages of large tunas living near the water surface. This is what is usually understood as live bait pole- and-line fishing or ‘poling’ (Ben-Yami 1980). In this fishery, the bamboo poles can be 2 to >3m long with a line of nearly the same length. Barbless hooks are used, so the landed fish can be disengaged very quickly. The hooks are baited either with live bait or with artificial lures. ‘Chumming’, the method of scattering live bait fish, and water spraying, are used to keep the tuna near the fishing boat within reach of the poles. Different reasons are given to explain why water spraying is effective in this fishery. One explanation is that the water sprayed on the surface of the sea prevents the fish from seeing the move- ments of the fishermen and the boats and being Figure 9.8 Egyptian drawing of pole-and-line fishing frightened away. Another explanation is that the (c. 1400 BC). The pole may have more than one line. sound of sprayed water is similar to that of small fleeing fish jumping over the water. Special arrange- ments are made for the fishing crew to stand on out- board platforms (racks) rigged along the bulwarks below deck level, a few feet above the water-line (Figure 9.10). The hook is operated near the water level when bait fish are scattered over the sea. The hooked fish are swung on board, and release them- selves from the barbless hook when they touch the deck of the vessel. In traditional fisheries for smaller fish the prey is swung under the left arm and liberated from the hook by hand (Figure 9.11). Different techniques have been developed to catch larger pelagic fish without breaking the pole. In contrast to sport fishing, commercial fisheries do not give the fish a chance to escape by using a Figure 9.9 Old Egyptian drawings of pole-and-line fishing with two lines. (Drawing: G. Pullem.) longer and finer rod – which means a more easily breakable one – or by using finer lines according to the weight of the fish sought.The American method 1958). In Polynesia also, bonito is fished with rods for catching larger fish by poling is to connect one with more than one line.Three, four, and sometimes single hook with two or more lines to two or even even five hooks are attached, with their lines, to three or four fishing rods according to the expected each bonito rod. But these lines with hooks are not weight of the fish to be caught. From each rod a line used at the same time, only one is used, with the is tied to a common ring from which is connected others held in reserve. On the butt end of the rod, the hook with a short line. With this equipment and old netting or some other material is fixed on which precise co-operation, four men can swing a fish of the lines are turned around and the spare hooks > 45kg on to the deck. fixed (pers. comm. with Vambez). The French use a different method for catching Not only can one rod have more than one line tuna by poling, which also allows them to take and hook, but one hook can be connected to more heavier fish without breaking the pole. In this case a than one pole. Handlines, operated with a pole, are second line from the top of the rod runs over a block important in small traditional fisheries and also in hanging in the rigging of the vessel (Figure 9.12) and large-scale fisheries such as those for bonito or skip- ends in the hand of a person called the ‘maroquin’ jack, albacore, frigate mackerel, and the juvenile placed behind the fisherman with the pole and the DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 111

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Figure 9.10 Pole-and-line fishing for tuna in the Caribbean. Fishermen stand on racks lowered outside the vessel. These racks are provided with sprinklers which, as they spray on to the sea, excite the fish. (Photo: H. Menjaud/FAO.)

Figure 9.11 Pole-and-line fishing for bonito off the Azores. The fish are ‘chummed’ with bait fish by a boy on the right of the picture. The fish caught are swung under the left arm and detached from the hooks. DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 112

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Figure 9.12 French pole-and-line fishing vessel in the harbour of Dakar, Senegal (1971). The picture shows typical French rigging of the lines with poles.

‘ligne à thon’.When the fish is hooked by the person with the pole it is the job of the second person to Figure 9.13 Wandering fisherman of Thailand with haul the large fish on board without putting a load sticks for setting hooks in shallow water. on the rod. The French tuna boats have three to eight such blocks, which needs a crew of six to sixteen men. These blocks are typical in French fish when it is taken by the hook. It is better to work vessels (Figure 9.12) as also are the small power- with unwatched lines, which may be set in the blocks for operating a small purse seine for catching evening and hauled with the catch the next morning the bait, and the white-painted openings of the inte- or later. By this means many lines, with possibly rior illuminated tanks used to keep the bait fish hundreds of hooks, can be operated at the same alive. Unfortunately, the problem of this live bait time. The construction of such a set line, in the sim- method of fishing is getting enough bait for chum- plest form, can be similar to a handline, usually with ming. To catch 1 t (metric tonne) of tuna, roughly one hook only, but fixed on a rod placed on the 100kg of live bait fish are needed (Nomura & shore. Fishing rods, set in great numbers by com- Yamazaki 1975). Nevertheless, pole-and-line fishing mercial fishermen, can often be seen in Asiatic is one of the most interesting methods of catching countries as well as in the Old and New Worlds. oceanic surface fish (Lundbeck 1972). These rods carry fishing lines with one or even several hooks. It is common practice, too, for some 9.3 Set lines of these to be set at suitable places during the night. This can be done very easily because a fishing rod Simple handlines have one or a few hooks only, can be thrust firmly into the ground on the beach which means that the catch is restricted. Moreover, or in shallow water so that the baited hook floats handlines must be watched during fishing in order freely in the water (Figure 9.13). to set the hook in the fish at the right moment so Another set line well-known in north European the fish does not hook itself. But commercial fish- fisheries is the so-called ‘roll line’. This is a wooden ermen need large catches to earn money.Therefore prong on which the twine is rolled and lightly fas- the commercial fisherman tries to replace handlines tened so that it unrolls easily and quickly when the that have to be constantly watched, with ‘semi- fish bites, and so follows the pull of the fish (Figures watched’ lines, which do not have to be held but 9.14 and 10.1). Such roll lines are attached to trees simply need someone to be on hand to secure the on the beach or to rods that can be set, even over DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 113

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Figure 9.16 Set line with alarm bell, in the Moskva River near Moscow.

Figure 9.14 Simple set lines: (a) roll line; (b) Swedish ice line; (c) set line for salmon formerly used in the eastern part of the Baltic. northern areas, e.g. in Scandinavia (Ormstad & Rom 1972). This type of set line has to be semi- watched all the time.To supervise a greater number of these lines set on the ice, signal devices have been invented, which enable fishermen to see from afar when a fish has taken the bait (Figure 9.14c). Such a device can be a pliable stick (e.g. of horn) which is set free, showing a vibrating red-coloured piece of cork on its top as soon as a fish has taken the hook (Figure 9.14b).These alarm devices, also often in the form of small bells, were known many years ago and used in China with various fishing gear. They are used by many sport fishermen as well as by commercial fishermen for their wide- spread set lines (Figure 9.16). Set lines with a single hook or only a few hooks are operated in fresh water as well as in coastal water. In the simplest form, the hook is held by a line stretched between a sinker on the bottom and a float on the surface. Such lines are used to catch the more valuable fishes such as salmon, but also some sharks. Such fishing lines can remain unwatched for a certain time, but in some fishing areas it is impossi- ble to set lines, nets or traps to last for any length of time because predatory fish and crabs would be apt to eat any fish caught. This is particu- Figure 9.15 Ice fishing lines: above, handline; below, larly so in the warm waters of tropical and sub- Finnish line with the hook hanging on a flexible strip of tropical areas such as in the Mediterranean. Hem- horn placed on the surface of the ice. ingway’s famous story The Old Man and the Sea describes most graphically how his character, a ice. A line with a single hook can also be set on ice veteran fisherman, lost a prize game fish through with the line and hook duly baited hanging through attack by sharks. Even in northern countries, fish a hole into the water (Figures 9.14 and 9.15). suspended on a line can easily be snatched by Fishing with set lines as ice lines is practised in sharks or seals. DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 114

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9.4 Bottom longlines As explained before, lines with a single hook or only a few hooks may be sufficient for small-scale fisheries or for catching a small number of high- priced fish. But in commercial fisheries there will always be a tendency to increase the number of hooks as much as possible. This has been done with handlines in the form of so-called ‘vertical long- lines’ (Figure 9.1i), when the number of hooks cannot amount to more than 100 for technical reasons. By contrast an almost unlimited number of hooks can be operated with a form of set line called the longline, operated in a more or less horizontal configuration.There can be hundreds or even thou- sands of hooks, each fixed to the main line with a short line called a branch line (snood, leader, dropper-line, dropline or dropper, gangion or gangin) (Figure 9.17). This ‘longline system’ is one of the basic types of gear construction and is known in other forms of fishing as explained later. Bottom longlines with many hooks have been known in northern Europe and in the Mediter- ranean area as well as in the Far East since early times. In Norway, longlines were known at least since the middle of the 16th century. However, the belief that longlines may be ‘one of the original Figure 9.17 Bottom longlines: (a) European longline for African fishing methods’ operated in the great eels, with clamp for storing the hooks; (b) with alternate lakes of eastern Africa (Hickling 1961) is doubtful. sinkers and floats (from Peters 1935 with permission); (c) Portuguese longline for cod fishing by dory-men. The For bottom longlines, the ground should be fairly semi-pelagic line hangs at some distance above the regular since projecting rocks or coral heads may seabed. chafe and break the lines, or entangle them in such a way that they cannot be retrieved. Where muddy bottoms are found, the longlines are not set to rest be too short as short ones are considered to be less on the bottom but are held off the seabed by floats effective than long ones. With longlines operated as demonstrated in Figure 9.17(b) and (c); these can from boats, the length of the branch lines should be arranged so that they suspend the bait at any relate to the freeboard of the vessel that is used. desired distance from the bottom. When the main line is held, the branch line must be Many investigations (Bjordal 1981) have found long enough to reach at least to the surface of the that the efficiency of longlines (and also of pelagic water, so that the fish can be gaffed and pulled longlines mentioned in the next section) is influ- aboard the vessel without its full weight bearing on enced not only by the design of the hook and the the branch line or on the hook (NN 1963), and type, size and shape of the bait, but also by the without the next fish being lifted clear of the water material, length and spacing of the snoods. Their (Burgess 1973).The snoods can be more or less per- distance from each other should be at least twice manent and knotted directly onto the main line. that of their length to avoid entangling. Moreover, They can also be fixed with removable stainless bottom longlines with snoods set at wider spacings steel spring clips (Figure 9.18). This has the advan- fish better than those with the branch lines set more tage that the snoods can be exchanged easily and closely together (Lefevre 1969), and they need less can be stored separately, and their spacing on the bait for the same area. The snoods should also not main line can be altered when necessary, e.g. for DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 115

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Figure 9.18 Clips for fixing branch lines (snoods) onto the longlines.

increasing hook spacing with decreasing fish density and vice versa. Figure 9.19 Longline with by-lines in Tanshui, Taiwan. Nowadays the main line and snoods are often made of monofilaments. In this case the snoods can be connected with swivels, which have the benefit of eliminating entanglements of the snoods, so reducing the labour of gear handling (Bjordal 1981). The efficiency of the longlines made of monofilaments is also improved by their lower vis- ibility and their ‘fineness’ (thin dimensions) (Bjordal & Løkkeborg 1996). In most parts of the world the branch lines are usually of equal length, but on their longlines for catching sea bream, the Chinese use a different concept; they place longer by-lines at certain dis- tances on the main line. These longer subsidiary Figure 9.20 Chinese longlines: (a) Sea bream bottom lines act like main lines and carry a number of small line with by-lines with many branches for hooks; (b) shark bottom line with branch lines of different lengths. branch lines with hooks (Chen 1960). Apparently (From Liu 1957 with permission.) such a build up of by-lines is to be found exclusively in Chinese fisheries (Figures 9.19 and 9.20a). The Chinese also know about near-bottom longlines for ladder-like implements are used for the same sharks, on which there are short fixed branch lines purpose (Figure 9.21). In sea fisheries, baskets and longer ones with stronger hooks (Figure 9.20b). (mostly), tubes and wooden or plastic boxes are Bottom-set longlines, sometimes with as many as used for storing the whole line including the snoods several thousand hooks, are well known in many with hooks. Often each single unbaited hook is parts of the world and are used in both seawater fixed on a ledge of cork or rush or the hooks are and freshwater fisheries. Large longlines are usually stuck into the straw-covered rim of the basket or divided into sections to facilitate handling and let hang over the rim of the basket. Sometimes the operation. During shooting, the sections are tied baskets have special lipped edges to store the together and the longlines are set in ‘strings’ or baited hooks (Figure 9.22). ‘fleets’. In most cases longlines are set from a vessel Different methods are used for storing longlines, sailing with different speed according to the long- such as hanging the hooks on wooden clamps, as is line to be shot. The line, or a section, starts and fin- sometimes done with freshwater lines where the ishes with an anchor and is marked by buoys, flags, number of hooks is fewer (Figure 9.17a). Also radar reflectors or lights to show at night. In some DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 116

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Figure 9.21 Freshwater longline for eel fishing stored on a ladder-like implement in a lake fishery of Northern Germany. Figure 9.23 Sailing rafts for longlines: (a) reconstruction of a so-called ‘Pieptauschiff’ used in olden times by fish- ermen of Heligoland for the ray fishery; (b) Italian ‘Palamito a vela’; (c) Japanese sailing raft. (From NN 1959 with permission).

similar to that used on the handlines described earlier. To achieve this satisfactorily the main line (with the branch lines carrying the hooks), is laid out in an S-curve on the beach. A light twine with a button is tied to the weight. This button fits into the prong-shaped end of a stick. By means of that stick the longline is then swung out, as in fly fishing, and so the longline is cast far out into the sea (Bickerdyke 1895). This method is not only known in Great Britain but also in Australia and New Zealand (Doogue 1977). Another method of using longlines from the beach is to fasten one end of the line on the beach while the other is towed away from the land by a raft Figure 9.22 Italian fisherman of Lipari Island preparing sailing before the wind. This idea has been devel- a basket for longlining (1979). oped in various parts of the world, e.g. the fishermen of Heligoland had the ‘Pieptauschiff’ (Figure 9.23a) traditional fisheries, methods are known of how to for setting longlines for catching skate; the Italians set a longline from a beach without a boat. In this have the ‘Palamito a vela’ (Figure 9.23b) for line case the line can be cast out by means of a weight fishing for garfish; and the Japanese also use sailing DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 117

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Figure 9.24 Plan for setting a driftline from the shore (or an anchored buoy) with the help of a small sailing float made of cork. (From Marin & Gilles 1978 with permis- sion.) a

rafts to carry longlines from their boats to catch sea perch and mullet (Figure 9.23c). Of course there are not only bottom longlines but also driftlines which are set in this way. This is outlined in a French pro- posal, made in 1978 (Figure 9.24), for a small ‘unmanned’ sailing boat, made from cork, which can set a (drifting) longline not only from the shore but also from an anchored buoy (Marin & Gilles 1978). In the latter case the line can follow the current. The most technically advanced sailing craft for towing out fishing lines from the beach is the so- called ‘Kon Tiki’ sailing raft of New Zealand. It is considered to be a development of the Italian ‘Palamito a vela’ mentioned previously. Figure b 9.25a gives a simple wooden form of this raft, Figure 9.25 ‘Kon-Tiki’ sailing rafts for setting shark-lines together with a longline stored in a wooden box. from the shore in New Zealand: (a) simple construction There are also other types of construction, not only for towing a longline from the shore; (b) complicated larger but also more complicated (Figure 9.25b), construction of galvanized iron for setting a vertical long- which are said to be some of the most efficient in line in the desired position offshore. (From Doogue 1977 use (Doogue 1977). In these, the floats are made of with permission.) galvanized iron, 1.5m long.As soon as the land-line, according to its length, has been towed by the raft also in deeper ones. Only a few examples can be to the desired position offshore, the line keeping given. Icelandic longliners, fishing for cod, operate the mast upright is set free by a simple mechanism; a bottom longline with sections of different lengths the mast falls forward, drops the sail and releases carrying from 100 to 400 hooks each. The total the sinker of a vertical longline stored with paper- line can be more than 30km long with 20000 to wrapped baited hooks on a small winch. 30000 hooks. The hooks are baited and this takes a On the Spanish coast they have even made use long time; baiting 20000 hooks will take six men of children’s kites for setting longlines from the 10h! beach. One end of the longline is made fast on the An important longline in sea fishery is that used beach and the other, tied to a kite’s tail, is then for halibut in the Pacific. This is a bottom-set line towed off by the wind (de Luna 1948). with baited hooks, divided into many single units. Bottom longlines are operated in fresh waters as Each unit was originally the amount of set line well as in sea waters, not only in shallow waters but which one person could conveniently handle. Each DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 118

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vessel carries 50 or more units of longline, each of 250–300 fathoms. The gear is set while the vessel is 9.5 Driftlines proceeding at full speed. Various numbers of the Bottom-set lines with few or many hooks are units are tied end to end in a ‘string’ and the two anchored at a certain place and have to be found by ends of that string are anchored and marked by the fish on its daily migration for food. Therefore it buoys with flags or lights to show at night (Scofield is necessary to know the right place for setting to be 1947). successful. In contrast to bottom lines, driftlines are In eel fisheries, two fishermen can bait and shoot kept on the surface or in mid-water by floats,and the 1000 hooks in 2 h; more experienced fishermen can depth to which they fish is regulated by the length of manage 2000 hooks in the same time, but in lake the line hanging from the float.They are not limited fishing only 150–300 hooks are needed for one line, to any specific place, but can operate over large and in rivers it may be much fewer – perhaps 30 to areas. ‘The driftline searches for the fish’ is a fishing 50 hooks.There are many types of bottom longlines slogan. Like bottom-set lines, driftlines can have a varying both in length and in the numbers of hooks. single hook, or several, or they can be vertical or The short longlines set for cod by Portuguese dory- horizontal longlines with many hooks. fishermen have to be mentioned as well as the long In principle, the construction of driftlines does lines used for ‘Golden-thread’ Nemipterus virgatus not differ from the sedentary fishing lines previ- off the Hong Kong coast (Au Lai-Shing 1970), or ously described (Figure 9.26). Small driftlines with for groupers, sea bream or shark in many parts of a single hook only are used in freshwater and the world. They are also used for haddock, hake, inshore fisheries. The heavy drifting longlines with pollock and all forms of flatfish. In Thailand, crabs some thousands of hooks are typical in high seas are caught with baited longlines during the night. fisheries. On enclosed waters such as lakes, the Of course the hooks have only to hold the bait fishing lines can be allowed to drift freely, attached which will be taken by the crabs. As stated at the to a float. Experienced fishermen know in which beginning of Chapter 8, with hookless lines crabs direction such lines may drift (e.g. throughout the continue to hold the bait when taken out of the night) and where to find them again. If a fish does water. take the hook the float acts as a brake to tire the In contrast to handlines and also some smaller fish and prevent its possible escape. Drifting long- types of set lines, fishing with longlines is consid- lines used in sea fisheries are mostly not unattended ered a labour-intensive and time-consuming but are fastened to a fishing vessel, which recovers method. Not only does the setting and hauling of the driftlines in due course. Many small driftlines some kilometres of line need time and considerable with a single hook (Figure 9.26a–c) operated in manpower, but also the baiting of the hooks must inland and coastal waters can be set at the same be carried out by helping hands at home, on the time. Malaysian fishermen watch 20–30 such single shore, or on the way to the fishing grounds. Fur- lines with vertically floating cylindrical floats. When thermore, when the line is hauled, the catch must the hook is taken this can be seen as a movement be removed, the hooks must be cleaned, and the of the float. This can be shown much more impres- lines and snoods untangled and, if broken, repaired sively by using floats which change their position or replaced. Some winches have been introduced when the hook is taken. Formerly, in the area of the for hauling, and efforts have been made to solve the Zaire River, fishermen used shaped floats which problem of storing longlines with many hooks and acted as ‘tell-tales’ by turning over when the bait keeping them clear for setting. Also of interest are was taken (MacLaren 1958). Figure 9.26a shows a the hydraulic longline reels which are offered in the French driftline for pike with a wooden float or USA, especially for swordfish, shark, tuna, snapper ‘trimmer’ which will turn upside down when the and other large fish caught by longlining. These hook is taken. Because each side of the float has a efforts have so far not been sufficient and, as will different colour the catch can be seen very easily. be shown in Section 9.8, there are now some new Among the smaller types of attended driftlines is a attempts being made to convert hand-operated special Malaysian type (Burdon 1954). The gear longlining into a modern mechanized fishing looks like a balance line (Figure 9.27) but the system. weight is replaced by a piece of floating wood. This DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 119

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gear is secured by a retrieving line held by a fish- erman on the shore. As soon as a fish takes one of the two floating hooks, the line is drawn ashore. A similar method is known as ‘whipping’ in Hawaii. Here the line is directed by a pole 6–8m long (Hosaka 1973). Single driftlines are also used to catch large fish such as sharks. Here also the fish tires itself by towing the float to and fro, as when working with retarders.The use of a retarding effect is one of the basic ideas in gear construction.Some- times the resistance of a float is considered insuffi- cient to tire the prey and therefore special retarders have been introduced. For this reason even small parachutes have been used for catching tuna with driftlines in the Mediterranean (Figure 9.28a) (Euziere n.d.), while propeller-like devices are used for retarding sharks when fishing with snares (Chapter 18) (Figure 9.28b) in Oceania. Today the most important drifting longline in commercial use is probably the tuna line (Figure 9.29). According to tradition, the longline for tuna is said to have been invented by the Japanese of the Wazayama Prefecture on the Kii Peninsula south- east of Honshu > 250 years ago. Originally it was a short floating longline with only a few hooks, used

Figure 9.26 Driftlines: (a) French driftline for pike; (b) driftline for eel in western and eastern Europe; (c) Javanese driftline for crocodiles; (d) part of driftline for salmon in the Baltic; (e) drifting longline, tuna type, used in Malta for swordfish; (f) vertical longlines of Formosa (from Liu 1956 with permission).

Figure 9.28 Retarder in line fishing: (a) parachute used as ‘freineur’ (brake) in the tuna fishery of the Mediter- Figure 9.27 Drifting double line from Singapore. (From ranean; (b) retarder used in Oceania for shark snaring. Burdon 1954 with permission.) (From Parkinson 1907; Anell 1955 with permission.) DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 120

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Figure 9.29 Section of a Japanese drifting tuna long- line. Figure 9.30 Hauling and packing of tuna driftline in bags of netting on the French research vessel Coriolis (1964). by inshore fishermen. Such short lines are still used in Japan for tuna fishing from small fishing boats. When this fishery was extended to cover tropical hooks will take > 4 h. The hooks are baited and the seas where tuna can be caught, this line was branch lines are fixed on the main line during enlarged and is considered today to be a very effec- setting. When the whole line is set, the gear is left tive gear for tuna, which swim dispersed in the to drift alone and the vessel returns to the begin- deeper layers of the sea. This is why some lines are ning of the driftline for hauling. The line is hauled reputed to be up to 20 miles long. Tuna longlines, from the bow with the help of a line-hauling like most of the longlines in sea fisheries, are com- machine (Figure 9.30). Nevertheless, hauling can posed of many sections or ‘sets’. Each set measures last up to 10h or more. With a high catching ratio, 150–400m in length, with 1–12 branch lines each i.e. the number of tuna caught by 100 hooks, more bearing one hook. Typical branch lines for tuna time is needed. The Koreans calculate that setting longlines consist of three sections and each branch 400 baskets, each with eight hooks, takes 4h; but line is attached with a special snap-on metal clip to hauling the 3200 hooks takes up to 15h! There is the main line (Figure 9.29). Each set is stored in a little spare time to rest. Working in this fashion, basket, or two sets in one bag of netting. Japanese from before sunrise to midnight, under tropical fishing boats, ranging from 200 to 800 gross tonnes conditions for weeks and months, is very exhaust- in size, usually carry 350–400 baskets of longline; ing. Tuna longlining is not only an effective fishing that means as much as 160km of line! When each method but also a very labour-intensive one, which set has three to five branch lines, with the same is why the countries undertaking this lucrative number of hooks, up to 2000 hooks have to be oper- method of fishing is limited to Japan,Taiwan, Korea ated. In the Caribbean, 250–400 baskets of six lines and to some extent South Africa, Cuba and French each are used, carrying 1500 to 2400 hooks; but the Oceania. The lines are considered particularly suc- Korean longliners for tuna are said to shoot and cessful in the tropical Pacific for big fish at depths haul up to 3200 hooks a day! The Japanese tuna from 60 to 250 and even 300 m. This also explains longline is set early in the morning from the stern why,not only for bottom longlines but also for drift- of a vessel. At the end of each unit (basket), a buoy ing longlines, attempts have been made to mecha- with a flag or lamp is set. The fishing depth can be nize this fishing method and, if possible, set the lines regulated with the help of the length of the buoy by a computerized system (see later). line. The same can be done by the speed of the In contrast to tuna driftlines, other types are not vessel; at low speeds the buoys are set closer so popular. In the Baltic, driftlines for salmon are together and the lines hang deeper. Setting 2000 used even today (Figure 9.26d) when bad weather DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 121

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that the amount of work and the increasing costs of manpower on the one side, and the advantages of longlining on the other, whether in the form of bottom lines or driftlines, have led to many investi- gations into how this method can be made more economic. As will be shown in Section 9.8, these investigations have had some success.

9.6 Troll lines The desire to operate over a larger area, and there- fore to make use of a movable fishing line instead of a stationary one, lies behind the development and use of troll lines. The troll fishing line is trailed through a certain area and this can be done better from a moving vessel than from the beach. In the United States, troll lines are also called ‘trawl lines’, which should not be confused with lines used when operating a bottom trawl (Chapter 26). Trolling is a simple, ancient fishing method, and a strange manner of trolling is described by the mysterious ‘Dame Juliana Barnes’ in the famous Boke of St Albans (1496). This was carried out by tying a short line with a hook to the foot of a goose and letting the poor bird swim! A similar method was described by the admired Izaak Walton (1653) in his well-known book The Compleat Angler.This was to tie a line with a live bait ‘about the body or Figure 9.31 Setting of a longline for swordfish, Malta wings of a goose or duck and chase it over the (1966). pond’! I doubt whether these suggestions will be accepted today by either commercial or sport fishermen! prevents the use of driftnets because the waves roll In general, trolling means towing one or more the nets together (Chapter 19).The salmon driftline lines with an attractive bait or lure behind a moving in the Baltic can have from 1500 to 3000 hooks. boat (Figure 9.32). To attract the fish and induce Each hook must have, by law, a minimum spread them to accept the bait, special lures have been according to an agreement between interested designed which either fascinate by their bright countries. The construction of the salmon driftline colour or so imitate a sick fish by tumbling and has changed frequently in line with the increasing whirling movements as to make the predator think or decreasing importance of the fishery, especially of it as easy prey. Troll lining is thus primarily a since World War II. In the fisheries of the Far East, method of attracting and catching predatory fish, some other types of drifting longlines are used for and is carried out by commercial and sports fisher- catching mackerel or hairtails. Longlines similar to men in the sea as well as in freshwater areas. In sea those for tuna are also used to catch sharks and fishing many species of fish are caught by trolling, swordfish (Figure 9.31). Around Malta, stocks of including large ones such as tuna and salmon, and swordfish have been found by experimental fishing other game fish such as barracuda, Spanish mack- for tuna with drifting longlines (Figure 9.26e). erel and marlin. In fresh waters, pike and trout are In general, the problems mentioned for bottom the special targets of trolling. longlines at the end of Section 9.4 are the same as In commercial fishing, enticing baits for troll lines for drifting longlines. It can also be repeated here can be artificial lures such as bone and feathered jigs DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 122

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Figure 9.34 Old French spoons for trolling tuna lines. (Courtesy Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches Scien- Figure 9.32 Troll lines: (a) Norwegian ‘Dorg’ (from tifique, Biarritz.) Brobak 1952 with permission); (b) spinning hook for mackerel; (c) English Dartmouth dab line (from Davis 1958 with permission); (d) Norwegian ‘Dypvannsdorg’ (from Brobak 1952 with permission).

Figure 9.33 French double hook for tuna fishing with troll line. The lure is made of plastic fibres; formerly they were made of rice straw (Brittany, 1977). Figure 9.35 Old types of spoons: (a) (b) medieval spoons; (c) prehistoric hook with broad shank found in middle Finland (from Vilkuna 1975 with permission). (Figure 9.33); wooden and plastic plugs or baits in the shape of octopus, cuttlefish, squid or sardines; metal spoons and spinners (Figure 9.32b); plastic medieval hooks found in central Finland (Figure worms; as well as special arrangements with natural 9.35a, b). The troll lines, with spoons or wooden bait. It may be that the spoons (Figures 9.34, 9.35 plugs, or with live bait, are considered to be a part of and 10.12) as used by the Californian salmon fisher- the old traditional fishery, at least in Europe men, and by the old French ‘thouniers’, are the (Vilkuna 1975). According to Heintz (1903), who is oldest form of fishing tackle. There have been considered to have introduced flashing spoons into Bronze-Age hooks found in northern Germany that sport fisheries, the old commercial fishery for look like a combination between a spoon and a salmon in Norway used spoons, as did the fishermen hook (Rau 1884), and these are similar to those of the upper Italian lakes.The latter sometimes used DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 123

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Figure 9.36 Bait for troll lines; left, mackerel for catching Spanish mackerel; right, skipjack for catching marlin (Taiwan, 1978).

specific forms in the different lakes (Garda, Como, etc.), always combined with a swivel at one end and a triple hook on the other. In Lake Constance, old spoons were used in the form of a fish or of ‘a spoon without a handle’. They were made of copper or nickel or were silver-plated (Klunzinger 1892). In non-European countries and areas such as Africa, spoons seem to have been introduced and copied since ancient times (Brelsfjord 1946). Sometimes unbaited glittering hooks, e.g. spin- ners (Figure 9.32b), are sufficient for trolling. Or if baited, the bait is often nothing more than a strik- ing piece of cloth, a coloured ribbon, a bright piece of the belly flap of a bait fish, straw, or similar mate- Figure 9.37 Examples of the rigging of troll lines: (a) rial that is cheaply available in large quantities. Malaysia; (b) Indonesia. (From Yamamoto 1975 with Moreover, live bait, or more often dead bait, fixed permission.) on a single hook can be used for trolling in com- mercial fisheries. To prevent the bait slipping from special lines and in this case each beam has one line the hook when trolling, a length of twine is con- (monofilament 0.70) c.10m long, and each is fitted nected near or with the hook and the fish bait is tied with a swivel and a large spoon. When a hook is on with this (Figures 8.9 and 8.22).The bait can also taken by a fish, the line can be hauled in very easily be fixed on several hooks in the so-called tandem by special hauling lines. This is the general princi- system (Figure 8.23), or fixed to a special spinning ple of many troll lines. The beams enable the vessel tackle. Figure 9.36 shows highly developed dead- to increase the number of hooks (Figure 9.37b). bait lures for bigger pelagic fish such as marlin or Another way to keep the lines from entangling each Spanish mackerel, as operated out of Taiwan. Here other is to let each line fish at different depths, the bait fish is not only held by a hook but is also which is regulated by the use of suitable weights fixed to a torpedo-like piece of lead for trolling at (Figure 9.38) or deep shearing boards (planers). the desired depth. Besides extending the fishery to different depths, If only one or two lines are towed by a boat, few this arrangement also helps keep the many lines difficulties are encountered. But as commercial apart during fishing. Another method of keeping fishermen must endeavour to catch larger quanti- the lines clear is to use otter boards (Chapter 8) ties of fish, they have to tow many lines simultane- which spread the trolling lines over a wide area ously. The problem is then to keep the fishing lines (Figures 8.30 and 9.39). There are also combina- from fouling each other. This can be acheived by tions of weights and deep shearing boards for this using beams – two or four outriggers – extending purpose (Figure 9.39). out from the sides of the vessel. Figure 9.37a shows Trolling is an important method in the salmon an example of simple trolling with the help of two fisheries of North America, particularly on the beams in Malaysia. The beams are secured by Pacific coast. In this case four beams are used, two DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 124

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Figure 9.38 Rigging of troll lines: (a) for mackerel in Germany; (b) for salmon in British Columbia. The addi- tion of weights allows hooks to be trolled at different depths.

Figure 9.40 French ‘thouniers’ in the fishing port of Concarneau, with long rods for setting troll lines.

depths. The troll lines for salmon fishing end with a spoon, a plug, or a baited hook. Each troll line is supported from the pole by a tag line and is reeled in or out by separate gurdy spools driven by the main engine. In salmon fishing, small boat stabiliz- ers are used and between the line and outrigger a shock absorber, in the form of a rubber tube, can be fitted. The purpose of the stabilizers is not only to eliminate jerking on the line, but also to mini- mize the effect of rolling of the vessel in rough water during trolling. Troll lines are also used to catch different types of tuna. One of the earliest examples is probably the French method of catching small tuna (espe- cially albacore; in French ‘germon’) off the Atlantic Figure 9.39 Rigging for trolling for sea trout with coast of Brittany (Figure 9.40) and around the weights and otter boards in Switzerland. Azores. The method is also found on the west coast of New Zealand (Figure 9.41).Typical of this fishery set amidships with two lines each, and two shorter are vessels with two long beams, in French named beams with one line each set at the bow (Figure ‘tangons’. The length of the beams can be up to 9.38b). The stainless steel lines carry lead weights 22m, but they may be much shorter, 5m or so, of different sizes to troll the hooks at different depending on the size of the vessel. The beams can DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 125

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Figure 9.41 Troll liners for tuna in the harbour of Greymouth, New Zealand (1981).

Figure 9.42 Rigging of a French ‘thounier’ during trolling. The beam (tangon) has a flexible extension- rod at the end (1). Up to seven troll lines (2) run from each beam, over rollers (3), and are protected by a shock-absorber (4) from the shock of a fish taking a hook. Each troll line can be hauled separately by a special line (5), to take in the catch.

be made of wood or steel. The wooden ‘tangons’ of lines (smaller boats have only one line per beam) the French are composed of two pieces: a long, ending with a strong unbarbed or barbed double strong beam with a short, very elastic rod at the top. hook. Each hook has an artificial bait, formerly All beams are connected with the mast of the vessel made of corn straw but now, in Brittany, often a (Figures 9.40–9.42).The two beams are held upright bunch of plastic fibres. In New Zealand they use when travelling or in the harbour.They are lowered soft squid-like plastic lures, with and without eyes to an angle of about 45° to the water surface when and in different colours, mostly blue, green and fishing (Figure 9.42). By spacing the lines with such silver. A piece of rubber is included in each line as beams, they can be kept at a distance from each a shock absorber. The French have this between other. Each of the beams tows four to seven troll line and snood; the fishermen of New Zealand place DFC9 4/23/05 9:35 PM Page 126

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it directly on the mast. Also in this case the lines can have weights added to prevent entangling with each other. Two or four smaller lines can be towed from the stern of the vessel so that each boat can fish with up to 18 lines (sometimes > 20) (von Brandt 1956). This trolling method was developed in France in about 1900 for sailing vessels, but much later, around 1934, motors were introduced. Some years ago it seemed that the old French ‘thouniers’ in Brittany could not survive the competition of the pole-and-line boat fishery and that of the purse seiners (Chapter 29). However in recent years, new fishing grounds were found near the Azores for trolling tuna, enabling the French fishery to recover. The old ‘thouniers’ have since been replaced by multipurpose vessels such as the ‘thounier/senneur’ (trolling and purse seining) and the ‘thounier/chalutier’ (trolling and trawling). Small boats can troll for mackerel. Single lines are towed or a number of them are held and spread by a beam. In the Baltic a method was devised to Figure 9.43 Mechanization of handlines: (a) Danish increase the number of lines towed by one motor running line trolling; (b) Norwegian ‘atom-line-trailing’; boat by towing two rowing boats with extended (c) Norwegian method of handling an endless line. rods keeping the lines apart. By this arrangement a relatively large area can be covered (Figure 8.30a, c).The lures used in trolling for mackerel are hooks interesting form of mechanization which has been with feathers attached, as are used with handlines. developed by small-scale fisheries in northern In some places the feathers are now replaced by Europe needs to be mentioned. This is fishing with split fibre bands, which seem to have the same the ‘roundhauler’; that means with a long line, both effect. It has already been mentioned that trolling ends of which have been connected together so that with shearing boards is also known in fresh water it becomes an ‘endless trolling line’ (Figures 9.43 fisheries, especially in the Scandinavian countries, and 9.44). This loop of line, fitted with weights and Switzerland and southern Germany (Figures 8.30d, snoods, is moved slowly like a mill wheel. The 8.31, 8.32 and 9.39). The horizontal shearing boards hooks, mostly baited, enter the water down to a spe- used, originally of simple construction, are known cific depth (according to the situation down to c. by different names meaning seal, dog or duck 100m or so), return to the surface and are led over (Hildebrand 1953). Their purpose is the same as in the vessel so that the catch can be gaffed and the sea fisheries – to fish an area as wide as 60m, espe- hooks rebaited. Hooks with artificial rubber worms cially for fish of the genus Coregonus.The gear used (Figure 8.20) are sometimes fastened without any on Lake Constance (Figure 8.30d) may be of special snood directly on to the line (Meschkat 1950). This interest, because not only are otter boards with a method is something between handlining, longlin- line tied on operated, but also sometimes more than ing and trolling. In northern Europe the round- one fishing line is fixed to the connecting line hauler is used for fishing cod, saithe or haddock, between the otterboard and vessel. and in Norway especially for mackerel and coalfish. The idea is not so surprising because when fishing 9.7 Fishing with roundhaulers for mackerel with feather hooks off the Irish coast the handlines, with maybe 15 branch lines and Before discussing modern attempts to mechanize hooks with feathers for luring, are plunged into the line fishing, especially in large-scale fisheries, an water and taken out immediately each hook is DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 127

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9.8 Modern progress in line fishing Fisheries, especially the commercial ones, have always tried to improve their methods – particu- larly when these changes are in agreement with modern trends in working methods. In developing fisheries, sometimes only the fact that materials made of synthetic fibres (more expensive than the traditional ones) are introduced into an old known fishing method can be considered evidence that the fishermen believe the method has a future.Another hint suggesting the favourable judgment of a fishing method is the introduction of mechanization, ini- tially man-powered, later powered by motor-driven machines, to adapt a fishing method to modern needs. Line fishing is an example of this develop- ment, as will be seen in the following paragraphs, as also is trawling (Chapters 26 and 27), purse seining (Chapter 29) and gillnetting (Chapter 19). The gear for line fishing is simple, usually needs no special arrangement for handling, and can be operated from any vessel or even a raft. In other words, line fishing may, in some circumstances, be considered a fishing method requiring little invest- ment. This may be true today for some small-scale fisheries, but is no longer the case in modern com- mercial fisheries, which need large catches to be Figure 9.44 Improved mounting of a ‘roundhauler’. economic. Larger catches require not only more effective gear but also increased fishing effort by using more lines, more hooks and making more sets. This becomes necessary as the catch per hundred taken by a fish. With the roundhauler the idea is to or thousand hooks decreases more and more. To work the line continuously, taking out one hook compensate for this, more lines are set. More lines after the other and returning it to the water imme- and more hooks also means more manual labour, diately after releasing the fish. As far as is known it which then becomes limited by increasing costs, as was a Danish fisherman who first used an endless can be seen from the earlier example of tuna line led down a stove-pipe for continuous fishing. longlining. Later on, more specialized pipes were used for this Different types of winding devices such as spools purpose (Figure 9.43a) and it was named ‘rolling and reels have been introduced for hauling and line trolling’. A simpler device is to lead the free storing handlines.When fishing, the reels are placed line along a beam and over a roller on each end of in sockets along the gunwale and are powered by a the vessel, as in Norway (Figure 9.43c). Figure 9.44 manually operated hand crank as shown in Figure shows an improved form, in which the line is carried 9.5. The next stage of development was to replace out with the help of a V-shaped hydraulic line hand operation of the reel by a small electric motor sheave led over an outrigger block into the sea, fixed between reel and outrigger. The introduction travelling down to the required depth and return- of motors for hauling, together with the use of syn- ing to the vessel on the other side. Although this thetic fibres, has opened up opportunities for fishing method is not new, it seems to be becoming more in deeper water (Kawagushi 1974). This idea has popular in small-scale fisheries, especially in been adopted especially for cod fishing with auto- Norway. matic deep-sea fishing reels, and has become an DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 128

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example of mechanization in fishing methods. Dif- with hand-operated methods can be seen by the ferent models were introduced in commercial fish- fact that one man can operate up to six lines. eries according to local needs.Working more or less Another form of handlining which adopted auto- fully automatically, the apparatus plays out the line matic fishing methods is the pole-and-line fishery to a predetermined depth or until it reaches the for skipjack, albacore, yellowfin and bluefin tuna. bottom. The line stays there or is jigged at a given Very simple constructions were devised for rate and distance. When the fish take the hook, the working with an endless line, with many short weight or pull causes the reel to begin to haul in the branch lines, replacing hand lines tied to poles. This line. There are machines which let out more line endless line ran from a rectangular frame fixed to with increasing pull-force of the fish, and haul the the rail of the vessel, into the sea and returned to line in again with lower pull, as is usual with hand- bring in the catch (Iwashita et al. 1967), but this lines playing a big fish like a salmon. After hauling early idea was not that successful. More successful the fish to the surface, the motor stops automati- was an automated pole-and-line method that simu- cally and remains stationary until the fish is lated the well-tried manual method. The fishing removed by the fisherman. Some machines give an rods are now moved by machines fixed on or near acoustic signal when a fish is hooked. The advan- the rail (Figure 9.45).This method imitates all types tage of such automatic machines in comparison of catching by hand. It operates by dropping the

Figure 9.45 Automatic pole-and-line fishery on a Japanese skipjack vessel. (Photo: Iwatan and Co, Tokyo.) DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 129

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Figure 9.46 Hydraulic winch for hauling lines or gillnets by small vessels. (From Kaulin 1969 with permission.)

line; luring the fish by small up and down move- ments of the fishing rod; quickly hooking the fish Figure 9.47 Japanese machine for hauling and coiling and swinging it on to the deck; automatically tuna longline on the French research vessel Coriolis. removing the fish by shaking it off; re-dropping the cleared hook overboard into the water and resum- hauled and coiled by special winches (Figures 9.30 ing fishing. According to the different models for and 9.47), but every other operation, such as con- mechanical ‘poling’, the pole can be inside, on, or necting, disconnecting and storing the branch lines outside the rail. In the last form, landing near the and buoy lines; the re-baiting of the hooks and rail is possible. A modern rod can be of glass fibre, removal of fish; and the casting of the line, has had from 3 to nearly 5m long and suitable for fish to be done by hand. Overcoming these labour weighing up to 30kg or more. A single person can requirements and making longline fishing less control four to eight units. labour-intensive may decide what chance of sur- In longlining also, for bottom lines as well as for vival this type of fishing will have in the future. driftlines, hand-driven reels have been introduced Therefore, many experiments have been under- in a few cases as mentioned at the end of Section 9.4. taken for mechanizing longlining in the Japanese In this case the trend to mechanize the whole oper- tuna fishery. Up till now, two systems have had ation, or at least a part of it, was because the some chance of success – the reel system and the methods used so far for longlining made it, like line winder system (Figure 9.48). handlining, a comparatively uneconomic form of In the ‘reel system longline fishing method’ the fishing (Roughley 1968). Special types of powered line is set and hauled by a drum, which also stores winches were developed for hauling longlines the whole line as one unit. Storing longlines on (Kaulin 1969) to reduce labour requirements and drums is not a new idea (Figure 9.49). It is no longer increase productivity. Most of these small hydraulic necessary to connect or disconnect the line units winches are also usable for hauling gillnets (Figure and store them in single baskets or bags. A single 9.46). undivided line is cast out and hauled when using a Tuna longlining operators were especially inter- drum (Figure 9.48a). The branch lines and float ested in a system for mechanizing the handling of lines are fixed to the main line by a special ‘coupling their driftlines (Figure 9.29) with up to 2000 or apparatus’. Depending on the weight of the drum, more hooks. Until recently, these lines have been the vessel should not be too small and should have DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 130

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Figure 9.48 Systems for hauling (right) and casting (left) Japanese tuna longlines: (a) reel system for larger vessels; (b) line winder for small vessels.

is also used, and this is coiled into special storage hatches during hauling with the help of a line winder. The branch lines have to be removed by hand. When casting, the line, after passing the line caster, has to be attached to branch lines and floats. Mechanized longlining is of interest not only for big game fish like tuna, shark and swordfish but also for many other types of fish caught in large quanti- ties by smaller vessels. Such a catch is of superior quality because less damage is done to the fish by the hooks than by other gear. Some of the northern fish caught by longlining are dogfish (Squalus acan- thias), ling (Molva molva) and tusk (Brosme brosme), silver hake (Merluccius merluccius) and cod (Gadus morhua), Pacific cod (Gadus macro- cephalus) and black cod (Pollachius virens). In northern Europe longlining for cod is impor- tant, but sometimes uneconomic in its traditional form because it is labour intensive. Some thousands of hooks have to be paid out every day. The hooks have to be baited normally in advance, or when Figure 9.49 Longline stored on a drum in Seattle. shooting the line (‘bait-as-you-shoot’ method). (Photo: J. Schärfe, 1968.) Hauling of the lines, with so many hooks, can take > 10h. Moreover. the line has to be prepared for use an engine of at least 200 hp. Since 1966 many Japan- the next day by untangling the snoods and cleaning ese vessels have used drums or reels for longlining the hooks. Finally the catch has to be gutted and even when the snoods have had to be handled by stored in ice. Here we have the same problem of hand. A practical method for small boats is the line labour-intensity as with tuna longlining in the winder system (Figure 9.48b) needing an operating tropics, but the northern fisheries may have been power of as low as c.5 hp. With this system one line making the first steps towards mechanized DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 131

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longlining systems when, at the end of the 1960s, fish was removed and the hook cleaned (whether new ideas arose for a fully mechanized longline or not it had taken a fish); the guide tubes which handling system including automatic baiting. Auto- carried the line and hooks, preventing snags and matic baiting machines, even when used alone, protecting the crew from hook injuries; the mecha- brought the first real progress.‘Baiter’ machines cut nisms for unravelling and disentangling snoods the whole bait fish into the right size pieces and from the main line; and the separator mechanism enabled hooks to pick up the bait as the line was for removing the hooks from the main line and being shot. This was considered great progress, storing them on racks below decks while the main especially as baiting often had to be done under bad line was coiled onto a drum (Figure 9.50). At this weather conditions on the unsheltered deck. But point there is a chance for personal inspection of baiting machines alone are not enough. The Japan- the line and possibly replacement of some parts, if ese are using powered drums to store the main line, necessary, before the longline is set again after and the permanently attached snoods have been passing a cutting and baiting machine operating at replaced by detachable snoods fastened by clips the speed at which the line is pulled out. Any vessel (Figure 9.18), which permit quicker automatic larger than 12m can operate this system as long as replacement of the snoods and hooks. Then came there is adequate space available. The large Nor- special machines to free twisted branch lines from wegian longliners operate up to 40 000 hooks. the main line. The new ‘disentangler’ also cleaned The system described above may be considered a the hook of bait and coiled up the main line. fully automatic one. The fisherman does not have At the beginning of the 1970s, the first fully too much work; he only has to see that the whole mechanized handling system for bottom longlines process is operating. Such a system is expensive. was introduced in Norway – the so-called ‘autoline Less investment is necessary when some work is system’. Such a system had to cover all operations, done by fishermen, e.g. when the snoods are including cleaning and baiting the hooks and detached and stored by hand; when baiting is done hauling, storing and setting the lines (NN 1971). manually,or when the lines are stored in sections on Some of the key developments were: the hauling drums which have to be handled by people. Such mechanism; the hauler and toiler which pulled the semi-mechanization is useful on smaller vessels line through the gunwale rollers where the caught (<12 m) operating in small-scale fisheries. Less

Figure 9.50 Plan of the Norwegian ‘autoline system’ for automatic longlining. (Courtesy of Mustad & Son, Oslo.) Hauling the line: (1) fish is gaffed before rail roll; (2) hook cleaner; (3) line hauler – line with hooks is guided through tubes to (4) twist remover; (5) hook separator separates hooks from groundline and hangs them in (6) magazines. Setting the line: (7) baiting machine. DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 132

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money and space is needed but the basic work especially for small and medium-sized vessels remains always the same: hauling the line; unload- (Figure 9.51). The problems to be resolved are the ing the fish; removing twists on the snoods; cleaning same as referred to earlier but the solution is dif- the hooks; storing the snoods, detached or un- ferent. When hauling, the line is towed over an detached; storing the line, with or without snoods, adjustable gunwale roller (Figure 9.51:1), which is complete or in sections; and, at the beginning of an unwinder roller preventing the snoods winding each new set, cutting the bait; baiting the hooks, about the main line. Here the hooked fish are taken manually or mechanically; fastening the snoods by a crew member by gaffing; the same person can when detached by hauling, and resetting the gear. also control the boat during hauling by remote Another integrated longline fishing system to engine and steering controls. The line is hauled by reduce manpower in line fishing has been devel- a powered line hauler with idler arm and idler oped in the USA. It is known as the Marco Tiliner sheave (Figure 9.51:2). From here the line is guided (Tison longline fishing system) and is designed to a take-up powerhead (Figure 9.51:3), on which

Figure 9.51 Plan of the deck arrangement for the American Tiliner system. (Courtesy of Marco, Seattle 1978.) Hauling the line: (1) adjustable gunwale roller; (2) line hauler; (3) take-up power head; (4) line storage spools. Setting the line: (5) spool on setting stand; (6) bait-cutting machine; (7) automatic baiter. DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 133

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spools are mounted to store the main line together try Authority (NN 1978, 1979). The aim of this with the snoods and the hooks. Between the line system is to offer smaller boats, ranging from 6 to hauler and the powerhead, a second crew member 24 m, a less expensive arrangement that can be is placed to control the hauling operation. This is expanded when needed. In this case the snoods are done by operating a deadman control pedal. This not fixed permanently on the mainline but are means the hauling gear functions only so long as a clipped on and off as required. The system includes pedal is pressed down by the foot of the second automatic baiting as well as automatic attachment person. Moreover, the second crew member has to and removal of the clipped-on snoods. For clipping, remove any remaining bait and place each hook a special plastic clip has been developed. The carefully on a spoke of the storage reel. Each reel advantage is that the entire main line is stored on can take a line of 600 fathoms (about 1200 m) with a hydraulically-driven drum, or is hand wound. The about 600 hooks spaced approximately 2m apart. snoods, carrying 200–2000 (or even up to 10000) When the reel is full, hauling is stopped and the full hooks, are removed and stored on special racks, the reel is replaced by an empty one. The stored reels so-called ‘carousels’, which gave the system its orig- have a fixed place on deck near the setting place inal name. When setting, the snoods are clipped on (Figure 9.51:4). The spools nest with each other, again after baiting.According to the original design allowing compact storage. When setting, a full reel this had to be done, as formerly, by hand, but addi- is fixed on the powerhead on the setting stand tional baiting machines are now available. The (Figure 9.51:5). Meantime, the bait is prepared to advantages of this system are low costs and also the required size in the hydraulic-powered bait greater resistance to bad weather and heavy seas. cutter (Figure 9.51:6) for the baiting machine An Irish scheme for automatic longlining, called (Figure 9.51:7). The first anchor and buoy are the ‘Speedoline system’, is based on two units: the released overboard and the line is run out as the automatic baiter and the hauling unit with the so- vessel moves forward. The line with the snoods and called ‘fish stripper’. When hauling, this stripper hooks is then pulled through the baiting machine removes the fish from the hook, if required outside where the hooks are automatically baited. The the vessel, over the water, when the fish fall into a speed of the setting is controlled by a crewman net bag towed by the boat. This can also be done applying pressure with his leg to the hydraulic inboard so that the fish slide into boxes. The hooks brake lever, leaving his hands free for clipping are cleaned and guided through tubes, and undam- floats and weights onto the line. When the required aged and damaged hooks are separated. The mag- number of spools is set, the last anchor and buoy azine has a basket below for storing main line and line are connected and released to complete the set. snoods together. Re-shooting can be started when If inspection of some parts of the line is necessary, hauling, then the hooks are guided through a baiter this can be easily carried out by winding the line before setting. from its spool on the setting stand onto an empty In the meantime, more schemes for automatic spool on the powerhead. Minor repairs, including longlining are offered. A few are in operation; removing unwanted bait, can be performed during others are under development. The final version hauling by removing the foot from the deadman may not yet have been found and it may be that control pedal and briefly stopping hauling. Clean- more than one system may be useful for longlining ing the hooks of remains of bait can be achieved (Bjordal 1981). Their value depends on individual with a wire brush or high-powered hose. This is not situations in which one system may be more eco- difficult because all the hook points with the bait nomic than another. One problem should not be on them are exposed on the outside of the spokes overlooked and this is the safety of the crew when of the reel. When necessary, a hook-cleaning device so many hooks are guided over the deck. Guiding can be set between the hauling gear and the rail tubes should, therefore, be used whenever possible. through which the main line with the snoods and hooks passes. Another system, the so-called ‘Autoclip auto- References matic longlining system’, has been developed in Anell, B. (1955) Contribution to the History of Fishing in Great Britain with the help of the Sea Fish Indus- Southern Seas. Uppsala. DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 134

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Antipa, Gr.(1916) Pesca˘ ria si Pescuitul in România. Caribbean and adjacent waters. Marine Fisheries Bucharest [in Rumanian]. Review 36 (9), 8–31. Au Lai-Shing (1970) The long-line fishery of Hong Kong. Klunzinger, C.B. (1892) Bodenseefische, deren Pflege und Part 1: Golden-thread long-lining. Fisheries Bulletin 1, Fang. Stuttgart. 5–18. Hong Kong. Koch, G. (1965) Die materielle Kultur der Ellis-Inseln. Ben-Yami, M. (ed.) (1980) Tuna Fishing with Pole and Veroeffentlichungen Des Museums für Völkerkunde Line. Fishing News Books, Farnham. Berlin NF 3. Berlin. Beurmann, A. (1961) Der Aberglaube der Jäger. Lefevre, I. (1969) Australian fisheries. In: The Encyclope- Hamburg. dia of Marine Resources (ed. F. E. Firth), 41–47. New Bickerdyke, J. (1895) Sea Fishing. London (with reference York. to Holdsworth, 1874). Liu, C.L. (1956) [Mackerel lining in Su-ao]. Fishery Survey Bjordal, A. (1981) Engineering and fish reaction aspects No. 8. Taiwan [in Chinese]. of longlining – a review. ICES C.M.1981/B:35, Fish de Luna, J.C. (1948) Peces de los Litorales Ibérico y Mar- Capture Committee. roqui y su Pesca. Madrid [in Spanish]. Bjordal, A. & Løkkeborg, S. (1996) Longlining.Fishing Lundbeck, J. (1972) Die Fischerei von den Naturvölkern News Books, Farnham. bis zur modernen Technik und Wirtschaft: Fangver- Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu fahren und-geräte der Fischerei. Mitteilungen des Insti- Swamps,A study of Fishing Activities of the Unga Tribe. tuts für Seefischerei der Bundesforschungsanstalt für The Rhodes-Livingstone Papers No. 12. The Fischerei, Hamburg 13, 37–142. Rhodes–Livingstone Institute. Livingstone, Zambia. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central von Brandt (1956) Fang des Weissen Thuns an de franzö- and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the sischen Atlantikküste. Fischereiwelt 8, 55–56. Rhodes-Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Brobak, K. (1952) Fartøy og Redskap. Oslo. Marin, P.-H. & Gilles, P.-M. (1978) Pêche en Mer à Voile. Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. Paris. Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 Meschkat, A. (1950) Neues über die Schleppangel. (2), 5–76. Fischereiwelt 2, 152–153. Burgess, J. (1971) Handlining and trolling. Bridport. Miller, R.C. (1966) The Sea. London. Burgess, J. (1973) Longlining. Bridport. Millot, (1954) Le troisième Coelacantha. Le Naturaliste Chen, C.T. (1960) [A Survey of Fishing Gear Use in the Malgache. Prem. Suppl. Coastal Fishery of Taiwan]. Taipei [in Chinese]. Müller, W. Yap. (1917) Ergebnisse der Südsee-Expedition Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England 1908–1910, IIB 2a. Hamburg. and Wales. Fishery Investigations Ser.II, Vol.21, Münzing, J. (1978) Die Jagd auf den Wal. Schleswig-Hol- No.8. steins und Hamburgs Grönlandfahrt. Heide. Doogue, R. (1977) Odd methods of catching fish. In: The NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and Scream of the Wheel: Deep-sea, Beach, Estuary and Fishing Gear. Tokyo. Inland Angling in Australian and New Zealand Waters NN (1963) Modern North Pacific halibut gear. Pacific (ed. J. Pollard), 366–379. Wellington. Fisherman 61 (10), 23–25. Euziere, J. (n.d.) La Pêche du Thon et des Thonidés en NN (1971) Mechanization of longline fishing. A complete Méditerranée. L’Olivette. system for handling and operations. World Fishing 24 Heitmann, K.E. (1962) Die Urzeitjäger im Technischen (12), 73–75. Paradies. Düsseldorf. NN (1978) UK ‘Carousel’ longlining system proved. Heintz, K. (1903) Der Angelsport im Süsswasser. World Fishing 27 (10), 37, 39, 43. Munich/Berlin. NN (1979) ‘Autoclip’ small boat longlining system proven Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. on WFA trials. World Fishing 28 (11), 27–28, 30, 32. Hildebrand, O. (1953) Nochmals Hechtfang am Nomura, M. & Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing Techniques. Bodensee: über das Schleppfischen mit mehreren Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the Schnüren. Allgemeine Fischerei-Zeitung 78 (3), 45–46. Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. Holdsworth, E.W.H. (1874) Deep-sea Fishing and Fishing Nordhoff, C. (1930) Notes on the off-shore fishing of the Boats. London. Society Islands. Journal of the Polynesian Society Hosaka, E.Y. (1973) Shore Fishing in Hawaii. Hawaii. XXXIX, 2–3. Wellington NZ. Hurum, H.J. (1977) A History of the Fish Hook and the Ormstad, O. & Rom, K. (1972) Isfiske. Oslo [in Norwe- Story of Mustad, the Hook Maker. London. gian]. Iwashita, M. et al. (1967) A basic study on mechanisation Parkinson, R. (1907) Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee. of pole and line fishing for skipjack and albacore 2. Stuttgart. Journal of the College of Marine Science and Technol- Peters, N. (1935) Angeln. Handbuch der Seefischerei ogy No.2, Tokai University. Nordeuropas 4. Kaulin, M.(1969) Holeinrichtungen für Setznetze. Poll, M. (1952) Exploration Hydrobiologique du Lac Tan- Fischerblatt 17, 265–269. ganika (1946–1947), Vol. 1, Les Vertébrés, 103–165. Kawagushi, K. (1974) Handline and longline fishing Brussels. explorations for snapper and related species in the Rau, C. (1884) Prehistoric fishing in Europe and North DFC9 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 135

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America. Smithonian Contributions of Knowledge Vol. Vilkuna, K. (1975) Unternehmen Lachsfang. Die XXV,Article. Washington. Geschichte der Lachsfischerei in Kemijoki. Studia Roughley, T.C. (1968) Fish and Fisheries of Australia. Fennica. Review of Finnish Linguistics and Ethnology Sydney. No.19. Helsinki. Schnakenbeck, W. (1953) Die deutsche Seefischerei in Welchert, H.H. (1963) Der Unsterbliche Angler. Nordsee und Nordmeer. Hamburg. Hamburg. Scofield, W.L. (1947) Drift and set line fishing gear in Yamamoto, I. (1975) Ketentuan Kerja Butu I, Standard California. Fisheries Bulletin No.66. Statistik Perikanan. Jakarta [in Indonesian]. DFC10 4/23/05 8:26 PM Page 136

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All fishing methods have the prime object of cial fishing is certainly the most popular sport and obtaining food, either for the catcher’s own con- its importance is increasing every year. With the sumption or for the market or the fish processing increasing interest in sport fishing, endemic industry. Nevertheless, there has been, since time methods have been developed, such as fishing in immemorial, some form of fishing for recreation – special freshwater ponds or off the seashore with and this became the basis of modern sport fishing. ‘party boats’ and around artificial reefs (see The definition of this term varies (Royce 1972) and Chapter 14.4) in the open sea. sometimes it is difficult to make a clear division Sport fishing is equated with angling, and Britain between commercial fishing and that for sport and is considered its homeland. However, fishing for recreation. With some fishing methods there is recreation with rod and line may have been known hardly any difference; in others there is a large one. for much longer in the Far East, in China, and in For example, in the casting competitions of sport Japan. In a Japanese manuscript of the first millen- fishermen, no more fish are caught, only the skill of nium AD it was reported that, handling the gear is decisive. (Since 1936 there have ‘the Empress Zingu (170–269 AD) bent a needle been attempts to bring such casting competitions and made it into a hook. She took grains of rice and into the Olympic games as a special discipline.) used them as bait. Pulling out the threads of her It has been said that the main difference between garment, she made them into a line which was fixed recreational and commercial fishery is the fact that on a rod. Then she stood on a stone in the middle sport fishermen, in contrast with commercial fish- of the river and cast the hook, and was lucky ermen, catch single fish, and often also individual enough to catch a trout when pulling up the rod’ fishes known and studied a long time beforehand. (Matuzaki 1940). Therefore sport fishermen should have a better knowledge of fish behaviour than commercial fish- Some Chinese reports about fishing are much ermen. This may be true in some cases for large- older, reaching back to the mysterious time of the scale fisheries, but not for most artisan and first Emperors. traditional small-scale fisheries. On the other hand, The fishing rod, even when used in commercial sport fishermen seek to catch specimen fish which pole-and-line fishing, is still the special fishing are considerably larger than the average size for the tackle of the sport fisherman. Modern sport fisher- water in which they are caught (Ward 1980). men tend to use the rod exclusively for catching With increasing urbanization, the wish of humans fish, but in the Far East, cuttlefish and octopus are to live in closer contact with nature becomes also caught in this manner. This was not always so. stronger and stronger, and sport fishing gives some In old books about sport fishing, not only are lines chance for the realization of this desire when mentioned but also different types of traps, spears, hunting has become no longer accessible for many harpoons and lift nets are listed as gear for sport people. In industrial countries such as Western fishing. Moreover, gear needed for catching crayfish Europe, North America and Japan, non-commer- (von Ehrenkreuz 1852) was also accepted for sport

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fishing. In Izaak Walton’s book The Compleat recreational activities, their development has Angler (1950) the student was told how to tame an become ever more luxurious, and uneconomical otter for fishing. Dredging was also considered an from the commercial point of view.There are costly amusement of the seashore (Harvey 1857), and rods and sophisticated reels, specially made lines some years ago beamtrawls were offered for sport and casts, a great number of floats and sinkers, and fishing by yachtsmen. Nowadays trammel nets are an innumerable variety of hooks, flies and lures; not also offered for ‘pleasure boats’, as are seine nets to mention auxiliary devices for operating the rod with and without pockets (Chapter 28). and line, and for landing the prey. Therefore, this In Wisconsin lakes, sport fishermen learned from chapter can provide only a general description, not the Indians how to handle harpoons to catch stur- a comprehensive report, on recreational fishing. geon under ice in the winter. Spearing flounder in shallow coastal waters during the night from a boat, 10.1 Rods and reels or while wading in the ocean surf (Warlen 1975), may also be considered more recreational than The original reason for using a rod may have been commercial fishing. The same can be said of har- the desire to move the hook as far away from the pooning sunfish (Mola mola) (Figure 6.32) in the fisherman as possible, so that his figure, his move- Strait of Messina or elsewhere. Nowadays, however, ments, or his shadow cannot frighten the prey. This rod and line is the recognized fishing tackle for is necessary not only when fishing from the shore sport fishing. Even for such a small gear as a single- but also from boats, because some fish are consid- hooked drifting eel line (Figure 9.26b), a special ered ‘boat shy’. For this, a simple stick from the book on eel fishing (Loebell 1966) says that this nearest tree was sufficient, and it is not so long ago gear is ‘on the border’ between sport and commer- that recommendations were given on how and cial fishing. Longlines will never be accepted as gear when to cut, and how to prepare, a good rod for for sport fishing: the rod will remain the only angling. In Europe springy wood was preferred, acceptable gear. But some forms of commercial such as hazel.Ash and fir were used until the begin- fishing gear are required for sport fisheries – at least ning of last century.This material was then replaced in fresh water. The knowledge of other fishing by some tropical woods such as hickory,greenheart, methods will be necessary to manage fishing waters ironwood and bamboo. But the fishing rod has to such as large lakes and other natural or artificial do more than move the hook away from the angler. waters that cannot be managed by angling only. In It also has to help in casting the hook as far as pos- these, many different catching methods are needed sible, especially when the line became longer. The besides the hook and line, including methods for rod also controls the movement of the bait and bulk fishing to keep the fish stocks under control. assists in hooking, fighting and playing the fish. All Moreover, some sport fishermen collect bait with this needs a degree of elasticity in the rod, espe- different types of gear. Where this is not possible, cially in the top section. As long ago as the 15th specialized bait fishermen using many different century it was recommended to fix a piece of mate- fishing methods catch live bait for sale to sport fish- rial such as whalebone to the tip of the rod to get ermen. Recreational fishing with rod and line is one the necessary elasticity to ‘play’ the fish. Early rods of the many forms of fishing technique and is linked made of raw bamboo cane, known as ‘Tonkin’, were with other fishing methods. This connection with considered the best. It was found that the outer other catching methods is explained in Chapters 8 surface of the cane was ideal for rod-making, but and 9 which discuss hook and line fishing in general. the inner section was not reliable. Therefore, split In sport fishing there are at least the following cane rods were developed which are constructed of different methods of using rods: for float fishing, hexagonal cross-sections of the outer material. ground fishing (ledgering), spin fishing, fly fishing, These have the best properties for sport fishing, and big game fishing. especially for fly fishing. Moreover, trolling and jigging are also accepted Since World War II, synthetic materials such as in recreational fisheries. The principles of these fibreglass have been preferred for rod material. methods are known in commercial fishing, as dis- Owing to its high tensile strength and flexibility, cussed in Chapters 8, 9 and 12, but as with most solid and hollow fibreglass rods have replaced split DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 138

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bamboo rods and even the simple sticks used for fishing by children. Moreover, hollow fibreglass rods are much cheaper and stronger than rods made from split cane. The latest development in material for constructing rod is carbon fibre. Rods made of this have higher strength and can therefore be made smaller and lighter. This lightweight and very flexible rod, very suitable for fly and spin fishing, has the disadvantage of having good elec- trical conductivity. Some people have been killed by touching overhead power cables with long carbon fibre rods, and others have suffered shocks from atmospheric electricity. There are very short rods with small handles for angling in ice holes and very long ones, 4m or more, for shore fishing. In pole fishing, rods up to 14m are used. Some people think that the rod should be just over twice their own height (Ward 1980). Rods are mostly made in two (butt and top) or three (butt, middle and top) sections. Nowadays there are also four-section rods for almost all the available fishing methods, and they are used by anglers who often travel, especially as airline pas- sengers. Originally there were objections to divided rods; perhaps because the joints or ferrules were not good enough. Divided rods have been consid- Figure 10.1 Angling rod and line-storing devices: (a) ered an English whim and some unkind people Eskimo angling – the line can be wound around the thought of divided rods as the tackle of fish thieves length of the rod; (b) French rod of the 18th century with the line wound around a separate bobbin; (c) Swedish – rather like the folded gun of a poacher! angling rod with triangle to store the line as with a roll Originally the line was simply fixed to the top of line (see Figure 9.14a). the rod, as is done today with the rods operated in commercial pole-and-line fisheries (Chapter 9) and in pole fishing by anglers. In these cases the line is short fishing rod was developed in Korea many about the same length as the rod. Often there is a years ago and is still used today (Figures 9.6 and need to have a line longer than the rod. The Inuits 10.2). In this method, the line holder, a broad found a solution to this problem (Figure 10.1a) by revolving frame on which the line is wound up, is using a rod with notches cut in each end, enabling fixed on the top of a short stick. Operating a line the line to be wound lengthwise. A method devised longer than the rod can also be achieved by fixing in France (Figure 10.1b) was to wind the line a reel on the side of the rod to store the line, as is around a separate reel. It may be that the use of done for ice fishing (Figure 9.14b). Such reels, also separate sticks and boards to wind up lines was the with stopping devices, were already known for oldest method. The Egyptians wound up the handlines (Klunzinger 1892). The Chinese were the retrieving lines for their fishing spears on separate first to combine such a reel with a rod some hun- rolls c. 4000 years ago, and the fishermen of Nepal dreds of years ago, as can be seen from the 13th do this with a board for their angling lines today century painting in Figure 10.3. There is also a 12th (Shrestha 1979). Another idea developed in century woodprint showing a similar arrangement Sweden was to fix a triangular line-holder at the top (Trench 1974). It is thought that this reel and rod of the stick (Figure 10.1c) similar to the roll-line arrangement was known in China at least since the used when fishing with set lines (Figure 9.14a). Yet 11th century (Leroi-Gourhan 1945). The same reel another solution for combining a longer line with a is shown in a drawing of the last century (Figure DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 139

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Figure 10.4 Old Chinese rod with reel for catching turtles. (From de Thiersant 1872 with permission.)

dreds of metres long. In sea fisheries, running lines of > 1000m are used. Figure 10.2 Korean angling rod with a revolving spool The reels are not only used to store a long fishing for the line. line; they are also used in spinning and playing the fish. Modern reels are no longer as simple as the early reels used with handlines without a stick. Today there are highly sophisticated and expensive reels, carefully designed for the different methods of fishing with rods (Figure 10.5). It is not quite clear when the first reels were used in Europe. It may have been somewhere between 1651 and 1655 (Trench 1974) – if the interpretation of some old Figure 10.3 Chinese fisherman with rod and reel books is correct – but, as mentioned before, reels according to a painting of Ma Jüan, 13th century. were used much earlier in other countries. The first European reels for rod fishing were heavy large 10.4). These reels are used today in Taiwan but are reels made of wood (Doogue 1974). However, these now made of plastic. The Chinese have made many were inclined to warp owing to contact with water, basic contributions to developments in fisheries, which may be the reason why some reels were among which the fishing reel in rod-and-line fishing made of brass in the 18th century.At the end of the may be the most significant. With the use of a reel 19th century fishing reels were also made of it became possible to work with a line much longer Ebonite, a vulcanized rubber, and after the World than the rod. The ‘stationary line’, i.e. a relatively War I reels were made of Bakelite, one of the first short line no longer than the stick and tied to a loop synthetic materials used in fisheries. Modern fishing attached to the top of the rod, was now replaced by reels are made of metal or graphite, some with a ‘running line’, not tied to the top of the rod but turning spools like small forms of the old reels used passing through a top ring to the butt and wound for lines (‘free-spool’ reels); others with non- around the reel. A running line may be some hun- rotating fixed spools (‘fixed-spool’ reels). With the DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 140

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a c

b

d

Figure 10.5 Different types of modern reels: (a) fixed-spool reel; (b) multiplying reel; (c) fly-casting reel; (d) multi- pliers for big game fishing.

original reel, the turning of the handle gave the its axis parallel to the rod. The spool remains sta- same number of turns to the spool. This type of tionary while the pick-up arm, or bale arm, rotates centre pin reel is also sometimes used today. Often about it to guide the line when running out over the this old-fashioned reel has been replaced by ‘mul- head of the fixed spool, or to gather the line in when tiplying reels’ or ‘multipliers’, which, with the help the bale arm turns in the other direction. The fixed of gearing, turn the reel up to four times faster than spool does not turn but moves forwards and back- the handle. Multipliers are very widely used in sea wards to ensure that the line is wound in evenly.The fishing. fixed spool reel can be made in an open form or in In troll line fishing (see Chapter 9.6) some a closed one. A closed face reel has the spool with monster reels are used weighing several kilograms the pick-up mechanism in a domed container with and holding more than 1000m of line with a break- a hole in the centre of the dome for the line to run ing strength of > 300 N. Even motorized or electro- out or be wound in. From these basic types of reels powered reels made of brass or stainless steel have there are many variations with different names, been developed for sea fishing. They are designed all of which can have advantages and disadvan- to handle heavy fish, from depths of 1000m or tages, according to the skill and experience of the more. With fixed-spool reels the drum or spool has user. DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 141

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float fishing, and sometimes ledgering (see Section 10.3), regular ground baiting is considered neces- sary to encourage fish to the required place. Suit- able bait will be spread by hand, and can also be shot further away with a catapult (Trench 1974). When the wind is in the right direction the bait can be carried out with the help of a small raft fitted with a sail (Ward 1980). A connecting line is fixed to the top of the mast of this little craft to tip over the raft at the desired place and so release the bait. Such craft have already been mentioned for longlining (Chapter 9, Figures 9.23–9.25). In sea fisheries float tackle is used because this method allows bait to be presented at the depth considered best. As mentioned before, the float regulates not Figure 10.6 Types of float fishing: (a) adjustable float; only the depth of the hook but works also as a bite (b) float ledger. indicator. Floats used in sea fishing are much more rough in shape and larger, made of wood, cork or 10.2 Float fishing plastic. Shark anglers even use balloons to present big baits. Different waters and different fish call for Float fishing is the simplest form of sport fishing in different floats, and this may be the reason why still or very slow moving waters. For tackle, in addi- some anglers collect floats as a hobby. tion to line and hook, sometimes only some small shots for weight and a float are needed (Figure 10.3 Ground fishing and ledgering 10.6a). A rod, however, is not wholly necessary for this method.The distance of the hook from the float For ground fishing in fast-running waters, almost is regulated in such a way that it is either fishing the same tackle can be used as for float fishing near the surface, in mid-water, or lower still, only a (Figure 10.6b). The depth can be regulated with the little off the bottom. The function of the float is to float. A heavy lead ledger sliding freely up and support the tackle in the water, and also to enable down is attached to ensure that the cast with the the angler to keep his bait clear, and to reveal by hook rests on the bottom to catch bottom feeders. its movement when a fish bites. The faster the current, the larger the lead will need Cork has been used for making egg-shaped floats to be. A fishing rod can be used to place the hook as has any light wood, particularly balsa wood. Gen- in the right position and to land the fish after strik- erally the smaller and slimmer the float, the more ing, possibly with the help of a reel for winding in sensitive it is. Below water the float should be as the line. The rods for ground fishing vary in thick- dark and inconspicuous as possible, while above ness and consist of two or three parts; they may water the tip must be bright for maximum visibility. even need to be operated with two hands accord- Sensitive floats in a slim form are also made from ing to the design. They are of varying length. the shafts of birds’ feathers such as those from swan, They can be 4m or more long but they are also pelican, goose, turkey and crow. Quills from porcu- made shorter and heavier for fishing in the sea from pines have also been very popular. Plastic floats a boat. A well-known tackle for ground fishing is have been made,and fluorescent antennae floats are the paternoster line (Figure 9.1g) with a heavy lead available for fishing at dusk. Special floats are con- with side arms like an anchor. Paternostering is structed for fishing during the night; their light can generally found to be successful in places where be seen by the angler at distances of up to 100 m. there is a good depth and a strong current. Another special type are the bubble floats – Another form of ground fishing is ledgering. This transparent balls filled with water to give the nec- is simply fishing without float. The line with the essary weight for casting, but they are nearly invis- baited hook is held by a free running weight (Figure ible in the water and therefore difficult to see. For 10.8a). Many forms of ledger leads are known: DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 142

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Figure 10.7 The horizontal position of the rod is often used in combination with electronic bite indicators.

round, pyramid-shaped and others, with a hole or loop through which the line passes. A piece of shot is fixed on the line to act as a stop. The free part of the line is allowed to move attractively in the current. The only problem is how to sense a bite, because the system cannot be very sensitive. A bite is difficult to feel with the finger on the line when it is moving in the current, or to distinguish by the movement of the rod tip which may be moved by the wind. Sometimes, when the rod is placed on a rod rest (Figure 10.7), some glittering material hung on the line can act as bite indicator by revealing unusual irregular movements. An alarm bell can be fixed on the line (Figure 9.16), or the reel may be fitted with a clicker to give an audible warning. Nowadays, specially made battery-operated electric detectors are available, indicating not only the running of the line but also slack line bites, when the fish swims against the line. Some detectors can be connected to more than one rod and give dif- ferent forms of alarm. British match anglers developed a very success- ful version of ledgering. Instead of lead, a wire basket or a perforated plastic cylinder is attached Figure 10.8 Different ledgering-rigs: (a) running ledger, (b) fixed paternoster rig, (c) ‘hair’-rig for carps, and (d) to the line (Figure 10.8d). These ‘swim-feeders’ are swim-feeder. packed with heavy ground-bait which is released slowly by the currents.Thus the fish are lured to the hook-bait. The fine tips, made of solid fibreglass, of seizes in the mouth.This principle also functions if a specially designed feeder-rods (Kluwe-Yorck 1997) carp tries to spit the bait out of the mouth. act as very sensitive bite-indicators. Even the slight- A special form of ledgering in salt water is shore est touch to the hook-bait or line can be detected fishing, which resembles ledgering in fresh water. this way. Natural baits are used, such as lugworms, ragworms, Another very effective ledgering technique was crabs, shrimps, prawns, shellfish or fish baits. To developed by British carp anglers during the late reach the fish in deeper water behind the breaking 1970s. The bait is connected by a thin, braided line waves, these baits must be cast as far as possible. to the bend or eye of the hook (Figure 10.8c). If the Furthermore, it is absolutely necessary that the bait carp takes the bait at this hair-rig, it automatically is not carried away by the strong currents. So the sucks the hook into the mouth. As soon as the fish leads are substantially heavier than the leads used continues to swim, it feels the sharp point and shows in fresh water (Figure 10.9). Therefore anglers use a flight reaction (Little 1991). Trying to escape, the special, up to 4.9m long beach-casting rods. They carp hooks itself, because the free hook thereby are stronger and have less but bigger rings than the DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 143

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rods for ledgering in fresh water. This construction reduces the friction of the line during the cast and very experienced anglers achieve distances up to 200m (Mackellow 1998). Fixed-spool reels are used as well as multiplying reels for special styles of beach casting. The rod is placed in a raised position right on the waterfront and the bite of a fish is indi- cated at the tip (Figure 10.10). The prey of surf anglers consists of mainly cod, whiting, flounders, turbot, eels, pollock, coalfish, seabass, seabreams and rays, but in Namibia for example, anglers fish from the beach for really big sharks up to 180 kg (Bressler 1999).

10.4 Spin fishing and jigging The spinning method of fishing is appreciated by many anglers. For spinning, a line with lead, hook, and bait or lure is cast using a rod and wound in again over a reel (Figure 10.11). Strictly speaking, spin fishing is something like trolling from a fixed place, and is usually used to catch predatory fish. Of the different types of rod available, ones made from carbon fibre are preferred, as are fixed spools and multipliers. Different types of artificial lures with incoherent names are used for spin fishing (Aldinger 1974). In principle, there is not much difference between the tackle used for spinning by sport fishermen and commercial fishermen (Chapter 9). In each case an object designed to make some movement, often spinning, when drawn through the water and which is armed with hooks, is used (Vare & Hardy 1980). The oldest type of artificial lure used in spin fishing and trolling is probably the so-called spoon, made of polished metal and already known in prehistoric times (Figures 9.34 and 9.35). Originally this lure had the form of a spoon, as used for eating (Figure 10.12a). When towed, the spoon moves up and down and also spins, being fitted with a swivel before each lure. Modern spoons used by sport fish- ermen are generally smaller and can be curved. Such spoons have no axis, but there are others with a middle part around which the spoon spins and Figure 10.9 Fixed paternoster rig with two hooks. The these are, therefore, called ‘versatile blade spinners’ heavy grip lead is constructed for strong currents. (Figure 10.12b, d). More complicated are lures that have not only an axis, but also something like a propeller which causes a quick turning of the whole lure. These are typical spinners known as Devon minnows or turbine spinners. DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 144

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Figure 10.10 Shore fishing: the raised position of the rod keeps the line over the surface for better bite- indication.

Figure 10.11 Spin fishing: raising and lowering the rod while winding in the line gives the artificial lure lively movements.

Quite another group of artificial lures are the curious predatory fish because such predators often non-spinning ‘plugs’, first used in America.They are follow lures without taking them. If a fish is made of wood or hollow plastic or hard foamed detected in this way, the angler tries to catch it with plastic in one (Figure 10.12c), two and even three another type of spinning-lure, for example with a sections.They are fitted with one, two or three triple plug or spoon. hooks and are painted with striking colours. These Likewise, the so-called soft baits come from the plugs, or ‘wobblers’, attract the fish by wobbling, United States of America. They were developed in wriggling or undulating when towed through the the 1950s and are moulded from synthetic materi- water. Most of them have at the forepart a small als such as polyvinyl chloride. In contrast to hard- shearing board, which is one of the elements of bodied lures, soft baits have different advantages. fishing gear (Chapter 8). The lure is pressed down- On the one hand very true imitations of the natural wards by this board or the whole lure has a banana- prey can be manufactured, e.g. worms, crayfish, like form so that its whole body is shearing when crabs, frogs, fishes and so on. On the other hand the the line is retrieved. There are some types made predator fish keeps it longer in the mouth after specially for diving in shallow waters; others which biting owing to the soft consistency.The spin-angler dive deeply; and others which float on the surface thus has more time to set the hook. The very light and are fitted with a vane which causes them to soft baits are installed onto special jig-hooks, which splash along the surface of the water. are equipped with lead on the bent (Figure 10.12e, American bass anglers created the spinnerbaits f). Thus they can be thrown very far with the spin- (Figure 10.12g). These lures are designed to solve ning tackle and fished at nearly all depths. problems with weed in shallow waters. The bent, Also well known in spin fishing are ‘dead bait’ formed as an open triangle, prevents waterplants or tackles (Figure 10.12h), which operate by spinning bushes from touching the hook or blade. Some a dead natural fish.Although in spin fishing the arti- angler also use spinnerbaits to locate aggressive or ficial lures are made attractive by striking colours, DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 145

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Figure 10.12 Lures for spin fishing: (a) spoon; (b) spinner; (c) plug; (d) minnow-spoon; (e) curly tails (twister); (f) shad; (g) spinnerbait; (h) dead-bait spinning tackle.

the movements of the lure and its vibrations are considered the essential factors in attracting the fish to take the hook. Another artificial lure consists of several hooks surrounded with strikingly coloured feathers.These are used in ‘feathering’ – which is considered very effective because ‘a string of six or seven feathers imitates a school of bait fish’ (Holden 1973). Hooks with feathers can be so effective that some people consider spinning with feathers in the sea no more as sport but, at the most, as a ‘bait collection tech- nique’. The feathers can be replaced by natural hairs or strips of plastic, particularly using split fibres (Figure 9.33). Frequently these baits are also used in combina- tion with heavy metal lures, known as ‘pirks’ (Figure 10.13). This method, called ‘jigging’, is a special variation of spinning at sea and is practised from a drifting boat. While the spinfisher’s lure usually moves nearly horizontally through the water, pirks have to be presented more or less ver- Figure 10.13 The pirk with ‘extra-bait’ is very popular tically (Willock 1994). Depending on the depth and for catching cod in the Baltic Sea. DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 146

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ments of hook, line, reel and rod, made especially in the last century (Trench 1974). The earliest information on the use of artificial flies is to be found in Claudius Aelianus’ work De Natura Animalium. It was written in the third century AD, and he there describes the use of arti- ficial flies in Macedonia (Gudger 1947). Aelianus reports that, in the Macedonian river Astaeus, in Thessaly, some fish were known to prefer a special type of insect named ‘hippuri’, flying near the water surface. The inhabitants tried to use these flies as bait, but these insects are so soft and fragile that they are destroyed when touched by hand. There- fore, artificial ones were made of wool, dyed with red wine and completed by small feathers from the head of a cock. This may be the first report about fly fishing, but it was used not for recreation but to get food. Indeed, it seems that this fishing technique had never been described before, not even by Oppian living in the second century AD, who gave a very comprehensive report entitled Halieutica about fishing as seen by him or reported by differ- ent Greek and Roman writers. Strangely, this method was not mentioned again until the end of the 15th century in the second edition of the famous English Boke of St Albans (1496) which has a special chapter – ‘Treatise of fishing with an angle’. It has been said that this book was written by an English prioress, Dame Juliana Barnes. Of course, it is a little strange that a prioress should have so Figure 10.14 Jigging technique from a drifting boat: the much fishing experience. Some people think that a bait have to be presented near the bottom. woman at the head of a religious establishment could not have been the author of such a book (Trench 1974), and consider that it is based on a French manuscript of the first quarter of the 15th currents, pirks can weigh anything between 50 and century. Nevertheless, in the Boke of St Albans not 1000 g. The bait must always be held directly above only are rods, lines, floats, leads and hooks men- the sea bottom. Because of this, the angler contin- tioned, but so too are 12 artificial flies. Unfortu- ually raises and lowers the rod tip (Figure 10.14), nately,no drawing is given.The first black and white and thus cod, pollock, coalfish, whiting, haddock, drawing of a fly was not published in England until ling and other species are caught. 1620 and the first coloured one not until 1800. In the 16th century and later, artificial flies were very 10.5 Fly fishing often mentioned. The famous European man of science, Konrad Gessner, describes artificial flies in The most artistic form of sport fishing is beyond his Historiae Animalium, printed in Zurich in doubt that of fly fishing. In this, the line is cast with 1551–1558. There are descriptions and illustrations an almost weightless bait in the form of an artificial of artificial flies even in old Japanese handwritten fly, made of carefully tied feathers. Fly fishing as it manuscripts. The descriptions of Dame Juliana is known today may be the method of fishing for Barnes were repeated by Izaak Walton in his book sport and recreation created by the many improve- The Compleat Angler (1653), of which new editions DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 147

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Figure 10.15 The two principles of fishing with flies: (a) dry flies are presented on the surface; (b) wet flies or attractor flies in the water. Figure 10.17 Simple sport trolling: the lures are drawn manually at different depths by craft.

requires tuition and long and patient exercise, and is the object of special competitions among sport fishermen, who today practise the art of casting and exercise their skill in almost every country of the world. This may also be one of the reasons why fly fishing is considered as the most delightful method of all forms of sport fishing. There exists, in addition, a more simple form of ‘fly fishing’ with larger artificial baits made of feath- ers and hairs. Even though these baits are called ‘flies’ in some countries, they actually imitate not insects but small fishes. Therefore it may be better Figure 10.16 A selection of different types of flies. Dry to use the name ‘streamer’ for catching larger and flies (a–d): (a) mayfly, (b) hackled dry fly, ( c) palmer, (d) winged dry fly; wet flies (e–h): (e) winged wet fly, (f) heavier fish feeding on smaller ones (Figure 10.16i). hackled wet fly, (g) beetle, (h) nymph; attractor flies (i–k): This type of fishing is carried out in waters with (i) streamer, (j) salmon fly, (k) tube fly. strong currents, with rods made for fly fishing as well as with rods made for spinning (Eipeltauer 1980). are still printed today. Interestly, some of the flies mentioned in the Boke of St Albans are used today. 10.6 Sport trolling and big game fishing Nevertheless, modern sport fishermen know of a tremendous number of different flies. They are Trolling in a very wide sense can be a form of sport ‘dry’, which means swimming like water ticks on the fishing with the same fishing tackle as described surface, or they are ‘wet’, which means they are previously (Chapter 9.6) for commercial fisheries. fishing under the surface of the water (Figure When used from a boat, short and strong rods are 10.15). needed with very long lines and spinning devices, as There are many famous types distinguishable described for spin fishing (Figure 10.17).When reels according to the colour and material they are made are used they have to be extra large. Otter boards from (Figure 10.16). A rod especially designed for have been mentioned before as being used with casting artificial flies is needed, and its right selec- commercial troll lines, but originally these shearing tion, not only according to length and weight, will devices were used for sport fishing in the flowing influence success. water of rivers. They were put in the water to tow a Nowadays, the rods of fly fishermen are espe- line with branch lines and hooks across the water cially light (ultra-light hollow fibreglass or carbon being fished. Later on, more highly developed otter rods); the fishing line tapers towards either end and boards were also used from sports vessels to tow is especially prepared to allow it to run out easily lines for trolling over wide areas (Figure 8.30). from the reel.The technique of successful casting in Sports fishermen do not only use lateral shearing fly fishing must be learned by steady practice; it boards, but also devices for shearing downward. DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 148

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Figure 10.18 Sport trolling with a downrigger (a). The fishing line is attached by a clip to the heavy lead (b).

Figure 10.19 Fishing for sharks from a drifting boat: the net filled with rubby dubby forms a scent trail in the water.

Figure 8.33(b,c) illustrates shearing equipment used rigger weight at the steel cable brings the lure to in deep water for sport fishing. the desired depth, where it can be constantly trolled With the invention of the downrigger, modern (Eilts 1992). It is possible at any time to vary the sport trolling was revolutionized. With this aid it is fishing depth by raising or discharging the weight. possible to fish with very light tackle and the light- The fishing rod is put into a tubular rod-stand and est lures. There are also practically no limitations brought into tension (Figure 10.18a). If a fish bites, regarding the fishing depth. In Europe, this kind of the bracket releases the line from the steel cable trolling has been particularly developed by Swedish and it can be played without taking up weights sport fishermen. Fishing for Atlantic salmon in the between rod and hook. Trolling with hook and line Baltic Sea was opened up by using echo-sounders, is also the method generally practised in big game and North American anglers, for example, use them fishing in tropical seas for shark, tuna, swordfish, to fish for lake trout, salmon, trout and musky in marlin, sailfish, wahoo and others. This type of the Great Lakes. fishing was not successful before the development The downrigger consists of a short arm with a and improvement of suitable gear, i.e. strong lines, final roller-ring and a hoist with steel cable. The rods and reels, operated by a person sitting with the steel cable runs through the final ring and carries a rod in a rest in a ‘fighting chair’ and secured against weight of between 0.5 and 5 kg. A bracket is fixed being thrown overboard by the sudden jerk of a at the weight or at the steel cable, into which the powerful game fish. Such fish, when hooked, may fishing line is wedged (Figure 10.18b). The down- tow a boat for hours. Sometimes more lures, DFC10 4/23/05 8:27 PM Page 149

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without hooks, are used to attract the prey to the is practised in California and South Africa today, catching hook which has a fish as bait. and kites made of plastic sheets are sold in sports Another way to attract the game fish, especially fishing tackle shops. sharks, is the use of ‘rubby dubby’ (Williams 1997). This is a mixture of crushed fishes with a high fat References content, like mackerel or herring, fish oil and bran. Aldinger, H. (1974) Der erfolgreiche Spinn-, Schlepp-, und Rubby dubby can be put directly in the water with Zockangler. Stuttgart. a spoon or hung in the water in a fine-meshed net. Bressler, F. (1999) Hai-Alarm. Die Raubfischerei 3, 78–79. If the wind direction and the direction of the water Doogue, R. (1974) Hook, Line and Sinker. Wellington. von Ehrenkreuz. (1852) Das Ganze der Angelfischerei current are identical, the boat drifts over the water und ihre Geheimnisse. Quedlinburg/Leipzig. and a narrow, long scent trail is built (Figure 10.19). Eilts, J. (1992) Gewusst wie. Fisch & Fang 2, 37. If not, the boat must be held on course by engine Eipeltauer, N. (1980) Streamerfischen. Hamburg. force according to the water drift. Sharks may Gudger, E W. (1947) The origin of fly-fishing. Salmon and follow the trail over many kilometres to the hook Trout 121, 237–240. Harvey, W H. (1857) The Sea-side Book. London. bait. Mostly, dead fish such bonito, small tuna or Holden, J. (1973) Shorefishing. London. mackerel are used on a single hook. Klunzinger, C.B. (1892) Bodenseefische, deren Pflege und Sometimes, as when fishing for shy sailfish, the Fang. Stuttgart. bait has to be towed through the water far away Kluwe-Yorck, V. (1997) Vom Matchruten und from the boat to avoid scaring the fish. The bait Winkelpickern. Fisch & Fang 8, 60–63. Leroi-Gourhan, A. (1945) Milieu et techniques. Science should also be towed near the surface and, there- d’ aujourdhui. Paris. fore, a balloon or kite can be attached to the line by Little, A. (1991) Grosse Karpfen Angeln. Hamburg, a cotton thread. When the bait is taken, this cotton Berlin. line breaks and the balloon or kite drifts away Loebell, R. (1966) So fängt man Aale. Hamburg. de Luna, J.C. (1948) Peces de los Litorales Ibérico y Mor- (Trench 1974). Sport fishermen sometimes attempt roqui y su Pesca. Madrid. to use the kite in trolling even today. The English Mackellow, N. (1998) Das Duell der Rollen. Fisch & Fang traveller, Sir Henry Middleton, is said to have been 6, 34–38. the first European to see kite fishing in the South Matuzaki, M. (1940) Angling in Japan.Tourist Library: 32. Seas during his visit there from 1604 to 1606, and he Tokyo. Royce, W.F. (1972) Introduction to the Fishery Sciences. introduced the kite in sports fishing in 1616. For this New York/London. purpose, kites flying astern of a moving boat were Shrestha, T.K. (1979) Technique of fishing in Nepal. I: used, especially for fishing tuna and other big game Innovation and development of loop line snaring. fish. The flying fish bait was securely tied to the Journal of the Natural History Museum 3 (4), 121– hook. The fishing line led from the rod to the kite 138. Svendsen, L. (1949) Tun, Fiskeri og Tunfisk. Copenhagen. and then back to the water (Figure 8.35) (de Luna Trench, C.C. (1974) A History of Angling. London. 1948). Thus the hook skipped realistically over the Turner, C.H. & Sexsmith, J.C. (1964) Marine Baits of Cal- top of the waves.When a fish struck the bait, the line ifornia. broke away from the kite and the fisherman was Vare, A. & Hardy, A.E. (1980) The Sea Angler’s First free to play the catch, just as is done in some parts Handbook. London. Walton, I. (1950) The Compleat Angler. London (original of Oceania (Turner & Sexsmith 1964). In the publication 1653). Öresund, during the Danish tuna fishing competi- Ward, B. (1980) Freshwater Fishing. London. tion of 1947, an effort was made to fish with box Warlen, S.M. (1975) Night stalking flounder in the ocean kites (Svendsen 1949). However, in other areas of surf. Marine Fisheries Review 37 (9), 27–30. Williams P.(1997) Der Duft, der Meeresfische provoziert. the world,such efforts up to the present to introduce Fisch & Fang 8, 28–31. this old Oceanic method of troll line fishing have not Willock, C. (1994) Das Große ABC des Fischens. been successful. Nevertheless, kite fishing for sport Hamburg. DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 150

11 Attracting, Concentrating and Frightening Fish

Sometimes in fishing technology a distinction is fishing literature they talk of this as ‘bait food’, but made between ‘active’ and ‘passive’ fishing gear. As the enticing element needs not necessarily be an explained in Chapter 1, the meanings of the terms edible bait or even dummy food bait. Other senses are, that in the first case the gear actively follows the of the fish may be exploited to lure them into a fish to be caught (the gear comes to the fish), and in fishing gear or to a certain place. Besides food, the the other the gear remains passive, waiting for the fish may have a desire for hiding, for mating, or active fish to come voluntarily to, or into, the gear. simply for finding other specimens of its kind, as in Very often an active gear is defined as a towed one, the case of shoaling fish. All of these desires can be in contrast to the passive gear which is stationary. used, singly or together, to attract or concentrate This definition should be avoided because not all fish or other aquatic animals near to or into a active gear is towed, while some passive gear like fishing gear. The term ‘bait’ is thus by no means troll lines,drift lines,driftnets and even handlines are restricted to food bait like the lob-worm of the moved during fishing. For successful catching with angler, but has a far more comprehensive meaning. any type of passive gear it must be made as accept- The problem is to find the right stimuli influencing able as possible to the prey.To find the most attrac- the behaviour of a fish or another prey, in a posi- tive bait, to construct the gear in the most suitable tive or negative manner, as needed for any fishing manner, and to operate that gear in the most effec- method, especially with passive fishing gear. tive way, needs knowledge of fish behaviour. It may Stimuli attracting fish can be of optical, chemical, have required many centuries for human beings to acoustical or tactile nature (Mohr 1960). There are learn how to catch fish in any other way than by stimuli having either a positive or a negative effect picking them up and killing them by hand. There according to their ability to either lure the fish or may be no objection to saying that most active to frighten it away. The positive and negative reac- fishing gears are older than passive ones, and that it tions of a fish to a certain stimulus can change in needs a lot of knowledge to lure a fish to accept a the course of that fish’s life, and according to its passive gear.This does not mean that,for active gear, physiological condition. Young fish, for instance, knowledge of fish behaviour is not necessary too. can be attracted by light from which older speci- But it is only now that this knowledge has become mens of the same species would take evading one of the main ingredients for improving gear con- action. They may at first react positively to the struction and devising fishing tactics to be used with photo-tactile stimulus, but negatively at a later the active fishing gear. Many fishing methods are stage. Many species behave very differently accord- based on attracting prey or concentrating them in an ing to whether they are spawning or not. This economic quantity. There are also some conditions explains how it is that long experience is required when it may be desirable to frighten fish into a posi- by practical fishermen for finding out the most tion where they can be caught. effective bait to be used for certain fisheries, as well For attracting and concentrating fish, bait is as for discovering the most suitable fishing gear. frequently offered with the gear. In old and new Passive gear in particular can be successful only if

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it is adapted, as far as possible, to the specific behav- course, is that the aquatic animal sought to be iour of the animal sought (Brock 1950). Very often caught is mainly reacting by its optical sense, the problem is that it is not one single stimulus that through either lying in wait for the prey or chasing is decisive for the reaction of the fish but a combi- it. Therefore, optical lures are especially used to nation of different ones. This should not be forgot- catch predatory fish. As already mentioned, one ten when reading the following discussion on the stimulus may not be enough. The predator has not main types of stimuli. only to see its presumed prey, its colour and its movement. The effectiveness of a lure may depend 11.1 Optical lures much more on its vibrations, which are transmitted to the predator’s lateral-line sensory organs. Optical lures may be the first bait originated from the fact that a fish can be attracted by offering food. 11.2 Light fishing Being mostly interested in big game, prehistoric man may have offered small fodder fish to lure Light fishing is a form of optical bait used to attract bigger ones. Also in prehistoric times, man found and to concentrate fish. Since very olden times this out that imitation fish could be used as artificial method is known to have been effective in fresh bait. Some hints were given earlier in this book water as well as in the seas, for catching single fish (Chapter 6.1, Spearing with pushed gear). Such imi- as well as shoaling species. Light is used in shallow tations were originally lifelike, but man then dis- water by wading fishermen, or by divers hunting in covered that not only some special design but their silent world, or on the sea far away from the sometimes also a stronger optical stimulus was coast and down to depths of hundreds of metres. desirable. This applies not only to fish-imitating There are, indeed, few fishing areas wherein light is lures but also to the many artificial insects used for not sometimes used for attracting or concentrating bait, especially in sport fishing. Sometimes their fish, and there is no type of fishing gear which will appearance is very different from their ‘originals’, not be used always or sometimes with light to but optically they are much more attractive. (See attract the fish or to lure them nearer to the surface Chapter 10.) (Schärfe 1953; Ben-Yami 1974). The most impor- In commercial fisheries, natural living and dead tant fishing methods using light to attract, concen- fish or other animals are the most popular bait. But trate and keep the fish in one place till they are imitation lures are also used. Formerly artificial caught, may be those used for pelagic fish with sur- lures could be wooden imitations of bait fish, care- rounding nets like purse seines and lampara nets fully painted to attract the fish according to its (Chapter 29, Figure 29.4); with stationary liftnets optical stimulus and whether it is to be considered (Chapter 23) as used in India (Figure 23.11), or the as prey (Figure 18.3) or as competitor. Man may movable liftnets like the ‘basnig’ nets of the Philip- have found out that it was not only the appearance pines (Figure 23.35) and the Japanese stick-held dip in colour that was important for the lure to be opti- nets (Figure 23.36). They are also used in line cally attractive, but that the movement of a lure fishing, especially in jigging for squid (Chapter 12, may be much more likely to cause a fish to snap a Figure 12.34), and in pole-and-line fishing for mack- supposed prey.Very early it was found also, that any erel in Japan (Chapter 9). Finally, harvesting fish blinking and irregularly moving device could be and other prey with fish pumps may be combined used to attract fish.The so-called spoons for trolling with electrical stunning in a newer form of using have already been mentioned as a very old type of light for attracting and concentrating the fish artificial lure (Figure 9.35). Any optically striking (Chapter 30, Figure 30.4). It can only be repeated object, possibly one that is bright or which sparkles that there is hardly a fishing method where light is irregularly, is often sufficient for that purpose. Fre- not used somewhere in the world to attract and quently a mobile glittering fishing hook, without concentrate the fish, to keep them at one place, or any addition whatsoever, may be sufficient. It is to guide them into a fishing gear. supposed that the irregular movements given to As can be seen from this short review of fishing such a hook convey the impression that a sickly methods operated with artificial light, it is used by prey may easily be taken. The supposition here, of small-scale artisan fisheries as well as large DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 152

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industrial ones.The source of light has changed with A special development in light fishing is the the centuries. Torches and fire baskets were used underwater lamp as used in connection with pump originally, and torches are sometimes also used fishing to attract the fish. It seems that in other today, but they will eventually be replaced by more branches of commercial fisheries, underwater lamps reliable devices which need less handling. Fire have not become as popular as might have been baskets attached to wooden boats have been espe- expected from their advantage of providing a better cially dangerous as burning material could fall into light source without loss from reflection of the light the vessel. Therefore a bucket with water should be from the water surface. Artificial light, especially always at hand (Ligers 1953). More developed than the hand torch is the famous Hawaiian ‘knapsack’ type of gasoline torch which allows the hands to be kept free for fishing (Hosaka 1973). Nowadays, transportable or stationary lamps are used, which are operated with fuel oil, acetylene gas, kerosene, generated electricity, or even with batteries. In sardine fishing, special lamp boats are used (Figure 11.1) as they were also sometimes by the Norwe- gians in herring fishing. To spare manpower, unmanned rafts with lights have been developed by scientists (Wickham & Seidel 1973), and simpler forms also by fishermen. The Greek purse seiners in the Mediterranean have largely replaced their large numbers of manned light boats (Figure 11.2) Figure 11.1 Spanish boats of Benidorm equipped with by unmanned ones (Figure 11.3). powerful lights for attracting sardine. (Photo: J. Schärfe.)

Figure 11.2 Greek purse seiner with attendant light-boats preparing to depart from the fishing port of Mytilini on the Island of Lesbos. The smaller unpowered net-boat can be seen on the starboard side of the vessel (1968). DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 153

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Figure 11.3 Unmanned rafts with lamps for attracting sardines, used in the Greek fishery of Mythimna on the Island of Lesbos (1973).

from underwater lamps, brings fish into abnormal Figure 11.4 Japanese receptacle for live fishing bait. conditions which these animals do not know by nature. It is not quite clear just how light does affect 11.3 Chemical lures fish. Investigations, however, have revealed that the luring effect of light is partly based on a disorienta- Another bait group affects the chemical senses, i.e. tion of the vision of the fish (Verheijen 1958). Nev- smell and taste. Like the eye, these senses are used ertheless, this is not considered sufficient to explain in searching for food. The fishing gear, therefore, the reaction of fish to artificial light. Mostly a posi- may be provided with a suitable bait to attract a tive phototaxis is considered of particular signifi- particular species of fish by its odour. Sometimes cance. In spite of these explanations there may be the fisherman himself seeks to have this smell by unexpected reactions of the fish to light, which are rubbing his hands with some strong-smelling mate- as difficult to explain as are the reactions of fish in rial which is also used for his traps, scoop nets and an electrical current (Chapter 5). Nevertheless, other gear. (On the other hand gear should not be some basic ‘rules’ for fish behaviour to light are touched with hands smelling of dark rye bread!) known. Successful use of light for attracting and Small or cut-up baits are usually used to increase concentrating fish requires the night to be dark, their odorous effect.The bait is fixed on a hook, put without any other disturbing sources of light such as in a trap, or even on sheets of netting. Sometimes the moon or other lamps in the vicinity, and trans- special little bags or other receptacles are used to parent water so that the light can extend far without keep the bait in or near the fishing gear (Figures disturbing shades or shadows. But it is not only eco- 11.4 and 23.1). logical facts and weather conditions, or the quality Mostly special fish food is used as bait, and this or intensity of the light, which influence the success may be changed with the season, to attract fishes or of light fishing; the physiological condition of the other prey. Sometimes a smelly bait is used which fish is also important, and even different fish densi- is not normally found by the fish. Certain sub- ties can be decisive in whether light fishery is stances possessing strong odours have always been successful or not. Thus, although a stronger light considered attractive, such as anise, musk, castor, will illuminate a wider area, some fish will try to stay civet, shrimp oil, heron’s oil, etc. In eastern in a lower light intensity, and therefore their dis- Germany, longlines for eels have been traditionally tance from the light source may become so great soaked in barrels of water with aniseed oil. These that they are not within the catching range of the strong-smelling materials are used even today for fishing gear. manufacturing ‘unfailing’ chemical bait. Gypsies DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 154

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especially know the secrets of preparing attractive attracted for catching not only by their sexual part- baits like ‘muscade de Divio’ or ‘radio-active balls’ ners but also by their sexual competitors is used all which are mostly resin or stones rubbed with over the world. In ancient times it was known that strong-smelling oils. Gypsies are also said to be the some animals, such as male cuttlefish, could be inventors of artificial lures first made about 150 attracted by females. Even in recent decades this years ago. But it is very surprising that until now no knowledge is used to catch cuttlefish by trolling a artificial chemical bait has been used in commercial female of the same species slowly at the stern of a fisheries. This is a very serious deficiency, because boat. Male cuttlefish that approach for mating are the lack of bait very often hampers commercial fish- speared or taken in dipnets (Voss 1973). Fishermen eries. When artificial chemical lures are offered for in East Asia put female cuttlefish into small baskets this purpose they are based on natural materials.To in order to attract the males. Mediterranean fisher- attract shark, a perforated bag of plastic, filled with men in Sicily knew of the same method (Bombace chopped up intestines of fish, is moved up and down 1967). The Italians place wicker or wire baskets on in the water. For catching tuna, artificial bait with the bottom of the sea, singly or in strings, ‘baited’ fish oil has been used, but it was not as successful with a female cuttlefish or a branch of mastic as natural bait fish. Nevertheless, research work has (Pistacea lenticus). They catch the attracted attempted to solve this problem of commercial fish- male cuttlefish with scoop nets. Luring with eries, especially for line fishing (Hurum 1977). Fish sexual stimuli is used to catch not only cephalopods, food can also be used to familiarize fish with a but also fish. Formerly fishermen on the upper certain place. This means that the fishes are part of the River Rhine put female salmon into ‘trained’ to come to a suitable area to look for food. their traps to attract the male fish. Male salmon Sport fishermen do this for several days before are also used for luring other males, which will fishing. Commercial fishermen, too, know and use try to fight their supposed competitor and thus this tactic for concentrating fish. Egyptians fishing become caught in the prepared trap. A dummy with lines for sea bream also practised feeding them fish achieves the same effect (Figure 18.3). A beforehand. And the French sardine fishermen of similar method was used when fishing for salmon the Atlantic coast lure the fish up from the deep with a stationary liftnet. A female salmon was put into the range of their nets with a mixture of cod into the water but tied to a line. When a male was roe and groundnut meal (von Brandt 1960). By this attracted, the female was drawn slowly near to the means the fish not only rise to the upper water bank of the river over a net. The male salmon fol- layers, but come near to the surface where the fish- lowed and was caught by quickly lifting the net ermen can catch them. (Kuhn 1976). There are other fishing methods in which food- In the examples given, chemical and optical stuff is spread to attract and keep the fish in the stimuli are here acting simultaneously. This also range of a gear. An original method is for the fish- applies to a Japanese method for catching ayus. A erman himself to chew the bait and spit it into the living fish of this species is tied to fishing lines water. Fishermen of the Cape Verde Islands knew beside an unbaited hook; then species of the same of this method and chew small bait fish to catch type attack the supposed intruder and thus become Decapterus and Sardinella with handlines and hooked themselves. Nigerian fishermen use baskets scoop nets (Figure 9.7) (von Brandt & Steinberg with female catfish to attract the males with their 1964). The fishermen of Hawaii also do this by smell in shallow waters. Fishermen in northern chewing dried shrimp to catch different fish with Germany put a living turbot into a trap to attract pole-and-line (Hosaka 1973). many other fish of the same species to enter the same trap. Characteristically, this method is partic- 11.4 Sexual lures ularly successful during the spawning season (Menzebach 1958).There may be more examples of The chemical senses are not only used in search of fishermen all over the world using this method to food; together with other stimuli they may also help attract fish or to frighten away their possible com- in finding sexual partners. It seems that the knowl- petitors or to encourage them to join others for edge that fishes and other water animals can be social reasons, even inside a trap. DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 155

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11.5 Acoustic bait Acoustic baits are less frequently used than optical and chemical ones. Moreover, it is often not clear whether the audible sound really has a luring effect or whether the vibrations received by the tactile sense merely excite curiosity. Herodotus tells the story that people had tried without success to attract fish with the notes of a flute. Nevertheless, in some areas the practice obtained of attracting Figure 11.5 Hungarian ‘Quakholz’ for attracting sheat- untrained fish by whistling, and the story that fish fish. can be attracted by good vocal and instrumental music seems to have been known worldwide since very early times. Often an unconscious training of fish is mentioned as an explanation. This may be true, because in Mediterranean waters sharks were often attracted to underwater explosions. They are able to hear and, in addition, they may receive the pressure waves created by the explosion by means of the lateral line system (Davies 1964).The attrac- tion can be explained by their learning to proceed to a place where, after an explosion, food can be found very easily (Chapter 5). As explained at the beginning of this section, it is not clear whether it is the audible noise which is attractive, or the sound vibrations, which may be similar to that of a hampered fish, which is the usual prey of the predator. It seems that such movements can be imitated by underwater rattles that imitate the noises made by movements of small fish or the noise of crayfish tails flapping (Doogue 1974). The Figure 11.6 Operation of a ‘Quakholz’ during angling for shark rattles used in Oceania are very famous.These sheatfish. (Photo: Solymos, 1965.) rattles are made of coconut shells or snail shells and are moved to and fro on the surface of the water. The rattling noise attracts the sharks, which are then replaceable, because it can break when used and a caught by loops being slipped over their heads new plate then has to be fixed. The plate can also (Figure 18.18b). Rattles are also used to attract have a hole in its middle, so that it can be consid- catfish in African fresh waters (Hickling 1961) and ered a small version of the so-called pulse sticks it is said that the old-time Maori fishermen of New used in many fisheries to frighten the fish by a Zealand attracted grouper by dumping a flax bag special noise (see Figure 11.14). Such a hollow filled with stones on a deep reef (Doogue 1974). sound is also produced by the croakwood when it Another lure which is often cited as having a is thrust backwards into the water (Figure 11.6). supposedly acoustic effect is the ‘croakwood’ Formerly a real cowhorn was used for this purpose. (Quakholz) of the south-east European fisheries, Later the main part of a spoon without a handle for luring sheatfish between the rivers Volga and was nailed onto a stick and used to produce a sound Danube (Jankó 1900; Antipa 1916; Solymos 1965; considered attractive to sheatfish, especially the Bacalbas¸a 1969). The croakwood is a horn-like males. It is thought that this sound imitates the instrument made of wood (oak, willow or lime tree) croaking of frogs or the noise of frogs jumping into with a long knife-like handle and a plate on its end the water, and this is what attracts the sheatfish. (Figure 11.5). This plate can be flat and sometimes According to other people, these implements DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 156

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imitate noises produced by female sheatfish for attracting the male fish. Doubt attaches to the valid- ity of both opinions and, actually, nothing is really known about the sort of noise made by female sheatfish! It is, however, believed that the sheatfish is aroused by the noise to approach on an investi- gating mission, and that it then takes the bait of a fish or frog offered with a line. But other baits are also accepted, such as gallnuts and Limacidae, which never produce any attracting noise! The croakwood is thought to have originated in the Hungarian fishery and spread from there to neigh- bouring countries (Solymos 1976). Interestingly, the ability to make a special attracting noise was also known in the Polish fishery for sheatfish (Znamierowska-Prüfferowa 1976). There is also a passage from Homer that is interpreted as indicat- ing that the Greeks already knew about a way of attracting sheatfish by noise (Jankó 1900). Even though there may be some possibility that in the cases mentioned before the audible sound causes some positive phonotaxis, so the ringing of a bell cannot be considered as a natural lure for fish. An account of the ancient Russian fishery on the Lake of Peipus (J. Kusnetzow 1898) states that Figure 11.7 Japanese ‘fish inviter’ for attracting investi- fishing lines, to which were attached underwater gating fish by noises simulating the splashes of birds bells, were used for attracting fish. But here, too, it attacking small fish at the water surface. may be doubted whether the sound from the sub- merged bells really did have an alluring effect. When small fish chased by their enemy come It is understandable that some fish can be near to the water surface, they attract flocks of attracted by the noise and the movement of the birds, which also cause splashing noises when diving water caused by schools of small fish springing over for the fish.An acoustic association is presumed for the water surface to escape their predators. So tuna and birds. To catch yellowtail, bonito, mack- rattles also cause vibrations on the surface of the erel, dolphin (Coryphaena) and tuna with troll water similar to the splashes made by jumping fish. lines, the Japanese offered a special ‘fish inviter’ It is supposed that this is a positive phonotaxis, which imitates these noises of splashing water although the waves of vibration may also play a (Figure 11.7). This device is towed on the water part. A similar effect may be obtained through a surface. It dives when the fish is hooked, or if it technique used in South Asia, Africa and South remains on the water surface with the hooked fish, America to attract fish by splashing or beating the the splashing stops. Here have to be added some water surface with brushwood (Steinberg 1957; unexpected observations about the behaviour of Hickling 1961). The same effect was also achieved fish faced with a curtain of air bubbles. It is known in the tuna line fishery by spraying the water that a wall of air bubbles repels fish to some extent surface with powerful hoses, but it was also desir- and this is thought to be helpful in some catching able here that the vessel and the fishermen should techniques. But there have also been contradictory be, as far as possible, invisible to the tuna. More- observations, that fish are attracted by air bubbles. over, it seems that the sprays also had the effect of Russian investigations have found (Y. A. Kusnet- making the lines and hooks difficult to distinguish zow 1971) that air bubbles can cause low-frequency from the bait scattered on the water surface (Yuen noises with the acoustic characteristics of rain, 1969). waterfalls and small discharging rivers. The latter DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 157

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may attract fish searching for spawning places in fresh water. The attraction of predators such as bonito, tuna, salmon and sea trout to air bubbles is therefore explained by the fact that an acoustic field is produced similar to the splashes of small fish. The most promising method of using acoustic lures was expected to be the idea of playing back natural noises with the help of underwater loud- speakers.This was reported many times by different people and many optimistic experiments have been tried based on playing back noises caused by fish when feeding, spawning or swimming. The attrac- tion of tuna searching for food, by sounds caused by diving sea birds feeding on bait fish, has already been mentioned with the Japanese ‘fish inviter’. It Figure 11.8 Rattle fisherman with his two clubs on the was hoped to catch tuna by using a combination of ice of the Bodden Sea in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. acoustic attractive signals of a special frequency (Copy from a personal video 2001.) transmitted through the water from a tape recorder (NN 1974). In 1972 reports came from New Zealand that the problem of acoustic detection and attrac- mechanical waves. After World War II this fishing tion of tuna with the help of an acoustic signal based method was introduced in Mecklenburg-Vorpom- on natural feeding sounds of bait fish and birds had mern by fugitive fishermen from East Prussia. It is been solved. But these reports did not seem to fulfil still used in the Bodden Sea (Figure 11.8). the needs of the commercial fishery. The idea of a squid lure, also from New Zealand, was expected to 11.6 Lure lines and aggregating devices have good attractive properties producing ‘musical notes’ caused by pressure variations during jigging Some fish, as well as many crustaceans and octopi, (NN 1975). This also seems to survive only in the can be attracted and concentrated by artificial form of a curiosity. hiding places. This is especially true for bottom- There is another fishing method which is often living animals which need some contact with solid considered an as example par excellence of an bodies, i.e. they show positive tactile reactions. This effective use of noise for the attraction of fish. This orientation by tactile senses is called thigmotaxis. is the so-called rattle fishery carried out in winter Bottom fish and others have a positive thigmotaxis. on the Kurisches Haff on the Baltic Coast. There a This behaviour is well known and a special fishery board is partly pushed through an ice hole while based on hiding places is described in Chapter 14. gillnets are arranged in a star-like pattern below the Other fish, such as pelagic fish shoaling under ice. Fishermen then drum rhythmically on the normal conditions, not only keep their distance board with two wooden clubs, causing a far-reach- from their own kind but they also try to avoid ing roaring noise which is designed to attract the touching any solid body, whether living or dead. fish (Lundbeck 1954). Here the real explanation is This can be seen with schools in aquaria or when probably that there is no positive phonotaxis, but fishes are encircled by walls of netting. It is known that the fish are so frightened by the noise and also that this can change with the fishes’ physiolog- vibrations that they swim madly around and thus ical condition. Spawning herring, for example, are get themselves entangled in the set nets. For this less careful than non-spawning shoals about reason the fishermen have to change their fishing keeping a distance of some metres from the netting place from time to time, which would not be nec- of a trawl. Their capacity to maintain distance is essary if the fish were attracted by this obtrusive attained by means of optical and tactile senses. In and wide reaching noise. Strictly speaking, this contrast to bottom fish, pelagic fish in general have method does not use noise to attract the fish, but to a negative thigmotaxis. This is not in contradiction stir them up by frightening them using acoustic and to the fact that pelagic fish are caught in nets in DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 158

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which they are pressed passively or which they cannot see, or that they touch transparent lines or the so-called ‘feeling lines’ made of fine wire as were used to detect fish before the invention of fish- finding apparatus. On the other hand, this does not mean that some pelagic species of fish would not like to seek shelter or at least to assemble at certain distances from a solid body.The latter aspect can be observed in the neighbourhood of floating bodies of different types. These can be natural stems of trees or bushes, or bunches of drifting plants. They can also be artificial materials, used or lost, anchored or free-floating such as buoys, kegs or barrels, logs, rafts and boats, or many other things considered as marine debris. The reason for this behaviour of some fish is not quite clear. It can be due to the need of certain species of fish to seek shelter without direct contact, or from their desire for food, which attracts them to floating materials. Most people think that it is a need for an optical orientation, or the lure of low-frequency vibrations produced by the movement of the floating bodies (Westenberg 1953). Fishermen have known of this for a long time, and know too that certain species of fish can be attracted to floats, and have used this behaviour to catch them. Well known are the sta- tionary lure lines used by Malay fishermen, espe- cially in Indonesia (Yamamoto 1975) and Malaysia (Parry 1954) (Figure 11.9). They are called in Indonesia ‘rumpon’ (roempon) and in Malaysia, ‘unjang’. They are made up of lines on which palm leaves (up to 15 or 20) are arranged upon one another at a distance of 1 fathom or more. Alter- Figure 11.9 Lure lines used in the Malaysian fishery: (a) natively, bunches of grass or similar material may ‘roempon’ of the northern coast of Java (from van Pei be used – the whole line being supported by 1938 with permission); (b) lure lines for drive-in nets in Malaysia (from Parry 1954 with permission). bamboo floats and anchored in position. The fish, once they are concentrated near those lines, can be caught with other gear as soon as the fishermen shallow water to give some shelter for milkfish fry. reckon it to be worthwhile. Liftnets, surrounding The concentrated fish are caught along the lure nets, and other gear such as seine nets are used for lines with the help of skimming nets, and are then this purpose, but also fishing with handlines and transported to hatcheries. gillnets can be successful in the vicinity of lure lines The association of fish with drifting material in (Parry 1954). In Thailand a special purse seine for the pelagic environment has been known for a long pomfret is operated with lure lines of coconut palm time in fisheries, and has been widely recorded in leaves (Nomura & Yamazaki 1975). Lure lines can recent years. In place of lure lines, other floating also be used to guide fish into drive-in nets (Figure objects can also have an attracting and collecting 11.9b). See also Chapter 21. effect on fish. Floating rafts have been used. In the A special form of operating lure lines to attract Mediterranean, the so-called ‘kannizzati fishery’ and to catch milkfish fry is practised in Java (Figure was used for catching Coryphaena hippurus.This 11.10). In this case the lines are exposed in the lure line, used in Malta, is one with a surface float DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 159

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Figure 11.10 Lure lines for attracting milkfish in Java. (Photo: L. Hoss, Eschborn.) Figure 11.11 Rafts for ‘kannizzati’ fishery off Malta: (right) original raft made of cork; (left) modern raft made of plates of foam plastic (polystyrene) packed in canvas. made of two rafts of cork, or more recently, plates of polystyrene foam packed in canvas (Figure 11.11). These anchored floats were set at intervals along a course running out from the coast into fish, but in the case of tuna a solution was found water up to 600 fathoms in depth.The dolphin, here from their habit of congregating in the neighbour- called ‘lampuka’, were taken with lampara-like nets hood not only of drifting floats fitted out with radar or caught with floating longlines (Burdon 1956; von reflectors and radio transmitters, which the fisher- Brandt 1966). Spanish fishermen of Majorca also men can track and follow for weeks, but also knew of this method, and called the gear ‘llam- around permanently anchored objects. There are puguera’ (Jankó 1900). In recent decades, the different ideas on how such ‘fish aggregating method of attracting fish with the help of floating devices’ (FAD) should be constructed (Figures rafts and modified lure lines has become more 11.12 and 11.13).As far as is known, the fish-attract- popular for catching tuna, skipjack, yellowfin, and ing devices for pelagic fish could be used success- other pelagic fish, and especially bait fish for pole- fully in the Philippines, Japan and Hawaii and-line-fishing for tuna. It is known that these fish (Matsumoto et al. 1981). It seems that by using are not always concentrated in the right place and these constructions not only is the quantity of catch at the most convenient time, and commercial as increased but also the time for searching and catch- well as recreational fishermen spend many hours ing live bait for tuna is reduced. Moreover, it has to searching for them. This may also be true for other be added that aggregating devices are not only of DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 160

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Figure 11.13 Fish aggregating device, buoy type, as proposed in Hawaii (1978).

green plants were crushed and thrown into the Figure 11.12 Fish aggregating device, raft-type, as pro- water to frighten the fish away from unsuitable posed by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission. places (von Ehrenkreuz 1852). Another method of frightening fish away is to use damaged fish, espe- interest for commercial fisheries but also for recre- cially their blood. Some species of shoal fish also ational anglers. have an offensive substance in their skin which, when diffused in water after a fish has been injured, 11.7 Fish frightening methods causes other fish to leave the place for a time (von Frisch 1938).This fact has apparently not been used Sometimes fish have to be kept away from certain as much as it might have been, but the thought that places, or frightened to others where they are more there was such a scaring substance is, perhaps, indi- easily caught. This is not a new problem. In ancient cated in the earlier reference to the occasional use times one method used to drive fish away from of fish blood for scaring fish away. It is, however, not certain areas was to spray the water with ‘hyssop’ as yet proven whether the same scaring substances (Hyssopus officinalis L), well known from its use in would not have quite the opposite effect, namely, to the liturgy of the Catholic Church. This strong- attract other species such as predatory fish. Sharks, smelling labiate flower was formerly cultivated in for instance, are attracted by the blood in the water Europe as a medicinal and spice plant. The fresh which frightens other fish away. DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 161

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Fish have always been frightened of noise, so the success of crowds of natives in mass fishing can well be understood. In this they frighten the fish with much noise and commotion and drive them into bights and on to shallow beaches where they can easily be caught. Horses, too, can be led into the water to frighten the fish by their heavy move- ments. There have been long discussions about whether or not fish can be frightened by the ultra- sound of the various types of echo sounder used in fish finding. There is no reason to believe that the fishes are frightened, but they may perhaps learn that the ultra-sound means danger. On the other hand, it is well known that sea mammals such as whales and seals can be frightened and guided by ultra-sound waves. A description of the fisheries in ancient Russia (J. Kusnetzow 1898) mentions, in addition to noise, the practices of beating the water, of casting red-hot stones, and of pouring fish blood into the water in order to frighten the fish. To frighten fish by casting stones is very popular, and some conscientious Japanese have found out that the most effective way to drive a fish into a net is to hurl a stone at the side of the fish (Niyazaki & Yamaguchi 1967)! A well-known tool for frightening fish is the so- called pulse stick (Figure 11.14), used not only in drive-in fisheries (Chapter 21) but also with seining (Figure 28.9) and purse seining, to prevent the fish escaping by frightening them away from the Figure 11.14 Pulse stick being used to frighten eels into opening of the gear. More modern experiences have trammelnets. (Photo: H. Mohr, Hamburg.) shown that various kinds of fish schools can be star- tled by playing back dolphin sounds (Hashimoto & Maniwa 1971). This method, not so successful for bathers but also for fishermen. Sharks like to attack attracting fish, can be used to drive jack mackerel the cod ends of trawls and it may be necessary at and barracuda into stationary gear. In sea fisheries times to scare them away, so special ‘shark repel- it is known that fish can be frightened by intermit- lents’ are readily available. These are similar to the tent noises, or by those changing in frequency and so-called ‘shark chaser’, a product of 20% copper intensity. Some ideas have been mooted for using acetate and 80% dark violet pigment, used till 1973 this fact to ‘persuade’ fish that stay near the bottom, by the US Navy to protect swimming men. Even but are too high for a bottom trawl to catch them, to electronic gear has been developed for the protec- shift position by swimming closer to the bottom and tion of trawls. The special problem of driving fish so come within the range of this gear. It has been into a fishing gear by movement and noise will be mentioned (Chapter 5) that electricity can be used discussed later in the context of the so-called ‘drive- to attract fish compulsorily so that they can be stu- in’ fishery (Chapter 21). pefied and caught. But electrical fields are also used to frighten fish away from certain places, such as the 11.8 New ideas entrances of water turbines. The knowledge of how to frighten fish, especially The idea of attracting, concentrating and guiding shark, has a practical side, not only for divers and fish by chemical, optical and acoustical influences DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 162

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or other means has inspired science fiction writers Air bubbles and chemical curtains could, it has more than once. This can be said of sport fishing as been suggested, be developed to keep the fish con- well as commercial fisheries. In the sixties of the last centrated and then helicopters could spray chemi- century, some ideas were advanced for attracting cals to attract, concentrate and guide the fish to fish by a very weak electrical field, especially in harvesting machines! Even when there are well- sport fishing. Equalizing currents between different known scientific facts as a basis for such ideas as materials should, it was thought, be sufficient these, these concepts may also reveal the helpless- (Shemansky 1966). However, more detailed ness of some fisheries in the face of decreasing research is needed in this direction as well as for stocks. On the other hand, such methods may the use of magnetic fields sometimes proposed for become the basis of action to keep fish stocks under the same purpose. The same can be said of the control in the various national economic zones for proposition that sharks and other predatory fish their future management in ways similar to herding may be attracted by feeling with their lateral organs cattle. These ideas reveal, at any rate, the concern the weak electric impulses created by the muscle felt for conserving the resources of the sea for activity of their prey. future use. There is no doubt that there are good reasons Last, but not least, a very urgent and previously why methods of attracting and concentrating mentioned problem must be repeated. Very often, pelagic fish, especially, are mentioned again and line fishing on a large scale is hampered by lack of again as being of interest to the modern fishery. It bait. This can restrict all commercial fishing can be seen that areas which once had good pelagic methods operated with natural bait. As has been fish concentrations and high fishing activity have shown, with the exception of troll lining, no syn- disappeared, and have been replaced by more scat- thetic or artificial bait has been able to solve this tered fish in smaller groups. This is contrary to the problem up to now, not even with the help of desired basis of an economical bulk fishery. There- natural bait fish reared in artificial ponds (Hurum fore, the questions arise of how to concentrate the 1977). A modern example of using artificial bait remaining fish, how they can be exploited by purse with natural components is the bait sausage filled seining with light, and how and where small shoals with minced fish and alginate as a binder agent can be brought together to make larger economic (Bjordal & Løkkeborg 1996) (see also Section ones.As far as can be seen, until now there has been 9.8). only one new idea for concentrating these fish suc- cessfully – and that is with aggregating systems.The References idea of using more floating shelters for fish concentration has been discussed (Alverson & Alverson, D.L. & Wilimovsky, N.J. (1964) Prospective developments in the harvesting of marine fishes. In: Wilimovsky 1964; Klima 1971), as well as how to Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 2, 583–589. combine these shelters with a detection system, London. which would automatically signal catcher vessels Antipa, Gr. (1916) Pesca˘ ria si Pescuitul in România. when concentrations of fish were apparent. Bucharest [in Rumanian]. It is well known that many fish species concen- Bacalbas¸a,N.& Pectu, A. (1969) Pescuitul cu sacovistea in zona viitorului lac de acumulare de la Portiele de trate at underwater structures such as reefs or Fier. Hydrobiologica 10, 151–161. Bucharest [in wrecks (Lange & Mohr 1982). Therefore the con- Rumanian]. struction of artificial reefs at suitable places in Ben-Yami, M. (1974) Fishing with light. World Fishing 23 coastal waters can be a successful method to (8), 46–48. improve the local artisan fishery. Initially, discarded Bjordal, A. & Løkkeborg, S. (1969) Longlining.Farnham. Bombace, G. (1967) Pots, baits and live fish tanks in Sicily. cars were used for artificial reef construction. They GFCM 8, 83–94. provide good habitat but deteriorate within 3–6 von Brandt, A. (1960) Fishing methods in world sardine years. Also units of old tires were used in some fisheries. In: Proceedings of the World Scientific Meeting areas (Parker et al. 1974). Today – with respect to on the Biology of Sardines and Related Species. FAO, Vol.II, 563–623. environmental problems – prefabricated concrete von Brandt, A. (1966) Die Fischerei der Maltesischen blocks of special construction are preferred Inseln. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 10, 166– (Henocque 1982). 212. DFC11 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 163

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von Brandt,A. & Steinberg, R. (1964) Fischereimethoden NN (1974) Luring fish. World Fishing 23 (1–2), 54, 64. der Kap Verden. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX, NN (1975) New Zealand seminar presents hard facts on 63–80. squid fishing. World Fishing 24 (11), 57. Brock, F. (1950) Der Köder als fischereibiologisches Nomura, M. & Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing Techniques. Problem. Archiv fuer Fischereiwissenschaft 2, 74–78. Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the Burdon, T.W. (1956) A Report on the Fishing Industry of Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. Malta. Parker, R.O., Stone, R.B., Buchanan, C.C. & Steimle, Davies, D.H. (1964) About Sharks and Shark Attack. F.W. (1974) How to Build Marine Artificial Reefs. Durban. Fishery Facts No.10, December. U.S. Department of Doogue, R. (1974) Hook, Line and Sinker. Wellington. Commerce, National Oceanic and Athmospheric von Ehrenkreuz (1852) Das Ganze der Angelfischerei und Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. ihre Geheimnisse. Quedlinburg/Leipzig. Seattle, WA. von Frisch, K. (1938) Zur Psychologie des Fisch- Parry, M.L. (1954) The fishing methods of Kelantan and schwarmes. Naturwissenschaften 26, 601–606. Trengganu. Journal of the Malayan British Royal Hashimoto, T. & Maniwa, Y. (1971) Research on the Asiatic Society 27, Sect. 2, 77–144. luring of fish schools by underwater sound. In: Modern van Pel, H. (1938) De Beoefening van de Majang Zee- Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 3, 501–503. London. vischerij langs de Noordkust van Java. Institute voor de Henocque, Y. (1982) Le Japon et son aménagement Zeevischerij te Batavia. Mideeling 28, 101–113 [in côtier: les récifs artificiel marins en 1982. La Pêche Mar- Dutch]. itime 20 April, 209–212. Schärfe, J. (1953) Über die Verwendung künstlichen Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. Lichtes in der Fischerei. Protokolle zur Fischereitech- Hosaka, E.Y. (1973) Shore Fishing in Hawaii. Hawaii. nik 2, 81–109. Hurum, H.J. (1977) A History of the Fish Hook and the Shemansky,Y.A. (1966) Modern Sportfishing in Seawater. Story of Mustad the Hook Maker. London. St Petersburg [in Russian]. Jankó, J. (1900) Herkunft der Magyarischen Fischerei. Solymos, E. (1965) Dunai halászat. [Artisanal Fishery in Budapest/Leipzig. the Hungarian Part of the River Danube]. Budapest [in Klima, E.F. (1971) The automated fishing platform. In: Hungarian]. Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 3, 498–501. Solymos, E. (1976) Die südslawischen Beziehungen der London. ungarischen Donaufischerei. In: Studien zur Tradi- Kuhn, G. (1976) Die Fischerei im Oberrhein. In: Hohen- tionellen Europäischen Fischerei (ed. E. Solymos), Bajai heimer Arbeiten 83, Agraroekonomie. Stuttgart. Dolgozatok 3, 65–72. Baja. Kusnetzow, J. (1898) Fischerei und Tiererbeutung in den Steinberg, R. (1957) Unterwassergeräusche und Gewässern Russlands. St Petersburg. Fischerei. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 4, 216– Kusnetzow, Y.A. (1971) The behaviour of fish in the zone 249. affected by a curtain of air bubbles. In: Fish Behaviour Verheijen, F.J. (1958) The mechanisms of the trapping and Fishing Techniques (ed. A. P. Alekseev), 103–110. effect of artificial light sources upon animals. Archives Jerusalem. Néerlandaises de Zoologie 13, 1–107. Lange, K. & Mohr, H. (1982) Erfolgreicher Versuch mit Voss, G.L. (1973) Cephalopod resources of the world. Wracknetzen. Informationen für die Fischwirtschaft 29 FAO Fisheries Circular No. 149. (3), 150–152. Westenberg, J. (1953) Acoustical aspects of some Indo- Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en nesian fisheries. Journal du Conseil 18, 311–325. Lettonie. Paris. Wickham, D.A. & Seidel, W.R. (1973) A self-contained Lundbeck, J. (1954) Fanggeräte der Haff- und See- subsurface light source system for fish attraction. fischerei an der Preussischen Bucht. Protokolle zur Fis- Marine Fisheries Review 35 (10), 14–19. chereitechnik 3, 14–30, 1954. Yamamoto, I. (1975) Ketentua Kerja Buku I, Standard Sta- Matsumoto, W.M., Kazama, T.K. & Aasted, D.C. (1981) tistik Perikanan.Jakarta [in Indonesian]. Anchored fish aggregating devices in Hawaiian waters. Yuen, H.S.H. (1969) Response of skipjack tuna (Katsu- Marine Fisheries Review 43 (9), 1–13. wonus pelamis) to experimental changes in pole-and- Menzebach, F. (1958) Eitel und Rutten kurzhalten. All- line fishing operations. In: Proceedings of the FAO gemeine Fischereizeitung 83, 41–43. Conference on Fish Behaviour in Relation to Fishing Mohr, H. (1960) Das Verhalten von Fischen gegenüber Techniques and Tactics. FAO Fisheries Report No. 62, Fanggeräten. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 6, 607–618. 296–326. Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, M. (1976) Bemerkungen zur Niyazaki, Ch. & Yamaguchi,Y. (1967) Effects of throwing traditionellen Fischerei in Polen. In: Studien zur stone to drive the fish into gillnet. Bulletin of the Tokai Europäischen Traditionellen Fischerei (ed. E. Solymos), Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory 50, 31–39. Bajai Dolgozatok 3,17–34. DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 164

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In line fisheries, the hook itself can act as bait. Some laid in the water channels of the tidal area.The seals fish, on seeing the sparkling hook, are attracted by come in with the tide, over the hooks, but when they curiosity; they seem to regard it as prey, snap at it, are frightened back during low tide they hook and thus are often caught. Unbaited hooks can, themselves when passing through the channels on however, also be used on quite different principles. their return to the sea (Wiebalk 1917). They are then no longer passive hooks taken by the An essential requirement for such ‘rippers’ is, of fish, but they are actively guided so that their points course, that they be very sharp. Several different hook, spear or rip a fish on it coming within their types of ripping hooks are known. They can be range. Fish thieves are sometimes caught who cast active gear such as pole-hooks – better known as a line with sharp pointed triple hooks into fish gaffs – or multi-pointed implements which can be ponds or into natural waters where fish are spawn- thrown like harrows over the ground and rip with ing and, by pulling them to and fro, hope to hook a their sharp teeth, or they can be ‘pilks’ used for fish anywhere in its body. Unlike the usual line jigging. A special group of rippers are handlines fishery, in these cases the hook is not used as a with squid hooks in the form of active gear, as men- carrier of bait, or even as bait itself. Its movements, tioned above, or with single hooks used as passive at the most, arouse the attention of the fish, may gear with floating or stationary longlines in stur- attract it, and then, by a quick movement of the geon and other fisheries. hook, the fish may possibly be pierced and caught. This is not foul-hooking by mistake, but a deliber- 12.1 Pole-hooks and gaffs ate tactic to catch the prey.As can be seen from the following examples, catching with ‘active hooks’ is Fishing with the ripping hook can be done by fas- not only successful with fish but also with other tening a strong single hook, or even several hooks, prey, such as squid. to the end of a wooden or bamboo pole (Figure In Vietnam cuttlefish are caught by handlines 12.2). Certainly, fishing by means of a pole-hook which have at the end a conventional multi-pointed with which a fish is quickly pulled from the water is squid hook (Serêne et al. 1956). Above that a little much more primitive than fishing with unwatched hook is fastened to hold the bait. This bait (usually hooks and lines or with other forms of ripping a dead fish) attracts the squid to gather round.Then hooks. the line is quickly pulled up and the squid, or some The rod, with its hook ready, is held in the water of them, are pierced by the points of the ascending patiently waiting until a fish passes or until a fish is squid hook (Figure 12.1). felt to be touching the rod; then the quick jerk Ripper-like hooks have been used not only to impales it on the hook and it is pulled from the catch fish and squid but also sea mammals such as water. This can be done in open waters and even seals. In the shallows of north-western Europe, beneath ice. This practice, with a pole-hook, was beams fitted with 20–30 long and extremely sharp formerly very popular in old Russia for catching barbed hooks pointed towards the shore have been sturgeon (Jankó 1900). The method is also con-

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although there are some exceptions, such as the barbed gaffs of the Maoris mentioned previously. Also, Japanese fishermen use strong barbed hooks laid in the bed of a river to await the approach of a salmon (Kishinouge 1941; NN 1959–65). In this case the hook is mounted at the end of a pole of wood or bamboo 4–5m long. With this gear, fishermen wait during the night for salmon to pass. As soon as the fish is felt touching the hook, the fisherman quickly and strongly draws the hook towards himself to hook the fish. When Figure 12.1 Operation of ripping hooks for catch- used illegally for catching salmon in Ireland, these ing squid in Vietnam. (From Serêne et al. 1956 with permission.) ripping instruments also have a barb which enables the fish to be retained more readily (Went 1964). These poles with hooks, especially for catching salmon, are considered a traditional method of river fishing. Until the 1970s they were used by pro- fessional fishermen in the estuaries and rivers of England and Wales (Jenkins 1974). The single- Figure 12.2 Arabian pole-hook of Syria. barbed pole-hook has been considered a universal implement for the capture of salmon in daytime and during the night with artificial light. sidered as probably the oldest form of huso fishing Today, unbarbed pole-hooks are better known as (de Rohan-Csermak 1963). The experienced Maori auxiliary gear for landing and lifting fish from the fishermen of New Zealand use pole-hooks for water into a boat, or onto the bank, when caught gaffing migrating eel during the night when they do with other gear. They are then described as ‘gaffs’ not grasp them by hand. But pole-hooks are, or but in reality the gaff hook is a relic of a very have been, used for many other fish in Europe,Asia early fishing gear. In commercial fisheries, gaffs are and Africa. This technique, in fact, is so simple that needed for line fishing, trapping, even spearing and its wide distribution is not surprising. As with the some other methods, and always when large fish spear, the pole-hook can only be regarded as a have to be taken out of the water. They are also lengthened arm of a person, with which aquatic necessary when many fish have to be picked up in creatures such as fish, squid, octopi, abalone and sea a convenient manner. cucumbers can be grasped. It may be of interest that In general, the gaff is a simple gear consisting of pole-hooks belong to the gear operated both in fish- a short wooden stick with a large specially made eries and for hunting. The hunter uses this gear for strong hook. Finnish fishermen know of a gaff taking animals out of their burrows. Small forms of similar to an eel comb, with six prongs, which is pole-hooks have been already mentioned as tools described as a ‘fish axe’ (Figure 12.3). A partic- for hand-picking (Chapter 2). A wooden stick with ularly interesting form of gaff is used in the a small fishing hook tied on the end can be used not Columbia River for white sturgeon (Acipenser only for dislodging crabs from their holes but also transmontanus) caught by longlines, where the stick to pick up sand worms and even to catch small eels of the gaff is replaced by a braided rope. The rope- and trout, although this is considered to be gaffing attached hook is considered less dangerous than even though the hook of this gear is only a small one with a stiff wooden handle. Moreover, as with fishing hook. Usually larger fish have to be caught, the fish plummets, the reach can be increased by which needs not only stronger poles but also replacing the pole with a rope. Note that sometimes heavier, long-shanked hooks. Some consider these gaffs longer than 2.4 m, or fitted with >9m of rope, long-handled hooks as older than the hooks used in may be illegal (Doogue 1974). line fishing (Augur 1894). In this case the pole- Better known, and also better constructed, are hooks are of strong forged metal, without a barb, gaffs used in sport fisheries. The main reason for DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 166

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Figure 12.3 Finnish ‘fish axe’, a six-pointed gaff. (From Mäki & Pitkänen 1969 with permission.) Figure 12.4 Fluke bar or ‘murderer’ of southern England. (From Davis 1958 with permission.) using them is because the fishing line may be too fine and weak for lifting larger prey out of the water. This has to be done with the gaff, which sometimes can be extended like a telescope. In this case the gaff replaces the landing net (Chapter 10). Sports fishermen also use a more highly developed gaff called a ‘flying gaff’.As with harpoons, the head of the gaff is detachable from the handle, but to avoid losing the hook and prey the hook is tied to the boat with a strong line (Trench 1974).

12.2 Fish harrows As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, hooks can be dragged over an area for ripping fish. Figure 12.5 Old Indonesian fish harrow. (Photo: Ethno- Sharpened fishing hooks may be cast out from the graphical Museum, Leiden.) beach, or from a bridge, and pulled in again in the hope of spearing or piercing a fish.This can be done not only with a single or triple hook, but also with a whole row of hooks which is then raked over the bottom like a harrow. This method is especially useful for catching flatfish. English fishermen called this implement a ‘fluke bar’. This was actually an iron rod equipped with a row of sharp fishing hooks with barbs (Figure 12.4). When the fish rake was towed over the ground, either by a boat or by a person standing up in the water, the sharp hooks cut into the bottom and impaled any fish encoun- tered. The gear was also called the ‘murderer’, which not only correctly describes its success but also its damaging effect. A similar method of Figure 12.6 Japanese ‘bunchin kogitsuri’. dragging an implement that looks like a comb with hooks is also known in Asia. In Java, small ‘harrows’ were used which were similar to the English fluke bar (Figure 12.5). As they were made of wood, (Figure 12.6) and the rod is towed by a motor boat. stones were normally attached as weights (Juynboll The transverse rod can be up to 8m long so that it 1914). rakes over a considerable area. This implement, The Japanese had a similar gear for piercing fish with its multiple ripping hooks, certainly has an on the bottom, which although now of a different adverse effect on fish stocks. The hooks, when design, serves the same purpose. Quadruple hooks towed over the bottom, can also be used for ripping are fastened with short casts to a transverse rod seaweed, sponges and corals. In the freshwater DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 167

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fishery of the United States, a similar gear called the ‘crow-foot bar’ with barbless hooks, is used for lifting freshwater mussels in a commercial fishery (Dumont & Sundstrom 1961). Ancient Venetian fishermen were familiar with such gear under the name of ‘trezzola’ and used it for securing sponges and corals. In the Philippines a similar instrument was used for harvesting siliceous sponges (Marshall 1904). There are also some types of dredges (Chapter 25) with long sharp teeth at their openings. Their purpose is to dig out fish, shells and other animals from the bottom, but they may also cause un- desirable damage to their prey. In contrast to fish harrows, dredges have collecting bags, which means that piercing is not the aim of this fishing method.

12.3 Pilking with handlines Very popular, especially in northern countries, is the technique of catching fish with handlines and ripping hooks. This method is known by many dif- ferent names, such as ‘pilking’ and ‘jigging’, and is operated in fresh waters as well as in the seas. The principle is to get the catch by piercing the fish any- where in its body with an active, mostly unbaited device called a pilk, ripper or jig/jigger. (The name jig or jigger is, unfortunately, also used for other artificial lures including, for example, those used in trolling.) Originally, the pilk was a flashing weight, usually Figure 12.7 Rippers used in northern lands: (a) ripper made of metal, combined with one or more hooks. used in freshwater fishery for perch; (b) anchor-like pilk To catch a fish, the pilk is moved up and down to for cod; (c) pilk made from three hooks and a lead as attract it and to pierce it with the sharp hook. That used off western Greenland; (d) simple Norwegian movement can be achieved by casting the line and ‘juksa’ for cod; (e) modern Norwegian ‘juksa’ with then quickly hauling it in, or else by raising and movable triple hook; (f) pilk for herring in the Bay of Kiel, Germany. dropping the hook with small jerky movements. In the latter case, handlines, with or without rods, are used for jerking the hook up and down. The fish is Simple pilks with one hook are used, but some attracted by these movements of the pilk, comes have a transverse rod or two arms like balance lines nearer, and is then foul-hooked in its body. This from which two lines are suspended (Figure 9.1e). fishing method, however, does not always capture Rippers are especially used for the slower-moving the fish by piercing it, and sometimes the hook is spawning fish, or when fishing through ice-holes in actually taken by the fish. The pilk can be an artifi- the winter. With older types of the up-and-down cial lure such as those used for spin fishing (Figure jerking pilks, the shank of the hook is provided with 10.12), but they are mostly more specialized types a fish-shaped glittering lead weight (Figure 12.7a). (Figure 12.7). The pilk must be weighted so that it In many types, hook and weight are a single piece, will sink quickly and also have the necessary force with one or two hooks arranged like the flukes of and weight to penetrate a fish’s body when it is an anchor (Figure 12.7b). Mostly, the pilks for fish pulled upwards. are fitted with triple or quadruple hooks. There is DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 168

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one exception, and this is the ‘lakekrone’ (lake stated at the beginning of this chapter, this method crown) of the Norwegians – used for catching is mainly used by fish thieves. Nevertheless, jigging burbot (Lota lota) (Ormstad & Rom 1972). This is is also practised by some sports fishermen. When a jig similar to the ‘umbrella hooks’ with many ice fishing or hake jigging, the Scandinavians use a unbarbed hooks, used for catching cephalopods small rod, sometimes also with a reel. (see Figure 12.21d). More modern types of jigs Jigging is a much more widespread practice in sea have the hook and weight in two separated pieces fisheries than it is in fresh waters. The cod ‘Koppel’ (von Brandt 1960) although the hook may be com- and the so-called ‘Heringshaue’, a herring fishing bined with the weight through a swivel (Figure gear, are used all around the Baltic. Both types of 12.7e) or a little chain. Often pilks are home-made, gear are genuine rippers (Henking 1929). Even using a lead weight and some normal fishing hooks handlines with many hooks are used like rippers in tied together (Figure 12.7c). The hooks used as sea fisheries to catch mackerel and other fish. In this rippers are generally barbed.The main requirement case the hooks are fitted with feathers to attract of the pilk is that the hooks be sharp. Strangely, the mackerel; some hook themselves, others are plankton feeders can also be attracted by the move- pierced. Nowadays, the feathers can be replaced by ments of the ripper, which is why herring can be bands of split fibres. The handline fishery for cod in caught by this method, as is done in the Bay of Kiel northern areas is often more a ripping line-fishery. and at other places on the German Baltic coast That is why cod caught by the Norwegian ‘juksa’ when the fish arrive for spawning. line are often not hooked in the mouth, but pierced The technique of catching fish by jigging is wide- elsewhere by the up-and-down movement of the spread. In European freshwater fisheries, rippers jig. Ripper fishermen can be found on many coasts. are usually used in the winter or spring, when the The Turks have, for many years, maintained a pilk fish are still slow and not so apt to be frightened fishery for bluefish (Pomatomus saltator L).This fish away by the moving hooks (Seligo 1925). In some comes in large shoals through the Bosporus early in countries, however, this method is prohibited in the year (Figure 12.8). To withstand the strong cur- fresh water because the fish are caught more or rents of this area, the weights of the pilks operated less haphazardly and may be seriously injured. As for this fishing are often as heavy as 1200g. Mercury

Figure 12.8 Turkish fishermen pilking for bluefish in the Bosporus (1971). DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 169

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Figure 12.10 Norwegian hand-reel for ‘juksa’ fishing.

Figure 12.9 A pilk for bluefish is polished with mercury to make it sparkle, Bosporus (1971).

was used to polish the pilk to increase its attraction to the fish (Figure 12.9). Large triple hooks, in the past made by the fishermen themselves, usually pierce the dorsal fin of the fish. As a result of increased vessel traffic and other coastal structures in this region in the past 20 years, this kind of fishery is no longer used (pers. comm. 2000). Figure 12.11 Caught by a Chinese longline with ripping hooks. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.) Fishing with hand-operated pilks is a simple, inexpensive, labour-intensive method, but never- theless an effective one. It is, therefore, under- rip themselves (Figure 12.11). They also have standable that efforts have been made to replace small anchored rafts (Figure 12.12) covered with the regular and tiring up-and-down movement branches or wheat straw, which offer a good hiding of the hand by manually operated mechanical place for some fish. From these rafts more than arrangements (Figure 12.10). Even the use of short 20 ripping hooks are hung on short lines on which sticks can be less tiring. Special short ‘pilkestikke’ fish, looking for shelter, hook themselves (Kasuga with reels for the line movement are known in 1975).The Chinese stationary longlines, with longer sport fishing. More effective were reels fixed on the by-lines (Figure 9.19), were mentioned in Chapter gunwale of the fishing vessel. Power-operated 9. If the description of ancient Chinese fishing prac- jigging methods soon followed (see Section 12.6). tices (de Thiersant 1872) is correct, Chinese fisher- men used longlines which had whole systems of 12.4 Rippers on stationary lines main and by-lines with sharp ripping hooks set to and troll lines entangle and hook large fish (Figure 12.13). Here sturgeons, probably from the Amur area, are spe- Rippers can also be operated with set lines, cially mentioned as being among the fish caught. especially with stationary longlines. In the Chinese Around the Black Sea,longlines with sharp hooks freshwater fishery longlines are known which have are set to catch sturgeons by ripping. The bodies of short branch lines, each with one sharp hook, tied these fish are covered with single ‘bone plates’, the at short intervals on the main line, on which the fish ganoid scales, and the ripping hooks easily catch DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 170

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Figure 12.12 Chinese bamboo raft with ripping hooks. In operation the raft is covered with straw. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.) Figure 12.14 Different construction of sturgeon lines. The branch lines are: (a) floating; (b) hanging; or (c) alternately hanging and floating.

earlier, these hooks have small barbs to prevent the line for the float slipping over the point of the hook (Figure 12.16). Finally, the hooks may be set alter- nately with and without floats.This means that each second hook is floating or hanging down, some- times resting on the seabed (Figure 12.14c). This type of hook was used in the Black Sea by Turkish and Rumanian fishermen for sturgeon fishing (Figures 12.17 and 12.18) (Mengi 1968; von Brandt Figure 12.13 Chinese longline with by-lines. The hooks 1969). If a sturgeon swims through such a hook act as entangling ripping hooks. (From de Thiersant curtain, the sharp hooks are likely to get a grip on 1872 with permission.) the bony plates with ease (NN 1951; Nikolski 1957; von Brandt 1969). There is some evidence that under these. For this purpose, longlines are set with these hooks were originally made of wood and used branch lines fitted with sharpened coarse hooks in the rivers Dvina and Ob in northern Eurasia (de attached side by side to the main line. This can be Rohan-Csermak 1963). Therefore, pointing down done in several different ways (Figure 12.14). Some- may have been their original orientation. From the times the line floats and all hooks hang on short north this ‘samalow’ hook spread to south-east branch lines with the points up (Figure 12.14b).This Europe with migrating Turkish tribes in the Black type of line was used in the sturgeon fishery in the Sea area, covering the lower Danube and Dnepr, Caspian Sea as late as the 1950s (Figure 12.15). the Sea of Azov with the Don, and the Caspian Sea Originally the main lines were set on the bottom, with the Volga. But today it is prohibited in many e.g. in the mouth of a river, and each hook was places (including the Caspian Sea) as the sturgeon, floated by a small float fixed on the bend of the though they may be seriously injured, can free hook with the point of the hook was turned down themselves by struggling. On the lower Danube, (Figure 12.14a). In contrast to the line mentioned species of fish other than sturgeon have also been DFC12 4/23/05 8:28 PM Page 171

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Figure 12.15 Floating longlines with ripping hooks as formerly used in the Caspian Sea. (From NN 1951 with permission.)

Figure 12.16 Sturgeon hook from the Black Sea. Between point and bend the hook has a thickening like a barb to prevent the rope with the float attached (see Figure 12.14a) from slipping over the point.

caught by fishing lines with just such ripping hooks. Interestingly, longlines with dense rows of sus- Figure 12.17 Turkish sturgeon fisherman controlling his pended ripping hooks have also been known and sturgeon lines in the Red River (1967). are still used in other parts of the world. Longlines with ripping hooks hanging as narrowly as a curtain are known from the River Niger (Figure 12.19). hanging close together. Such lines are stretched Here, the line with short branch lines tied at very across a river to catch fish by them ripping them- short intervals is fixed between sticks so that the selves. The branch lines can be very short (Figure unbaited hooks are hanging a short distance from 12.20). There is even one type of longline with the bottom (Welcomme 1970, 1979). Similar ripping unbaited hooks which has no branch lines. In this longlines are known from the area of Lake Chad case the hooks are tied directly onto the main line, (Blache & Miton 1962), with short branch lines which is quite extraordinary. DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 172

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Figure 12.19 Anchored longlines with ripping hooks are floated some distance above the bottom of the River Niger. (Photo: Bacalbas¸a.)

Figure 12.18 Rumanian fisherman maintaining stur- geon lines in a fishermen’s camp on the estuary of the Danube near Sulina (1976).

Figure 12.20 Very short branch lines of a longline with ripping hooks in a village of Benin fishermen near Lagune Aby, Ivory Coast (1971). DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 173

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Ripping hooks can also be towed to catch fish as can be seen from the example of the various fish harrows. Unbaited longlines with short snoods ending in extremely sharp barbless hooks, which are towed over the bottom, are also known in large-scale fisheries. Malayan fishermen of Singa- pore used a line that is supported, at short intervals, by wooden floats. One end is attached to a raft-like buoy, the other being retained on the boat so that the gear forms a low curtain of hooks just above the seabed. Fish passing through this barrier can be hooked and are subsequently entangled by other hooks in their struggle to escape (Burdon 1954). The towing of a longline over the ground can also be considered a form of trolling with ripping hooks. In the introduction to this chapter the practice of thieves, whereby rippers are towed through a pond with a dense fish population, was mentioned. An ‘improved’ variation of this method can be seen in Malaysia, where young people throw heavily- weighted triple hooks into the water and draw them back with violent jerking movements with the help of a rod and a reel similar to those used in spin fishing (Chapter 10).

12.5 Rippers for cephalopods Figure 12.21 Special hooks for squid: (a) long type of For catching cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish and Taiwan (Formosa); (b) long type of Greece; (c) com- octopus), various types of handlines, longlines and posite hook of Italy; (d) usual Mediterranean type; (e) troll lines are used with ripping hooks. Multi- small type used in Portugal; (f) double hook of Korea. hooked rippers are considered typical for this fishery (Figure 12.21). Mostly these rippers or jigs are short stems of lead weight painted white and red or wrapped in pieces of white or dyed linen or even velvet. They can also be made from horn and bone. Modern ones are made of plastic. The colour of these stems is considered important for the success of the catch. In some Japanese experiments, red and orange stems with inserted pieces of shell proved most efficient, whilst white ones and those of silvery metal were the least effective. One end of the stem is fitted with one, two or even three circles of upturned barbless hooks made of stainless steel. In contrast to the rippers used for squid, those used Figure 12.22 Ripping hooks made by fishermen for for octopus are simpler in construction and have a cephalopods: (a) Madagascar (1964); (b) Senegal, for cuttlefish (1971); (c) Argentina (1979). single circle of barbless hooks only. The hooks are generally unbarbed but, because some fishermen make their own rippers for squid, cuttlefish and rippers are mostly used unbaited, rippers for octopus with whatever hooks are available, barbed octopus can be baited when fishing during daytime ones can also be found (Figures 12.22a,b).Although to lure the prey out of their hiding places and into DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 174

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Figure 12.24 Japanese traditional double handline for squid.

Figure 12.23 Different types of squid hooks operated in and even two poles fastened to one wooden handle Korea, the longest one with a small lamp. (Figure 12.24), or a bifurcated pole with two lines, may be operated in this fishery. For fishing in deeper water a gear is used resembling the balance the range of the gear. There are different sizes of lines for catching fish (Figure 9.1e). An improve- these rippers (sometimes called ‘umbrella hooks’) ment was made in the 1950s by replacing a single used particularly in East Asia, in the Mediterranean ripper with many in a ‘chain system’ having many area, along the African coasts and also in the north- ripping hooks in one row – operated like a vertical ern Atlantic, even as far as Iceland. Nowadays the longline. These serial jigging gear (Figure 12.25) typical squid hook has many variations. When the and clam jigging gear for shallow waters brought a squid are more scattered, longer hooks are used dramatically increase of fishing efficiency. Manually and there are some with a small battery-powered operated jigging machines were introduced then for lamp in the head of the ripper (Figure 12.23). This moving these handlines, with the rippers, up and hook can be taken by a cephalopod like a passive down (Figure 12.25). These were originally simple fishing gear; when it is touched, the sharp hooks rip rollers, as used when jigging for fish, but more the body or tentacles of the animal. The same advanced manually operated winding machines implement may also be used like a typical active soon followed (Figure 12.26). At the same time the ripper, hooking any cephalopod that comes near chain system mentioned above was introduced, when it is jigged with quick jerks (Lane 1960). each line often carrying many different types of jigs Simple handlines are considered the original gear (Figure 12.27). For this reason the ‘umbrella hooks’ for catching squid as well as octopus or cuttlefish. have an eyelet ring at each end of the stem (Figure They can be similar to the normal handlines, like 12.23) so that they can be inserted at any desired those in Figure 9.1, but pole-and-line fishing gear, spacing along the nylon line suspended from the DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 175

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Figure 12.25 Korean squid fishing: behind, older form with pole and line; front, newer type with hand-operated jigging machine (1972).

Typical of all longlines with ripping hooks is the short distance between branch lines (compare Figures 12.11, 12.12, 12.15 and 12.20). This is also true for the longlines operated to catch octopi. Figure 12.28 is a drawing of a Korean octopus line in correct scale. As often for fish, the main line is kept some distance off the bottom. As soon as the octopus tries to pass between the hooks, it will rip itself (Pennington 1979). Figure 12.26 Hand-operated winding machine. In the Far East, various types of weighted jigs or jig type lures are also trolled in deeper water to jigging machine. With the original hand-driven catch cephalopods (Figure 12.30). Sometimes the (later motor-driven) jigging machine, rhythmical gear with baited hooks is towed from a vessel over vertical movements of the rippers were caused by the bottom like a troll line (Figure 12.31b). In other a reel with an eccentric centre axis, or by an egg- cases single lines with one hook, each connected to shaped or elliptical form of drum.The next step was an individual buoy, are drifted with the current the fully automatic squid jigging machine (about and/or wind, like a free driftline. When an 1960), which is described in Section 12.6 dealing octopus has taken the ripping hook, the buoy stops with mechanization. drifting and the line is hauled up (Yajima & Mitsugi Octopi are also caught with longlines with 1976). ripping hooks, baited or unbaited (Figure 12.28). The single or double hooks are considered un- 12.6 Mechanization of jigging barbed (Yamashita 1976), but there is a very small barb at the base of the point to secure the bait To jerk ripping hooks up and down by hand, maybe (Figure 12.29). for hours as when fishing for cod or squid, can DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 176

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Figure 12.27 Chain system for different types of squid hooks beginning with an illuminated hook at the top. The longest hooks are near the bottom, Korea (1972).

Figure 12.28 Korean set line with ripping hooks, baited or unbaited, for catching octopi (1972).

Figure 12.30 Japanese ripping hooks towed on the bottom for catching octopi.

saithe which expedited the development of their fully automatic ‘juksa’ machines working with 10–15 rubber-covered hooks (Figure 8.20), mostly unbaited. The automatic jigging machine lets the hook sink down to a specified depth and then starts jigging with an adjustable range of up-and-down motion and at a pre-determined speed. When the Figure 12.29 Double hook for ripping octopi. The small barb is for securing the bait, Korea (1972). weight is increased by a caught fish, and the pre-set weight is reached, jigging is discontinued and the catch is hauled up automatically; the hauling func- become very exhausting. Therefore, different types tion stops when fish and hook are on the surface and of manually operated winches and reels were intro- the fish can be unhooked. Normally one person duced to facilitate the up-and-down movements of operates two machines and is able to land a catch the pilks in these fisheries (Figures 12.10 and 12.25). about as big as six people using manual methods.An It was, especially, the Norwegian fishery for cod and adjustable electromagnetic clutch makes it possible DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 177

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to play large fish such as halibut automatically, and fishermen and their further development through to compensate for the roll of the boat in rough several years has resulted in real fishing robots weather. It has been said that some of the larger working with micro-processors. The robots have boats in Norway have up to eight such fully auto- several automatic fishing programs and fishermen matic jigging machines operating at one time. can choose the ones which best suits the type of Nowadays the use of such machines by thousands of fishing they want to do. Depth and range can be adjusted to maximize fishing efficiency. Figure 12.32 shows such a modern jigging robot with a micro- processor as electronic brain. Normally the wheel of a robot takes 500m of 1.4mm monofilament line, sufficient for most methods of fishing. This type of robot can also be used for squid fishing with 30–40 hooks. The mechanization for squid fishermen started in the Far East with the replacement of hand-driven squid angling roller systems with those with a mechanical drive. It followed an automatic jigging machine system, which simulated the action of tra- ditional jigging by hand-operated lines or by man- ually driven wheels. The line is set by the machine to depths of 30m to >140m and as soon as the required depth is reached the line is wound in with jerking movements (Chen 1976). As in other Figure 12.31 Korean ripping handlines for catching systems, the jerking action of the line is obtained by octopi: (a) for pilking from an anchored vessel; (b) winding onto reels with an eccentric axis or on ellip- ripping troll line (1979). tical or egg-shaped reels. The line was replaced by

Figure 12.32 Japanese squid jigging machine on a Chinese vessel. (Photo: T. F. Chen.) DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 178

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Figure 12.33 Japanese automatic squid angling machine in operation.

a ‘chain’ with 50 or more rippers which was led over two rollers, one inboard and one outboard of the gunwale (Figures 12.32 and 12.33) but later only over one roller (Figures 12.34).The outboard roller is mounted on a frame with plastic-coated wire Figure 12.34 Single automatic squid jigging machine mesh, onto which the caught squid falls as the jigs with metal mesh covered frame on a large Japanese vessel in the harbour of Littleton, New Zealand, in 1981. flick over the roller. Japanese squid jigging vessels The machine is turned up into its neutral position. have as many as 20–24 or more mechanized jiggers. This fishery for squid is operated during the night with garlands of mostly white or blue glass lamps suspended between the masts of the vessel to attract the squid (Ben-Yami 1976). The fully- mechanized jigging machines have the important advantage of sparing manpower, because one fishery was not associated with any disadvanta- person can operate up to five automatic jigging geous bottom impacts, as seen in bottom trawling, machines simultaneously. Figure 12.35 shows and also resulted in larger species being caught Japanese squid fishers in the harbour of Hakodate. (Schäfer & Czyborra 1985). Very important equip- One major consideration of such boats is the light- ment especially for deep sea vessels are the mizzen ing system for which a separate electric generator sail and the sea anchor. Sea anchors can be of the may be required and masts may have to be rigged. sail type (see Figure 8.36) or parachute type (see Squid jigging vessels cover a considerable size Figure 8.37). The diameter of the parachute ranges range from about 3 to 500GT. But there are also from about 4m for small boats up to 23m for the larger vessels known for long-distance operations. large ocean-going vessels. For combined big freezer For instance in the 1980s big freezer trawlers with trawlers (see above) the parachute has a diameter up to 3000GT carried out a mixed fishery daily with of c.40m and the area of the mizzen sail is >70m2. trawls and at night with up to 20 jigging machines With such aids, jigging is possible up to wind forces and 35 halogen gas lights (each 4.4 kW).This jigging of 5 to 6Bft., in other case only up to 4Bft. DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 179

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Figure 12.35 Japanese squid fishers in the harbour of Hakodate (1972).

References Dumont, H. & Sundstrom, G.T. (1961) Commercial Augur, C.H. (1894) Fishnets. Bulletin of the US Fisheries fishing gear of the United States. Fish and Wildlife Cir- Commission No. 13. cular No. 109. Ben-Yami, M. (1976) Fishing with Light.Fishing News Henking, H. (1929) Die Ostseefischerei. Handbuch der Books, Farnham. Seefischerei Nordeuropas V. Stuttgart. Blache, J. & Miton, F. (1962) Première Contribution à Janko, J. (1900) Herkunft der Magyarischen Fischerei. la Connaissance de la Pêche dans le Bassin Hydro- Budapest/Leipzig. graphique Logone-Chari Lac Tchad. ORSTOM, Paris. Jenkins, J. G. (1974) Nets and Coracles. Newton Abbot. von Brandt, A. (1960) Bemerkenswerte Fangmethoden Juynboll, H.H. (1914) Java, Katalog des Ethnographischen und Geräte in der griechischen Fischerei. Protokolle Reichsmuseums IX. Leiden. zur Fischereitechnik 6, 327–365. Kasuga & Osaka, L. (eds) (1975) Catálogo de Artes y von Brandt, A. (1969) Störfischerei an der türkischen Métodos de Pesca Artesanales de la República Popular Schwarzmeerküste. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 11, China.Instituto Nacional de Pesca,México [in Spanish]. 353–384. Kishinouge, K. (1941) Prehistoric fishing in Japan. Journal Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. of the College of Agriculture Imperial University Tokyo Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 II, 327–382. (2), 5–76. Lane, F.W. (1960) Kingdom of the Octopus. New York. Chen, T.P. (1976) Aquaculture Practices in Taiwan. Mäki, T.V. & Pitkänen, H. (1969) Kalastajan tietokirja Farnham. [Fishermen’s encyclopedia]. Helsinki [in Finnish]. Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England Marshall, W. (1904) Die Erforschung des Meeres. In: and Wales. Fishery Investigations, Ser. II, Vol. 21, No. 8. Weltall und Menschheit Vol. IV (ed. H. Kramer), Doogue, R. (1974) Hook, Line and Sinker. Wellington. 245–382. DFC12 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 180

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Mengi, T. (1968) Türkiyéde mersin baligi yakalama âlet- de Thiersant, P.D. (1872) Le Pisciculture et la Pêche en leri (1). Balik ve Balikçilik 16 (10), 1–10 [in Turkish]. Chine. Paris. Nikolski, G.H. (1957) Spezielle Fischkunde. Berlin. Trench, C.C. (1974) A History of Angling. London. NN (1951) [Fishing gear of the Caspian Sea.] (ed.) Welcomme, R.L. (1970) Les moyens de pêche dans les Ministry of Fisheries, Moscow [in Russian]. eaux continentales du Dahomey. Études Dahoméennes NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and NS No. 17, 5–35. Fishing Gear. Tokyo. Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain Ormstad, O. & Rom, K. (1972) Isfiske. Oslo [in Rivers. London. Norwegian]. Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- Pennington, F. (1979) The Japanese have many ways to ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No. 6, catch the giant octopus. Fishing News International 18 191–244. (11) 56–57. Wiebalk, R. (1917) Von den Rechten der Wurster im de Rohan-Csermak, G. (1963) Sturgeon Hooks of Wattenmeer. Männer im Morgenstern XVIII, 108– Eurasia. Chicago. 115. Schäfer, B. & Czyborra, H. (1985) Angelfischerei Yajima, S. & Mitsugi, S. (1976) Japanese squid jigging auf Kalmar in der Hochseefischerei der DDR. gear.FAO Fisheries Report No. 170 (Suppl. 1), 85–88. Seewirtschaft Berlin 17 (7), 338–342. Rome. Seligo, A. (1925) Die Fischerei in den Fliessen, Seen und Yamashita, Y. (1976) The Octopus Fishery of Hokkaido. Strandgewässern Mitteleuropas. Stuttgart. FAO Fisheries Report No. 170, Suppl. 1, 142–147. Seréne, M.M.R., Nguyen-Chan & Nyuyen-Trong-Hien Rome. (1956) Ètudes sur les techniques des pêches au Viet- Nam. In: Hai Hoc Vien No. 13. Natrang. DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 181

13 Net Material and the Art of Net-making

To be typical of a fisherman’s village, any picture or symbol of fishing is not a net but a fishing spear, any photograph must show fishing nets hanging out namely the trident of Neptune or Poseidon. This or spread out for drying. In our conception, nets trident is nothing but the ancient tuna spear of the and fishing must go together. But this has not Mediterranean. Thus the spear, not the net, was always been the case. On the contrary; compared considered by the Greeks and Romans as repre- with the age of fishing, the net is a recent invention, sentative of fishing gear. It was so important that it although it may still be some thousands of years became the symbol of the Sea God. Even today old. Like other primary textile techniques such as nations are known that have a high cultural stan- plaiting and weaving, the art of net-making dates dard, where net fishing plays a secondary part as back at least to the Mesolithic, i.e. the end of compared with other fishing methods. Moreover, the period of gatherers and hunters. This again the relatively late introduction of the net into presumes that people had learned how to obtain fishing is also indicated by the fact that in the myths net-making material – whether it came from plant and tales of the nations living around the northern fibres, bast, leather strips, silk threads or animal hair seas as well as of those living on the coasts of the – to eventually be spun and twisted. It also had to Pacific and Indian Oceans, gods and heroes are be available in adequate quantities. Certainly this described as teaching men how to make nets. The must have been difficult in the beginning, so the knotting of nets is a particular art, like boat- first handmade nets would almost certainly have building and the forging of swords. The myths been only very small ones. The large sheets of net reveal that the art was not known to all men when required today by some large-scale fisheries for they (the myths) came into existence, but that the bulk fishing have become possible only through the knowledge of how to make nets had to be learned success achieved in making nets on machines, but by each apprentice fisherman. Previously it was this did not happen until the second part of the 19th praised in myths and tales as being a special skill century. Up to that time, every bit of netting had to taught to humans by superior powers. But it has to be made by hand, and fishermen spent much time be admitted that in highly developed industrial fish- in producing raw material for net making; then they eries this knowledge is decreasing and that on a had to process it themselves by spinning and twist- highly sophisticated trawler today there may be ing before they could make the netting. In many only a few people with experience of how to make parts of the world this is necessary even today. and mend netting. Therefore, the fishing net is a relatively recent There are many terms used in literature for the invention among the many types of fishing gear meshed webbing used by fishermen to construct known today. fishing gear. According to a decision of the Inter- Many signs indicate that, with some nations, the national Organization for Standardization (ISO) in net was introduced in hunting before it was used for Geneva, Switzerland, the official term should be fishing. How young the invention of the net is may ‘netting’ (ISO 1974). A netting is a meshed struc- also be demonstrated by the fact that in Europe the ture of indefinite shape and size, which is the raw

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making is now widely known and taught. Now the machine-made net can be delivered without trouble to even the most remote islands and frequently replaces the home-made article, just as machine- made fishing hooks are displacing hand-made hooks in all parts of the world.

13.1 Stone walls, fences and netting As in hunting, the original problem which led to the making of nets was to prevent fish from getting away in the water and to filter them or extract them from the water. For that purpose, fishery does not require textile netting in the modern sense. Stop- ping or barring the way of the fish in a bay or bight, Figure 13.1 Section of a ‘net’ made by a caddis larva or in running water, can also be done by earth and of the genus Hydropsyche. (From Sattler 1958 with stone dams (Figures 15.4 and 13.2). As will be permission.) shown in Chapter 15, stone walls are known in many parts of the world. Mostly they are used in material for the construction of many types of tidal or flood areas to retain fish during ebb tides. fishing gear, especially for fishing nets, but also for In this case the walls are permanent barriers. But some gear used by hunters and bird catchers. There they can also be erected during fishing, as the Ocea- is no limitation either of the material from which nians do (Koch 1965). Fish encircled in shallow the netting has been made, or of the size or shape water by many people, sometimes >100, can be of the single meshes from which the netting is com- enclosed by a quickly-made wall of coral stones so posed. Here it must be remembered that nets have that their chances of escape are negligible, and they not been invented only by humans. Long before the are caught (Burdon 1951). Stone walls can also be gods taught humans how to make nets, animals built in complicated labyrinths as the aborigines of used nets for their own purposes.We all know about Australia have done (Roughley 1968). Therefore, it spider webs, but the wheel-shaped nets of a certain may be right to consider stone walls as ‘living fossils spider family are not the only nets that exist in of the oldest fishing gear’ (Nishimura 1968). Stone nature. Devices used for obtaining food, which may walls have been replaced later in many areas by be called nets, are also manufactured by many other light transportable fish fences made of twigs, reeds, animals. Some species of aquatic animals produce bamboo, etc. (von Brandt 1957). These may be such catching equipment in order to harvest plank- either simple fences or mats (Figures 15.8 and 13.3), ton. The net made by the larvae of the caddis fly or ingeniously plaited work in, for instance, the (Hydropsyche) (Figure 13.1) is of a particularly hexagonal technique used today for making regular pattern. Construction and use of these baskets, especially of split bamboo and similar catching devices, which were developed by nature material (Figure 13.4). long before humans invented them, correspond to Just as the coarse stone dams have been replaced our stow nets (Figure 24.38). by plaited fences which are manufactured more Certainly humans did not learn how to make nets easily,handled more simply and operated more effi- for hunting and fishing from any natural models. ciently,these again are being replaced by net fabrics Man’s technology of netting is quite different, and made of various fibre-like materials, especially from has changed greatly and become perfect only by plants, more rarely of animal origin. This develop- repeated trial and error over a long period of ment is still going on. But in spite of this trend, in time. Many fishing populations even today have not many fisheries where sufficient material for plaited gained the knowledge of how to make nets for gear is available (wood, bamboo, rattan, etc.), and themselves. In our time, however, new independent where wages are low, there is still a preference for invention is no longer necessary because net- stable wooden gear instead of netting. Moreover, DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 183

Net Material and the Art of Net-making 183

Figure 13.2 Stone dams built off the coast of Guinea to retain fish as the tide falls. (From Sahrhage 1961 with permission.)

Figure 13.3 Transportable fish fences used in a Philippine fish pond (1960). Figure 13.4 Hexagonal technique used for the construction of fish pots.

textile nets made of natural fibres require much care and maintenance, unless very cheap materials can be left in place until they have rotted, before such as grass or straw have been used. The Japan- being replaced by new ones. Natural fibres as net ese make traps from rice straw, and this material is materials have been used for centuries – possibly used for bigger forms such as leading netting. The for thousands of years. In modern times, however, Sicilian fisheries use special types of esparto grass they too are being replaced by the better synthetic for their tuna traps, which are so cheap that they fibres. These synthetic fibres are known under DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 184

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different trade names and include the following chemical groups: polyamides (PA), polyesters (PES), polyethylenes (PE), polyvinylchlorides (PVC), polyvinyl alcohols (PVA) and others (Klust 1982). PA has lost its predominant role in fishing since new technologies for producing the polyole- fines became available. The substituting gel-melted Figure 13.5 A primitive form of net-making achieved by fibres (e.g. Dynema) show a much higher strength, hanging bast twines on each other. though their low elasticity is not always advanta- geous. The synthetic fibres have many advantages which allow the manufacture of more effective fishing gear. Among the most useful properties are 1974). The size and shape of the meshes regulates high resistance to rotting, the high breaking the sizes of those fish to be prevented from passing strength and favourable tenacity, low visibility in through and determines whether the fish shall be water, and low water resistance. Moreover, some of caught by mechanical filtering or by sticking in the these properties can be varied according to the meshes according to the circumference of their needs of the different fishing methods. Thus, for bodies, as shown for gillnets in Chapter 19. It is, example, flexibility of gillnet twines has been therefore, understandable that starting from very increased by replacing the single monofil twine by early times, the consistency of size and shape of the some softly twisted monofils of smaller diameter meshes has been considered essential. but with the same resultant strength (Multi-mono). How such meshes of equal size and constant This can also be achieved by mixing different types shape can be obtained depends on the material of synthetic fibres in one netting yarn. Synthetic used. As long as the material was rigid and rough fibres offer fishery possibilities that may not yet be this was relatively simple. Figure 13.5 shows a primi- fully used. Unfortunately,the synthetic fibres can be tive form of netting made by using bast twines and too expensive for non-industrial countries. In their simply hanging each mesh on one in the previous case, there is no neutral control of the properties of row. Such ‘knotless’ meshes remained constant only netting materials, and no training of fishermen in as long as the net was firmly stretched in a frame or how to decide which material may be the best one fastened over a rack, like the old baskets made of for their purposes. Moreover, to the practical, but lime tree bast used in the north European fishery. not instructed, fisherman, inferior netting material Knotting was not necessary.The netting was kept may be offered, which by its low-class properties together by its own roughness. A more permanent can hamper the use of any synthetic fibres. Origi- form of netting is obtained by twisting the bars of nally, high prices for netting yarn made of synthetic the meshes with each other, once or several times, at fibres in comparison with those made of cotton or the joining points (Figure 13.6). On display in Scan- local fibres hindered a worldwide introduction of dinavian museums are relics of such twisted meshes netting materials of new synthetic fibres. Decreas- made from lime tree bast that were originally found ing prices and increasing knowledge of how to use in Danish moors or fens, as well as some from old the new materials in the best way led to wider use fish traps – and these last were even used until of this material, but there is still some uncertainty modern times. Compared with simple hanging (as in about the development of pricing in the future.This Figure 13.5), the twisting of the bars to form net may prevent the use of the best synthetic fibres meshes (as in Figure 13.6) represented a significant available, in all fisheries, as wanted. development. As long as only rough materials were used for manufacturing these netlike forms, the 13.2 Primitive knotless netting technique of simple or multiple twisting as described was sufficient. This method is used even The basic design of textile netting is a mesh, usually today when the netting is held stretched in a frame, of rhombic or square shape. According to a such as that made to cover or close the openings of standard definition, a mesh is a ‘designedly formed baskets used by the fishermen of Malta (von Brandt opening, surrounded by netting materials’ (ISO 1966) (Figure 13.7) or of the Canary Islands. This DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 185

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Figure 13.6 Simple knotless netting with low stability of the mesh size made by single or double twisting of the netting yarn at the joining points.

Figure 13.7 Cover for the top opening of a wooden beehive-basket in Malta. The cover is made by a simple twisting technique. Figure 13.8 Australian rock lobster pot made of wood and wire in Tasmania. The mesh of the base is of very method of building a mesh can even be helpful stiff wire and is therefore made by simple twisting, without knotting. today with netting made of wire, as used for traps, dredges and also liftnets. The single twisting of the wire is sufficient to give the mesh some stability and were created. Humans learned how to obtain the consistent size, as can be seen from the beehive fibres from various wild or cultivated plants and to rock-lobster pot of Tasmania,the bottom of which is spin and twist them into netting yarns. As men- made of stiff wire which cannot be formed into a tioned before, as long as this yarn was rough it was mesh in any other manner (Figure 13.8). not so difficult to get consistent meshes for netting. When the netting yarns became finer and smoother, 13.3 Knotted netting twisting of these yarns at the joining points alone was no longer sufficient to get constant and fixed- As soon as humans became settled, and agriculture size meshes. The method of net-making had to be was beginning, the conditions for cultivating fibre improved by replacing the hanging technique by plants such as linen, hemp, ramie, and many others knotting the netting yarns at the previous mesh row DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 186

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Figure 13.10 Netting made with the help of a kind of Figure 13.9 Net-making technique used by lake- ‘failed’ reef knot, also called the ‘cow hitch’. dwelling fishermen in Switzerland.

(Figure 13.9). As that technique was first found in relics of nets discovered near the lake dwellings on the shores of Lake Constance, the knot – maybe the first used in net-making – was called the ‘lake dweller knot’. This technique of manufacturing fishing nets, however, is far more widespread than has ever been supposed.The ancient African fishery in the area of the Zaire River, as well as the fish- Figure 13.11 Netting made with the well-known reef eries of Oceania and the Peruvian coast of South knot. America (von Brandt 1970), knew how to manu- facture meshes in that same ‘lake-dwelling’ tech- nique. With this method of net-making, a ‘knotted’ with meshes that retained their uniform shape. The netting is produced, not a ‘knotless’ one. The knot development of the technique of net-making thus does not slide, and the mesh remains constant, espe- runs parallel to the development of manufacturing cially when the netting yarn is not too smooth, but yarns and twine.The technique of net-making using this method was no longer sufficient when the knots is of great importance today in the manufac- material became finer and smoother. The knot ture of nets using the reef knot (Figure 13.11), which could be moved to and fro on the smooth loops of is widely distributed in the Asiatic fishery. This is the previous row of meshes, which meant the mesh identical with the knotting on Figure 13.10, but the did not remain of a constant size. This unwanted thread in the knot is placed a little differently so that slipping also applies to the method of knotting, the slings on the preceding rows of meshes are actu- often known as the cow hitch (Figure 13.10), which ally included in the knot. In this way, relatively con- can be considered as a loose form of the following stant meshes are obtained,which are often sufficient knot. This cow hitch, too, remains fixed only as long for their purpose and are typical of the Asiatic as the net material is rough. Nets manufactured in fishery. In the old fishery literature, this type of knot this way are known from the ancient African is very often called the ‘Chinese knot’. But, accord- fishery. But nets from Peru have also been found to ing to Japanese statistics,this method of making nets have been made in this way, and these date from is steadily diminishing from year to year.The reason times before Columbus. Because this knot is very for this is that this knotting technique is no longer often found in excavations in Peru, it has been sufficient for manufacturing nets from synthetic named the ‘Peruvian knot’. fibres. The use of synthetic fibres is steadily gaining As the material from which netting was manufac- ground; in particular, in the form of twines of silk- tured became better, i.e. as twines became smoother like continuous fibres which call for non-sliding and more uniform, the less the meshes remained knots, and is the reason why the so-called ‘weaver constant. The knots were found to slide, the meshes knot’ has become increasingly popular. The manu- became distorted, and serious efforts were needed facture of nets with the weaver knot (Figure 13.12) to find new methods of knotting to produce netting has been known in the fishery of north-west Europe DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 187

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Figure 13.12 Weaver knots are used for making this netting.

from very early times. Nets from the Stone Age, pos- sibly 4000–5000 years of age, found in a moor in Finland c. 70 years ago (Sirelius 1934) and recently in a moor in Schleswig-Holstein, show the weaver knot (von Brandt 1970). It may, therefore, be sup- posed that the weaver knot for making nets was developed in the ancient North Atlantic fishing Figure 13.13 Main types of net needles: (a) filet type; area, including the native fishery of North America (b) tongue type; (c) Icelandic type; (d) Mediterranean even before the time of Columbus. There, too, the filet type. weaver knot was known, and it is hard to believe that such a complex knot can have been invented twice and that no connection existed between the Kaulin 1997), and fishermen know techniques for use of weaver knots in northern Europe and North hand knotting without auxiliary tools, as well as America. with different types of needles (Figure 13.13) and Nowadays the weaver knot is the most widely mesh sticks. Most of the knotted netting can be distributed type of knot for making nets in the made by machines, and machines can also make European and American fisheries, and most of the knotless netting. modern, fully automatic net-making machinery, no matter whether it is built in Asia, Europe or 13.4 Modern knotless netting America, is making netting with this knot. Com- pared with them, net-making machines which use As has been mentioned above, ancient people did reef knots play only a local and secondary part, and know knotless netting. There are other more com- are restricted to East and South Asia. But even the plicated types. Even in modern fisheries, as with weaver type of knotting is often insufficient for the Canadian shellfish dredges, very simple knotless very smooth modern net twines made of continu- netting may be used. Here the meshes are formed ous synthetic fibres. So the single weaver knot is by joining the netting twines with cramp irons being replaced by double knots of various types (Figure 13.14). But modern fishery knows and uses or, where their mechanical manufacture is too much more complicated machine-made knotless expensive, the single knots are fixed by thermal and netting. Since the beginning of the 1950s, modern chemical treatment of the netting. knotless netting has been used in many fisheries. It Mentioned here are only some of the more is made either according to the Japanese technique, important types of net-making. Fisheries, especially together with twisting the netting yarns (Figure the traditional ones, know many more techniques 13.15a), or after the Raschel technique developed for making netting, both woven and knitted. An in north-west Europe (Figure 13.15b). Both tech- example can be seen in Figure 24.10. Moreover, niques can be realized only by machines. About 40 there are different techniques for achieving the years ago a third method was developed in the same joining types for meshes (von Brandt 1957; former German Democratic Republic. In this case DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 188

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the meshes are formed by plaited, not twisted, knotted one. Of particular value to its application netting yarns (Figure 13.15c). There is one single in more selective towed gear is that the joining producer of the material now in the world, in the points of knotless netting do not move as is the case USA, working under licence of a Japanese firm. in knotted netting when used in square mesh con- Knotless netting has the advantages of lower figuration. water resistance and lower weight. This depends on Moreover, it has been found that knotless netting the method of manufacture. Weight of the netting, made according to the Raschel system can have, by breaking strength of a single mesh, and diameter of virtue of its longer ‘joining points’, meshes with a the bars are decisive for judging the value of knot- hexagonal opening (Figure 13.16). This seems to less netting. But there are some properties more of provide a better flow of water through the netting interest for specific fisheries, such as that knotless and therefore brings better catches (Olsen & netting in a specific orientation is less bulky than a Beltestad 1980). The selectivity of hexagonal

Figure 13.14 Netting made with clips as used for Cana- Figure 13.16 Knotless netting (Raschel technique) with dian shellfish dredges. rhombic or hexagonal mesh opening.

Figure 13.15 Main types of knotless netting (machine made): (a) Japanese twisting technique; (b) Raschel tech- nique; (c) double braiding or Reichel technique as used in Germany. DFC13 4/23/05 8:29 PM Page 189

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netting, however, has to be seriously put in doubt, be heard predicting an early end to the use of this being the main reason why the European Com- fishing gear made of netting and claiming that it mission has prohibited the use of other than will be replaced by methods such as electrical diamond and square meshes (Article 9, EU-regula- fishing (Chapter 5), or by harvesting machines tion 850/98). A disadvantage of knotless netting (Chapter 30). But very often electrical fishing is a with large meshes is that it can be more expensive fishery with electrified fishing gear made of netting than netting of the same mesh size made by knot- and also some of the envisaged harvesting ting. Also, since the appearance of synthetic fibres, machines will still need netting, even if it is only for the idea has grown that it might be better not to scoop nets. knot the nets, but to weld or to stick them together, or even to mould them as ready-made sheets. If the sticking of threads for making nets developed, we References would once again have reached the techniques used by spiders or the larvae of caddis flies for making von Brandt, A. (1957) Fischnetzknoten. Berlin. their nets. von Brandt, A. (1966) Die Fischerei der Maltesischen Inseln. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 10, 166–212. The foregoing descriptions demonstrate how von Brandt, A. (1970) Vor- und frühgeschichtliches intricate the history of net-making is and how it has Netzwerk. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 12, 107–128. never come to a standstill. The very beginning of Burdon, T.W. (1951) A consideration of the classification the technique can only be imagined. Owing to the of fishing gear and methods. In: Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, Sect. II/21, Madras. poor keeping qualities of all textiles made of ISO: International Standard 1107 (1974) Fishing nets – natural fibres, remnants of nets from remote times netting: basic terms and definitions. Geneva. have very rarely been preserved up to the present Kaulin, M. (1997) Netze knüpfen und schneiden. time. There may have been various origins. But, Blackwell, Berlin, 189 pp. whatever the origins were, all the efforts down the Klust, G. (1982) Netting Materials for Fishing Gear. FAO Fishing Manuals.Farnham. ages have led steadily to great and intensive devel- Koch, G. (1965) Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-Inseln. opment, which is now being accelerated more than Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde ever by the invention and increasing availability of Berlin NF 6. Berlin. synthetic fibres. Stone dams and fish fences were Nishimura, A. (1968) Living fossils of oldest fishing gear created at a very early stage.They were replaced by in Japan. VIIIth International Congress of Anthropo- logical and Ethnological Sciences.Tokyo and Kyoto. woven fences or knotless nets manufactured by Olsen, S. & Beltestad, A.K. (1980) Russian hexagon mesh simply hanging the threads of one mesh on another. is proved in Norway. World Fish. 29 (2), 47–50. These in turn were displaced by knotting net fabric. Roughley, T.C. (1968) Fish and Fisheries of Australia. The lake-dwellers’ knot was invented and survived Sydney. in Africa until modern times. The reef knot was Sahrhage, D. (1961) Die Seefischerei in der Republik Guinea und einige Möglichkeiten zu ihrer Inten- adopted by the Asiatic fisheries and developed for sivierung. Archiv fuer Fischereiwissenschaft 12, 38–74. making nets, even mechanically. The northern fish- Sattler,W. (1958) Beiträge zur Kenntnis von Lebensweise eries invented the weaver knot, which displaced und Körperbau der Larve und Puppe von Hydropsyche the other two knots. With synthetic fibres now mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Netzbaues. Zeitschrift fuer Morphologie und Ökologie Tiere 47, available, the knotless technique has been revived 115–192. because it has certain advantages for some fishing Sirelius, U.T. (1934) Jagd und Fischerei in Finnland. In: techniques. But meddlesome voices are already to Die Volkskultur Finnlands,Vol. 1. Berlin. DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 190

14 Natural and Artificial Shelters

In discussing the methods of attracting and 14.1 Bundles of brushwood concentrating fish in Chapter 11, it is stated that in contrast to pelagic fish, some bottom fish and crus- A simple method of manufacturing alluring hiding taceans have a positive thigmotaxis. This behaviour places is to submerge bundles of twigs or branches has been used in fishing by offering suitable hiding of trees in suitable waters. In general, the branches places. Such safe places can be found in nature are packed flat at the bottom. Stakes keep the under floating vegetation, between stones or water branches on the required spot. In Lake Constance plants, especially below the branches and roots of and some other Swiss lakes, some such brushwood trees or bushes in flooded areas, or by the banks of places are said to date back to the times of the lake natural waters. Humans soon found that such dwellers (Figure 14.1). Such untouched brushwood places are attractive to fish and crustaceans in structures could be popular places for snare search of food and refuge.This knowledge has been and line fishing, and also for fishing with gillnets used for the installation of artificial ‘fish parks’, (Klunzinger 1892) and other gear. Recently two made either by planting vegetation or by placing steel frames were sent to the bottom, filled with branches in shallow water to attract fish. This has brushwood such as old Christmas trees, and used as been done in African inland fisheries, and in brushwood trap in the upper Lake Constance (pers. West African coastal lagoons, like those of comm. 2000). At intervals these heaps are shaken Dahomey (Benin), Cameroon, Nigeria and others. or slightly lifted after the site has been encircled by In these areas the so-called ‘acadja’ is known. This gillnets or traps to catch the fish when they endeav- is a park formed of a dense mass of branches arti- our to escape. Sometimes the brushwood may be ficially planted vertically in the muddy bottom to completely removed from the water and the fish attract fish. These branches are removed after shaken out. various periods of time and the fish are caught by Floating plants, floating branches, or leaves cast nets (Chapter 22), surrounding nets (Chapter thrown onto the surface of an area of water can also 29), or by other arrangements if the fish try to jump be shelters for concentrations of fish. These floats out over the encircling netting (Figure 17.16) are fished in a similar way to lure lines, as men- (Hornell 1950; Welcomme 1970, 1971, 1972, 1979). tioned in Chapter 11. This more or less indirect To increase the attraction of these installations, fishery with brushwood is one of those fishing tech- regular feeding of the fish can familiarize them with niques common all over the world. It might have the place. After some time, the area can be sur- originated from the very beginning of the practice rounded with fences or netting, the plants or of catching animals, for the method is known to branches can be removed, and the enclosed fish have been used in all parts of Europe (Thienemann caught by different methods. Artificial shelters also 1951), as well as in Asia and Africa. Even the old include all kinds of artificial reefs (see last section) Indian fisheries of North America knew and used such as wrecks, offshore plants, heaps of stones or this brushwood method (Rostlund 1952), but there tubes, etc. it was used especially in the creation of artificial

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Figure 14.1 Structure for a submerged brushwood trap in Lake Constance.

Figure 14.2 Chinese brush fishery. (From de Thiersant 1872 with permission.)

spawning places for herring, so that afterwards the sometimes weighted, were submerged at suitable fish eggs could be harvested for food. Even today places for a long time.When the time came for them these spawning places for herring are well known to be carefully lifted, this was done quickly by off the Pacific coast of Alaska. keeping a scoop net under the brushwood, or the Artificial spawning places to get fish spawn, and whole bundle was thrown into the boat before the maybe also spawning animals, are also known in the fish or crustaceans hiding in it could escape. Burbot, fishery for cephalopods.As already mentioned with and possibly lampreys, as well as eels can be caught luring methods in the Mediterranean, twigs and by this method. It is well known that these species branches are set in order to attract spawning of fish like to hide themselves. Because eels may cuttlefish. When enough animals are concentrated, sometimes be found in the clothes of drowned fishing is carried out by raising the whole bundle of people, it was said that the eels fed on corpses, but branches, and netting the cuttlefish swimming actually the eels were using the clothes of such under and around them. The Japanese, on the coast people as handy hiding places. of Kyushu, tie branches to the centre of woven The use of long rows of brush traps, especially for bamboo baskets, and many such baskets are fixed catching crabs and small fish, is very widespread with branch lines some distance from a main line in Asiatic fisheries (de Thiersant 1872; NN 1907, according to the longline system (NN 1959–65).The 1959–65; van Nhiem 1956; Hickling 1961). The old baskets are submerged for some days. To retrieve Chinese fishery (Figure 14.2) used the method, just the catch, the baskets are hauled up and replaced as the Japanese did in the 20th century (Figures 14.3 again.This is something like a direct fishing method and 14.4). It is also carried out in the Philippines with brushwood. It is even more so when smaller (Figure 14.5), as well as in the fisheries of bundles of brushwood are used in the form of Indo-China (Burma, Thailand, Vietnam and brush traps. Several of these bundles are tied Kampuchea). In Indonesia, brushwood is used on together, also according to a longline system, as the large lakes of Sumatra, and the method is also explained previously (Figures 14.2–14.5). Formerly known on Lake Albert in Africa as well as on the this method was also used in Europe (Klunzinger lakes of Madagascar. 1892). As eels like to hide in such bundles, they are Another practice in central Africa is to submerge called eel tufts in Germany (Walter 1910; Rassow boxes full of leaves. When small fish seek shelter 1958). These brush traps, now prohibited for this in them, the boxes are lifted from the water. In purpose, were made of branches of alder trees or Louisiana, on the Gulf of Mexico, brush traps are beech trees, or of willow twigs c.1m long tied used for catching soft or shedder crabs. On the together like brooms (Seligo 1925). These bundles, Ivory Coast, leaves of coconut trees are put in DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 192

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Figure 14.3 Japanese lines with brush traps showing up during low tide.

shallow water to attract shrimps. Every 2 or 3 days the leaves are towed slowly to the shore. A fisher- 14.2 Tubes for shelter man then follows with a scoop net to catch escap- Because the positive thigmotaxis of the eel is so ing shrimps and small fish. It seems that the use pronounced, it is used in a special way. When kept of brush bundles to provide shelter for fish and in aquaria the animals like to creep either singly or crustaceans is a very old and widespread fishing with several others into tubes if they are available. technique. This behaviour permits another fishing method to It is not only brushes and twigs that are used as be carried out, not only for eels but also for some artificial hiding places. In Oceania, smoked sheep- other fish. The method involves attaching to long- skins are laid in the water to attract fish; sometimes lines, groups of one, two or three short bamboo this shelter is even baited. As with brush traps, the reeds and submerging them in the same way that skin is quickly lifted, and a scoop net put under bundles of brush traps are used (Figure 14.6). The it to secure the fish (Koch 1965). In the North eels like to hide in these bamboo tubes. Sometimes Friesian and Dutch fisheries, holes were made in the tubes are even baited to make them especially the ice in winter and trusses of straw are put into attractive. Great care must be taken when lifting them upright. This is a widely used way of provid- the bamboo reeds to make sure that the eel does ing air holes in the strong ice which, when it is not slip out. It is also reported that divers some- covered with thick snow, prevents the light from times seal the reeds while they are under water reaching the water plants that produce the essen- before they lift them. tial oxygen. Eels creep into the trusses and can thus In European waters, there is no bamboo suitable be caught – but, for this to be successful, the straw for this fishing method, but hollow logs or iron trusses (of which some two-thirds of their length pipes are used in the same way for catching burbots. are inserted into the water) must be lifted quickly The stove-pipes are squeezed together at one end from the hole. to close them, leaving only a narrow slit. The other DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 193

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Figure 14.4 Japanese fishery with brush traps. The brushwood is lifted out and shaken over a scoop net into which the fish drop.

end of the pipe remains open. The pipes are then sometimes they are also baited to increase their fastened on a wire and dropped into the spawning attractiveness (MacLaren 1958). Also known are areas of the burbots.After some days, they are lifted bowls of clay and other ‘unglazed earthenware out with a quick jerk (Fischer 1959). The idea is pots’, better known in the form of octopus pots (see exactly the same as that of fishing for eels with next section). bamboo reeds. This fishing technique is also known Tube-like devices are also used as shelters for in Africa, Australia and other parts of the world. A crustaceans. For catching crayfish in fresh waters, special method for catching eel with the help of old tin boxes are pressed together to give them a artificial hiding places is known from the freshwater more flattened form and fixed to a line. Some sand fishery in Madagascar. In Lake Itasy, underwater and stones are put into the boxes before they are holes are dug out by divers to form hiding places placed in the water just inside the reeds on the for eels. The fish are then caught by spearing (von shore.The box has to be placed in good contact with Brandt 1964). the bottom to be successful. The connection line Catfish and other fishes can also be caught with (longline system) is secured and the boxes remain tube traps. Because strong bamboo became less in the same place until early next morning. Then readily available in some tropical countries, plastic they are hauled out carefully,but quickly,before the pipes were used, as described from Taiwan (Chen prey can escape. In the 1980s (Wilke 1980), artifi- 1976). Also, other hollow containers can be oper- cial shelters for crayfish were recommended for use ated as hiding places, even bottles and drums, and in freshwater lakes. The shelters were made of DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 194

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Figure 14.5 Brush traps for shrimps in the Philippines.

Figure 14.6 Bamboo reeds and their handling. Japanese fishermen catch eels with these hollow reeds, which the eels use for shelter. DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 195

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plastic and concrete so that they formed colonies of there is no difference, whether these pots are used fabricated ‘caves’ attractive to crayfish and also to in Japan, Korea, Italy, Malta or Hong Kong. The eels. octopus likes to enter such shelters for protection In subsistence fisheries, plastic tubes are also and also for spawning. used as traps for coastal snails (Littorina littorea). The animal usually hesitates to leave the pot The tubes should be odourless and a neutral colour, even when moved during hauling. The earthenware 1–2m long and about 10cm diameter. They are octopus pots are set either singly or on the longline placed among seaweeds and are secured with system with up to 100 pots strung on a line (Figure stones (Sinsoilliez 1968). 14.8). The Italians fasten 24 or 30 pots at distances of 5–6m on a line.The pots can be so arranged that, 14.3 Octopus pots during hauling, the opening faces either up or down. In bright light, the octopus is able to rush The discovery that octopi were frequently found from its dwelling even at the last moment, so that inside old amphorae and other containers on the care is necessary in lifting them. Pots must drain Mediterranean seabed soon stimulated humans adequately on the surface so that the fisherman to make unglazed pots of clay specially for the does not have to lift a large quantity of water with purpose of catching these creatures. Such pots are, the pot and the catch (Pennington 1979). or have been, known by Mediterranean fishermen In some areas, shells of large snails or bivalves from Italy and Malta, and maybe also from the are used as hiding places for octopi as an alterna- Iberian peninsula. Earthenware pots are used in tive to earthenware pots. In Japan, Korea and south east and south Asia much more than in the India, the origin of the octopus pots may be large Mediterranean. snail shells (Pteroceras lambis), which are natural They are said to have been known in the hiding places. The shells are arranged and set in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico as well (Voss same way as the pots. In the Palk Straits between 1973). The pots differ somewhat in size and shape; India and Ceylon, large quantities of small octopus, they have handles in Italy, but those used in Japan which are especially appreciated, are caught by are without (Figure 14.7). In principle, however, fixing as many as 700–900 shells on a longline system which is hauled in each morning (Hornell 1950). Shells have been used in Mexico. Five or more empty shells of Strombus gigas are fixed on a line and dragged slowly over the bottom. The shells may be seized by the octopi which are then caught when the shells are hauled aboard. Working with shells, or even with breakable ceramic pots, may no longer be practicable for large fishing enterprises. So the old useful pots have been replaced, especially in Hokkaido, by wooden boxes (Figure 14.9), which have a better resistance to rough handling and which can be repaired more easily than earthenware pots or breakable shells (Nédeléc 1975). Later plastic pots of vinyl chloride also came into use (Yamashita 1976). Such plastic pots for catching octopus are also used on the North African coast (Figure 14.10). It may not be Figure 14.7 An East Asian octopus pot without handles and an Italian pot with handles. The Mediterranean surprising that many other materials are used to method of catching octopi in these pots is believed to catch octopus, even cut tyres, cans and plastic pipes, have started in very early times, when it was noticed that as well as heavy trawl floats with entrances cut into octopi used lost Grecian amphorae as refuges. Today them, and other objects (Pennington 1979). these pots are used either singly or strung together on It is a characteristic of all the methods mentioned lines. The same method has evolved in Asian waters. that a hiding place is offered to the fish, crab, DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 196

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Figure 14.8 Octopus pots used for the longline system off the Algarve coast. (Photo: U. Richter 1996.)

Figure 14.9 Wooden octopus box from Hokkaido (1972). Figure 14.10 Plastic octopus pots in Mauritania. DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 197

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crayfish or octopus, which they accept voluntarily and which they can leave again at any time, gener- ally without difficulty. Even when the pot is hauled, or just as it is being hauled, the animal can still escape. Many efforts have therefore been made to prevent the escape of those animals once they have entered the hiding place (Figure 14.8). Then, however, they can no longer be called hiding places but have become genuine traps, which is the subject of the next chapter.

14.4 Artificial reefs Today this method of fish concentration is very widely known and over the years international con- gresses have taken place on this matter (NN 1999). This technique is used especially off the sea coast of Japan and the USA. It was reported in the 1960s that, around Japan, 1 million m2 of sea bottom are covered with artificial structures to attract fish. It is hoped that these will help inshore fishermen acquire fishing places to replace those lost else- where.Artificial reefs can consist of simple heaps of stones, possibly covered with a straw mat to lure the fish inside. Japanese fishermen submerge concrete blocks for fish shelters. These may be reinforced or not, and are called ‘fish apartment houses’ or Figure 14.11 Artificial reef with underwater camera and ‘fish habitats’. At least 50 blocks are required to transmitter mast used for behaviour studies. obtain satisfactory results (NN 1959–65; Parker et al. 1979). Old motor cars and wrecked vessels like the old ‘liberty ships’ have also been used in differ- ent parts of the world as artificial reefs (Ditton et oped for a German artificial reef in the Baltic Sea al. 1979). This is especially interesting in formerly (Figure 14.11, Niedzwiedz 1999). unproductive places, which are now becoming suit- able for sport fisheries and commercial exploitation References (Carlisle et al. 1964). In this way, fish, crustaceans and other aquatic animals can be attracted and later von Brandt, A. (1964) Madagaskar, fischereiliche caught, especially with lines and gillnets. In com- Reisenotizen. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX (41), 148–196. mercial fisheries it is well known that wrecks can be Carlisle, J.G., Turner, C.H. & Ebert, E.E. (1964) Artificial good fishing places, and Danish fishermen have habitat in the marine environment. Fisheries Bulletin developed a special wreck fishery with gillnets (see 124, California. Chapter 19). There have been some discussions on Chen, T.P. (1976) Aquaculture Practices in Taiwan. whether or not artificial reefs are more successful Farnham. Ditton, R.B. et al. (1979) Access to and usage of offshore in concentrating fish in clear waters than in turbid Liberty ship reefs in Texas. Marine Fisheries Review 41 waters (Mohr 1976). Artificial reefs are also very (9), 25–31. suitable places for on-line behaviour observations Fischer, J.E. (1959) Ruttenfang mit dem Ofenrohr. Allge- of fishes or other aquatic animals. The combination meine Fischereizeitung 84, 53–54. Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. of an underwater camera with a pan and tilt unit Hornell, J. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. and a transmitting mast enables such studies to be Klunzinger, C.B. (1892) Bodenseefische, deren Pflege und carried out from an office onshore, as was devel- Fang. Stuttgart. DFC14 4/23/05 8:30 PM Page 198

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Koch, G. (1965) Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-Inseln. Rassow, M. (1958) Fischersprache und Brauchtum im Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde Lande zwischen dem Darss. Berlin. Berlin NF 6. Berlin. Rostlund, E. (1952) Freshwater Fish and Fishing in Native MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of North America. Los Angeles. Central and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of Seligo, A. (1925) Die Fischerei in den Fliessen, Seen und the Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Strandgewässern Mitteleuropas. Stuttgart. Mohr, H. (1976) Auswirkungen der Erdgas- und Sinsoilliez, R. (1968) La Pêche à Pied, Coquillages et Erdölförderung auf die Fischerei in der Nordsee. Infor- Crustacés. Paris. mationen fuer die Fischwirtschaft 23 (1), 23–25. Thienemann,A. (1951) Bilder aus der Binnenfischerei auf Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Java und Sumatra. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie Supple- Fishing Gear. Farnham. mentband 29, 529–618. van Nhiem, T. (1956) Des poissons et des hommes. Tours, de Thiersant, P.D. (1872) Le Pisciculture et la Pêche en Mamé. Chine. Paris. Niedzwiedz, G. (1999) Design, building and running of Voss, G.L. (1973) Cephalopod Resources of the World. a scientific measuring station for the investigation FAO Fisheries Circular No.149. of artificial reefs in the region of the outer coast of Walter, E. (1910) Der Flussaal. Neudamm. Mecklenburg–Vorpommern. Contributions on the Welcomme, R.L. (1970) Les moyens de pêche dans les Theory of Fishing Gears and related Marine Systems. eaux continentales du Dahomey. Études Dahoméennes Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop, Rostock NS No. 17, 5–35. University. Welcomme, R.L. (1971) A description of certain indig- NN (1907) [Handbook of fishing gear in Siam]. Bangkok enous fishing methods from southern Dahomey. [in Thai]. African Journal of Tropical Hydrobiology and Fisheries NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and 1 (2), 129–140. Fishing Gear. Tokyo. Welcomme, R.L. (1972) An evaluation of the acadja NN (1999) Proceedings of the 7th International Conference method of fishing as practised in the coastal lagoons of on Artificial Reefs and Related Aquatic Habitats in San Dahomey (West Africa). Journal of Fish Biology 4, Remo. 39–55. Parker, R.O. Jr, Stone, R.B. & Buchanan, C.C. (1979) Arti- Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain ficial reefs off Murrells Inlet, South Carolina. Marine Rivers. London. Fisheries Review 41 (9), 12–24. Wilke, H. (1980) Krebssteine ein grosser Erfolg. Allge- Pennington, F. (1979) The Japanese have many ways to meine Fischerei-Zeitung 105 (8), 458. catch the giant octopus. Fishing News International 18 Yamashita, Y. (1976) The octopus fishery of Hokkaido. (11), 56–57. FAO Fisheries Report No. 170, Suppl. 1, 142–147. Rome. DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 199

15 Permanent and Temporary Barriers

Fishing with primitive fishing gear is confined to efficiency of this form of construction (see Figure shallow waters. It was always so in olden times, and 15.8). The fish are caught behind the barrier in is so even today in many parts of the world. Areas shallow water with any type of gear. Often such with a fluctuating water level attracted old-time barriers have narrow passages where the fisherman fishermen to the inundation areas of fresh waters as awaits the catch. If he cannot catch the fish by well as the tidal areas along the sea coast. In these hand (Welcomme 1979), he tries to get them with a areas it was not so difficult to obtain good catches. spear, scoop net or other hand-operated gear. Some During flood time, fish spread into those freshly barriers, made of fences, are set in the form of a inundated areas and, in the main, left them again as large ‘V’ with a passage at the apex providing a the water fell. In the small pools that were left, place for the fisherman to lurk with his gear. many fish remained and these could easily be Such passages with a catching place can be caught. To increase the number of these pools, pits very comfortable, as are those of the freshwater were dug in areas likely to be flooded, and it may fishermen in Madagascar, where, behind the be that, from this, humans invented the first barriers passage on the upstream side, a shelter for the designed to prevent fish from escaping when the fisherman is made (Figure 15.1) in which there water flowed back. is a catching chamber from which the fish (eel) Barriers are made of many different materials. cannot escape, and where they are killed. Strictly Permanent ones are mostly made of piled-up speaking, this is not catching but simple killing, stones. They can also be made of earth, mud or known also in other parts of the world. It has been grass. Barriers can be of very heavy boarding, made reported that at some African barriers fish are of thick trees and thick boards: they can also be killed with spears, and also axes (White 1956). In light fences, transportable and sometimes only tem- Europe it is recorded that migrating salmon were porary, made of bamboo, reed, shrubs, wickerwork, killed in the River Duna (Latvian river which runs mats or netting. Modern barriers are now often into the Baltic) with clubs and lead balls tied onto made of bricks or concrete. In tidal waters, fish and a rope. other prey, following the returning water as the tide Barriers can be constructed in such a way that ebbed, were trapped behind these natural or artifi- they not only stop migrating fish, but also catch cial obstructions, and needed only to be collected them with additional fishing traps (Figures 15.2 by hand. This was carried out in the past and is still and 15.3) or stow nets (Chapter 24). They can also practised today. Barriers were also built in running work as guiding arrangements for different types and static waters to stop the movement of fish and of fishing gear not considered in this chapter. concentrating them in places suitable for catching Fishing with barriers, especially when they are (Maclaren 1958). made of wooden fences, is considered in Europe The size of the barrier is constructed according as a typical fishing technique of Finno-Ugrian to local conditions. It can be a straight or curved populations (Jankó 1900; Sirelius 1906; Antipa wall, and fences ending in a spiral increase the 1916).

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15.1 Stone walls as tidal weirs Asia (Nishimura 1964, 1968), of Polynesia and and traps Melanesia, in Australia (Thompson 1893), Africa (Maclaren 1958; Clark 1971) and last but not least Stone walls, simply made by piling up stones, are in Europe. In all these places, fishing with stone used in different ways in many parts of the world. walls is considered a very old fishing method, and They are known in the fisheries of east and south some of the stone walls existing today date back to early Neolithic times, and even to the pre-Sapiens phase of human evolution (Nishimura 1964).There- fore, some of the stone walls can be considered as ‘living fossils of the oldest fishing gear’ (a descrip- tion used in Japan) (Nishimura 1968) and as ‘the only work of permanent character known to have had its origin among aboriginal workmanship’ (used in Australia) (Thompson 1893). In most cases, stone walls are used as barriers in tidal areas. Here the stone walls can be more or less permanent arrangements, sometimes named ‘tidal weirs’ (Nishimura 1975). They are flooded at high water when the fish can enter them. But as the tide falls, some fish remain behind the dams if they are correctly arranged. To keep back the fish, the tidal weirs are made in a semi-circle or in the form of a Figure 15.1 Buildings with chambers for catching eels horseshoe (Figures 15.4 and 13.2). The walls are of in the outflow of Lake Ithasy in Madagascar: left, accord- ing to Kiener (1963); right, according to von Brandt different lengths. It seems that the longest tidal (1964). weirs, hundreds of metres long, can be found in

Figure 15.2 Permanent barrier in the river Eider in northern Germany at the outlet of Lake Westensee, with baskets made of iron. DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 201

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Japan. Here there are stone walls >1000m long, retained behind this barrier, from where they are built centuries ago (Nishimura 1975). At low tide collected. The Japanese stone walls may have the water can run easily through the piled-up outlets to increase the speed of drainage, and these stones, but the larger fishes cannot follow and are outlets can be good places to catch the fish with simple fishing methods. Stone walls in tidal areas can be used in a similar manner, as is done in Indonesia (Western Flores). There, a wall is built in the shallow water parallel to the sea shore. As in some of the Japanese stone walls, there are passages through which the fish can enter with the flood, but they are prevented from escaping on the ebb tide.The outlets are closed and the fish remain in the water-filled channel behind the walls until they are collected (Figure 15.5). To build large stone walls requires a ‘community spirit’ or some pressure from outside powers. Stone walls are not used now as much as they were before, and the loss of that community spirit may be the main reason for this. Therefore it may be that tidal stone walls have fulfilled their historical and economic role (Nishimura 1975). Stone constructions are not only used for tidal weirs – they can also be used as fish traps (Nishimura). That is a passive fishing gear into which the fish is guided, in contrast to the tidal weirs in which the fish enters by itself. But to build real traps with stones may be difficult in comparison with the construction of genuine traps from wooden Figure 15.3 Temporary barrier made of mud and stones materials.It seems that fish traps made of stone have combined with a trap, Thailand (1960). to be combined with other materials to become an

Figure 15.4 Stone dam built off the coast of Guinea to capture fish as the tide falls. DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 202

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Figure 15.5 Pond in the tidal area of Indonesia used for catching fish. (Photo: Kollmannsperger 1973 with permission.)

effective gear. Figure 15.6 shows a trap made of mentioned as using, even today,stone walls for their stones for catching small fishes swimming upstream eel fishery. These are not artificial, but built by against the water falling in a cascade over a small nature by the strong waves of the sea. The estuary barrier.The fish cannot overcome this barrier and so of Lake Forsyth in southern New Zealand is mostly swim to the sides of the arrangement where the separated from the sea by high barriers of pebbles. water current is limited in such a way that only a fine Some water may flow through but the eels can not but uninterrupted flow comes over this barrier. escape. The Maoris dig a trench 10–15m long and Under the cascade is a wooden semi-circular pipe 1–2m wide (Figure 15.7) in this wall of pebbles.The conducting water from just below the weir to a fish eels following the current when migrating at night box, or bag made of netting. Fish trying to overcome are concentrated in the trench and can be caught the barrier fall into the pipe and are guided into the with bare hands, by gaffs, or by other gear. catching box. This method is used not only in Japan but also in Taiwan, where it is considered to be an 15.2 Fish fences aboriginal fishing method. In this section, only stone walls have been men- Earth walls and stone walls are permanent con- tioned, but when stones are not available, walls may structions, sometimes operated in fisheries for be made of other materials, such as earth, which can many centuries. This does not exclude the use of be used in the same, or similar, manner. Here again stone walls as temporary barriers but in this case the famous Maoris of New Zealand have to be the permanent walls are mostly replaced by more DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 203

Figure 15.6 Barriers to catch small fish swimming against the current near Taitung in Taiwan. The fish are not caught in the middle cascades with strong currents but in the slower water on both sides.

Figure 15.7 Artificial trench built by Maori fishermen to concentrate eels behind a barrier of pebbles in Lake Forsyth, New Zealand (1981). DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 204

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Figure 15.9 English ‘baulk net’ which operates auto- matically during flood and ebb tide. It swings up to let the fish in and then goes down as the tide flows out. (From Davis 1958 with permission.)

prevent their escape. More will be said about watched gear in a later section. Nowadays fences are usually permanently com- bined with traps, and sometimes with stow nets as Figure 15.8 End of a fish fence in the tidal area near well (Chapter 24), in which case they are no more Majunga, Madagascar. than a guiding arrangement. Moreover, home-made wooden fences are no longer widely used. They are or less durable fish fences, which can be easily replaced mostly by more easily-handled netting removed and transported when necessary. Such when this is less expensive than home-made fences non-permanent fish fences are still operated in made of mats or rough wickerwork made of local many fisheries of the world. They may consist of materials. Netting can provide better gear for tidal carefully plaited mats, strong bamboo walls, or waters. On the North Sea coast of Britain, special robust hedges made of brushwood. Such fish fences nets have been developed which are suited to the can be operated as tidal weirs, similarly to stone conditions of high and low tide (Schnakenbeck walls. Often the water does not flow over the fences, 1942). They are so constructed that they let the fish but the fish come in with the current and swim pass with the flood tide, but retain them when they behind the fence which is set at an oblique angle to try to follow the water out again on the ebb tide the shore. (Figure 15.9). To increase the efficiency of these fences they are set in a semi-circular form, and often the ends have 15.3 Gratings in flowing waters spiral forms to prevent the fish from following the falling water round the end of the fence (Figure There are special types of barriers with arrange- 15.8). In this case, the fence sometimes guides the ments for filtering out fish migrating with the fish into the specially arranged ends where they are current in a river. A relatively simple and useful trapped. This may have given rise to the idea of construction, especially in stronger currents, con- using fish fences to construct independent catching sists of a sloping grating screen constructed in the facilities, as we will see later. Large fences can be river and ascending in the direction of the current. set in a straight line or in a zigzag pattern across the The screen can be operated either with or without tidal current, as was done formerly on the North a watchman. Strong side walls are built at each side Sea coast of Britain. On the side of the fence facing of the screen, and the fish, swimming with the the shore, a flat water channel is dug out, which current, are thus guided onto the screen so that they serves as a catching chamber from where the fish actually run aground while the water disappears are removed. Small fences can be used very simply, through the slats of the screen. The construction of by setting them as a semi-circle or three-quarters of this screen is similar to the grating (called a ‘rake’) a circle at the end of a water channel flowing into that is installed before the entrances of turbines, another channel or pool (Figure 13.3). The fence etc., to catch drifting objects. However, the rods are also serves as a catching chamber where fish may set more closely together, depending on the size of have concentrated, so a watch must be kept and the fish to be caught. Figure 15.10 shows such fish rakes chamber must be closed when fish are inside it to from Mexico and from the old Indian fishery of DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 205

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north-west California. The strongly flowing current presses the fish against the obliquely sloped grating and washes them upwards. Trout and salmon are caught in this way. Fish screens of this type are also very well known in Japan (Figure 15.11). There, companies operating such gear catch the much appreciated ayu and eels, as well as other fresh- water fish. Sometimes openings are cut in the screens or filtering mats and net bags are hung below them, so that the fish fall into them but cannot escape. In such instances the catching equip- ment operates automatically and does not need to be guarded. Such barriers, where the fish are stranded on a sloping grating, are known also in the fishery of Kampuchea (Hickling 1961). Catching fish, especially eels, by leading the running water against a rake is also known in Figure 15.10 Trough gratings of filtering mats used in Europe. Figure 15.12 shows such a gear (similar to rivers – the water filters through but the fish remain on one in Japan; Figure 15.11), formerly in the German top: (a) Mexico (from Sanchez 1959 with permission); river Sauer (Eifel). The gear has an ascending (b) Indian fishery of north-western California (from grating made of wood, and walls of piled stones to Kroeber & Barrett 1960 with permission). guide the fish, which indicates how old this gear may be. Figure 15.13 is a schematic drawing showing how this type of gear can be constructed,

Figure 15.11 Japanese ‘yana’ for catching ayu fish and eels by the filtering method. DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 206

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Figure 15.14 Gratings for catching eels in the outlet of a mill-pond in the Eifel, Germany. (Photo: G. Jens.) Figure 15.12 Wooden grating ascending with the current and with long stone walls for guiding the fish onto the grating. Formerly in the German river Sauer (Eifel). (Photo: G. Jens.)

Figure 15.15 Afiltering barrier for catching migrating eels.

Figure 15.13 Weir for eels in northern Germany. (The Figure 15.16 shows a similar installation in protecting building has not been drawn.) Scotland. Here the size of the grating can be adjusted according to the quantity of the running water, by covering the grating with boards. The fish sometimes enclosed in a building, to guide the fish, slide into a water channel along which they are after stranding, into an unattended catching box. guided into a catching chamber. Figure 15.17 gives The reservoirs for mills, or the outlets of lakes, only a total view of this arrangement with the fish col- need a small grating assembly (Figure 15.14). Very lecting box in the foreground. often these smaller assemblies have a roof over the The concept of separating fish and water by a fil- catching chamber. Instead of an ascending gear, a tering arrangement descending in the direction of descending one can be installed, over which the fish the current seems to be known also in other parts glide into a fish box (Figure 15.15). With this type of the world. Figure 15.18 shows an old Rumanian of gear they remain in running water until removed. gear made of wickerwork in a slipper-shaped form DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 207

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Figure 15.16 Scottish arrangement for filtering fish migrating with the current over a grating (left), falling into a channel to guide them into a collecting box (right), at Ballater, near Aviemore (1974).

Figure 15.17 Overall view of the arrangement for catch- ing fish swimming with the current. Behind the filtering part in the middle is a wooden channel for guiding the fish into the catching box in the foreground.

Figure 15.18 Old Rumanian wickerwork to filter fish swimming with the current. (From Antipa 1916 with permission.) forms and are simple to make, but they have to be watched, and some arrangement has to be made to close the entrance quickly as soon as the fish have (Antipa 1916). This gear is called a ‘leasa’ and is entered the gear. This principle has already been placed in the current between stone walls which mentioned with simple earthen walls and fences. guide the fish into the gear. Figure 15.19 shows such an arrangement made of fences in Thailand. In this case the catching 15.4 Watched catching chambers chamber functions in both directions. The method of watching a catching chamber, generally during The simplest way to catch migrating fish is to set a the daytime, and closing the gear when fish have barrier in their way, such as a large open chamber entered, is used even today with large chambers into which the fish have no cause to hesitate to made of netting, provided that the catches are good enter. Such chambers are known in many different and sufficient manpower is available! DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 208

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One of the oldest forms of this type of fishing gear may be the chambers used in the Mediter- ranean for catching tuna swimming near the coast- line on their way to spawning grounds.The catching places known and used today are thought to be very old and used by the Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans. In those times the catching places were owned by temples and other holy places. It is not quite clear how the catching chambers were con- structed, or of what material they were made. But there are, even today, simple chambers consisting of nothing more than a rectangular place surrounded by netting. One side is bounded by the shore, the opposite one is formed by a length of netting, as is the smaller length on the third side of this large catching chamber. The last side is open and set in such a way that the fish expected to be caught can swim into the surrounded area without difficulty. Figure 15.19 Barrier in Thailand with large catching The fish are usually shoals of sardines or tuna or chamber and entrances from both sides. other migrating fish. As soon as it has been ascer- tained from a lookout (Figure 15.20) that the expected fish have entered the chamber, the open side is closed by netting lying ready on the ground. The catch itself is then secured by other means. In

Figure 15.20 Yugoslavian barrier for tuna in the Adriatic Sea with two lookout posts. DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 209

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some cases the catching chamber has a bottom netting which can be lifted to concentrate and scoop the fish. More complicated than the simple chambers are those sub-divided into different sections and com- pleted with a long guiding part. Examples are the tuna traps used in the Mediterranean fisheries.They are known by several different names, including ‘tonnara’ in Italy, ‘madragues’ or ‘tonnaires’ in France, ‘almadraba’ in Spain and ‘amicao’ by the Portuguese. It may be that the Sicilian tonnara is the oldest existing forerunner of modern pound nets, specially invented in prehistoric times for the capture of tuna and other migratory fish in the Mediterranean. Today such gear consists of a barrage, or leader, in the form of a wall of netting stretching out more or less at right angles from the shore, which bars the way to the fish and leads them off in the direction of the impounding device. This is a gear with several different chambers, in which the fish are gathered and concentrated (Figure 15.21). The last chamber is the ‘death chamber’ (in Italy the ‘camera della morte’), where the catch takes place. This chamber is also named ‘leva’, which means ‘liftnet’, because the chamber has a bottom made of netting which is hauled to close the chamber and to concentrate the fish (Figures 15.22 and 15.23) (Fodera 1961). There is not much differ- ence between the Italian type of gear and the now- forbidden madragues of France and those operated in Spain and Portugal, in Morocco (off the Medi- terranean and Atlantic coast), and in Tunisia. The Figure 15.21 Spanish ‘almadraba’ with different catch- ing chambers. Portuguese introduced this effective gear into Angola (Figure 15.24). In the Mediterranean area there is one more gear which may have originated in the ancient tuna fishery. It is not much more than a large catching one or two wooden towers, to control the entrance chamber such as that known also on the Yugosla- of tuna or schools of other fish, such as mullet vian coast (Figure 15.20). This is the Turkish (Figure 15.25). The chamber is closed by lifting the ‘dalyan’. It seems clear that its original catching netting (Figure 15.26). Tuna are caught with hooks chamber was made of fences because there are, and spears, smaller fishes with scoop nets or by today, such gears made of wooden material and hand after ‘drying up’ the netting (Mengi 1967, operated in the same way. This gear also has to be 1977). These types of fishing gear with a look-out watched. It is used in the eastern Mediterranean by probably originated in the eastern part of the the Turks, and also by the Bulgarians. It is also Mediterranean. Here, and in the old fisheries of known in the Russian fishery.The modern dalyan is Russia, such watched chambers have been known, made of netting and is held by sticks so that a maybe since Phoenician times. Owing to increased tonnara-like chamber is formed with an opening on vessel traffic, the watchman and dalyan fishery in the side from which the fish are expected to come. the Bosporus area has not operated for about the A watchman (or two) must stay during the day on past 20 years (pers. comm. 2000). DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 210

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Figure 15.22 Italian ‘tonnara’. (From Bertuccioli 1955 with permission.)

Figure 15.23 Hauling up the ‘death chamber’ of a Sicilian ‘tonnara’. (Photo: Schärfe.)

The idea of fishing with large watched chambers fish are guided by a length of netting (Figure 15.27). made of netting is not only known in the Mediter- When herring or sardines have entered the gear, ranean area. There is a floating form of this gear – the entrance is closed by netting and the fish the Japanese ‘kaku-ami’ or herring square set net – are concentrated and caught by lifting up the net- a large net box with an entrance through which the ting on one side of the gear (NN 1959). The great DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 211

Figure 15.24 Hauling the catch of a ‘madrague’ off the coast of Angola.

Figure 15.25 Watchman on a Turkish ‘dalyan’ near Beykoz in the Bosporus. DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 212

Figure 15.26 Entrance to a Turkish ‘dalyan’ which can be closed by lifting the netting. (From Mengi 1977 with permission.)

Figure 15.27 Japanese ‘kaku-ami’ for catching herring and sardines after closing the entrance and lifting the netting. (From NN 1959 with permission.) DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 213

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Figure 15.28 Modern weir fishing for herring and sardines on the Canadian Atlantic coast. (From New Foundland Student Handout 2000).

disadvantage of watched chambers is that the large and more effective ones, in spite of their simple con- struction, are nowadays very costly to build and maintain. Many helping hands are needed for their operation (Figure 15.23) and often when good catches cannot be predicted. During the fishing season the fisherman must always be present to do the catching. This is, of course, a burden that is not suitable for a modern fishery, and, consequently, endeavours have been made to remove the need for watching by providing automatic fishing barriers which do not require a permanent guard. On the other hand, modern barriers made with netting of synthetic fibre are often owned and operated by communities of fishermen. Set up in good places, Figure 15.29 Fish fences set in the form of labyrinths: this type of gear can be very successful for catching (a) fish fence of Finland; (b) Korean fish fence; (c) fish migrating fish. fences in triangular form; (d) Japanese labyrinth used in big lakes; (e) heart-shaped form from the estuary of the Danube; (f) Swedish fish fence; (g) fish fence of north- 15.5 From barrier to fish trap eastern Europe. (a) (e) (g) From Jankó 1900 with per- mission; (d) from NN 1959 with permission; (f) from As has been shown in Section 15.2 of this chapter, Herman 1900 with permission. transportable light barriers can be made from fences, and are used especially in tidal areas. It has also been shown that fences can be constructed leading nets. A very sophisticated construction is with spirals at their ends (Figure 15.8).These spirals known in Japan for setting in fish runs (Figure cannot prevent the escape of the fish completely, 15.29d). In some cases the fish may find the way out. but they hamper them from finding the way out. The chance of this happening will be decreased, not Such arrangements, with intricate winding passages, only by a more complicated arrangement of the are considered as labyrinths and they have been fences, but also when catching chambers are com- used in many fisheries (Figure 15.28). Simple forms bined with each other so that one runs into another, of such labyrinth fences can be plain spirals, or and maybe the second one is followed by a third kidney or heart-shaped chambers. Some of them (Figures 15.29f,g and 15.30b,c). Theoretically, the can become complicated when combined with fish can still find the way out, but it becomes DFC15 4/23/05 8:31 PM Page 214

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return device, but this transition from fences and other materials used for barriers, to fishing gear considered as real traps, will be discussed in Sec- tions 16.2 and 16.3 of the next chapter, which deals with trapping.

References Antipa, G.R. (1916) Pesca˘ ria si Pescuitul in România. Bucharest [in Rumanian]. von Brandt, A. (1964) Madagaskar, fischereiliche Reisenotizen. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX (41), 148–196. Clark, G. (1971) The Stone Age Hunters. Library of Early Civilisation, London. Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England and Wales. Fishery Investigations Ser. II, Vol. 21, No. 8. Fodera, U. (1961) The Sicilian Tuna Trap. FAO GFCM Studies and Reviews No. 15. Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. Jankó, J. (1900) Herkunft der Magyarischen Fischerei. Budapest/Leipzig. Kiener, A. (1963) Poissons, Pêche et Pisciculture à Mada- gascar. Noyons-sur-Marne (Seine). Kroeber, A.L. & Barrett, S.A. 1960 Fishing among the Indians of northwestern California. Anthropological Records 21,1.Los Angeles. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Mengi, T. (1967) Der Beykoz-Dalyan. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 10, 351–415. Mengi, T. (1977) Batikçilik teknigi. [Fishing techniques.] Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of fishing gear. Istanbul [in Turkish]. Nishimura, A. (1964) Primitive fishing methods. In: Ryukyuan Culture and Society 67–77. Nishimura, A. (1968) Living fossils of the oldest fishing gear in Japan. In: VIIIth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.Tokyo and Kyoto. Nishimura, A. (1975) Cultural and social change in the Figure 15.30 Big weirs made of wood: (a) bamboo modes of ownership of stone tidal weirs. In: Maritime weir of Thailand (from NN 1953 with permission); adaptations of the Pacific; Casteel, R. H. and Quimbi, (b) Menhaden weir of the North American coast (from G. J. (eds). 77–88. The Hague. Sundstrom 1957 with permission); (c) sardine weir of the NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and Philippines (from Umali 1950 with permission). Fishing Gear. Tokyo. Sanchez, P.M. (1959) Breve Reseña Sobre las Principales Artes de Pesca Usadas en Mexico. Mexico [in Spanish]. Schnakenbeck,W.(1942) Stehende Geräte. Handbuch der Seefischerei Nordeuropas 4. Stuttgart. increasingly difficult and unlikely. The way out can Sirelius, U. T. (1906) Über die Sperrfischerei bei den fin- be made even more difficult if the large entrance of nischugrischen Völkern. Helsingfors. the first chamber becomes smaller with the second Thompson, L.G. (1893) History of the Fisheries of New one and the third may be only a slit. The fish has to South Wales. Sydney. Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain press through to get into the next catching chamber Rivers. London. and then there is no more chance of finding the way White, C.M.N.T. (1956) The role of hunting and fishing in back. In this form we have a real trap with a non- Luvale society. African Study 15 (2), 75–86. DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 215

16 Trapping

Generally speaking, in fishery and hunting trapping caught at a time. Nevertheless, we begin this means that the wanted prey enters a catching chapter with the so-called tubular traps. chamber from which escape is difficult or even impossible. The prey enters the trap voluntarily, 16.1 Tubular traps and maybe when searching for a shelter, or when lured thorn-lined traps by some bait, or when frightened and guided by fishermen or hunters. Mechanical traps of this type Tubular traps are funnel-shaped gear, mostly closed (Chapter 18) are most effective in hunting, but have at the smaller end and without any non-return the disadvantage, for fisheries, that the trap is closed device. They can be made of split bamboo reeds as soon as a single fish has entered and so no more (Figure 16.1) or of slender branches (Figures 16.2– catching can take place. As has been shown in 16.4); they can also be made of plaited smooth bast Chapter 15, there are some methods by which fish or from netting yarn (Figure 16.5). In non-tropical are trapped in catching chambers, including some countries the tubular traps are made of rods of with large entrances, which have to be watched and hazel, linden, spruce or willow. They are slender closed by hand as soon as fish are seen to enter.This elastic funnels which the fish enter, maybe volun- may be an effective way to operate a fishing gear tarily searching for shelter, or lured by bait. even today, except that it is labour intensive. The The fish creeps into the gear, gets stuck, tries to solution was found of making the entrances smaller move back, but is prevented by the backward- and smaller, and so finally the entrance itself angled rays of its own dorsal fins. Tubular traps are became a non-return device, allowing the fish to used especially to catch catfish in this manner in the enter the trap but making it practically impossible swamp fisheries of Africa (Hickling 1961). There, for them to leave the catching chamber again. the baited trap may be combined with a fence to Today, non-return devices are considered typical guide the fish into the gear (White 1956). Obviously for fishing traps. This is the same for all traps the long, narrow fish is unable to turn round whether used for fish, crustaceans or gastropods. because there is no room in the smooth, loosely The form and size of a catching chamber can have plaited tube. Traps of this tubular form are familiar many variations but the principle of catching is from the fisheries of Europe, Asia and Africa, as always the same. But in fisheries, as in hunting, well as from the ancient Indian fishery of the New there is also another, possibly older, principle by World (Sirelius 1906; Ligers 1953; Mengi 1967). which the prey can be prevented from escaping. They are characterized by their length and small These are gears, looking more or less like a long width. In the Indian fishery of California, these funnel, which the fish enters and then becomes fishing tubes sometimes ended above water level. jammed between the narrowing sides of the gear. Their length was given as up to 14 feet, i.e. >4m,so This is another solution based on the principle that fish could proceed a long way up them but as already mentioned, but it also has the disadvantage they did so, their return, because of the narrow that, in general, not more than one fish can be width, became increasingly impossible.

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Figure 16.1 Tubular traps made of split bamboo, without funnels, as used in parts of India.

Figure 16.2 Tubular traps of the Wagenia fishermen in the Zaire River near Kisangani. (Photo: B. Konietzko.)

Some tubular traps are typical fishing gear for with their openings against the current in such a rivers with strong currents (MacLaren 1958). In this way that the fish may be swept into the gear. Such case, the traps are set in large scaffolding, particu- traps are sometimes set vertically below an artifi- larly where the flow is concentrated, and are set cial waterfall, so that the water carrying the fish falls DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 217

Figure 16.3 Tubular trap used in the Zaire River, near Kisangani. (Photo: FAO, R. Kreuzer.)

Figure 16.4 Fishing place for tubular traps in the Bandama River, Ivory Coast (1971). DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 218

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recently, of aluminium. In the Severn district of England, the gear was called ‘putcher’ or ‘butt’ and was used for catching salmon (Davis 1958). In the southern Asiatic fishery, yet another way was found of retaining fish in such tubular traps. On their interior side, thorny twigs of rattan or other plants were fastened. These are pointed inwards like barbed hooks and thus prevent the fish, once it has entered, from retreating. Here, as in the smooth tubular traps mentioned before, bait is put into the innermost part of the gear to attract the fish into the funnel. These thorn-lined traps are especially used in Indonesia, but are also known in Indo- China (Burma, Malaysia), in the northern Philip- pines, and as far away as Australia, Taiwan and Figure 16.5 Smooth tubular trap made of netting, Melanesia (Anell 1960). There are also variations Thailand. of them in use in East Africa. It is supposed that this type of trap, equipped with thorns, may have originated in the pre-Austronesian cultural area into, and through, the gear. Escape for the fish is (Koch 1971) known for fishing as well as for then impossible. Fish, however, can get slightly hunting. Figure 16.6 shows two thorn-lined traps, of damaged by this method. Tubular traps of this type, which the larger one is a typical tubular trap. The set both vertically and horizontally, are known in smaller one is suspended from a float and, when Asia, Africa and South America. They can be operated, is wrapped with some leaves. As soon as placed on the bed of a shallow stream like a barrier. the fish has entered and tries to get free, a weight The fishermen or fisherwomen proceed upstream is released and the trap then rises (with its catch) for some distance and return downstream, driving by means of the float to the surface of the water. the fishes into the open mouth of the traps (Hornell Before ending this section, it has to be added that 1950). Tubular traps are operated today in some tubular traps can be used in another manner. On rivers of western Africa. A well-known example of Lake Chad, tubular traps are used to filter fish tubular traps used in rivers with a strong current are which are drawn out with the water from a pond. those of the Wagenia fishermen in the Zaire River This method of catching fish by drawing out is also near Kisangani (Figures 16.2 and 16.3). At a place known in other parts of the world, where fish ponds where the mighty river narrows into rapids, the are drained off and the fish scooped out through a local fishermen build long scaffolds of poles lashed sieve in the form of a reed box or a pocket-shaped together with wires. From this rickety pier they basket (MacLaren 1958). hang tubular traps, 3m and more long and up to 2m in diameter at the mouth. The principle of the 16.2 Non-return devices device is that fish, passively swept into the narrow- ing gap between palisades by the swift current, are The method of catching fish by the use of compli- dashed against the poles of a palisade-like struc- cated catching chambers has been improved by the ture. The fish, perhaps stunned, are carried by the development of non-return devices (Figure 16.7). force of the current into the tubular traps, from In the final section of Chapter 15, one type was which they cannot escape. The traps are checked mentioned which had an entrance like a ‘V’ with a every day and the contents emptied out (Hickling small slit at the narrow point, through which the fish 1961). The old European fishery also used quite a can force itself as it will do when making its way number of such traps without non-return devices: through water plants. There is very little chance of they were called ‘Anschläger’ in German-speaking the fish returning the same way (Figure 16.7a). This countries (Sirelius 1906). In Scotland such gear is type of non-return device is used especially for made of whitethorn or hazel twigs and, more traps with a catching chamber made of any form of DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 219

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Figure 16.6 Thorn-lined traps of Oceania. (Photo: Ethnographical Museum, Leiden.) Figure 16.7 Entrances of traps: (a) in the form of a slit; (b) in the form of a step; (c) (d) funnel with hinged flap; (e) turned entrance of a trap used in the Antilles. fence or fence-like material. Another very simple way of preventing an escape, or making it more dif- ficult, is to install a step, if possible with a ramp, as the opening of the gear into the catching chamber. in Figure 16.7b. This step guides the approaching Such a funnel-shaped valve is often called the fish from the bottom up to a higher level. As soon throat. as it has passed over the step it will drop down to Throats are typical for smaller traps made of its former depth. Thus it does not usually find its wood, wire or netting. With the original wooden way out of the trap again by the way it came in – baskets, a funnel-shaped valve can be formed in a even though it could easily swim over the step if it simple way by fitting two pointed baskets, one into knew it was there. Entrapment gear with such a step the other. With fyke nets made of netting, the con- is known in many fisheries, e.g. in the Sea of Azov struction of a funnel-shaped throat becomes more (NN 1952), or in the coastal waters of Japan (NN difficult.Therefore, the manufacture of well-formed 1959–65). These ramps can guide quite large shoals funnels is properly included in the training of young of sardine-like fish into the enclosure (Figure fishermen (Bobzin & Finnern 1978). For baskets 16.68). Non-return devices in the form of a step or made of wood or wire, sometimes single elastic rods ramp are used when the gear is made of netting, and are allowed to protrude from the funnel into the large catches are expected. inner part of the trap, into its first chamber, some- With smaller gear, the entrance with the non- times named the parlour (Figure 16.8). The fish, return device is formed like a funnel (Figure lobster, or crawfish may be able to press these rods 16.7c,d,e) whose tapered end is directed away from apart when it enters the gear, but the points bar the DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 220

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Figure 16.9 Behaviour of a fish guided by the funnel into a trap. Figure 16.8 Fishing pot made of wire with elastic spikes around the opening of the funnel to prevent fish escap- ing. Lake Lucerne, Switzerland (1954). demonstrated in Figure 16.9. A fish entering the trap is guided as demonstrated. Swimming in way out when it tries to leave the trap. Neverthe- circles, the single fish or the fish shoal has virtually less, to ensure that any fish caught cannot escape no chance of finding the way to the entrance. This through the funnel, a flap may be fastened in front is a fact used in other fishing gear, e.g. purse seines. of the opening so that it swings open only towards Moreover, non-return devices are arrangements the interior of the trap (Figure 16.7d). There are which are fitted to other types of fishing gear, such such iron flaps in lobster pots and wooden shrimp as stow nets, trawls and seine nets. They are one of baskets, e.g. of the type that were formerly used the basic elements of fishing gear construction. exclusively on the Friesian coast. The Japanese close some wooden traps in the same way, with a 16.3 Trapping barriers made of fences curtain of slanting bamboo sticks which can be lifted only when coming in from the outside. Finally, As shown before, barriers can have small passages the funnel-shaped throat may not be made straight, to facilitate catching. When these are made in the but can be bent to make it even more difficult for form of a slit leading to an enclosed catching the fish to get out. In this way a kind of step is com- chamber, a fishing gear is formed which is con- bined with the funnel so that the entrance to the sidered a true trap. Figure 16.10 shows such an funnel and its outlet into the enclosure are not on arrangement in a river of Kampuchea (Fily & the same level. Figure 16.7e shows an arrangement d’Aubenton 1965). In this case the barrier is made used for some types of wooden baskets. In some of a strong wood frame covered with fences made traps several enclosures are often set one after of mats. The whole barrier has a ‘V’-like form with another, with the openings of the entrances becom- a small passage. The large opening of the ‘V’, by ing increasingly narrow. With fyke nets, the first which the fish pass into a permanent enclosure, opening of the funnel on the entrance of the trap faces the current. From here they can be guided or may be a square, the opening of the next funnel may driven into a smaller movable container, which can be triangular and that of the last a narrow slit only. be pulled out of the water by a pulley system. A The principle of these different forms of non- sampan is slipped underneath and the fish are return device is to keep the fish away from the emptied into the vessel through an outlet in the entrance. As has been said of the non-return device bottom of the container. In this example, a strongly in the form of a step, the fish, returning to the built barrier was incorporated in a trap-like fishing bottom, has little chance of finding the entrance gear.This can be done more easily by flexible fences again even when it is very broad. What happens as shown in Figure 15.29.This facility has been used with the slit-like or funnel-shaped entrances is in many fisheries to build real traps with slit DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 221

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as non-return devices. These may be long barriers which include traps or small barriers set in a trap- like manner. Figure 16.15 shows a barrier with a long row of connected traps made of fences off the Ivory Coast. Figure 16.16 shows a similar fishing gear from Indonesia, but these are large-scale traps that will be mentioned in Section 16.9. Before ending this section, one of the most famous barriers made of fences has to be men- tioned.This is operated in the Italian fishery for eels between Ravenna and Venice with the main centre in the Valli di Comacchio (Figure 16.17) (de Angelis 1959). These barriers were originally made of reeds Figure 16.10 Barrier in Kampuchea with a small (Figure 16.18) with an entrance in the form of a slit. passage like a slit leading the prey into a catching During experiments, some parts were made of chamber. (From Fily & d’Aubenton 1965 with plastic tubes, but the modern barriers are made permission.) of concrete with slit-like non-return devices made of steel (Figure 16.19). Figure 16.20 shows the prin- ciple of this method for catching eels migrating from the sea into the lagoons. The fish move from the sea towards the saline lagoons through the open entrances of the barrier. Good-sized fish will be caught in the chamber between the two fences, because the openings in the next and later catching chambers become smaller and smaller until only small elvers can escape into the lagoons. On the other hand, eels coming from the lagoons through the openings in the direction of the sea will be caught in the chamber towards the sea because at this migrating time all other openings are closed (de Angelis 1959). These trapping barriers for eels are similar to those made by the Italians to catch mullet (Mugilidae) (Figure 16.21) and also those operated in Ireland to catch salmon in the River Shannon (Figure 16.22) near Limerick.

Figure 16.11 Barriers with catching chambers made of fences with slit-like entrances in Rumania. (From Antipa 16.4 Wooden pots 1916 with permission.) It is typical of traps that the fish or other prey enters a catching chamber from which escape may be dif- entrances as a non-return device. Figure 16.11 ficult, especially when the way out of the trap is shows barriers of fences set as traps in heart-shaped secured by a non-return device (Figure 16.7). This form from Rumania (Antipa 1916), which do not is also true of wooden traps, generally known as differ very much from a barrier crossing a lagoon fishing pots or baskets. in Benin (Figure 16.12) (Welcomme 1979). Such Fishing traps made of fences have open chambers arrangements do not always need to have round which are two-dimensional (Monod 1973), and it is forms. Figures 16.13 and 16.14 show the principle of sometimes necessary to let the fences rise well a similar Turkish arrangement (Mengi 1977). But above the water surface to prevent fish from escap- there may be no place in the world where fences ing by jumping over the fences. In contrast to have not been set as traps with slit-like entrances these traps, pots are three-dimensional, having DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 222

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Figure 16.12 Barrier with catching chambers made of fences in a lagoon in Benin. (From Welcomme 1979 with permission.)

completely closed chambers, with the exception of one or more entrances secured by non-return devices (Figures 16.23–16.29). As with traps made of fences there can be one or more of these catch- ing chambers one after the other, each with an entrance in the form of a funnel (Figure 16.28a).All pots are transportable movable fishing gear. Wooden pots, together with other types of fishing gear made of this material, are early stages in the development of fishing technology. Of course, they are older than other traps made of netting. Never- theless, some types of wooden pots have an impor- tant place in some fisheries today because of their great stability, especially in rivers and coastal waters. The large quantities of wooden pots oper- ated for catching crustaceans in the offshore fish- eries of Norway, Great Britain and France are a good example of their usefulness in industrial fish- eries. Also the wooden eel-boxes with movable cover and throats which have been used in the Ijssel Sea in the Netherlands since the early 1970s (Deelder 1971) can be seen as a very effective working fishing pot (Figure 16.24). These boxes are set according the longline system (see also Section 16.10) and they are baited with small smelts. The Figure 16.13 Turkish barrier, so-called ‘wooden dalyan’ with catching chambers. (From Mengi 1977 with bait fish has a strong smell like cucumbers, so the permission.) eel is stimulated not only to look for a shelter but also for food. Two non-return devices (throats) at each end of the box prevent the eel escaping once it is completely inside the box.The maximum length DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 223

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Figure 16.14 Turkish ‘wooden dalyan’ (1963).

Figure 16.15 Fences arranged as traps off the Ivory Coast. (Photo: Steinberg, 1965.)

of the eel which can be caught seems to be pro- Traditional wooden pots are made from strips of portional to the length of the box. One or two little reed, split bamboo, rattan, or wood laths. They may round gaps are provided to allow undersized eels to be plaited in a similar manner to the early agricul- escape. The production is very easy and can be tural wicker baskets or carefully woven like mats. carried out by the fishermen themselves (Gabriel They can be made of parallel strips of wood, like 1998). Pots can be made of wire, plastic or other European crayfish pots (Figure 16.25) or of paral- hard material as well as the traditional wood. lel sticks, sometimes with large square meshes, as in DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 224

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Figure 16.16 Trap-like arrangement of fences in Indonesia. (Photo: Kollmannsperger, 1976.)

Figure 16.17 Barrages for catching eels in Valli di Comacchio, Italy (from Hornell 1950 with permission).

some African fisheries (Figures 16.26 and 16.27). to handle. Nevertheless, a few were still operated in They can also be plaited in a complicated hexago- recent decades (Figure 16.26) because their weight nal shape (Figure 13.4) or a seldom-used pentago- was reduced by partially constructing them from nal shape. Due to the materials used and the lighter-weight material. In this respect the large, techniques by which pots are made and their world- and sometimes heavy,‘bubus’ of the sea fisheries of wide distribution, it is not surprising that varying South Asia have to be mentioned. These are oper- shapes of pots have evolved. Figure 16.28 gives a ated at great depths where they remain for a long small selection of examples only. It is understand- time. The bubus vary greatly in size and construc- able that, because wooden pots are transportable tion. Their entrance can be a simple slit or a curved fishing gear and because of the material from which funnel. Originally these traps were made of woven they are made, they can have only a limited size. bamboo or rattan. Nowadays a framework of wood When soaked with water, large wooden pots can be or wire is used (Figure 16.29), covered with chicken very heavy. Wooden pots with an opening of a wire. Larger pots as used in sea fisheries can have person’s height are rare, because they are difficult the form of a beehive, but then the entrance is from DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 225

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tube-like pots of Thailand and Nepal have secured entrances on the side (Figure 16.28d). An interesting wooden trap is the so-called ‘Madeira trap’ from which the ‘Antilles trap’ has been developed. This was originally heart-shaped and made of hexagonally plaited rattan strips (Figure 16.38). Its distribution history is more or less known. These traps are supposed to have orig- inated in India and Sri Lanka and to have been brought back by the Portuguese after sailing round southern Africa to the Seychelles, Madagascar and Madeira, and later to Brazil and the Caribbean. Originally the heart-shaped traps had one central entrance only (Figure 16.38); now the West Indian or Antilles traps have the form of a single or double ‘Z’ with two or four opposed valves (Figure 16.39) (Mas & Buesa 1962; Wolf & Chislett 1974). There are many variations in the form and size of wooden pots. Some strange house-shaped types used in Oceania (Figure 16.28e) are built according to the special secrets of different families and are used to catch moray eels (Koch 1971). There are many different types of wooden traps but it is hoped that those mentioned will indicate the very many forms they can take. As mentioned before, wooden pots can be very heavy. In order to reduce their weight, use of heavy hardwood can be restricted to the framework only. This is then Figure 16.18 Catching chamber in Comacchio made of covered with lighter material such as netting or tex- reeds (1975). tiles. Large and small traps are constructed in this manner (Figures 16.30 and 16.36). Pots – not only the wooden ones – are mostly below, which means that they have to lie on the side used as bottom gear without any other arrange- when fishing (Figures 16.30, 16.31 and 16.32). ments for leading the prey into the trap, but in most Smaller forms of wooden pots, like the French cases they are baited. This is also so when pots are lobster pots, have the entrance at the top (Figure set according to the longline system, as in the 16.33 and 16.34). A French dictionary of fisheries example in Figure 16.40 for traps operated for crab terms compares their form with ‘champignons sans fishing at the Canadian Atlantic coast (NN 2000). pied’ and the English speak of ‘inkwell pots’ This longline system is also used in fresh waters, e.g. (Edwards 1978). Pots in this form are also used for for eel traps in rivers. As with other gear, the long- catching whelks in England (Figure 16.35). line system facilitates the easy handling of the gear. Some pots are like barrels or drums, originally The disadvantage of this system is that single pots developed in France for langoustines. They are can be placed more efficiently than several joined made of wooden laths. Nowadays the two ends are together. This is the reason why, e.g. for rock lob- closed by netting or wire (Figure 16.36). This type sters in Australia or New Zealand, the pots are also has the entrance on the upper side. Other pots set singly after checking the ground with echo are bottle shaped, like the eel traps operated in sounders. Europe and elsewhere (Figures 16.28a and 16.37). Pots can also be operated in combination with The entrance is in front and more than one funnel barriers (Figure 15.2), usually as interchangeable prevents the escape of the prey. Only some very gear in the outlets of a barrier. In this case the DFC16 4/23/05 8:32 PM Page 226

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Figure 16.19 Newer catching chamber in Comacchio (1975).

unusual examples are barriers with pots operated even in the late 20th century by the Maoris in New Zealand for catching lamprey during their upstream migration. In the strong current of a river, a barrier with some passages is placed which the Figure 16.20 Plan of the Italian method for catching lamprey try to swim through. Often this will not be eels between the sea and lagoon in Comacchio. (From de Angelis 1959 with permission.) possible. By the jet-effect of the gap, the fish are pressed back and driven into the traps placed before the barrier. The fishing gear is a wooden pot with an opening enlarged by a funnel made of passages of the barrier need not be watched by large-meshed netting (Figure 16.41) (Todd 1979). fishermen to catch the passing fish with spear, gaff Pots can also be used to catch pelagic fish, in or scoop net. Unwatched traps in the passages will which case the basket does not stand horizontally, catch the prey automatically.There is a relationship as on the bottom, but vertically. The Javanese used between the strength of a current and the number small baskets set vertically for catching freshwater of traps; each gape of a trap reduces the force of shrimps (Thienemann 1951). In Malta, egg-shaped the current, and its power to swirl fish along is thus baskets were used (Figure 16.42). They are baited lessened (Brelsfjord 1946). For this reason not too and two are fixed on a main line, held by a float many baskets should be built into a barrier. On the above and by a weight below (von Brandt 1966). other hand, there is no doubt that a combination Finally, baskets made of wickerwork can be made of traps in any form with barriers increases their as floating gear when fixed on the underside of a catching efficiency considerably. Interesting and raft. DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 227

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Figure 16.21 Italian arrangement for catching mullet near Ansedonia, Tyrrhenian coast of Italy (1971).

16.5 Pots made of wire In most cases, well-known pots made of wood have been the model for wire pots. Even the famous As mentioned, pots are a three-dimensional trap Antilles traps, in a ‘Z’ form with two or four which means that their catching chambers are com- entrances (Figure 16.39), can be made of wire pletely closed with the exception of the entrance. instead of split bamboo. In the Mediterranean, the Such traps can be made of many materials other Greeks and their neighbours use very flat round than wood. An early method of making traps for wire traps with the opening at the top.When fishing, catching fish, crayfish or even beavers, was to use these traps are camouflaged with seaweed (Figure hexagonal chicken or poultry wire in different 16.46). This flat wire trap may be an old type of forms. The disadvantage of traps made of wire is basket trap and is known in Saudi Arabia and in the that they are vulnerable to rust, even when galva- Persian Gulf, where a similar trap is considered a nized. Nevertheless, they are well known in fresh- traditional fishing pot. But this type is, or was, also water fisheries (Figures 16.43 and 16.44) and in sea known in the western part of the Mediterranean fisheries such as those in the Persian Gulf where (Garau 1909). wire baskets as high as a person are known (Figure Many experiments have been made in an effort 16.45). In sea fisheries, wire traps are sometimes to overcome the difficulties of the rusting of wire protected by zinc and aluminium anodes which are pots in sea water. Traps have been made from sea- placed in the traps. The anode generates an electri- water-resistant aluminium wire or of iron wire cal current, inhibiting the corrosion of the wire and coated with plastic. Sometimes the valves of wire increasing the value of the trap. traps have been made of plastic or even of sheet DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 228

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Figure 16.23 Small Turkish pots as operated in the Figure 16.22 Salmon trap in River Shannon, Ireland Bosporus to catch smaller fish (1971). (1956).

Figure 16.24 Wooden fish box to catch eel in the Ijssel Sea. DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 229

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Figure 16.25 Pot made of strips of wood for catching crayfish in German fresh waters.

Figure 16.27 Wooden basket with square meshes made of palm leaves, from Nigeria. (Photo: Bacalbas¸a 1970.)

be seen in Figure 16.48. The American plastic coated wires can be used to form crab pots without a frame. Finally, it may be added that sometimes old wooden pots of half rotten, weakened, but still very effective, sticks of bamboo are covered with wire netting to give them an added life, which for Figure 16.26 Large wooden basket of Shaba. (Photo: instance the Australians did in their lobster fishery C.P. Halain, 1966.) (Hughes 1969).

16.6 Traps made of netting metal (Lane 1960). A successful idea – and also an economic one – may be to replace the wire with a In contrast to wooden pots and some wire traps, stiff PE netting which, especially in France, is used those made of netting require special supporting more and more with wooden traps (Figure 16.47). arrangements to keep them in the correct horizon- In the USA, thick ‘plastic-coated steel wire’ or tal and vertical form. Whilst fish pots made from ‘plastic coated galvanized welded wire’ is offered solid materials have their special forms, the netting for traps. When using wire, especially chicken wire, used for traps must be kept under tension by for the construction of a fishing pot, it is generally frames. Fyke nets are spread by rings or hoops necessary to first make a frame of stronger mater- (Figures 16.49 and 16.50). Poles driven into the ial to give the trap the right form, as with some bottom (Figure 16.49c) or spreading sticks (stick wooden pots. But when using stiffer or more rigid stretchers) (Figures 16.49a and 16.49b) keep the wire mesh it may be possible to construct the fishing fyke nets in a horizontal position. But fyke nets are pot in any desired form without a frame just by not always operated horizontally. In the Baltic folding the wire mesh into the required form, as can there have been fyke nets for turbot which were DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 230

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Figure 16.28 Different types of basket: (a) basket for eels, northern Germany; (b) box-like basket for spiny lobsters of Florida (from Sundstrom 1957 with permission); (c) shrimp basket of the Philippines; (d) basket from Thailand with lateral entrances; (e) house-like basket from the Gilbert Islands (from Koch 1965 with permission); (f) basket with square meshes from Lake Chad (from Blache & Miton 1962 with permission).

Figure 16.29 Frame of a Malaysian trap, called a Figure 16.30 Beehive fish traps in the harbour of Santa ‘bubu’, with an entrance like a slit (1978). Cruz, Tenerife (1968). DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 231

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Figure 16.31 Beehive fish traps in the harbour of Mar Figure 16.33 French lobster pots in Portsall, near Brest del Plata, Argentina. The traps are baited and set in Brittany (1977). according to the longline system to catch Pagrus pagrus (1979).

Figure 16.32 Small vessel (firilla) of Malta with large bottom traps (nassi tal-arznell) which can be neither folded nor stacked. There are two fishermen on board the vessel! (1966).

hung by a long central leader vertically from the ice surface (Tryborn & Wollebraek 1904). There are hooped nets with two entrances, looking like a drum with an entrance at each end. Known world- wide are the conical fyke nets with at least one, but sometimes more than ten hoops, as used by the Danes. The first hoop can be replaced by a horse- Figure 16.34 Australian rock lobster pots made of wood and strong wire in Stanley, Tasmania (1981). shoe-shaped frame or by a square one (Figure DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 232

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Figure 16.37 Korean basket for catching eels. The valve can be separated (1972).

Figure 16.35 English ‘iron whelk pots’, so-called because the bottoms of these pots are made from plates of perforated iron. (Photo: Archives.)

Figure 16.38 So-called ‘Madeira trap’ made of rattan with hexagonal plaiting.

Figure 16.36 Portuguese traps made of wood and wire discussed in Section 16.9. Traps made of netting, for spiny lobsters. such as the conical fyke nets and the drum-like traps, are small-scale fishing gear. This means that they are of limited size, and that a single trap can 16.50). They have at least one funnel-shaped non- catch only small quantities of fish. Even though return device, sometimes three. most of these traps are small in size, there are some Fyke nets can be used alone when they replace exceptions in which the first hoop at the entrance wooden eel traps, and are often fixed like the long- of the trap is as high as a person. On the other hand, line method in a river. Often fyke nets are com- there are also small traps made of netting, such as bined with walls or fences. Most of them are small fyke nets, for catching fish such as a single combined with leaders and wings (see Figures 16.50 trout in a mountain brook (Figure 16.49b), or like and 16.69). Their effectiveness is increased consid- the small drum-like Italian traps, not more than erably by such additional arrangements as will be 30cm long, for catching Gobiidae in the lagoons of DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 233

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Figure 16.41 Lamprey pot, operated by Maori fisher- men in the Wanganui River in New Zealand. The fish migrating upstream attempt to swim through the gap, but the force of water flowing through the narrow opening washes them back into the funnel-like opening of the pot. (From Todd 1979 with permission.)

when conical fyke nets (which are usually stretched Figure 16.39 Traps of the Caribbean. horizontally between sticks rammed into the bottom) are stored folded together. However, transportation of a large number of traps becomes a big problem when bulky traps, such as pots, which are neither collapsible nor can be folded, have to be brought from one place to another and cannot be stacked (Figure 16.32). Therefore progress was made when traps made of netting with wire frames were introduced in a collapsible form (Figure 16.52) or made of plastic (see next section) in such a way that they could be stacked by ‘nesting’ (their bottoms being made of netting which can be loos- ened) such as plates or cups (Figure 16.53). There have been many transitional stages between wooden pots and those made of netting. Figure 16.40 Longline technique for operating shrimp baskets off Majorca. (From Massuti 1967 with In order to decrease the weight of wooden pots, the permission.) heavy part of the wooden frame was made as small as possible and covered with netting or chicken wire. Venice (Figure 16.51). Both traps have spreading Also the wooden frame was replaced by steel or sticks and a single valve only. even plastic tubes (Figure 16.54). Many traps used Commercial fisheries need a very large number for catching crustaceans, and also fish, are made of small traps if their operation is to be economi- in this manner – like narrow rectangular boxes cally viable. To catch Gobiidae, for example, vessels with steel frames covered by wire or fibre netting. operate about 200 traps. Transportation may not be The small lobster pots used by the fishermen of a problem when the traps are small and if they col- Heligoland are made in this way (Figure 16.55).The lapse when the spreading sticks are removed, or traps of the fishermen of South Africa for catching DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 234

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Figure 16.43 Wire trap with a broad and high entrance.

Figure 16.42 Egg-shaped basket for pelagic fishing near Malta. (From von Brandt 1966 with permission.)

Figure 16.44 Swiss traps made of wire with elastic rods in the funnel, used in Lake Geneva.

rock lobsters in the southern Atlantic, e.g. on seamount Vema, are also constructed like this; as are those for rock lobsters in New Zealand (Figure 16.56). Here also a similar type is used to catch blue cod (Parapercis colias). Large traps of this type are operated to catch king crab in the northern Pacific Ocean (Figure 16.57). In this connection, the so-called ‘creels’ of the British fishermen have to be mentioned (Thomas Figure 16.45 Wire baskets of a man’s height in Kuwait 1973; Edwards 1978). These creels are longer than (1970). they are broad, with a strong frame and a ‘U’- DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 235

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Figure 16.48 Trap formed of wire mesh without any frame. Lagune Aby, Ivory Coast (1971).

Figure 16.46 Round Greek wire trap camouflaged with seaweed before setting.

Figure 16.49 Hooped nets and fyke nets: (a) hooped net with two entrances and spreading sticks; (b) fyke net with spreading sticks; (c) fyke net with wings. Figure 16.47 French shrimp traps in Guilvinec, Brittany, with stiff PE netting (1977). bouring countries. The Scottish types are consid- ered the smallest. Small creels are recommended as shaped cross-section (Figures 16.58 and 16.59). The being more economic in lobster fishing. Mostly they frame can be made of wood, iron or plastic. This are operated not singly but in the longline system frame is then covered with strong netting, formerly as explained before. Creels are said to be operated tarred cotton but now synthetic twine or plastic- in fleets. Single creels, used in shallow waters, can coated wire lattice. Mostly these pots have two be set more carefully and bring higher yields per entrances, one on each of the longer sides (Figure trap. On the other hand, fleets with more traps set 16.58). The size of these creels varies greatly in the in deeper water can bring higher total yields different fishing areas of Great Britain and neigh- (Thomas 1973). DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 236

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Figure 16.50 Fyke nets with two funnels, four rings and a central leading net. The first ring is horseshoe-shaped.

16.7 Plastic pots sisting of eight or ten moulded sections with an easily removable conical entrance for ease of trans- As far as is known, the first plastic traps were made port (Figure 16.62) (Rubio 1968). In north-western for sport fishermen wanting light transportable and Europe, plastic eel traps found a wide distribution collapsible traps to replace, to some extent, the (Klust 1969). They were constructed so that they glass bottles with pierced bottoms traditionally could be put together from six or more parts, used for catching bait fish (Figure 16.60a).Although moulded separately. One well-known type has interesting for sport fishermen, plastic traps are too metal rods for weight on the lower side, and a cover expensive for commercial fisheries which in general on the upper side (Figures 16.62 and 16.63). The need larger traps in greater quantities and at a principle of this trap is not to filter the eel out of lower price. the current or to guide the migrating fish into the The first plastic traps to be introduced into com- trap by wings or guide lines, but to offer a shelter mercial fisheries were eel traps (Figure 16.61) which will be voluntarily accepted by the eel.There- (Mohr 1964).The construction of the trap itself was fore, this trap with two valves can be considered not changed. To mould complete traps of high more as a tube for shelter (Chapter 14). density PE, as wanted by commercial fishermen, Simpler than the eel traps mentioned before and can be economical only when large quantities are more like the original eel pots used by German produced. Therefore, plastic traps have been made river fishermen is another modern plastic pot especially for catching crustaceans and eels in com- (Figure 16.64).The trap has two valves and a closing mercial fisheries. Here the Norwegian lobster pots cap at the narrow end, which is removed to get the without netting have to be mentioned. They consist catch. This trap is operated on the longline system of two parts which nest very easily in each other. as are many other traps in commercial fisheries. Others can be dismantled for easy transportation. Plastic traps have good stability, can be operated The Spanish have made large beehive fish pots con- for a long time with little maintenance, and rarely DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 237

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Figure 16.51 Small traps with spreading sticks, near Venice (1975). Figure 16.52 Foldable Japanese trap: above, ready for the catch; below, folded for transportation. Japan (1972).

need repairing. They are easy to handle and need little effort to operate (Kuhn 1976). Plastic traps, like those made of wire, also have a high resistance to damage caused by crabs such as the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheier sinensis) and other gnawing water animals which destroy netting. Traps made with a frame of welded tubular polythene and covered with a netting made of synthetic fibre are often called ‘all plastic pots’. These are special round pots for catching crustaceans (Figure 16.65) but are similar in operation to the British creels (Figures 16.58 and 16.59) (Edwards 1978).

16.8 Ghost traps Figure 16.53 Stackable Japanese traps for crab fishing, All traps have the advantage that the prey caught Banba, Kanakawa-ken, Japan (1978). remains alive for some time, and therefore the catch DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 238

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Figure 16.54 Lobster trap. Hermanus, South Africa (1965).

Figure 16.56 Hauling a rock-lobster pot near Akaroa, New Zealand. To prevent the prey escaping, long spines are welded around the entrance of the trap. The arrow shows the escape vent on the back of the trap (1981).

Figure 16.55 Lobster trap of Heligoland, Germany.

is generally of good quality, it being taken for granted that the traps are inspected at regular in- tervals. When they cannot be lifted owing to bad weather conditions, or when they are lost and cannot be found, they may continue to catch for a month before they deteriorate enough to cease fishing. In such cases people speak of ‘ghost fishing’. This is defined as the ability of a fishing gear to con- Figure 16.57 King crab pot for Alaskan waters, Seattle. (Photo: J. Schärfe, 1968.) tinue fishing after all control of the gear has been DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 239

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Figure 16.60 Transparent traps for catching bait fish for sport fishermen: (a) glass bottle with bottom section removed; (b) French bait trap, made of plastic, which Figure 16.58 Frame of an English creel with two can be telescoped; (c) transparent trap from Switzerland entrances. which can be folded.

Figure 16.59 Creel with one entrance only, Portna- cross, Ireland (1956).

Figure 16.61 German eel trap made of plastic accord- ing to master fisherman H. Köthke: (a) upperside with a lost by the fisherman (Smolowitz 1978). It will be plate for shelter; (b) underside with two iron sticks for seen later on, in Chapter 19, that there are not only weighting. (Photo: G. Klust.) traps but also gillnets which can continue to catch as ghost nets. Ghost traps became a special problem in the operated in waters with strong currents or where crustacean fishery following the introduction of wave motion reaches the seabed. In this situation, non-rotting synthetic net materials. Many pots can the higher traps fall over and will roll, winding up be lost in stormy weather and by entanglement of their lines with the floats so that they cannot be the lines in rocky grounds. This is especially possi- found again. This is why the beehive lobster pots ble when traps of light material, higher than they formerly used around Heligoland have been are broad and therefore with a low stability, are replaced by a boxlike trap with lower weight but a DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 240

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broader base (Figure 16.55). Nevertheless, the loss prevent continuous fishing by lost traps. In traps of traps cannot be prevented completely. King crab made of stable frames covered with synthetic fishermen of Alaska estimated their annual pot netting, the interior netting yarn is made of natural losses in the 1980s at about 10%. The crustaceans fibres. When this material rots, after a short time, caught in lost pots can injure each other by canni- the catching room of the trap collapses and crabs balism and, having no chance to escape, they finally can no longer be caught by this gear. This method die. Their carcases then act as bait for other crus- is also decreed by law for bottom fishing pots in the taceans. In other words, the lost pots are self-baiting State of Washington in the USA. death traps which continue to catch for several A better means of preventing ghost trapping has years and could be responsible for higher mortality been found by using pots with escape vents and reduced yield of a crab resource. Therefore, (Smolowitz 1978). The escape vents are made in efforts have been made by different methods, to such a manner that they allow lobsters under the legal minimum size to escape (Figure 16.56). This may decrease ghost fishing mortality but does not solve the overall problem. This perhaps can be achieved by another proposal – to design the opening into the pot so as to allow any prey to escape after a specified time. In this case the opening is made as a hinged door with a time- release mechanism combined with the legal escape vent mentioned before. The release mechanism can be a door kept closed by a latch made of degrad- able material which will rot in a short time (Blott 1978).

16.9 Trap systems, weirs and pound nets As with other fishing gear, attempts have been made to increase the efficiency of fish traps, espe- Figure 16.62 Detachable plastic beehive trap, Costa Brava, Spain. cially those made of netting. This has been tried in many different ways, not only by improved con-

Figure 16.63 Hauling a plastic eel trap on the River Weser (1963). DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 241

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Figure 16.66 Traps made of fences can be very large like this one from Kampuchea, with leaders, catching chamber with non-return devices as slits, and a large chamber (below) to keep the catch. (From Fily & d’Aubertin 1965 with permission.)

Figure 16.64 Plastic eel trap. (Courtesy of Nord- struction and use of better materials, but also by deutsche Seekabelwerke AG, 1979.) increasing the size of single traps and by combining many traps with catching systems supported by leading arrangements such as the so-called wings and leaders.As has been shown before, the increase in size of three-dimensional traps made of wood, wire or plastic, or of netting held by hoops and frames, is limited by the increase in weight and dif- ficulty in handling. As mentioned earlier, in the eastern Baltic there were hooped nets made of netting with rings taller than a person, but with their increasing size, their handling became increas- ingly inconvenient and labour intensive. In contrast to three-dimensional traps, the two-dimensional ones, made of fences of different materials and fitted out with non-return devices in the form of slits or steps, can be enlarged in a theoretically unlimited manner (Figures 16.66–16.68). It is helpful if the catching room is fitted with bottom netting which can be lifted to get at the caught fish. An indirect enlargement of a trap can be made by its combination with leaders and wings, espe- cially when these end in other traps of the same size Figure 16.65 French lobster pot with frame made of (Figures 16.69a,e) or smaller (Figure 16.69b). By plastic, Audierne, Brittany (1977). this method, very effective trapping systems can be DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 242

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with one or more open catching chambers before its entrance (Figure 16.70). These additional cham- bers can be so extensive that the original traps, pots or fyke nets with funnel-like entrances, appear as small appendices only (Figures 16.71 and 16.72). In the drawing to scale of a Danish ‘bundgarn’ (Figure 16.71), the two fyke nets are difficult to see, but their length can be >10m, which demonstrates just how large the additional catching chambers are. The advantage of this combination is that the catch can be obtained by hauling the genuine traps only. It is no longer necessary to catch the fish in the additional chambers with other gear, or by lifting the bottom netting if there is any, or by driving the fish into a corner for scooping, as is still necessary with some large traps when catching bulk fish. Such large catching arrangements with big col- lecting chambers are called weirs if made of non- textile material or pound nets if they are made of netting. Weirs made of wickerwork or mats, as used on all the coasts of Asia, North America and in several parts of North Europe, might be of greater importance for a bulk fishery than the small pots and fyke nets. Figures 15.29 and 16.67 show some examples of weirs. It has already been mentioned in Chapter 15, that sometimes the entrances of suc- cessive chambers gradually decrease in size, so that they can be considered as non-return devices in the form of slits which can be passed in one direction Figure 16.67 In this large bamboo weir of the Philip- only. Figure 15.30a shows a weir operated in Thai- pines a slit, as a non-returning device (see above), gives land with interesting leaders consisting of waving entrance to the catching room from which the catch is rods pushed singly in a row into the bottom. These secured with scoop nets at low tide (see below) (1960). guide the fish through a slit into spacious catching chambers. It is not difficult for a fish to swim built, like the double fyke nets (Figure 16.69a), through the leading sticks, but it will not do so which can be combined in rows some hundreds of unless it has been frightened. The swinging motion metres long (unfortunately, sometimes named in a of the stems is considered to be the explanation of misleading manner ‘trawls’ by the Americans).Also their obedience (Westenberg 1953). From the weir, popular are the combined single traps (Figure the fish can be taken or caught by other fishing gear, 16.69d), as well as the combination of many traps once the encircling room has been narrowed. set in a zigzag line as a barrier (Figure 16.69e) off Wooden weirs are being increasingly replaced by sea shores and in large lakes. In such cases, the con- pound nets made of netting (Figure 16.73). These struction of a single trap in the form of a fyke net can be arrangements with a sophisticated system of with one or more funnel-like entrances remains wings and leaders, and with step and ramp as non- unchanged. return devices. Also, in this case the leaders need To increase the effectiveness of a trap, its con- not be very dense. Even nets with large meshes, struction can be altered by combining a three- through which the fish may easily swim, actually do dimensional trap (a completely closed one) with a have a guiding effect. This applies, too, even to the two-dimensional one (open at the top). In other stretched ropes or twines which are sometimes used words, a closed trap is enlarged by its combination for leaders instead of netting. It is believed that the DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 243

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Figure 16.68 Japanese pound net for sardines. (From NN 1959 with permission.)

vibrations of the lines prevent the fish from cross- called ‘floating salmon trap’ (Figures 16.76 and ing the leader and swimming away, and thus induce 16.77). them to keep within the bounds desired. Examples It seems that there is some tendency to replace are known from the herring fishery and the fishery large pound nets, made of netting and held by in the River Ob in Russia (Baranov 1976). For the stakes, by anchored and floating ones. Anchored same reason, air-bubble curtains have been used to pound nets are considered to have a higher elastic- contain fish and to direct them into traps (NN ity and, consequently,greater resistance to the influ- 1959–65; Smith 1961). Here, in contrast to large ences of bad weather (Tesch & Greenwood 1977; meshed netting and the rows of lines or rods men- Gabriel & Schmidt 1986). Anchored traps are tioned before, the guiding effect is an optical one known even in large lakes. In the Great Lakes and, to some extent, also an acoustic one. The region of North America, anchored deep-water bottom of the catching area of the pound nets is traps are used. It is a curious thing that the same made of netting which can be lifted so that it is type of anchored trap is known in Lake Constance easier to collect the catch, as with the watched tuna between southern Germany, Switzerland and trap mentioned in Chapter 15. Large quantities of Austria. The local name is ‘trapnet’ (mistakenly salmon and tuna, as well as herring, sardines, cod written ‘Trappnetz’) and most people do not know and other bulk fish may be caught with pound nets. that this is a simple English word used by the fish- The large pound nets are set by stretching them ermen who imported this gear at the beginning of between stakes driven into the bottom (Figures the last century from the Great Lakes. These traps 16.73–16.75). When the water is too deep, or are also still used in the 21st century, but monofila- the ground too hard, the traps are anchored (Figure ment netting is forbidden (pers. comm. 2000). 16.68). The Alaska salmon trap is an example of Pound nets can be among the largest of all fishing an anchored trap. This is why this gear is also gears and are known in many different forms. The DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 244

Figure 16.71 Danish ‘bundgarn’ with small fyke nets on the Baltic coast. (From Klust 1965 with permission.)

Figure 16.69 Arrangements for fyke nets with leaders and wings: (a) double net; (b) cross net; (c) hook net; (d) fyke net weir; (e) scissor net.

Figure 16.72 Japanese anchored pound net with three conical fyke nets for catching shrimp. (From Shigueno 1974 with permission.)

Figure 16.70 Old herring weir of Kappeln on the River Schlei, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Big wooden leaders guide the herring into fyke nets made of netting.

Figure 16.73 Scottish salmon trap. A fisherman walks on ropeways along the leading net to the catching area in the background. (Photo: British Resin Products Ltd, London.) DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 245

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Figure 16.76 Salmon trap: left, floating; right, fixed on sticks in Alaska. (From Dumont & Sundstrom 1961 and Figure 16.74 Last part of a Scottish salmon trap. (From Bartz 1950 with permission.) Garner 1976 with permission.)

types of pound nets used in Japan are so numerous that their description occupies quite a big place in the literature dealing with Japanese fishing gear. Also famous are the larger pound nets used by the Americans off the Atlantic coast, as well as off the coast of Alaska in the Pacific.Widely known too are the Danish ‘bundgarn’, which means ‘bottom nets’, operating in large numbers off the Baltic coast of Sweden, Denmark and the Federal Republic of Germany, especially for eel fishing (Figure 16.71). As for weirs, there is also an inherent disadvantage in the use of pound nets. This is the high purchase cost and the need for a large crew for setting and hauling the gear. Moreover, these large nets can be damaged in bad weather. This may be the reason why, in contrast to the small traps, the number of large pound nets and weirs is decreasing in the world. Nevertheless, some technical progress has been made with weirs and pound nets even though their number is decreasing (see next section). As mentioned before, handling and maintenance of the large traps is expensive. Even when fish worth the money are caught, the season can be limited and very short in relation to the long time spent in preparing a pound net and removing it.To save time in controlling the catch, the Japanese propose to place acoustic implements in the pound nets to cal- Figure 16.75 Slit-like entrance in the last chamber of a culate the quantity of the catch from the noise Scottish salmon trap. Montrose, Scotland (1974). caused by the trapped fish. Ice in northern areas and DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 246

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Figure 16.77 Close-up view of a floating salmon trap in Alaska. (Courtesy of Fisheries Research Institute, Univer- sity of Washington, 1974.)

heavy storms in tropical parts of the world can One of the most expensive works in trapnet damage weirs and pound nets or even destroy them fishery is the cleaning of big traps such as pound completely. There have been some discussions nets with several hundred metre long leaders and about lowering the gear automatically under the big catch chambers (cribs) after hauling and before water surface during stormy weather. One idea was seasonal storage.A lot of algae, mussels, weed, sand to replace the floats by pressure tubes which could and other pollution must be dealt with.The simplest be blown up by compressed air or deflated as nec- method for doing this is to use a stream of water, essary. but washing machines with jets and a frame for arranging the netting are much more effective (NN 16.10 Mechanization in trapping 1988). Traditional trapnets are emptied with a small Mechanization in trapping is important for handnet. But this manual method is expensive, hard increased effectiveness, and can be used in setting, work and also restricts the amount of fish per unit hauling, cleaning and maintenance of gear, and also time. Therefore in connection with big herring harvesting the catch. catches, larger vessels (cutters) for emptying and For large traps held by stakes, the vessels can the opportunity for transporting the fish in a towed have special pole-drivers replacing hand-operated delivery codend to a big processing vessel with a devices for setting them (Figure 16.78). This work stern ramp, a much more effective technology was can also be supported by arrangements for washing developed during the German Rügen spring out a hole in the bottom before setting the stake herring season (Gabriel & Schmidt 1986). This (Bacalbas¸a 1965). technology starts with the concentrating of herring DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 247

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into the crib. The fish/water mixture is pumped into Devil (Pig) the separator, which guides the fish into the boat and the water into the sea. Power for the pump can Driver frame be taken either from an auxiliary engine, or hydraulically from the main engine of the boat.The Shears maximum power needed is 4–7kW. Fish weighing up to 1kg can be pumped from the crib without sus- Stake taining any noteworthy damage. The pump can be Winch handled by one person. It saves manpower and Scow makes the emptying of a pound net faster, easier and cleaner than handnet emptying (Suuronen & Parmanne 1984) (Figure 16.80). Smaller traps, especially three-dimensional ones for catching crustaceans and high-priced fish, have always been singled out for improvement, though more in sea fisheries than in fresh waters. The trend to increase the number of set traps and to fish in deeper water can be hampered by the need for more labour to operate them, which is costly. In commercial fisheries, small or large pots are set, as far as possible, not singly, but on the longline system.That means many pots are tied, with branch lines at intervals, on a main line (Figure 16.40). To haul the pots with the main line, anchor and buoy lines needs a lot of manpower. Even though some fishermen continue to avoid special pot haulers Figure 16.78 Weir stake driver. (From New Foundland Student Handout 2000.) powered by hydraulic motors, and continue to use a general purpose hauler, such as a capstan (Burgess 1973), for fishing in depths of up to 2000 m, special hauling machines cannot be avoided. They not only save manpower but also simplify pot in the crib by lifting the net with two small boats at line fishing by reducing the manual labour of each side, following by shooting the fish through a hauling miles of incoming ground lines and heavy funnel at the end of the crib into the delivery anchor and buoy lines. They are especially neces- codend, separating this from the funnel and towing sary with the heavier pots such as those used for it to the processing vessel or another place for king crabs (Figure 16.57). further handling (Figure 16.79). Another more With the help of advanced high-speed hydraulic widely used method is the use of pumps (Figure winches and new over-the-side handling tech- 16.80). Suction pumps for emptying pound nets niques, pots can be operated in a much shorter time have been used for instance in the herring trapnet than before. This also means that an economic fishery off the coast of Finland since the mid-1970s. number of pots can be retrieved, hauled, re-baited These pumps are centrifugal type screw-pumps, and reset in deeper water, faster than ever before. placed either directly on the deck, or inside the It is estimated that, by using longline techniques for forecastle of the boat. Their capacity is up to handling pots with high-speed winches, up to 2000kg mixed fish and water per minute. The frac- 300 pots per day could be successfully fished in tion of fish in this mixture is a quarter to one-fifth. water depths exceeding 200 fathoms (Wilimovsky The basic system consists of a pump, suction hose & Alverson 1971). Different types of haulers or pot and fish/water separator. In operation, the boat is line coilers are used, some davit-mounted. An brought alongside the crib, the fish are forced into example of a universal pot and trap hauler is shown a corner of the crib, and the suction hose is lowered in Figure 16.81. Hauling can be stopped automati- DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 248

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Figure 16.79 Technology for empty- ing a herring pound net with two small boats and a cutter: (a) con- centrating the fish at the pound net and shooting into a transport codend; (b) hauling the codend on board a processing vessel. (Drawing from Kuhlmann after Gabriel & Schmidt 1986 with permission.)

cally when the strop meets the hauler with the pot also swings them on board. By this means a small alongside. A light and portable creel hauler driven boat can be operated by only one person: generally by an outboard motor is available especially for at least two are needed. Of interest also may be a small-boat fishing. Hydraulically-driven haulers are Japanese development which has the hauling mostly in use but have modified mechanically- device mounted in such a manner that it can be driven differential assemblies. Practically all used anywhere on the boat (Figure 16.82). As men- haulers are driven from the main engine but occa- tioned before, sometimes the pots have to be set sionally, on larger boats, an auxiliary engine is used. singly at favourable sites. To find these places in Another labour-saving device for operating pots is lakes or along the seashore, echo-sounders can be an arrangement which not only hauls the pots but used, as in the rock lobster fishery of New Zealand. DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 249

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Figure 16.80 Pumping the fish from a pound net on board a boat. The water is separated outside by means of a simple wooden separator. (Photo: P. Suuronen.)

4mm mainline at distances of c. 40 m. Owing to the capacity of 8000m mainline on each drum with four drums, >30km of the fishing ground can be covered. The shooting of mainline can be carried out with a maximum speed of about 4.5 kns, because 10m mainline with other colour and knots at each end between the distances of 40m enable a clipping time of about 5 s. This is enough to fix the crowfoot snap of the trap-box which is placed on a shooting table to the mainline and to support the guiding of it into the sea by a short push with one hand. During hauling with a speed of about 3 m/s, a short stop enables snapping off from the crow- foot, taking the box on board for removal of the caught eel, their cleaning and storage. Before mech- anization only about 300 traps per day could be Figure 16.81 Universal hauler for pot and trap fishery. handled by two fishermen. (Redrawn after catalogue Igelfors Co.)

References Anell, B. (1960) Hunting and trapping methods in A very convincing example for mechanization in Australia and Oceania. In: Studia Ethnographica trapping is the use of setting and hauling machines Upsaliensia Vol. XVIII. Lund. in the Netherlands eel fishery with small wooden Antipa, G.R. (1916) Pesca˘ ria si Pescuitul in România. traps in the Ijssel Sea (see Figure 16.24). On the Bucharest [in Rumanian]. special boats of about 17m long with a two-man Bacalbas¸a,N.(1965) Cors de tehnica pescuitului. Pescuitul ind, Bucharest [in Rumanian]. crew and a big deck area, up to 750 traps per day Bacalbas¸a,N.& Pectu, A. (1970) Pescuitul cu vîrsele în can be handled (Gabriel 1998). The traps are fixed zona viitorului lac de acumulare ‘Portile Fier’. Lucrarˇı by means of a crowfoot snood and quick snap to a S¸tiint¸ifice IV, 419–431 [in Rumanian]. DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 250

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Figure 16.82 Movable hydraulic pot hauler on a Japanese vessel in Banba, Kanagawa-ken (1978).

Baranov, F.J. (1976) Selected Works on Fishing Gear, Vol. Dumont, H. & Sundstrom, G.T. (1961) Commercial 1 [translated from Russian]. Israel Program for fishing gear of the United States. Fish and Wildlife Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. Circular No. 109. Bartz, F. (1950) Alaska. Stuttgart. Edwards, E. (1978) The Edible Crab and its Fishery in Blache, J. & Miton, F. (1962) Première Contribution à la British Waters.Farnham. Connaissance de la Pêche dans le Bassin Hydro- Fily, M. & d’Aubenton, F. (1965) Report on fisheries tech- graphique Logone-Chari Lac Tchad. ORSTOM, Paris. nology in the Great Lake and the Tonle Sap. In: Report Blott, A.J. (1978) A preliminary study of timed release of France, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of mechanisms for lobster traps. Marine Fisheries Review Technical Co-operation, National Museum of Natural 40, (5–6), 44–49. History. Paris. Bobzin, W. & Finnern, D. (1975) Vollmatrose der Gabriel, O. & Schmidt, K.-H. (1986) Development and Hochseefischerei: Fangtechnik. Berlin. operation of anchored pound nets at the Baltic coast of von Brandt, A. (1966) Die Fischerei der Maltesischen GDR. ICES C.M./B:23. Inseln. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 10, 166–212. Gabriel, O. (1998) Mechanische Aalfallenfischerei in Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu Holland. Informationen fuer Fischwirtschaft 3, 119– Swamps; a Study of Fishing Activities of the Unga Tribe. 121. The Rhodes–Livingstone Papers No. 12. Rhodes– Garau, V.-F. (1909) Traité de Pêche Maritime Pratique Livingstone Institute, Livingstone, Zambia. Illustré et des Industries Secondaires en Algerie. Algir. Burgess, J. (1973) Shellfish Trapping. Bridport. Garner, J. (1976) Sweepnets for salmon catching. Fish. Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England News Int. 15 (2), 26–27. and Wales. Fishery Investigations Ser. II, Vol. 21, No. 8. Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. De Angelis, R. (1959) Fishing installations in saline London. lagoons. GFCM Studies and Reviews,No.7. Hornell, J.S. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. Deelder, C.L. (1971) A new trap developed in the Nether- Hughes, W.D. (1969) Australian lobster fishery: gear and lands. EIFAC Technical Paper 14,119–121. methods. Australian Fisheries Paper No. 7 (revised). DFC16 4/23/05 8:33 PM Page 251

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Klust, G. (1965) Bundgarn. In: FAO Catalogue of Fishing NN (2000) Student Handout. New Foundland Fisheries Gear Designs. Rome. Management Branch. Klust, G. (1969) Zur Aalreusenfischerei in grossen Fliess- Rubió, M. (1968) Pescas con paradas con nasas de gewässern. Allgemeine Fischerei-Zeitung 10, 319–323. plastico y de junco. In: Publicaciones Tecnicas de Koch, G. (1965) Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-Inseln. la Junta de Estudios de Pesca No. 7. Madrid [in Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde, Spanish]. NF 6. Berlin. Shigueno, K. (1974) Shrimp Culture in Japan.Tokyo. Koch, G. (1971) Die materielle Kultur der Santa Cruz- Sirelius, U.T. (1906) Über die Sperrfischerei bei den Fin- Inseln. Veroeffentlichungen des Museums für Völ- nischugrischen Völkern. Helsingfors. kerkunde, Berlin NF 21. Berlin. Smith, K.A. (1961) Air curtain fishing for Maine sardines. Kuhn, G. (1976) Die Fischerei im Oberrhein. In: Hohen- Commercial Fisheries Review 23(3). heimer Arbeiten 83, Agraroekonomie. Stuttgart. Smolowitz, R.J. (ed.) (1978) Lobster, Homarus ameri- Lane, F.W. (1960) Kingdom of the Octopus. New York. canus, trap designs and ghost fishing. Marine Fisheries Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, las Chasse et la Pëche en Review 40 (5–6), 1–77. Lettonie. Paris. Sundstrom, G.T. (1957) Commercial fishing vessels and MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central gear. US Fish and Wildlife Service Circular No. 48. and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the Washington. Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Suuronen, P. & Parmanne, R. (1984) The Baltic herring Mas, R. & Buesa, J. (1962) La nasa Antillana. Centro de fishery off the coast of Finland. ICES C.M./B 35. Investigatiomes Pesqueros, Cuba, Contribucion No. 15 Tesch, F.W. & Greenwood, P.H. (1977) The Eel: Biology [in Spanish]. and Management of Anguillid Eels. London. Massuti, M. (1967) Resultados de la pruebas experimen- Thienemann,A. (1951) Bilder aus der Binnenfischerei auf tales effectuadas en aguas de Mallorca para la pesca Java und Sumatra. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie Supple- con nasas de las gambas de profundidad. In: Publica- mentband 29, 529–618. tiones Tecnicas de la Junta de Estudios de Pesca No. 6. Thomas, H.J.(1973) A Comparison of Some Methods used Madrid [in Spanish]. in Lobster and Crab Fishing. Marine Laboratory, Mengi, T. (1967) Der Beykoz-Dalyan. Protokolle zur Aberdeen. Fischereitechnik 10, 351–415. Todd, P.(1979) Wanganui lamprey fisher. Catch 79,Fresh- Mengi, T. (1977) Batikçilik teknigi. [Fishing techniques.] water Suppl. 2, 19–20. Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of Tryborn, F. & Wollebraek, A. (1904) Die Ostseefischerei fishing gear. Istanbul [in Turkish]. und ihre jetzige Lage. Publications de Circonstance Mohr, H. (1964) Eel traps made of plastic. In: Modern 13A629. Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 2, 277–279. London. Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain Monod, T. (1973) Contribution à l’établissement d’une Rivers. London. classification fonctionelle des engins de pêche. Bulletin Westenberg, J. (1953) Acoustical aspects of some Indone- du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle,3e série, No. sian fisheries. Journal du Conseil 18, 311–325. 156, Ecologie general, 12. White, C.M.N.T. (1956) The role of hunting and fishing in NN (1952) [Fishing gear in the Azov Sea and in the Black Luvale society. African Study 15 (2), 75–86. Sea.] Ministry of Fisheries. Moscow [in Russian]. Wilimovsky, N.J. & Alverson, D.L. (1971) The future of NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and fisheries. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 3, Fishing Gear. Tokyo. 509–513. Farnham. NN (1988) Japanische Maschine zum Automatischen Wolf, R.S. & Chislett, G.R. (1974) Trap fishing explo- Reinigen von Fischnetzen. Express Informacija 4A. rations for snapper and related species in the Moskva [in Russian cited from Nikkan Sujsan Kejdsai Caribbean and adjacent waters. Marine Research Simbun No.9829, 1997]. Fisheries Review 36 (9), 49–61. DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 252

17 Fishing in the Air

‘When, during the months of August, September or from the water, or a gliding flight of from one to October, on beautiful nights the stars are sparkling several seconds as in the case of the so-called flying and the moon is pouring her milky light over the fish. The flying fish interest and intrigue all trav- quiet waters and the calm lakes; when you then see ellers on the warm tropical and sub-tropical seas as long narrow boats twinkling in the light; on board, they suddenly see one or more fish jump from the a man bent over his rudder and trying to manoeu- water. At the beginning they leave traces of their vre his boat as quietly as possible – that is a fisher- motion on the surface of the water, but then they man who has nailed a board to the one side of his quickly rise clear and skim away airborne for con- boat, from one end to the other, at an angle of 45 siderable distances. Large fan-shaped and strength- degrees, and painted it with a bright varnish and ened pectoral and ventral fins enable the fish to ‘fly’ who, moreover, has fixed on the opposite side of his in this way. Strictly speaking, even for the ‘flying boat a strip of netting of three to four feet in height fish’ this really cannot be called a genuine flight. A with very small meshes...’ flight, in the true sense, can occur only if there is specific propulsive power, such as that provided by In this way, but in much more detail than is given the flapping wings of a bird. That is usually not the in this shortened translation of a much longer sen- case with these fish. Their flight is nothing but a tence, the French consul de Thiersant, who was sta- glide after they have once jumped clear of the tioned in China during the second half of the 19th water. With the flying fish the starting, or take-off, century, describes what are today called the ‘white speed required is attained through quick, powerful board catch boats’ of Asia (de Thiersant 1872). Not wriggling movements of the tail fin. As this devel- only he, but also many other travellers in China ops, the body and the spread pectoral fins of the during the previous centuries, described these boats flying fish rise out of the water, while the tail fin is into which the fish jumped on moonlit nights so that still submerged.Thus the well-marked tail traces on they only had to be collected! That fish are able to the water’s surface show up at the beginning of the jump out of the water is, of course, widely known. gliding flight. The other fishes mentioned before Some species of fish jumped more than others; can only jump out of the water and then fall back some not at all. The jumping species, which can after a certain distance. often be observed, include the salmonids and There are many reasons for fish jumping from cyprinids, or carp-like fish, in freshwater areas, as the water. The jump may be a single one for the well as the grey mullets in the estuaries of the rivers purpose of securing aerial food, such as can be seen or the sea. On the sea coasts, there are the scom- in the evening on any trout pond. It can also be a broids or mackerels, and carangids or horse mack- more or less voluntary and deliberate effort to erels, all of which frequently jump. More famous in escape from an enemy. On European lakes, whole warmer seas are the different families of flying shoals of small minnows may sometimes jump fishes, which got their name from their behaviour. across the water in flight from a predatory fish, and This jumping can be in the form of a brief jerking in tropical areas even shoals of larger fishes may

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suddenly jump out of the water to a height of 1m or more and fall back with the noise of a cascade. Finally, fish jump to overcome obstacles on their migrations. In this connection, the actions of salmon are especially familiar, as they are able, by leaping, to pass over high natural waterfalls and artificial barriers on the journey to their spawning grounds in the headwaters of rivers. It is not so well known that some species of shrimp are also able to jump when aroused or alarmed. They then jerk them- Figure 17.1 Outline of a box trap for catching jumping selves out of the water with great leaps – and this salmon. is especially true of some of the species of shrimps caught on the southern Asiatic coasts. It is also not so well known that some small squid are named ‘flying squids’ because they can shoot out of the water and glide through the air for con- prevent grey mullet from jumping over the nets siderable distances (Lane 1960). But as far as is (Russel & Yonge 1949). known, no attempts have been made to catch flying squids for commercial purposes. Also none have 17.1 Salmon traps been made for the true eagle rays, which can jump and glide through the air for a short distance. As Fishermen in many parts of the world have learned with any jumping activity, the direction of the jump to use the jumping habit of fish to catch them. They cannot be changed once the jerk or jump has have even learned how to induce the fish and begun. Neither the jumping fish nor the shrimp, nor shrimps to jump so that they may be caught in a even the flying fish, can swerve away from any trap. To catch ascending salmon, so-called salmon obstacle while in flight as can a bird, or even a boxes are built on their migration routes up rivers. beetle. Knowledge of this is essential if the jumping This is a well-known device in the salmon fisheries activity of some species is to be used as a method of northern Europe and in the Indian fisheries of of catching them. These methods are known as the New World. The salmon jump over the suppos- ‘fishing in the air’, but this description also includes edly simple obstacle and then find themselves in a the way the fish or other water animals are caught box which is provided with a roof at the other end when occasionally migrating out of water. The so that they cannot move forward by jumping out jumping habit of some fishes may be quite an unde- (Figure 17.1). In the Rumha cataract of the River sirable activity in a fishery, and so steps have to be Windau (Yenta) near Goldingen (Kuldiga) in taken to combat it. A net wall, too, it will be appre- Latvia, baskets were hung in a waterfall to catch ciated, is only an obstacle for some species of fish, salmon and also other fish such as Abramis vimba, as many species will attempt to avoid it either by or zanthe.The fish tried to spring over these baskets swimming under it or by jumping over it.To prevent during their ascent of the river (Ligers 1953). The this, seine nets used for catching large East Euro- fish usually ascended in such great numbers that pean coregonids are provided with special wide, many salmon that did not at first successfully clear meshed strips of netting that fold to the inner side the obstacle fell back into the suspended deep (Willer 1929). To catch mullet, which are especially baskets, from which they could not escape (Figure fond of jumping, net walls are equipped with strips 17.2). This catching arrangement, near Windau, has of netting that float on the water’s surface towards been known since the 17th century. The same the fishing side, so that the nets look rather like the method was also used in southern Sweden and in type of fence (usually seen around a prison or some northern Finland until 1940 (Vilkuna 1975). In factories) which slopes inwards in the upper part in Ireland, too, a large scoop net was often fixed below order to make it more difficult to climb or jump waterfalls to catch salmon (Went 1964) and the use over from the inside to the outside. Sometimes even of baskets in waterfalls was also formerly well straw or sawdust is spread on the water’s surface to known in Scotland. DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 254

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them. Several boats then set to work to scare the fish with much noise, and drive them towards the rows of rafts and make them jump. Then they were caught in the straw or brushwood on the rafts (Hornell 1950). Until the 1950s however, the raft fishery existed only in the eastern area of the Mediterranean, in the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and in the Caspian Sea. In the USSR the rafts were considered among the most important fishing gear for the grey mullet fishery in those seas (Nikolski 1957). On bright nights the grey mullet shoals are encircled by large rings consisting of many rafts (Figure 17.3) and the fish are then driven towards Figure 17.2 Jumping salmon caught by baskets near those rafts by much noise so that great quantities Windau in Latvia. (From Thiel 1949 with permission.) of fish are caught. Another centre for the fishery of mullet with the help of rafts is India, where this method is still practised in the rivers Ganga and 17.2 Fishing with rafts Yamuna near Allahabad. There the rafts are con- structed of plantain trunks; their surface is also The fish that are most fond of jumping, and which covered with twigs to prevent the escape of the are caught today by means of aerial traps in many jumping fish. These rafts are either moored or parts of the world, are the grey mullets already allowed to drift free.The fish are driven towards the mentioned. As can be appreciated, this particular moored rafts, but it is hoped that the free drifting fishery must be related to the habitat of the fish. rafts will pass in the way of jumping fishes (George Mullet occur off the coasts of tropical and sub- 1971). tropical lands. They live especially in the Mediter- ranean, Indian and Pacific Oceans, but they are also 17.3 Boat traps caught in the Atlantic. In the so-called raft fishery, the jumping of mullet is used to catch them. Rafts, For grey mullet, and also for other jumping fish, floating on the water surface and casting a shadow boats are very often used as a trap. This can be on moonlit nights, are regarded as obstacles by the carried out in a simple manner. In Yugoslavia a boat sea mullet and so they attempt to jump over them. is fixed transversely and slightly obliquely into the As the rafts are relatively wide, extending from 1.5 shallow outlet of Lake Varna (Soljan 1956). The to 3.5 m, the fish do not always succeed and so fall grey mullet, as they come from the sea, attempt to onto the floating rafts. To prevent them wriggling jump over this obstacle and then simply fall into the off, the edges of the rafts are bent upwards by about boat (Figure 17.4). Anchored boats are also used in a hand’s breadth, and brushwood and netting are Lake Chad to catch a jumping fish (Hydrocyon also put on them in which the fish get entangled. brevis) descending some rivers. For this purpose Previously, this method of fishing by raft was spread three or four canoes are anchored across the river over the whole Mediterranean area. The Por- behind a wooden barrier. To prevent the fish tuguese allowed rush rafts to float down the jumping over the boat, screens up to 2m high are Mondego River, into which the grey mullet pene- set along the length of the canoes. The fish jump trate from the sea (Baldaque da Silva 1891–92).The against the screens and fall into the canoes (Blache fishermen followed with their boats to collect the & Miton 1962) (Figure 17.5). This catching screen fish from the rafts. is a great success for catching jumping fish by boat. In Malta, a raft fishery was still practised until the Another essential characteristic of the boats that end of the 1920s. There the Maltese not only uti- are specially equipped for catching jumping fish has lized the shadows cast by the rafts anchored in bays already been described at the beginning of this or bights, but they also fitted barrier nets below the chapter by de Thiersant (1872): a white board is rafts to prevent the fish from swimming under fitted to one side of the boat and this encourages DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 255

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Figure 17.3 Russians fishing with floating mats in the Caspian Sea. (From NN 1951 with permission.)

Figure 17.4 Catching grey mullet with a boat in the outlet of Lake Varna, Yugoslavia. (From Soljan 1956 with permission.) Figure 17.5 Catching jumping fish by boat on Lake Chad. (From Blache & Miton 1962 with permission.) the fish to jump (Gudger 1937; Lindblom 1943) (Figure 17.6). Each boat is manned by one fisher- man sitting, not in the centre of the boat but more bright board, jump to overcome the presumed on the side of the white board, so that the boat has obstacle. They then strike the screen and fall into an oblique position and the white board is mostly the boat, as mentioned for the similar system used or entirely submerged. The fishermen row slowly in in Lake Chad. To ensure that the fish do not jump daylight or by night in the moonlight, or even with out of the boat again, palm leaves, straw or brush- torches or lanterns, not far from the beach in wood is spread in the bottom to entangle the fish. shallow water, where they expect to find jumping The holding screen may also be made of coconut fish. They then beat the water with their oars or leaves or, to be quite modern, of wire mesh, and bang on the boats’ sides with a rod. The fish and they can have a pocket at the lower edge in which shrimps, frightened by the noise, flee from the the fish will remain hanging. Boats of this kind for beach towards deeper water and, coming upon the catching jumping fish are found over the whole DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 256

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Figure 17.6 Catching boat used in Thailand with a white board to frighten jumping fish or shrimps and a screen to prevent the prey jumping over the boat (1960).

Indo-Pacific fishing area.They are used today in the Figure 17.7 Chinese barrier with stationary white board Chinese fishery, Taiwan and Hong Kong included, arrangement for catching jumping fish. (From Kasuga & as well as in the Philippines and Indonesia, and off Osaka 1975 with permission.) the coast of the former Indo-China, Malaysia, Thailand, Burma and the southern part of India. It may be supposed that this ancient fishing technique originated in China. The Chinese also know of a stationary method of fishing with the white board (Kasuga & Osaka 1975), in which the fish are guided, with the help of fences, towards the gear, where the boat is replaced by boxes designed to collect the fish frightened by the white board into jumping against the screen (Figure 17.7). There are many variations on ways to catch fish springing, for any reason, voluntarily into a boat. In Hong Kong a pair of canoes may work together side by side, each with a white board, facing each other. The fishermen try to bring a shoal of fish (anchovies or grey mullet) between the two canoes so that the Figure 17.8 ‘Kalaskas’, a catching boat of the Philip- pines with devices to scare fish and shrimps. (From frightened fish dart away in all directions and many Montilla et al. 1959 with permission.) jump into the canoes. The boards are also consid- ered as a way of preventing the fish from escaping under the canoes (Liu 1940). Nevertheless, there the boat. This sweeping method is practised in the are also boats without white boards as the fish can Philippines and Thailand. A similar method is be scared by a scare sweeper fitted vertically on to reported from the South American Indian fishery, a boat and pushed slowly through the shallow water where the Indians wade in shallow water towing by a wading fisherman. The scare sweeper consists their boats after them. As they proceed, they beat of a bamboo pole provided with a row of rattan the water with twigs and the frightened fish begin roots suspended like a curtain (Charemphol 1951; to jump and many fall into the boats (Eigenmann Roumruk & Charoen 1951) (Figure 17.8). These & Allen 1942). pass lightly, like a brush, over the bottom and In a scaring method known in Kerala, South frighten the fish and shrimps. In this case, the white India, two canoes are needed to catch jumping boards may be omitted and also the screen prawns during the night.The boats are tied together designed to prevent the fish from jumping over at the stern at an acute angle of about 30°. More- DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 257

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Figure 17.11 Different methods of rigging the nets for catching jumping fish in Madagascar: ‘pêche à la tente’. (a) From Angot 1961 with permission; (b) from von Brandt 1964 with permission. Figure 17.9 Boats of Kerala, southern India, ready for prawn fishing (1973). many thus falling into the net. This method is prac- tised by older fishermen during the night and they are so successful that they can produce up to 200 kg of fish in a night’s fishing. It is very surpris- ing to find that the fishermen of Madagascar used a similar method, which is called ‘pêche à la tente’ (Petit 1930). A group of canoes with outriggers, with netting stretched horizontally between them and carrying vertical barrier nets in front of them, may encircle a shoal of grey mullet (Figure 17.11). Then, scared by noise, the fish jump into the nets or even into the boats. This method is not operated any more. When netting of transparent monofila- Figure 17.10 Plan of the arrangement of two boats with ment was introduced and used as a barrier, it was light and frightening chain to catch jumping prawns in found that the fish did not jump but, by attempting Kerala, southern India. to swim through the net, became caught by the gills. So the fishermen found it was easier and simpler to over, the canoes are held by a framework, made of use the nets as gillnets and the old method was bamboo, in a position inclining towards each other abandoned. (Figures 17.9 and 17.10). Inside the angle, between the two boats, a kerosene lamp is placed to attract 17.4 Veranda nets the prawns. To frighten them up from the bow of the canoes, an iron chain is dragged along the This trick of making fish jump into a trap – an aerial ground which causes the prawns to jump out of the trap as it has been called (Burdon 1951) – can also water and maybe also into the boats which, by their be achieved by stationary gear. de Thiersant (1872) list towards each other, facilitate the landing of the showed, in his book, a drawing of a Chinese fishing jumping prawns into the vessels. Many other similar gear used for securing jumping fish. In principle, types of boat traps are known for catching jumping this fishing arrangement resembled the boat traps fishes. The frames spanned with hanging netting mentioned in the former section – but without the which are used on the Ryukyu Islands (NN 1949) white board.A net is set in the way of migrating fish show a transitional stage in the transfer of this which attempt to jump over the obstacle: but this is activity from rafts to boats.The aerial trap that they not possible. The fish fall back into bags made of use is towed by two boats over shallow water and netting hanging over the water. These bags replace the frightened fish and shrimps jump upwards, the inside of the boat, in which the fish were DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 258

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Figure 17.12 Old Chinese installation for catching jumping fish. (From de Thiersant 1872 with permission.) Figure 17.14 Modern Chinese veranda net for catching jumping fish. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.)

forms a vertical barrier which encourages the fish to jump, and also an almost horizontal apron or veranda onto which the fish fall. The barrier can be set in a straight line or in a more or less open circle formation. In the latter case, guiding nets are used to direct the fish, usually mullet, into the catching enclosure. The Italian name for this gear is ‘saltarello’. A similar one was known in Portugal (Baldaque da Silva 1891–92). It was set like a large spiral but without guiding nets. Also, in the salt- water lagoons of Egypt a stationary type of veranda net is operated, as well as in Mauritius (Hickling 1961). It may be that the origin of the stationary veranda net is the old freshwater fishery of China, where this fishing method is still used today (Kasuga & Osaka 1975). Figure 17.14 shows a Figure 17.13 Fixed Italian veranda nets, Adriatic Sea: newer form of this fishing method in China. (a) from the top; (b) from the side. (From Grosskopf 1942 Many forms of fishing gear from old China spread with permission.) over southern Asia; therefore it is not surprising that the stationary veranda net is also known in the modern freshwater fishery of western Bengal collected (Figure 17.12). A variation of this system (George 1971).The Indian gear forms an open circle is the so-called ‘veranda net’, known in the Mediter- with guiding lines constructed by fixing water ranean area (Figure 17.13) as well as in China, hyacinths between the twists of a rope. Such a former Indo-China and India, and also some parts guiding line (refer to the scare lines discussed in of Africa. In this method, the barrier netting and the Chapter 21) can have a length of several hundred collecting bags are made of the same piece of metres.The principle of catching is as before (Figure netting, arranged as shown in Figure 17.13. The net 17.15). In this case, the catch is mainly major carps. DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 259

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areas for cichlids are surrounded by fences with the exception of a few openings. The fish swim in, con- centrate during the night, and try to come out in the morning. The openings are then closed and at day- light the fisherman enters the pool to spear and club the fish. The fish try to escape by jumping over the shallow fences, but they land on a rack of reed and grass above the water level and encircling the whole pool outside the fences (Brelsfjord 1946). It seems that the stationary veranda net, constructed as described, became less popular than the movable form – operated without a boat, but like the old rafts Figure 17.15 Indian type of veranda net for catching mentioned earlier. In this method, a fish shoal is carp. (From George 1971 with permission.) encircled by a transportable net wall, forming the barrier which the fish tries to overcome. On the upper edges of this vertical encircling net, horizon- tal catching nets are fitted, held by bamboo rods (nowadays often by closed plastic tubes) floating on the water (Figures 17.17–17.19).These catching nets consist of trammel nets (Chapter 20). The barrier part and the catching part may consist of one piece and can be set simultaneously. Alternatively they can be separate nets, joined once they are set (von Brandt 1960). When this is done, men in a boat inside the circle frighten the fish by noise and, in endeavouring to escape, the fish meet the obstacle formed by the nets. This they try to jump over, landing in the catching nets floating outside and quickly becoming entangled. That type of veranda net is familiar all over the Mediterranean, in the eastern part as well as in the western part for catch- Figure 17.16 Installation of veranda nets around a fish ing grey mullet in daylight. As it is a very successful park in the coastal lagoons of Benin. (From Welcomme method, it has also spread into neighbouring areas. 1972 with permission.) According to old prints, these nets, in former times, have even been towed by rowing boats to increase their effectiveness. But this can also have another A similar method is known from Kampuchea. The reason. As mentioned in the beginning of this variation is only that the netting, in which the chapter, there can be some difficulties with jumping jumping fish will be caught,is hung at an angle of 45° fish with seining. To prevent their escape, seine nets above the fencing on the outside (Fily & d’Auben- were sometimes equipped with reed trays as plat- ton 1965).In this case,it is intended to catch jumping forms to catch the fish when they tried to jump over fish which try to escape some of the capture cham- the more or less vertical netting. This method of bers.The same intention is also the reason for using seining was known in the Mediterranean (Hornell such a gear in Benin (Welcomme 1972). Here, fish in 1950) and also in southern Africa (MacLaren 1958). parks (Chapter 14) are caught trying to escape when the shelter-giving branches of the park are removed 17.5 Scoop nets for jumping fish and the area, surrounded by fences, is gradually diminished (Figure 17.16). Such methods are also The catching of jumping fish and shrimps with known in other areas of Africa. It has been reported these aerial traps requires a very good knowledge that in the swamp fisheries of Zambia, spawning of their behaviour – and a high level of technical DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 260

Figure 17.17 Part of a transportable veranda net as used in the Bay of Hera, Mitilini Island, Greece.

Figure 17.18 Greek veranda net in the Bay of Hera. Fish frightened by fishermen beating the water jump onto the net. DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 261

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Figure 17.19 View of part of the floating trammelnet, a section of the veranda net.

development. But even greater skill is needed if flying fish are to be caught with scoop nets directly from the air. This is a method practised by fishery co-operatives in Oceania (Koch 1965). At night (without moonlight) the flying fish are encouraged to jump by a display of torch lights. They tend to jump towards the lights, and are then caught by scoop nets held on long rods – > 3m long and used Figure 17.20 Catching flying fish by torchlight with long- in the same way as butterfly nets.The same practice handled scoop nets by Yami fishermen of the island of of catching flying fish by the light of torches is also Botel Tobago (Lan Yü) in the south of Taiwan. (From carried out by the Yami tribe on the island of Botel Kano & Segawa 1956 with permission.) Tobago (Lan Yü) south-east of Taiwan (Figure 17.20). This is a co-operative fishery in which up to ten families participate (Kano & Segawa 1956). A tical knowledge of fishing with aerial traps, as have large torch is held high over the heads of the crew, the Chinese and their scholars of fishery. who kneel on the edges of the boat, and their aim is to catch the fish with scoop nets as they fly 17.6 Angling in the air through the air. This is real ‘fishing in the air’. But, as in Madagascar, this method has been replaced by As has been shown in the previous sections, fishing gillnets made of polypropylene. Nevertheless, torch in the air is the interception of the prey as it falls fishing for flying fish remains, even today, a cere- back into the water from its jump. Catching with mony of the Yami at the opening of the fishing scoop nets was considered, in the last section, as season in spring. At other places it may occasion- real fishing in the air. There is another method ally occur that fish, while jumping over an obstacle, known in the modern freshwater fishery of conti- can be caught in the air by scoop nets. Figure 17.21 nental China and this is the angling of jumping fish reproduces such an activity from an old Japanese (Figure 17.22). In this case, baited hooks on a long manuscript which was found at Mya in the Archi line are hung some distance above the water and Prefecture. A number of fishermen are shown the fish, jumping for the bait, hook themselves when standing in the water, behind a barrier, with doing so (Kasuga & Osaka 1975). Insects, shrimps antiquely shaped scoop nets, and they are catching and small frogs are used for bait. jumping fish while they are in the air. This ancient To explain this in terms of fish behaviour may be illustration is remarkable because the Japanese difficult. It is known that fish jump for insects near fishermen of today do not otherwise have any prac- the water surface, but the insects are flying and the DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 262

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Figure 17.21 Catching jumping fish with scoop nets in the Kinugawa River, Tochigi Prefecture, shown in a Japanese manuscript from the beginning of the 19th century.

when it is wriggling, from a hook held over the water?

17.7 Pitfall traps for fishes Fishing in the air, in contrast to fishing in the water, can also mean fishing on land. That this is possible has been explained in Chapter 2 with hand-picking along the beach. But some fish do migrate over dry land. We are not considering the famous eels which are said to steal peas from the farmers’ gardens during the night, nor the octopi which, according to the Greek poet Oppian (about 149 to 179 AD), Figure 17.22 Chinese longline with baited hooks climbed during the night into the vineyards to steal hanging some distance over the water. Fish jumping for the bait can hook themselves. (From Kasuga & Osaka grapes and olives from the holy tree of Athena. 1975 with permission.) Nevertheless, it is known that some fish can migrate during the night over dry land to move from one body of water to another with a better situation. fish may have learned to jump at the right moment This is known in African swamp fisheries and also to get the food out of the air. From a holy spring in of some fish living in Asiatic rice fields (Hickling Madagascar, strong eels can be seen taking meat in 1961). To catch fish crossing over land, fishermen in the air from a priestess who holds it over the Burma arrange entrapments which consist of a surface of the water.This can be explained by learn- barrier with a pit dug near each end, into which ing. But what is the explanation for fish acting in a some fish fall in trying to make their way around very unnatural manner and taking a bait, even (Burdon 1951). This method has also been known DFC17 4/23/05 8:35 PM Page 263

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by the Chinese (de Thiersant 1872) and it seems to Métodos de Pesca Artesanales de le República Popular be known in other parts of the former Indo-China China. Instituto Nacional de Pesca, México [in Spanish]. (Hickling 1961). To catch animals in pitfall traps is Koch, G. (1965) Die materielle Kultur der Ellis-Inseln. an old hunting technique. It may be a good example Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde, of the close relation of hunting methods and those Berlin NF 3. Berlin. of fishermen as mentioned in the first chapter of Lane, F.W. (1960) Kingdom of the Octopus. New York. this book. Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en Lettonie. Paris. Lindblom, G. (1943) Fischfang mit einem weissen Brett in China und ähnliche Methoden aus anderen Teilen der References Welt. Ethnos 3, 115–132. Angot, M. (1961) Vie et économie des mers tropicales. Liu, S.Y. (1940) The fishing industries of Hong Kong. A Paris. general survey Part V.Description of gear and methods. Baldaque da Silva, A.A. (1891–92) Estado Actuel das Hong Kong Fisheries Research Station Journal 1 (2), Pesca em Portugal. Lisbon. [in Portuguese]. 107–135. Blache, J. & Miton, F. (1962) Première Contribution à la MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Connaissance de la Pêche dans le Bassin Hydro- and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the graphique Logone-Chari Lac Tchad. ORSTOM, Paris. Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu Montilla, J.R., Hilario, C.A. & Esquieres, P.G. (1959) swamps; a study of fishing activities of the Unga tribe. Various fishing gear used in the Philippines. Technology The Rhodes–Livingstone Papers No. 12. Rhodes– Services Section. Marine Fisheries Division, December. Livingstone Institute, Livingstone, Zambia. Nikolski, G.H. (1957) Spezielle Fischkunde. Berlin. von Brandt, A. (1960) Bemerkenswerte Fangmethoden NN (1949) Aquatic resources of the Ryukyu-Area. Fish und Geräte in der griechischen Fischerei. Protokolle and Wildlife Servic. Fishery Leaflet No. 333. zur Fischereitechnik 6, 327–365. NN (ed.) (1951) [Fishing Gear of the Caspian Sea.] von Brandt, A. (1964) Madgaskar, fischereiliche Reiseno- Ministry of Fisheries. Moscow [in Russian]. tizen. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX (41), 148–196. Petit, G. (1930) L’industrie des Pêches à Madagaskar. Burdon, T.W. (1951) A consideration of the classification Paris. of fishing gear and methods. In: Proceedings of the Roumruk, S. & Charoen, S. (1951) Illustration of Sea Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, Sect. II/21. Madras. Fishing Gear for the Coast of Indian Ocean. Bangkok Charemphol, S. (1951) Indigenous marine fishing gear of [in Thai]. Thailand. Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Russel, F.S. & Yonge, C.M. (1949) The Seas. London. Council Sect. II and III, 99–123. Soljan, T. (1956) Projet d’un classement des bateaux et Eigenmann, C.H. & Allen, E.R. (1942) Fishes of Western des engins de pêche maritime et des méthodes corre- South America. Kentucky. spondantes en vue de leur étude dans la Méditerrranée. Fily, M. & d’Aubenton, F. (1965) Report on fisheries tech- GFCM 21/1. Istanbul. nology in the Great Lake and the Tonle Sap. In: Report Thiel, H. (1949) Merkwürdige Fischfanganlagen. Kosmos of France, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of 45, 481–485. Technical Co-operation, National Museum of Natural de Thiersant, P.D. (1872) La Pisciculture et la Pêche en History. Paris. Chine. Paris. George, V.C. (1971) An account of the inland fishing gear Vilkuna, K. (1975) Unternehmen Lachsfang. Die and methods of India. Central Institute of Fisheries Geschichte der Lachsfischerei in Kemijoki. Studia Technologie Special Publication 1, Ernacum. Fennica. Review of Finnish Linguistics and Ethnology Grosskopf, B.C. (1942) Bemerkenswerte Netzkonstruk- No 19. Helsinki. tionen. Monatshefte für Fischerei 10, 151–153. Welcomme, R.L. (1972) An evaluation of the acadja Gudger, E.W. (1937) Fooling the fishes. Fishing with the method of fishing as practised in the coastal lagoons of bateau and the white varnished board in China and Dahomey (West Africa). Journal of Fish Biology 4, with similar devices in other parts of the world. Science 39–55. Monthly 44, 295–306. Went, A.E. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No Hornell, J. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. 6, 191–244. Kano, T. & Segawa, K. (1956) An illustrated ethnography Willer, A. (1929) Ostpreussen, Lettland, Finnland, eine of Formosan aborigines.1: The Yami. Tokyo. fischereiliche Betrachtung. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Kasuga & Osaka, L. (eds) (1975) Catálogo de Artes y Seefischerei Vereins 45, 157–173. DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 264

18 Mechanical Fishing Gear: Traps, Lines and Snares

A fish that is caught by any method can be regarded trapping any fish that may have been attracted in as having been outwitted by humans and trapped. the meantime. (This mechanism is an old Chinese Nevertheless, in fisheries there is a special concep- one, better known from the so-called incense tion of what ‘trapping’ means, in contrast to spear- watches, by which burning fumigating sticks ing or line fishing.A trap is a place to which the fish release, at intervals, weights which fall audibly into is attracted by any lure or bait (Chapter 11), and a bowl.) The disadvantage of this system for fishing from where escape is made more or less difficult for is that the trap is closed whether or not there are the victim. fish in it. A better idea is for the gear to close by a Simple traps have to be watched by the fisher- special mechanism only when the prey is inside. man as they are distinct from many other fishing This is achieved with the mechanical traps used gears. In the same manner hunters and fowlers use more by hunters than by fishermen. Only those cage-like traps which have to be closed by the gears in which the victim must release a mechanism watchman when the prey has been lured inside. In in order to be permanently caught or imprisoned this sense, some of the hiding places used for can be regarded as genuine mechanical traps (Lips fishery, such as bamboo tubes used for eel fishing 1927). An old hunting and fishing dictionary of the (Figure 14.6) or octopus pots (Figure 14.7), can be 18th century therefore described such a trap as a considered as simple traps, from which the prey can ‘machine’ by means of which animals are caught escape when not prevented from doing so by the (NN 1772). fisherman. To stay and to watch a trap may mean Mechanical traps, in this sense, are instruments waiting for hours and avoiding any movement, and such as the well-known mousetrap, where the is consequently not very popular with those who mouse must first nibble at the cheese or bacon to are not fishing for fun. Therefore, special mecha- release the mechanism and cause the trap to shut. nisms have been invented to close a trap mechani- Such genuine traps also include fox traps and the cally, immediately or after a lapse of time, when box traps, both of which play a part in hunting. The the prey has, or may have, entered the trap. Figure possibilities of designing mechanical traps with a 18.1 shows a Chinese freshwater trap of Taiwan releasing mechanism are relatively limited, and arranged in this manner. The trap is a tube-like thus it is not surprising that both hunting and cylinder made of bamboo screens hanging verti- fishing traps operate on the same general principles. cally over the water. The fish are attracted by bait It is essential that they allow only a single animal under this tube.The cylindrical trap is suspended by to be caught, because the first victim will obviously a line fixed on the shore. Here the line is pressed release the mechanism and so, by being caught, will between two burning fumigating sticks protected prevent any further animal being trapped. Other by a small screen seen on the right side of the pho- devices as well as traps can be combined with some tograph. When the sticks have burnt down, the line mechanism released by the victim to make the will be burned through – maybe after some hours catch. It is known in line fishing that a jerk from the – and the cylinder, weighted with stones, falls down, fisherman is usually needed to make the hook pen-

264 DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 265

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Figure 18.1 Unattended trap from Taiwan. The tube-like bamboo screen is held over the water by a line fixed on the shore behind the screen on the right side. The tube falls down when the line is burned through by smouldering sticks behind the screen.

etrate the jaw of the fish. This can also be done by a mechanism released by the fish. Therefore, lines can be constructed and operated like a mechanical fishing gear. Moreover, snares or nooses are included in this group, following the custom in grouping gear for hunting (Lips 1927). In this case, the prey (a fish or crustacean) releases a mechanism which tightens a loop around its body so that it is snared or lassoed.As we will see later, in fishery the snares are seldom tightened by the prey; this is carried out by the watching fisherman. Neverthe- less, for the reason mentioned above, snares oper- ated in fishing are included in the group of mechanical fishing gear (Lips 1927) in general, even though there may be some justified objections. The different types of mechanical gear, whether for hunting or fishing, will be differentiated according to the principles on which the mechanism is based.

18.1 Gravity traps Gravity traps, or deadfalls, are those in which a weight is so suspended that it is easily released by the intruding animal, which is then killed or impris- oned by the fall. A good example of this principle used for fishing is the drum gravity trap of Guyana (Figure 18.2). A weighted bamboo reed cylinder of Figure 18.2 Drum gravity trap of Guyana. (From Lips 1927 with permission.) large diameter is suspended in such a way that the DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 266

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suspending device is loosened as soon as a fish pulls wood and painted like a salmon in its spawning at the bait. The cylinder then falls down and covers colours, can be seen. Figure 18.4 is a similar con- the fish. An identical method is used in the delta of struction used for huchen in the Danube in Austria the Niger in West Africa (Hickling 1961). today (Bruschek 1962). The releasing power of a trap may be supplied by A small spring-shutter trap is still widely used in a spring or a stretched elastic tape. Fish traps which Scandinavia and Finland for pike fishing (Figure have a spring shutter belong to a group which 18.5a), even though prohibited.A small fish is fitted scarcely differs from various metal hunting traps. as bait to a horizontal hook. As soon as the pike There is, however, in the fish trap, usually a bagnet bites the hook, the spring is released and a sharp so that the fish, once the trap has gone off, is con- spike falls down on the head of the pike, killing it fined in a closed netting bag and not, as with traps or at least gripping it. Several of these mechanized used for beasts of prey, between toothed jaws. Such hooks are also used in the form of longlines by com- catching devices are used in the European river mercial fishermen in the eastern part of the Baltic fisheries, e.g. for salmon in the River Rhine and for and around the islands of Öland and Gotland huchen in the Danube. Figure 18.3 shows a salmon (Figure 18.6) (Kaulin 1969). Similar instruments trap from the upper Rhine that was used until the were also used in France for pike (Figure 18.5b) 1950s (Contag 1957). It was mentioned in Chapter (Gourret 1934). 11 that captive living salmon, or dummies, are sometimes tied to longlines near traps to attract 18.2 Box traps other salmon. At first, female salmon were used as bait fish and they attracted males ready for spawn- Box traps also operate on the gravity principle. A ing. Also, as soon as there was a spawning hole, mechanism is released by the fish as it enters the male animals, or dummies, were used to attract trap, and that causes the door to fall down and close other male salmon who then sought to fight their the exit. The group includes traps used in the fish- supposed competitors – only to become caught in eries of south-east Asia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the trap. In Figure 18.3 such a dummy, made of Laos and Burma (Gruvel 1925; Hornell 1950; Umali

Figure 18.3 Salmon trap from the upper Rhine with an artificial bait in the form of a wooden fish. DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 267

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Figure 18.6 Longline with spring-shutter traps for pike from Gotland Island. (From Kaulin 1969 with permission.)

Figure 18.4 Huchen (Danube salmon) trap from the River Danube. (Photo: Bruschek.)

Figure 18.7 Fish trap of Indonesia. (Photo: Ethno- graphical Museum, Leiden.)

Figure 18.5 Spring-shutter traps for pike fishing: (a) from Sweden; (b) from France. (From Gourret 1934 with anism is released which closes the door of the permission.) trap (Figure 18.7). On the Ivory Coast, sea cows (Trichechus) are caught with box traps (Briet 1961). 1950). These traps are ingeniously manufactured in The group of box traps in which the closing of the the form of bamboo cages or baskets produced by door is activated by the animal being caught also partly splitting a bamboo reed. A bait is suspended includes a newer octopus pot from Japan (Figure in the trap and when a fish takes the bait, a mech- 18.8). In Chapter 14 octopus pots were mentioned DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 268

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Figure 18.9 An automatic fishing line of Central Java. (From Thienemann 1951 with permission.) Figure 18.8 Japanese octopus trap with a mechanical door which is closed by a rubber tape. and hook reach into the water. The cast is fastened or clasped so that the hook lies free. But as soon as as artificial hiding places. As described, these had the fish takes the bait, the holding device at the cast the drawback that the octopus was able to leave is released, the fishing rod springs up and effectively the pot and escape, even as the pot was being hooks the fish by a quick strike which, otherwise, hauled. The mechanical octopus pots have a semi- the fisherman operating a handline would have to cylindrical form, are made of cement, and are do himself. This system has the great merit that the equipped with a lid. To prevent escape, the circular hooked fish is held out of the water, clear of preda- door is closed by an elastic tape as soon as the tors. Figure 18.9 shows a simple arrangement of this octopus touches the bait, which causes a trigger to kind from central Java (Thienemann 1951).The cast be released. By this device, the originally simple used here is a piece of rattan with natural barbs. hiding place has been developed into a mechanical These are hooked on to water plants, etc., and so trap. As a consequence, yields have increased so keep the rod bent. If a fish bites, the rattan hooks extraordinarily that this very effective gear has had are loosened and the fish is tossed from the water to be prohibited in most areas. by means of the fishing rod jumping back into its straight position. There are many ways of keeping 18.3 Whippy bough or spring traps a fishing rod in a bent position until the fish has released the mechanism by taking the hook. Some Besides the gravity principle, there are, however, of these mechanisms are placed under water. It may still other principles of power that are used for the be better to place them over water as is done by the construction of mechanical traps which permit the Chinese and some fishermen in western Africa. full and voluntary entrance of a fish or crab but Such spring rods are widely known in Java and are which prevent its escape by means of a shutter also used in line fishing in the modern Chinese operated by the action of the animal (Burdon freshwater fisheries (Figure 18.10), as well as in 1951). These include traps in which the catching Thailand. They have also been used by some mechanism depends on the use of the elastic power Indians in South America. Bent rods for line fishing of a bent rod. This rod is tied fast in a bent form so are also known in Europe, where they have been that it springs back into its original straight position used on the Danube for catching salmon – here, when the mechanism is released; these traps are however, only by fish thieves. The arrangement is called whippy bough or spring traps (Lips 1927; not always as simple as has been described. Figure Welcomme 1979). 18.11 shows a fishing line adapted to a whippy The principle of this trap is used in connection bough trap – this time from Thailand (NN 1907). with fishing lines. A fishing rod is bent so that line The bent fishing rod is held by a small transverse DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 269

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Figure 18.12 Bent-rod trap of Brazil. (From Lips 1927 with permission.) Figure 18.10 A whippy rod used as Chinese freshwater gear. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.)

Figure 18.13 Bent-rod trap for rats and crabs as used in Cameroon. (From Monod 1928 with permission.)

Figure 18.14 Spring trap used in African rivers such as the Niger and Chari and in Cameroun. (From Welcomme 1979 with permission.)

Figure 18.11 Automatic fishing line of Thailand. (From NN 1953 with permission.) released by the movement of a little transverse stick from which the bait is suspended. This same princi- ple of the whippy bough can be used for closing wooden stick, just as was previously used in gravity pots or other traps. Figure 18.13 shows just such a traps (Figure 18.2). Bent rods and the tension trap from Cameroun, which closes through the produced thereby are not only used for operating release of a bent rod (Monod 1928). They are used fishing lines, but are also applied to baskets adapted for rats as well as for crabs. The same spring traps as traps (Figure 18.12). Such a whippy bough trap are known in the rivers Niger and Chari (in Chad comes from Brazil. Here, too, the mechanism is and Cameroun) (Figure 18.14) (Welcomme 1979). DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 270

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Spring traps also have a wider distribution. The then tossed by the counterweight onto the ice. Thus Indonesians knew and used such automatically the counterweight had the same effect as the power closing traps and so did the Indians from Guyana. assembled in the bent rod of the whippy bough trap But there are still other possibilities of successfully (Kusnetzow 1898). using the power that lies in bent rods for fishing purposes. On the Mariana Isles, a crossbow-shaped trap was used for placing in front of the holes in which crayfish lurked (Figure 18.15). If a crayfish entered the tube of the trap and pulled at the bait, an arrow-like rod was shot out to block the exit. A special type of mechanical fishing gear can be described from the old Russian fisheries and, as such gear is relatively rare, it is included here (Figure 18.16). To fish for the white sheatfish in winter on the River Volga, a fishing hook was fas- tened to the end of a long lever by means of a short line. The lever rested with its centre on a block and had a counterweight on the other end.The gear was so arranged that the lever arm carrying the fish hook was pulled downwards and fastened to a support frozen in the ice. If the fish took the hook, Figure 18.15 Crayfish trap of the Mariana Islands. (From Lips 1927 with permission.) it released the support by its movements and was

Figure 18.16 Old automatic line fishing for Coregonus leucichthys in River Volga, Russia (1861). DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 271

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Figure 18.17 Torsion trap for prawns, used in southern Taiwan. (From Lips 1927 with permission.) Figure 18.18 Fish snares: (a) for sea trout used in Switzerland; (b) shark snare with bait of the Western Caroline Islands (from Eilers 1955 with permission); (c) 18.4 Torsion traps stick snare of the Admiralty Islands (from Nevermann 1934 with permission); (d) stick snare of the Gilbert A special group of genuine traps is formed by the Islands (from Koch 1965 with permission). torsion shutter traps. As the name implies, the strength lying in twisted twines is used for these traps. The old shape of the carpenter’s frame-saw or waterfowl, as well as smaller and bigger used the strength of these twisted twines to keep mammals. Such passive snares, where the fish has to the lateral parts which carried the saw blade under close the loop to become snared, are not unknown tension. The view is held that the knowledge of the in fisheries. But more often the snare has to be power of torsion is a characteristic of the superior guided around the fish and tightened by the watch- cultures of Asia and Africa. Figure 18.17 shows a ing fisherman, like a lasso. For this reason it is some- crayfish trap formerly used in southern Taiwan times said that the fish or crab is lassoed instead of which operated on this principle. It has two flaps (a snared. Nevertheless, snares in any form of opera- and b) fitted into twisted twines. These, therefore, tion will be considered in this section. have the tendency to flip over as soon as the safety The snare, or noose, is made of a line, forming at hook (c) is displaced by the crayfish gnawing at the its end a loop with a running knot which tightens bait on flap (a). The flaps knock the crayfish down when the line is pulled. Sometimes the fish may and hold it on the bottom, upside down. swim through the loop, attracted by bait, or the watching fisherman may slip the loop carefully 18.5 Snares around the prey before closing the line with a jerk. In fisheries, smaller snares are mostly made of Snares date back to the basic cultures of mankind twisted or plaited horse hair; bigger ones are made (Anell 1955). They belong to old gear used in from line or soft wire such as brass, and nowadays hunting as well as in fishing. The principle of true of PA monofilaments. The different types of snares snaring is, as mentioned before, that the prey are known according to their mode of operation releases a mechanism, tightening a loop of line (Figure 18.18). Not only fish, but crabs, octopi and around the body. Snares are considered as mechan- even crocodiles can be caught by snares in fresh ical traps: the prey, by its movement, closes the loop waters as well as in sea waters. In European fish- of the snare and so catches itself. This may be true eries, pike are caught by snaring in the spring when also of the unwatched snares of hunters, designed these fish, just before spawning, stay in shallow to take terrestrial animals such as birds in the forest water. The snare, made of wire, is usually slipped DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 272

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putting this loop round the neck of a fish, he pulls the end of the line he is holding in his hand, thus squeezing the fish between the line and the lower part of the stick (Anell 1955). Sometimes, hand-operated snares are also baited to attract prey into the range of a snare held by a fisherman. Best known are the baited snares for catching sharks (Figure 18.18b), or those in which the shark is lured in an acoustic manner. Fishing with shark snares is often described from Oceania. In particular shark rattles are used today to lure the fish (Chapter 11). In shark fishing the snare can be held fast or be free-drifting. In the latter case, the snare is connected to a propeller-shaped wooden float working as a brake or retarder (Figure 9.28b). Figure 18.19 Snare spread in a forklike stick ready for The loop with the retarder is operated in such a way catching pike. (From Peesch 1966 with permission.) that the shark swims by itself through the loop. When the fish has passed one third of its body length through the snare, the loop is closed with a carefully over the head of the pike by means of a jerk. The fish trying to escape is very soon rod. This can be a stick up to 2m long and bifur- exhausted by the drag of the retarder and can be cated at its end (Figure 18.18a). This forked end is killed with spears or clubs (Parkinson 1907). made from wood; formerly, it was also made from A new description of catching sharks with a whalebone. Originally, the two branches of the stick baited snare does not differ very much from an old had to keep open the snare, as can be seen in that one published many years ago. The method, from formerly used for catching pike in the River Havel the Santa Cruz Islands, initially lures the shark by in eastern Germany (Figure 18.19). The stick of operating rattles in the water (Koch 1971). If a hazelwood had a length of > 1 m. With the help of shark is attracted, rattling is stopped and some bait the stick, the snare (made of twine or wire and kept fish, fixed on a fishing line, is thrown into the water. open by the two forks) is brought carefully over the When the shark follows the bait, it is towed near to head of the pike and the stick is ripped away very the boat. When the shark is drawn within range, the quickly: the noose is loosened from the two points snare is thrown over the fish and is drawn tight.The and is closed around the fish (Peesch 1966).As soon shark is then killed with clubs. Bigger fish are held as the wire gets behind the pectoral fin the snare is and fixed outside the boat in such a manner that the quickly pulled tight and the pike is thrown, with a fish, if possible, helps the boat by its movements on jerk, onto the land. Large carp, bream, sea trout and the way home! Simple forms of snares, together drub can be caught in the same way. In Ireland, with bait, can be held by a diving fisherman in front snaring was a common method of capturing salmon of a hole where an eel is expected to be. With a (Went 1964). Snaring is a fishing method known in stick, bait is moved up and down near the snare till many countries and especially used in small subsis- the attracted fish leaves its hole and swims through tence fisheries (Klunzinger 1892; Ligers 1953; the loop – which is immediately closed (Koch 1965). Gunda 1974; Solymos 1976). An interesting form of snaring is that used with kite Besides this simple form of snare, another type is fishing (Chapter 8). In place of the spider-web known which was specially developed for catching towed over the water surface by a kite, a baited eels. This so-called stick snare looks like an imple- snare is attached to catch garfish.As soon as the fish ment for catching snakes (Figure 18.18c,d). Indeed, snaps at the bait, the operator jerks the line, thus it is often used to secure eels and moray eels which closing the loop round its upper jaw. The fish’s try to escape. Here, a double line is drawn through needle-like teeth prevent the loop from slipping off a hollow stick, forming a small loop beneath the the jaw. Another description from Singapore lower opening. When the fisherman succeeds in (Burdon 1954) of this former fishery for garfish with DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 273

Mechanical Fishing Gear: Traps, Lines and Snares 273

Figure 18.21 Snow trout taken by ‘loop fishing’ in Nepal. The loop is operated by the pole-and-line method. A small piece of lead acts as a lure and a small float, posi- tioned on the water surface, supports the closing of the snare. (From Shrestha 1979 with permission.) Figure 18.20 Baited ‘lobster tackle’ from Hawaii with two snares for catching crustaceans. (From Hosaka 1973 with permission.) combined on one fishing line, with a rod as used for pole-and-line fishing.The snare was originally made kite and baited snare, explains that the loop was of horse hair or plant fibres; now often of 2–4mm baited with a prawn. This, trailing over the water in PA monofilaments. This material is mostly response to the movements of the kite, simulated a coloured, blue or transparent in clear water, and prawn or small fish seeking to escape from its multicoloured in turbid waters.There is no hook for enemy by a frantic leap out of the water. Garfish bait as with the gear of Hawaii, nevertheless the were expected to follow their prey,also jumping out snares in Nepal are used baited and unbaited. of the water to take it. Once the bait is taken, the Moreover a small piece of lead hanging under the violence of the attack tightens the noose around the snare is considered also as a lure. A heavy stone is jaw of the garfish. In this case, the fish itself closes needed to keep the gear in the right position when the loop of the snare. fishing in waters with a strong current. The snoods All snares mentioned so far have had a single are operated with a pole of 5–8m long for swinging loop, but snares with two, three or five loops are out the snares like a fly in spin fishing. The line is also known. Figure 18.20 shows a tackle from run through rings along the rod but there is no reel Hawaii with two snares for catching langoustes.The fixed on the rod for winding up the line. snares are made of fine spring steel wire. A baited This is done around a separate board, held in one hook between the two loops attracts langoustes and hand of the fisherman. There are more interesting a heavy sinker is used to take the line down very details with this gear, including a small wooden fast to the bottom (Hosaka 1973).The attracted lan- float by which the size and depth of the snare gouste can be snared by the fisherman or will snare can be regulated and which works like a retarding itself in the loops. Also for fish, snares with more device (Figure 18.21). This float and the sinker than one loop are known, such as those of the ‘loop will support the self-collapsing of the snare. Loop line fishery’ for catching snow trout (Schizothora- line fishing can be carried out only in waters ichthys progastus) and others (Shrestha 1979). In without underwater plants, as these tend to cause this case not only two, but up to five, snares are the loops to collapse before any fish can be caught DFC18 4/23/05 8:36 PM Page 274

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(Shrestha 1979). Snares for fishing are, or have Fang. Stuttgart. been, known practically all over the world. But only Koch, G. (1965) Materielle Kultur der Gilbert-Inseln. rarely can they be regarded as genuine mechanical Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völkerkunde Berlin NF 6, Berlin. traps into which the fish would be likely to Koch, G. (1971) Die materielle Kultur der Santa Cruz- swim without human help, thus catching itself by Inseln. Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Völk- closing the snare as it pushes forward. Snares, to be erkunde Berlin NF 21, Berlin. really effective in fisheries, generally need human Kusnetzow, J. (1898) Fischerei und Tiererbeutung in den Gewässern Russlands. St Petersburg. guidance. Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en Lettonie. Paris. References Lips, J. (1927) Fallensysteme der Naturvölker. Leipzig. Monod, T. (1928) L’industrie de Pêche au Cameroun. Anell, B. (1955) Contribution to the History of Fishing in Paris. Southern Seas. Uppsala. Nevermann, H. (1934) Admiralitätsinseln. In: Ergebnisse Briet, R. (1961) La Pêche en Lagune Ebrié. Abidjan. der Südsee-Expedition 1908–1910,Vol. IIA. Hamburg. Bruschek, E. (1962) Huchenfang mit dem ‘Hucheneisen’ NN (1772) Onomatologia Forestalis-Piscatorio-Venatoria am unteren Inn. Österreich Fischerei 15, 138–140. oder Vollständiges Forst-, Fisch- und Jagdlexikon. Burdon, T.W. (1951) A consideration of the classification Frankfurt/Leipzig. of fishing gear and methods. In: Proceedings of the NN (1907) [Handbook of Fishing Gear in Siam.] Bangkok Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, Sect. II/21, Madras. [in Thai]. Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. Parkinson, A. (1907) Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee. Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 Stuttgart. (2), 5–76. Peesch, A. (1966) Holz-Gerät in seinen Urformen. Berlin. Eilers, A. (1935) Westkarolinen. In: Ergebnisse der Shrestha, T.K. (1979) Technique of fishing in Nepal. I: Südsee-Expedition 1908–1910,Vol. 9. Hamburg. Innovation and development of loop line snaring. Contag, D. (1957) Die Fischerei im Hochrhein. Zeitschrift Journal of the Natural History Museum 3 (4), 121– fuer Fischerei NF VII, 103–108. 138. Gourret, R. (1934) Les Pêcheries et les Poissons de la Solymos, E. (1976) Die südslawischen Beziehungen der Méditerranée. Paris. ungarischen Donaufischerei. In: Studien zur Tradi- Gruvel, A. (1925) L’Indo-Chine, ses Richesses Marines et tionellen Europäischen Fischerei (ed. E. Solymos), Bajai Fluviales. Paris. Dolgozatok 3, 65–72. Gunda, B. (1974) Beziehungen zwischen den naturbe- Thienemann, A. (1951) Bilder aus der Binnenfischeei auf dingten Faktoren und der Fischerei in den Karpaten. Java und Sumatra. Archiv für Hydrobiologie Supple- Acta Ethnographica Slovaka I, 111–121. mentband 29, 529–618. Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. Umali, A.F. (1950) Guide to the classification of fishing Hornell, J. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. gear in the Philippines. Fish and Wildlife Service Hosaka, E.Y. (1973) Shore Fishing in Hawaii. Hawaii. Research Report No. 17. Washington. Kasuga & Osaka, L. (1975) Catálogo de Artes y Métodos Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain de Pesca Artesanales de la República Popular China. Rivers. London. Instituto National de Pesca, México [in Spanish]. Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- Kaulin, M. (1969) Eine Langleine mit Hechtfallen von der ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No. 6, Insel Gotland. Fischwirt 19 (12), 280–282. 191–244. Klunzinger, C.B. (1892) Bodenseefische, deren Pflege und DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 275

19 Gillnetting

With many fishing gear made of netting it is found distributed buoyancy. For the same reason sinkers that fish sometimes hang in the mesh. In trying to have sometimes been replaced by small chains and, swim through a mesh of netting which is a little later, by plaited lines filled with small pieces of lead. smaller than the largest circumference of their To prevent the entangling of larger mesh with body, they get stuck or, in other words, ‘meshed’. single floats, net rings made of plastic can be used This can happen at the beginning of the dorsal fin as floats, as in the northern European countries. of the fish, but mostly it will be behind the opercula For the same reason, galvanized steel rings can and the gills – i.e. they are ‘gilled’. The pressure of be used to replace sinkers (see Figure 19.14). Han- the mesh twine on the throat of the fish can cause dling the gear is much easier with steel rings instead the opercula to spread, and the net twine then of sinkers, and they keep the gear some distance off hooks behind them so that the fish can go neither wrecks, which are promising places for gillnetting forward nor backward. By struggling to become but are, unfortunately, inclined to damage the net free from the mesh the fish can further entangle by hooking. itself. It may happen that small fishes can pass a Gillnets are usually set across the direction of the mesh of certain netting without difficulty,but bigger migrating fish, so that they try to make their way ones can be gilled, or gilled and entangled, and through the meshes of the netting. For this reason, others, especially large ones, can be caught by gillnets can be operated in a variety of ways. There entangling only, all in the same netting. are bottom nets, set on or near the bottom to catch As a result of these observations, special gear demersal fish; there are anchored floating gillnets to has been constructed to catch fish by gilling. These catch mid-water fish; and there are free-drifting gill- are the so-called ‘gillnets’ (Figure 19.1), discussed nets or driftnets to catch surface fish as well as mid- in this chapter. Other gear has been constructed to water fish. There are further methods of operating catch fish by entangling. These are the so-called gillnets in quite a different way. One is the encir- ‘entangling nets’, which will be considered in cling gillnet which will be described with the drive- Chapter 20. Gilling and entangling are two differ- in fishery (Chapter 21); another is the dragged ent principles of catching, but both can happen in gillnet used in some freshwaters. Further, set gill- the same fishing gear. On the other hand, gear used, nets can be operated in such a form that they work e.g. for catching crabs by entangling, should not be like two-dimensional traps. called a gillnet, as is sometimes done in the litera- Generally, gillnetting is a clear-water fishery, used ture. Gillnets are net walls kept more or less verti- where there is not too strong a current and no float- cal by floats on the upper line and mostly by ing vegetation (which can make the nets ineffective weights on the ground-line. It is necessary to dis- by filling up and joining the meshes). Other unde- tribute floats and sinkers in an even manner. It was, sirable matter includes mass-produced micro- therefore, an advance to replace a large number of organisms (water blossom) from natural causes or floats by ‘swimming lines’. These are plaited lines, resulting from pollution. Gillnetting has its limita- incorporating floats, which provide a more evenly tions in deep waters. In water that is too deep, the

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sible then.When a fish was gilled in an early netting made of thick, stiff, non-elastic material, it was more or less an accident, or special conditions pressed the fish in large shoals into the netting, as in the old north European herring fishery with driftnets made of hemp. The current high efficiency of gillnetting in sea and fresh water was not possible before the introduction of synthetic fibres for net-making. There is a long list of the properties of a gillnet which may influence its efficiency and it may be that not all are known even now (von Brandt 1974). Some of them depend on the construction of the gear, such as mesh size and mesh shape, which is influenced by the hanging of the netting, which also influences the slack of the netting. Of these prop- erties, mesh size may be the most important. By the use of the correct mesh size and a high degree of uniformity in the size of all meshes, the gear becomes highly selective – so important for the management of a fish population. This does, Figure 19.1 Gillnet fisherman of southern Germany. however, not exclude the unwanted by-catch of (Photo: Graf Mandelsloh.) other species such as seabirds (see Chapter 32). There may be no other gear which is as selective as a gillnet in taking fish of a uniform size. Other properties influencing the efficiency of gillnets hydrostatic pressure can compress the usual floats depend on the material used for the netting of the of cork or plastic to such an extent that they lose gear.The most important are its low visibility, which their buoyancy and the gear can no longer function. depends not only on the material used but also on Nevertheless, with suitable floats, gillnets can be its thickness, its knots (mostly double knots), its operated at a depth of 150m and more. colour, and its contrast with the surroundings where If dragged and encircling gillnets are excluded, the gear is set. Other properties influencing the effi- gillnets are passive fishing gear (Chapter 1). This ciency of gillnets are that the net should have the means that the fish has to voluntarily try to swim greatest possible softness and that it should have through the meshes of the unwatched fishing gear. the lowest possible swelling from immersion in To encourage the fish to do so, baits have even been water. Just as a vessel pushes a bow wave ahead of fixed in the meshes, e.g. by Somalian fishermen on it, so does a swimming fish. This wave is reflected Lake Tanganyika. Coloured pearls woven into the by more or less solid objects, and the return swell meshes of the set nets by Zaire fishermen may have is recorded by the sensitive lateral line of the fish the same attractive effect.Also, some attempts have which operates as a kind of automatic apparatus for been made to lure mackerel into the gillnets by recording distances. The stronger the returning tying glittering artificial bait on to the netting. As swell, the more will the fish endeavour to avoid explained earlier, the fish are caught when they try what is ahead. The net twines of the gillnets there- to penetrate the meshes of the netting voluntarily, fore have to be made as fine as possible, thus again but they will do this only when the wall of netting reducing their visibility. To decrease the swell, the seems easy to slip through. For this reason, the gear netting should not be held tensely but should be as must have certain properties of construction and of slack as possible. Slacking may be obtained in the the material from which it has been made. There construction of the gear by making the side lines of may be some doubt if these different properties the gear much shorter than the depth of the netting. could have been achieved in earlier times, and it is But this may increase the entangling effect of the questionable whether effective gillnetting was pos- gear more than the gilling effect. On the other DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 277

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hand, the water resistance of the netting will be decreased. When comparing the visibility of a gillnet with its softness and its water resistance, visibility is the most important. The volume of a catch decreases with increasing visibility. It must be borne in mind that the visual faculty of fish differs not only accord- ing to the species but also (by some evidence) according to their age and physiological condition. Therefore it is essential that the gillnet should con- trast as little as possible with its surroundings. Efforts have therefore been made to dye these types of nets so that they are as invisible as possi- ble and harmonize closely with their surroundings. A white cotton net, for example, would contrast far too much with what are usually darker surround- ings, especially in clear waters (Figure 19.2). In the fresh waters of Europe, the prevailing colours are bluish-green and brownish, and these have there- fore become the principal colours used for nets. However, waters change colour within short periods, and certainly within the course of the year. Many fishermen, therefore, have equipped them- selves with nets of various colours, so that they may always have available nets suitably dyed, or so camouflaged as to blend with the colour of the water. The efficiency of these nets has been increased sometimes by several hundred per cent when natural fibres have been replaced by less visible synthetic fibres (PA multifilament), especially by transparent monofilaments (PA) or monotwines (twines made of monofilaments of PA and also PE) (Steinberg 1961; von Brandt 1974). This fact has caused gillnet fishery to expand considerably in recent years, and has decreased effort in some other fishing methods such as beach seining, which need more manpower and more money. Gillnets made of monofilaments of surprising transparency, scarcely visible and without any disturbing sparkle in the knots (Figure 19.2) have been manufactured by machines in Europe since 1953, and even by hand in many parts of the world, so that they meet the condition of contrasting as little as possible with any surroundings, even if the water colour should change (Figure 19.3). With the help of synthetic Figure 19.2 Gillnets made of cotton yarn (left) and polyamide monofilament (right). Both yarns have the netting materials of low visibility, it has proved pos- same diameter. The visibility is decreasing with decreas- sible to fish in clear water, and during daytime, in ing light intensity in deeper water (from top to bottom). the clear brown-water lakes of northern Europe or The photographs are taken from the screen of an under- in the clear oligotrophic lakes of the Alps, where water television system. DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 278

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Figure 19.4 Anchored bottom net for sea fisheries.

Figure 19.3 Hauling a transparent gillnet in northern with the bottom, which may be more or less rough, Germany. the leadline can be about 10 per cent longer than the floatline.These nets can be set in shallow water, any effective fishery with gillnets made of cotton but also up to 50m deep in fresh waters, and in sea was formerly only productive during the time of waters sometimes >150m (Icelandic cod nets are thaw – characterized by turbid waters. Moreover, it used down to 100 fathoms). was found that catches included species not for- In areas that have great differences between ebb merly caught, and that of the known species, larger and flood tides, set nets can be arranged with very fish were caught than with netting made of natural long poles. An example of this can be seen in the fibres, even when the finest cotton, like Mako, was set nets of the tidal area of Nova Scotia on the used. Canadian Atlantic coast.These are very famous, for The second important property of netting mate- they are set between such high poles that when ebb rial used for gillnets is the softness of the twine. time comes the fishermen have to remove the fish Visibility is more important, so that a hard net with from the net by means of ladders or by standing on a low visibility will catch more than a soft one with a horse carriage. The rise and fall of the tide is here a high visibility; but from two nets of the same vis- over 8 m, so that at ebb tide the gillnets hang with ibility, the softest will catch more. The importance the fish high above the dry ground. of visibility decreases with the turbidity of the Usually gillnets are not used as single nets: a water. So it may happen that the same gillnet, with number are linked together. Bottom-set nets can be low visibility and high efficiency in clear waters, set as straight walls or in a bow-shaped pattern may catch less than others in muddy waters, (Figures 19.5b and 19.5c). These pattern arrange- because the others have a higher degree of softness. ments can be taken further so that the layout of the It has been mentioned before that the netting yarns scheme resembles that of a two-dimensional trap of gillnets should be as fine as possible, to decrease with a slit funnel (Figure 19.5a). A special form of visibility and to increase softness. On the other this combination between gilling and trapping is hand, netting of very fine material is not only diffi- known in Israel in Eilat on the Gulf of Aqaba (Ben- cult to handle but is more prone to damage than Yami personal communication). Here gillnets are thicker material. Moreover, very fine netting mate- set in the form of a hook, with the longer end to the rial may cut and damage some species (e.g. coast, in water >10m deep.When fish enter the bow herring), known as ‘soft’ fish. of the hook, the part open to the shore is closed by a stop net.The enclosed fish are caught with a beach 19.1 Bottom-set gillnets and anchored seine, but the gilled fish are taken out of the meshes floating gillnets by divers. In northern countries stationary gillnets are also Stationary gillnets set on the bottom between used during winter under ice. To do this, holes are stakes and anchors are used in lakes and coastal made and the nets are pushed under the ice with fisheries for catching the most common commercial sticks reaching from one hole to another. As is also fish (Figure 19.4). To give these nets a good contact known for ice fishing with the seine net (Chapter DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 279

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Figure 19.6 Floating gillnets for catching white fish in a lake in northern Germany.

19.2 Driftnets in sea fisheries and in fresh waters Driftnets are especially used in sea fishing (Figure 19.7), particularly to catch herring, mackerel and sardines, but also for salmon and tuna and some other schooling fish (Figures 19.8 and 19.9). In a sea fishery the nets may drift independently, accompa- nied by a vessel, but generally they are fastened to a boat that drifts with them. In English fishing a whole row of nets is called a ‘fleet’ or ‘gang’ and they are closely watched during the night so that Figure 19.5 Methods of setting gillnets in freshwater fisheries: (a) with a turning made of at least two nets; (b) they can be controlled and hauled at any time, turning at the end of a single net; (c) simple setting. without searching for them. The method of operat- ing very long rows of driftnets is particularly impor- tant because large areas of water can be covered by 28), to set gillnets under ice, a ‘jigger’ (Figure 28.12) the drifting net walls, which are sometimes up to 10 can be used, as by the Canadians, to pull a rope km long or even more. In this way they are able to from one hole to another. With this line the net can filter large volumes of water and so catch even scat- be brought into the right position even under a tered fish or fish schools in sufficient commercial thick layer of ice. quantities.There are some differences in the rigging Stationary gillnets can also be set at some dis- of driftnets (Figure 19.7) but in general the netting tance from the bottom by long connecting lines is ‘framed’. That means each net has not only a between sinkers and net.The fishermen say the nets floatline and leadline but also side lines to give the are staying on ‘legs’. These legs can be very long, gear better stability for handling.When the leadline causing the nets to float some metres over the is omitted, the catch will be made primarily by bottom. They are called ‘floating gillnets’. They are entangling (Chapter 20) and not by gilling. There suspended between anchors on the bottom and are many ways of rigging driftnets to avoid the floats on the surface (Figure 19.6). Such especially influence of the movement of the vessel on the gear. fine nets are used in the mid-European freshwater Small drifters operating for herring in the fisheries, principally for taking the more valuable western part of the Baltic up to the 1960s hung their pelagic species of fish. Both the fishermen of the driftnets between anchored floats and the drifting smaller lakes in the Alps and north German fisher- vessel (Figure 19.10). men catch coregonids with anchored floating net In contrast to sea fisheries, driftnets are not used walls of this type made of the finest, scarcely visible much in freshwater fishing because the areas are so material (Figures 19.1 and 19.3). limited. Only in very large lakes are floating gillnets DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 280

Figure 19.8 Shooting of driftnets from a German herring drifter.

Figure 19.7 Different types of driftnets for sea fishing: (a) floating at the surface; (b) floats with special lines keep the net deeper; (c) lines between net and floats as well as between sinkers and net; (d) European driftnet for herring, German type; (e) European driftnet for herring, Scottish type.

Figure 19.9 Hauling a herring driftnet with a good catch. DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 281

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Figure 19.10 Anchored driftnet for catching herring in the Baltic off the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein.

19.3 Dragged gillnets Gillnets are passive fishing gear when not operated as encircling nets in the drive-in fishery (Chapter 21) or as dragged gillnets in fresh waters. In the latter case the gillnets are towed, like trawls, in shallow waters by two men or by two boats. This method seems to be known in different parts of the world. The technique is described from central and southern Africa (MacLaren 1958), including Madagascar (von Brandt 1964), and also from Figure 19.11 Finnish towing board for driftnets in Argentina (Cordini 1955). In South America this salmon fishery. (From Vilkuna 1975 with permission.) method seems to be a variation of the driftnet fishery. The gear is operated with the current in a river, with a rowing boat on one side and a float on the other, similar to driftnet fishing in rivers. The difference is only that the gear does not drift com- pletely free in the current but is towed over the sometimes allowed to drift freely and unwatched. bottom, gilling the fish which try to escape by swim- In rivers, fishermen use only very small driftnets. ming against the current. This Argentinian net of With one end fixed on a boat and the other on a big extravagant construction is used to catch a fish float, the whole system drifts downstream with the called ‘surubi’ (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum or P. water current. Sometimes two boats with driftnets coruscans) (Cordini 1962).The meshes of the upper are used in a river fishery as in the Finnish salmon part of the gillnet are knitted of a double twine and fishery. Because it was found, in Finland, that some- those of the lower part of a triple twine (Figure times the salmon could be frightened by the noise 19.12).The explanation of this unusual construction of rowing a boat, one of the two boats could be may be the following: a single twine would not be replaced by a float or by a so-called ‘towing board’ strong enough to catch large fish. Two or three (Figure 19.11). This board was worked like a shear- twines twisted together are stronger, but such twine ing board, towing the gear on one side by floating may be too stiff. When two or more twines are only in the middle of the current. It has the same func- taken together with no, or only little, twisting, the tion as the boards used today for trolling in some result will be a stronger netting yarn – without countries of northern Europe. increased stiffness. The towing of gillnets is also DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 282

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Gillnetting is of special interest for artisan fisheries because it is a low-cost fishery, with little needing to be invested in nets and their mainte- nance. Moreover, no specialized vessels are needed, and in tropical areas these nets can be operated without a vessel by swimming and diving fishermen. As rowing boats or simple motor boats with a low power are adequate for gillnetting, only a small crew is needed when using a relatively small number of nets. Therefore, this method of fishing is widely practised all over the world and can be considered as a typical small-scale fishery method which can be very effective, especially when monofilament nets are used. These advan- tages decrease when larger numbers of nets are operated. These can make this fishery labour-inten- sive in gear making and mending, setting and hauling, and especially by the work of removing the gilled and entangled fish from the netting. There- Figure 19.12 Gillnet, upper part made of two netting fore, any fisheries that employ large numbers of yarns, lower part of three, operated as towed gear in the Rio Parana, Argentina, for catching ‘surubi’. (From gillnets are expensive today, but the use of gillnets Cordini 1955 with permission.) does permit careful fishing. The quality of the fish caught is appreciated much more than that of fish taken with other gear, par- ticularly those caught by dragged bottom gear. Bet- ter quality may be true for driftnets as caught fish known in the Far East for catching marketable are removed fairly promptly, in contrast to set nets, milkfish in ponds. In this case, some gillnets are which have to stay longer in the water and may joined together and towed along the length of a suffer losses by predatory fish or crabs. Sometimes, pond (Chen 1976). due to the higher elasticity of some synthetic netting yarns, the gilled fish are pressed much more and die 19.4 Advantages and disadvantages more quickly than in gillnets made of natural fibres. of gillnets This adversely affects the quality of the catch. At the beginning of this chapter, the advantages Gillnets are a fishing gear with a high degree of afforded by the introduction of synthetic fibres, selectivity,regulated by the mesh size.They contrast in particular of transparent monofilaments, were with entangling nets (Chapter 20), which have a stressed, particularly in relation to the efficiency of very low selectivity, and it is this selectivity that is the gillnets. Such nets not only catch more but, as very important for the management of a fish popu- they do not rot, can also be used much longer. lation. Because, with the gillnet, fishermen can Experience, however, has revealed one disadvan- decide on the size of mesh to be used so that only tage which even roused the attention of the fish of a certain circumference are caught (smaller Fisheries Division of the Food and Agriculture ones would be able to swim through the net), the Organization of the United Nations. This was the use of passive gear gives the advantage that fish problem of the so-called ‘ghost nets’, similar to the stocks can be exploited more selectively than by problem with some traps for crustaceans discussed any other gear. To spare young fish, or fish that are in Chapter 16, but it arose first with gillnets. As is too small for the market, the authorities adminis- well known, synthetic net twines used in fishing nets tering freshwater fishing sometimes allow only do not rot; if such a rigged gillnet is lost during gillnet fishing and will not tolerate or permit fishing fishing, it can be recovered, even after some years with dragged gear to be carried out. have elapsed, still in useful condition. Proof of this DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 283

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came as follows: some Icelandic fishermen had the bad luck to lose some of their gillnets when fishing for cod in bad weather. After a fairly long time, these nets were found again and it was then revealed that they had continued to catch fish in the meantime. The net showed clearly that fish had Figure 19.13 Wooden spike for storing gillnets. been caught, had died and had rotted in the nets, but were steadily replaced by new ones so that the process went on. It was accordingly feared that if a catches are not increased so much due to the stiff- great number of gillnets became lost, or if many ness of the material, but because of this the entan- nets were fraudulently set, then whole sea areas gling of the fish has been reduced and this has might be gradually depleted. The problem was how avoided the time wasted in taking the fish out of the could the undesired fishing of such ‘ghost’ nets be gear. The proof of the importance of this fishing prevented? The solution was relatively simple: the gear can be seen in two facts: the original natural floats for keeping the nets in a vertical position for fibres were very soon replaced by synthetic ones, fishing should only be fastened by twine made of and all efforts were made to mechanize the opera- natural fibres. Then, should the nets be lost, the tion of the gear.As mentioned before, gillnetting on twines holding the floats would soon rot, the floats a small scale can be a low-cost fishery, but on a large would separate from the nets and those nets would scale it becomes a labour-intensive fishing method. collapse in a heap on the sea bed and so no longer Due to the increasing catches of gillnets made of catch fish (Thorsteinsson 1965; Smolowitz 1978). synthetic materials, interest in gillnetting increased The problem of ghost fishing is not so critical with and, in a relatively short time, gillnets were con- gillnets as it may be for fish pots. Lost gillnets are verted from natural to synthetic fibres and mecha- usually so heavily entangled that they would be nization in gear operation developed quickly and very unlikely to catch fish, and some think that the will continue to do so. The desire to convert from probability of synthetic gillnets fishing as ‘ghost natural to synthetic fibres, especially to monofila- nets’ is overestimated (Thorsteinsson 1965; Fosnaes ments, was so pressing that fishermen, especially in 1975). Asiatic countries, undertook the troublesome work But there are facts concerning gillnet fishing of knitting – by hand – stiff monofilaments, long making their use somewhat ambivalent. A clear before the mechanized net factories could do so. advantage of gillnetting has not yet mentioned, This is one of the rare cases in which the growing which has become very important recently. Gillnet- importance of a fishing gear influenced its mechan- ting is one of those fishing methods with a low ical production. Not only were net-making energy consumption calculated on the relationship machines adjusted to work up monofilaments in of fuel/fish (both in kg). According to Norwegian netting; also the mounting of gillnets became mech- investigations the relationship is similar to that of anized. In Russia, Finland and recently also in longlining (Endal 1979). There are, however, the Germany, special machines have been developed unwanted by-catches of gillnets which attracted the for mounting the netting automatically on floatline attention of environmentalists and has led to a or leadline. Moreover, the joining of two nets can complete worldwide ban on driftnets. now also be done automatically. Some progress was also made in the mechaniza- 19.5 Mechanization in gillnetting tion of the operation of gillnets. Originally, gillnets were set and hauled by hand only.To keep the nets The introduction of synthetic fibres such as PA, PE untangled and to make transportation and handling and PP as multi-filaments, but especially the trans- easier, the nets were strung by one row of mesh on parent monofilaments developed about 1950, gave thorn-like sticks made of wood or plastic (Figure a strong impetus to gillnetting. Gillnets made of PA 19.13) or on simple wooden clamps (Figure 19.14). monofilaments increased catches many times over. When setting, the nets can run immediately from In sea fisheries, gillnets made of PE monotwines are the spike or clamp fixed on to the mast of the vessel. used for catching Spanish mackerel. In this case the When fishing with long fleets of nets, the first DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 284

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removed and transported by truck to a net loft for inspection and repair. While this is carried out, another drum, loaded with net, is fitted into the vessel so that fishing need never be interrupted. In Denmark at the end of the 1970s, a new method for operating gillnets was introduced. This was by hauling the netting over an endless rubber belt against which it is pressed by a plastic roller which moves freely up and down. The roller weight is regulated by filling it with water (Figure 19.22). With this construction the roller can go over thicker netting, as well as over the fish which may hang in the gear. There are different variations of this system especially designed to avoid any damage to the gilled fish. In general, gilled fish are taken out of the netting individually by hand. When large quantities of smaller fish like herring are caught, it is no longer practical to take each single fish out of the mesh, but they can be shaken out by strong up and down movements of the net by the hauling crew. To replace this hard work, especially exhaust- ing with the more elastic synthetic nets, shaking machines were produced by various manufacturers. Figure 19.14 Danish gillnets, with iron rings as weights, stored on wooden clamps. This was done a long time ago in the USSR, unfor- tunately without any favourable reaction from the former large driftnet fishery for herring in the North Sea. Since 1975, with the recreation of the herring stocks, such machines in different sizes attempts were made to mechanize the handling of have been available from Iceland (Figure 19.23). the gear to decrease manpower requirements. With the help of drums, the net with the gilled fish Net-driving rollers were placed on the bulwarks of is pulled through the machine, thus shaking the fish the vessel and net haulers, with separate vertical out of the mesh. Another larger machine, designed gurdies, were introduced (Frechet 1964). As with especially for the Alaska herring fishery but also for other fishing methods in sea fisheries, increasing the salmon gillnetting, has been manufactured in the size of gear, or its operation in deeper water, needs USA. The machine is designed to provide smooth, at least an improvement of the deck’s machinery continuous hauling and simultaneous shaking of for gear handling. For setting and hauling gillnets in the net. These machines could improve working deeper water, stronger net haulers are required. conditions on board drifters. The problem with the Originally,simple reels were used, as in line hauling, shakers is to keep the quantity of fish damaged by but now they are hydraulically powered and spe- this operation as low as possible. cially designed for hauling gillnets (Figures Finally, another problem in gillnetting is the 19.15–19.17). Power blocks mounted on a davit, loading of large quantities of gillnets on board a boom or crane are also used for hauling gillnets, vessel. Gillnets can be set and hauled over the stern sometimes in a specialized form to facilitate the but, in general, they are set from the stern of a handling of the gear (Sainsbury 1971) (Figures vessel and are hauled over the side of the forepart 19.18 and 19.19). Just as in purse seining and of the vessel. That means that the hauled nets, longlining, drums are also used for hauling and before being re-set, have to be transported from the storing of gillnets (Figures 19.20 and 19.21). As in forepart of the vessel to the stern. This has to be New Zealand, a drum holding a gillnet can be carried out by hand, which involves a great amount mounted on the vessel so that it can easily be of manpower. The simplest way to mechanize this DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 285

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Figure 19.15 Hauling reel for gillnet in Anzio, Italy (1976).

Figure 19.16 Modern hydraulically powered line hauler near Kiel, Germany. DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 286

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Figure 19.17 Danish gillnet hauler in action. (Courtesy Figure 19.18 Special crane, with folding boom, for the of World Fishing Exhibition 1980, Press Office.) operation of fishing gear. (Courtesy of Hiab-Foco, Hudiksvall, Sweden.)

Figure 19.19 Cranes with power blocks for the operation of gillnets or purse seines in Suao, Taiwan (1978). DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 287

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Figure 19.20 Californian fisherman shooting an anchored gillnet from a drum to catch sea bass (1967).

Figure 19.21 Gillnetter with a large shark net on a drum in the harbour of Akaroa in New Zealand (1981). DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 288

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Figure 19.23 Icelandic net shaker for driftnets. (Cour- Figure 19.22 Danish automatic gillnet hauler. (Courtesy tesy of Veltak Ltd, Hafnarfjordur, Iceland, 1980). of Grenaa Smedie og Maskinfabrik, Grenaa, 1979.)

work is to use a plastic tube and to tow the nets through it smoothly from one place to another. The tube has a funnel on the side from which the nets are hauled.A rope with a stone on its end is thrown through the tube, and the end of the first net is fixed on this line before one net after the other is towed through the tube from the hauling place to the setting place. This simple method is practised by the Chinese fishermen of the Pescadores Islands (Penghu) in the Formosa Strait (Figure 19.24) as well as by the Danish fishermen in Hvide Sande (Figures 19.25 and 19.26). Also, the Japanese have a system of transferring the nets with an open channel (Figure 19.27), sometimes combined with a moving belt, as used for hauling tuna longlines onboard a vessel. The handling of gillnets aboard has recently been improved considerably and accel- erated by devices able to transfer gillnets to the place from where they are set. The nets are shaken in this process so that much of the debris caught can fall out (Figure 19.28).

Figure 19.24 Chinese gillnetter of the Pescadores Islands, Taiwan, with transport tube for gillnets (1978). DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 289

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Figure 19.25 Danish gillnetter in Hvide Sande with movable tube for the transportation of gillnets for cod. Figure 19.27 Japanese gillnetter for salmon fishing with (Photo: H. Mohr, 1979.) open channel for the transfer of the gear. (Photo: Hayashi Kamakura.)

Figure 19.26 Plan for the transfer of salmon gillnets on a Danish gillnetter. (From Direktoratet for Söfartsuddannelse 1971 with permission.) DFC19 4/23/05 8:38 PM Page 290

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Cordini, J.M. (1962) La Pesca en el Mar Argentino. Direc- tion General de Pesca y Conservation de la Fauna [in Spanish]. Direktorat for Söfartsuddennelse (1971) Fiskerillaere, Section E: Laksfiskeri med Drivgarn. Esbjerg [in Danish]. Endal, A. (1979) Energy consumption in various Norwe- gian fisheries. In: Fuel Challenge Soaring Costs Pose Problems For Fishing. Fishing News International 18 (7), 24/25. Fosnaes, T. (1975) Newfoundland cod war over use of gillnets. Fishing News International 14 (6), 40 and 43. Frechet, J. (1964) Discussion on gillnetting, longlining etc. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World, Vol. 2 (ed. H. Figure 19.28 Modern net shaker. Kristjonsson), 291. London. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Sainsbury, J.C. (1971) Commercial Fishing Methods, an Introduction to Vessels and Gear. London. References Smolowitz, R.J. (ed.) (1978) Lobster, Homorus ameri- canus, trap designs and ghost fishing. Marine Fisheries von Brandt, A. (1964) Madagaskar, fischereiliche Review 40 (5–6), 1–77. Reisenotizen. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX (41), Steinberg, R. (1961) Die Fängigkeit von Kiemennetzen 148–196. für Barsch und Plötze in Abhängigkeit von den Eigen- von Brandt,A. (1974) Enmeshing nets: gillnets and entan- schaften des Netzmaterials etc. Archiv für Fischerei- gling nets, the theory of their efficiency. FAO wissenschaft 12, 173–230. EIFAC/74/I/Symp. No. 9. Thorsteinsson, G. (1965) Fangmethoden in der Kabeljau- Chen, T.P. (1976) Aquaculture Practices in Taiwan. fischerei. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX, 43, Farnham. 288–381. Cordini, J.M. (1955) Rio Parana, sus peces mas comunes Vilkuna, K. (1975) Unternehmen Lachsfang. Die pesca commercial. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganade- Geschichte der Lachsfischerei in Kemijoki. Studia ria. Publication Miscelanea No. 410. Buenos Aires [in Fennica. Review of Finnish Linguistics and Ethnology Spanish]. No. 19. Helsinki. DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 291

20 Entangling Nets

Around the middle of the 19th century a weed strange fishing method. Nevertheless, at the begin- (Elodea canadensis) became so abundant in Euro- ning of the last century one of the first German pean waters that it was called ‘the water plague’.All fishery biologists, Paulus Schiemenz, lamented the of these plants were said to have originated from a loss of small water animals important for growing single specimen brought from America to Ireland fish by the harvesting of submerged water plants for in 1836. Soon, however, this mass development feeding pigs (Schiemenz 1903). and spread declined for reasons that were never In stormy seas, masses of floating weed drift quite clear. Some talked of ‘water fatigue’ as being around and can make even sport fishing with pole responsible in a way similar to the phenomenon of and line impossible. In such cases some people soil fatigue that is known to occur in fields that have recommend abandoning fishing and going home, been subject to continuous monoculture. Although but it can be pleasant to clear the trace and to find the mass spread of this weed hampered fishing and an entangled fish underneath the rubbish (Holden shipping, it was welcomed by some people harvest- 1979). The idea of catching small fish by entangling ing the rich quantities of submerged plants for them in water plants is not known only in Europe. feeding animals or fertilizing their gardens and It is related, for example, that in the flood fisheries fields. Moreover, the dense areas of this plant did of former Rhodesia, women cut the grass in the create hiding places for young fish of all varieties water with a hoe and then, turning the grass over, and some clever people had the idea of catching fish they remove the entangled fish (Heidrich 1905). fry by twisting the plants together. So there is found Pond fishermen know that fish fry can be lost by this account: entangling themselves in bushes of algae. This inci- dent comes as a reminder of a joke a professor of ‘Not far from the beach, where the weed is growing the former German University in Königsberg had exuberantly, in winter time a hole is made in the ice, with some young fishery students during excursions two stakes or a fork-shaped branch are put into the in the cutter fishery. He presented them with a thick weed and carefully turned round, so that the brush-like mop and said it was a kind of fishing weed is towed from afar and turned into a thick gear. The idea was laughed at by the older students. cylindrical rope, which is gradually dragged from In the fringes of that mop, he said, fish would entan- below the ice, including rather considerable gle themselves! But note this: a writer in Viet Nam, amounts of fish, naturally consisting mainly of great when reporting on a curious fishery of Madagascar, masses of young fish.’ (Benecke 1881) declared that the tassel-like end of a cow’s tail was useful for catching the tiniest fish ‘not larger than a For this reason, protests were made against such clove’ (van Nhiem 1956).As can be seen in the next a method of catching young fish indiscriminately by section, the professor of Königsberg was not quite entangling them in plants. The decline of the ‘water so wrong after all with his humorous reference to plague’, however, automatically finished that ‘mop’ fishery!

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Figure 20.1 Italian coral net. (From Bertuccioli 1955 with permission.)

20.1 ‘Mopping’ In the last section a doubtful fishing method was mentioned which can be called ‘mopping’, i.e. catch- ing something by entangling, maybe by towing a mop-like instrument over the ground. Indeed, Figure 20.2 Towed stone with bunches of netting used ‘mopping’ is known as a catching method for for harvesting corals by Taiwanese fishermen. starfish. For cleaning mussel cultures, mop-like gear made of cotton are dragged over oyster banks. Starfish will be entangled by the small rays and pincer-like structures that cover their bodies. The To do this, about four bunches of netting are tied method of dragging twines or net webbing over the on a line with a heavy egg-shaped stone (about 30 bottom and catching animals entangled in that kg) at the end (Figure 20.2) or the local water cur- material is successfully employed by fishermen rents are used to entangle the corals in the netting. gathering precious corals. The Italian ‘ingegno per By towing the stone with the current, the netting la pesca del corallo’ (Figure 20.1) is a weighted floats before the stone, entangling the corals before wooden cross from the arms of which bundles of they are broken from their base by the following net webbing are suspended (Bertuccioli 1955). If stone (Figure 20.3). But other tactics are also these are dragged slowly through colonies of corals, known such as towing the stone against the current. the fine branches of corals become entangled in the In this case the stone breaks the corals first which netting, break off, and are hauled to the surface. then become entangled by the following netting. Similar ‘coral nets’ are known in the fisheries of the Each vessel tows six, twelve or even more lines. Far East for the same purpose – to gather white and Larger vessels are fishing not only near Taiwan but red corals. The Pescadores Islands (Penghu) in the also in deeper waters up to 600m around Hawaii. Formosa Strait are considered one of the world The same principle of fishing is used by Mediter- centres for coral fishing. For ‘fishing’ the corals, ranean fishermen who catch sea urchins by using according to an originally Japanese method, small pieces of netting tied onto the end of a stick. bunches of netting are towed over the ground in up With the help of this implement the urchins hidden to 200m of water where corals are expected to be. in holes are entangled and can be taken out. DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 293

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highly priced and therefore this method is also used in other parts of the world. Spiny lobsters are caught on the south-west coast of Sri Lanka by using old gillnets of suitable mesh size also exposed horizontally over the bottom. The nets are also baited to attract spiny lobsters, which then are lifted, with the netting, by ropes attached to surface floats. By this method the crustaceans which are not already entangled on the bottom, are entangled during hauling (Schärfe 1978). Better known are single-walled tangle nets which are operated in a vertical position like gillnets, either as bottom nets, or anchored and floating, or Figure 20.3 Method of breaking and collecting coral free drifting. Their efficiency can be increased by stocks: first entangling the netting with the corals by the type of mounting, especially when hung very towing the stone with the current, then breaking the coral slack. This can be achieved by having floatlines from the ground by towing the following stone down- longer than the ground-lines (Figure 20.4). This can current (1978). also be achieved by making the side lines of the net much shorter. Moreover, especially with driftnets, the leadline is omitted to give the netting better 20.2 Single-walled tangle nets flexibility for entangling, e.g. to catch Spanish mackerel and salmon (Figure 20.5). This is also In connection with gillnets, we have already seen achieved to some extent by fixing a small amount that fish with a circumference smaller than the of weight only to the ground-rope. mesh can swim through the nets. But fish whose For the reasons mentioned, it is scarcely correct greatest circumference slightly exceeds the mesh (as is often done) to describe these single-walled size can become meshed and entangled in the nets as gillnets. This certainly cannot be correct of neighbouring netting by their violent struggling. nets for sturgeons (Figures 20.6 and 20.7). The nets This can even occur with rather large fish, which used for them are simple wide-meshed net walls may have just pushed the tip of their nose into a into which the usually pointed fish push and get mesh and yet become entangled in the netting by stuck because of their barbed spines being directed violently trying to escape. The same is also true for backwards from the mouth opening.The fish is then fish which have hard fins and many spines, such as caught in the net by its own struggles. Also many perches. They are mostly caught not by gilling but large fish such as tuna, salmon, ray and shark are by becoming entangled, even in typical gillnets. caught in the sea by single-walled entangling nets. Many fish may be caught with single-walled tangle The nets used in South Africa and Australia to nets but this gear is most important for use in catch- protect the beaches against shark attacks are also ing crustaceans. Lobsters, spiny lobsters, king crabs, single-walled entangling nets (Davies 1964). In and various other species of crabs are caught in freshwater fishing, too, some of the larger predatory them. These bulky animals, which are frequently species of fish are caught by being entangled in finer equipped with spines and long legs, become more nets set for gilling smaller fish. entangled in the nets the more they struggle to get What has been said of single-walled netting for free. Such nets, however, are very soon worn out, fish applies even more so for catching crustaceans. and the fishery is only worthwhile if large quanti- The nets are again set vertically, like normal gill- ties of valuable crustaceans can be caught, as in the nets, but often, as the French do when fishing for king crab fishery in the North Pacific. Lobsters were ‘langouste verde’ off the Mauritanian coast, they formerly caught by the fishermen of Heligoland are set in such a manner that they stay more sloping with netting which was spread horizontally on the than vertical to assist entangling. This can be said bottom of the sea and ballasted. These nets were also for the Japanese nets set to catch king crab in also very soon worn out. Nevertheless, the catch is the northern Pacific (Figure 20.8) (Saito 1960). DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 294

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Figure 20.4 Net construction and entangling: longer floatline increases the possibility of entangling; longer leadline gives a better connection of the gear with the bottom on rough ground.

Figure 20.6 Iranian fishermen hauling sturgeon nets off the southern coast of the Caspian Sea (1970).

Because entangling nets have no selectivity they have been forbidden in the USA since 1955. The Japanese king crab fishery with single-walled tangle nets is a good example of a large-scale indus- Figure 20.5 Driftnet for Spanish mackerel without any trial fishery with a fleet of different vessels. A large leadline. (From Nédélec 1975 with permission.) factory vessel for the processing of the crabs, and the maintenance of the fleet, is accompanied by two or three middle-sized vessels used for searching for Catching king crab with entangling nets is not only the fishing places and for setting the nets. These carried out by the Japanese but also by the Russians boats usually stay at sea for 5 or 6 days. Moreover, and Koreans in a large-scale fishery. The nets must 8–10 catcher boats accompany the fleet to haul the be set quite soft and slack, but on the other hand nets, maybe 2500 to 3000 a day. On these vessels the the current must not press them on to the bottom. crabs caught are taken out of the netting and trans- DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 295

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Figure 20.7 Fisherman hauling a sturgeon entangled in a one-walled net off the Turkish Black Sea coast (1971).

Figure 20.9 Japanese entangling net for crab (1960).

of catching is entangling. A special type of entan- gling net is the Japanese bottom driftnet, which is used in coastal bays to catch shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) and also other crustaceans and cephalopods. These are nets with the lower edge Figure 20.8 Japanese entangling net for king crab. turned up to form a pocket into which the shrimp fall when jumping up and are entangled. The nets, maybe eight or more, drift in the current, held by a boat on the one end and a float on the other, ported to the factory ship. Here the entangled nets gliding with their lower rim with the pockets over will be freed, cleaned and mended wherever neces- the ground (Figure 20.10). The fishing ground must sary. The crabs are processed and tinned ready for be smooth and not rocky.Also the driftnet has more the market. Some hundreds of people are needed of a lying position than a vertical one (Nomura for catching, processing and navigation. Such a fleet 1978). Recently a new type of bottom driftnet can have 15000 to 30000 nets in operation. with entangling pockets was demonstrated by the One-walled tangle nets are not only used in Japanese. This net has pockets with arch-shaped large-scale fisheries but also in small-scale fisheries, openings at the bottom, allowing the shrimps to even in the subsistence fisheries. The Japanese use enter the pocket of the netting as it sweeps along very small types of gear for catching crustaceans by the bottom (Figure 20.11). entangling. Figure 20.9 shows such a mini gear, set Not only fish and crustaceans are caught in in a shape of a tube and held by floats around a bait. single-walled tangle nets.Turtles can be caught with The gear looks like a fishing pot, but the principle this gear, and since recently also squids in drifting DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 296

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Figure 20.10 Japanese bottom driftnet with open pockets.

‘gillnets’. Even sea mammals such as seals, por- poises and whales can be caught with single-walled Figure 20.11 Entangling net with vertical connection entangling nets. Nets in whaling are used particu- lines. larly for catching small mammals such as porpoises. Formerly, however, the catching of even large whales with nets was practised in north and East Asia and in the Arctic. To manufacture these nec- essarily strong nets, strips of skin cut from walrus gling fish trying to swim through it. Gillnets with hide, baleen from whales, and other stout materials vertical snoods can have the disadvantage that the were used. The people of Kamchatka stretched loose netting tends to accumulate at the leadline such nets in river estuaries. Once the whales got and to wind around it. into the nets they became entangled and drowned This is why, in spite of better catches, these nets (Berger 1928). Even today newspapers sometimes have not become very popular (Andreev 1966). To report that a whale has been found somewhere overcome the gathering of loose netting at the lead- entangled in a fishing net and drowned. line, the Finns fix to the vertical snoods two addi- tional horizontal lines, one in the middle of the 20.3 Tangle nets with snoods or frames gear, the other near the ground line (Figure 20.12) (Halme & Aalberg 1959). The loose netting is tied It has been mentioned already that entangling in a on the horizontal lines and the massing together of net is more likely to occur with a slack net, and that the netting at the ground line is prevented. More- this can be caused by using side lines which are over, the netting is held some distance from the shorter than the depth of the netting. There are leadline so that it cannot touch the bottom where other means of increasing the slack of a net. One of it may be damaged. them is to connect the floatline and leadline with The idea of fixing the loose netting by vertical connecting lines (snoods) rather shorter than the and horizontal lines is known from the so-called depth of the net (Figure 20.11). These are usually ‘framed’ nets, in some countries better known than placed in pairs at either side of the net wall but the entangle nets with vertical snoods. As can be sometimes connecting lines are used at one side seen in Figure 20.13, these nets are divided into only. Nets of this type are set in rivers with the many small catching sections. The shorter vertical snoods facing the current, so that the gear forms a lines and the longer horizontal lines cross each series of semicircles like a netbag (Andreev 1966). other, building ‘frames’ or ‘windows’ 1m or so Single connecting lines can be also strung through square. The lines are strung through the mesh and each mesh. The distance of the lines may be half a fixed only to each other and the netting at the cross- metre and their length can be 50% of that of the ing points. With this arrangement the loose netting netting. This results in the netting having a high cannot slide down and accumulate in a heap at the degree of slackness and will help much in entan- leadline as with the nets with vertical lines only. To DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 297

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Figure 20.12 Slack in a Finnish entangling net. (From Halme & Aalberg 1959 with permission.)

other words, the hanging is 50% (Nédélec 1975). Framed nets are operated in fresh waters of India, China and the USSR. In India they are used to catch carp and catfish. It may be that these nets originated in China where they are still used today in the mainland fishery (Kasuga & Osaka 1975). In Russia they are especially known in Siberian rivers. There they are considered more effective than simple single-walled entangling nets (Andreev 1966).

20.4 Trammelnets The entangling nets described so far have been in the form of single-walled nets similar to gillnets. But there is still another type of net that is more distinctly used to catch fish by entangling them and that is the trammelnet, which very much differs in its construction from the one-walled gillnets. It is supposed that the name ‘trammelnet’ is of French Figure 20.13 Chinese framed netting. (From Kasuga & origin – derived from ‘trois mailles’, which means Osaka 1975 with permission.) ‘three mesh’ – according to the construction of this gear. Trammelnets are not single-walled but are show how much slack of netting can be in a frame triple-walled (Figure 20.14). Between the two wide- of 1m square, in an example of 14 ¥ 14 mesh it has mesh stretched outer walls, rather loose interior been found that each stretched mesh had a length netting with smaller mesh is inserted. This small- of 150 mm; that means that the length of the frame meshed inner sheet of netting (named the lint or line is 50% of the netting (14 ¥ 0.15 = 2.1m), or, in linnet) has plenty of slack because it is two to three DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 298

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Figure 20.14 Turkish sturgeon nets: (a) single walled; (b) trammelnet.

Figure 20.15 How a trammelnet operates: the fish times as deep as the rigged gear. When a fish swims entangle themselves by forming a pocket of the small- through the large outer mesh it encounters and meshed webbing between the two big-meshed walls. pushes against the loose interior net so that a pocket is formed around the fish in which it becomes entrapped (Figure 20.15). To be success- ful, the large mesh of the two outer walls must be exactly opposite each other so that the pocket will not be prevented from developing. In German- speaking countries the trammelnets are therefore also called ‘Spiegelnetz’, which means ‘mirror net’. The outer mesh are rhombic as in other net walls. There are, however, trammelnets which have square mesh outer walls (Figure 20.16). This type was considered more effective in trout fisheries. Mostly this net had no floats but was fixed on rings drawn on a stick held over fishing waters, especially streams in the mountains. Trammelnets are oper- ated in the freshwater and inshore fishery mostly as stationary gear.These can be used also in winter for Figure 20.16 Different forms of hanging the outer walls of a trammelnet: (a) rhombic; (b) quadrangular. fishing under ice. In sea fisheries trammelnets are used for catching bottom fish such as flatfish (Figure 20.17), in some cases also for cod. Even cuttlefish DFC20 4/23/05 8:39 PM Page 299

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used like seine nets (Figure 20.18). A German fishery dictionary of 1936 (Neumann-Neudamm 1936) mentioned that seine nets without a bag (Chapter 28) could be made of single or triple sheets of netting. In this manner three-walled seine nets were operated in southern Germany and in Switzerland (Huber 1952). Here must be added the so-called ‘sweeping’ trammelnets of the Japanese fishery. This is a real trammelnet operated in a special manner. One end of the net is fixed by an anchor and the other end is pulled by a boat in a circle around this fixed point (Nomura & Yamazaki 1975). In a few cases trammelnets are also operated as driftnets. These are used in Great Britain in the River Dee (Burgess 1973; Jenkins 1974) and also for catching salmon in north-west Europe. More- over, drifting trammelnets are also known in Rumania (Drennière & Nédélec 1977). Trammel- nets are also sometimes used as a part of another gear, e.g. within liftnets (Chapter 23), to entangle the fish and to prevent them jumping from the lifted gear or for entangling fish caught in lantern nets (Chapter 22). A very specialized gear made with trammel netting is the so-called ‘trandadaia’ (Figures 20.19 and 20.20) operated in Rumania. Figure 20.17 Fishermen preparing trammelnets in the This gear is made of a wooden triangle, looking like fishing port of Istanbul for catching flatfish off the west a skimming net, with a base of c.2m. The two ends coast of the Black Sea. are connected with an iron chain 4m long. A net bag made of trammel netting is mounted between the two legs of the gear (Figure 20.20). This gear is can be caught in trammelnets as the Italian fisher- towed in the River Danube, from a rowing boat, men do in the Adriatic Sea. with the current, especially for catching large fish It is understandable that because of the great vis- hidden in pits on the bottom (Bacalbas¸a 1977). The ibility presented by triple net walls, even when towing line between fisherman and gear is also used made of monofilaments, often fish do not actively as a feeler line to know when a carp, perch or pike swim into the net, but instead are frightened into it. is entangled in the netting. It seems that the That implies the use of noise and such fishing fisheries in the inundation area of the River methods as will be described in the drive-in fishery Danube are well experienced with trammelnets: it (Chapter 21), where certain areas of e.g. reed are has been reported that the Rumanians operate surrounded by trammelnets (Figure 21.11). Nowa- trammelnets horizontally under ice by lowering days this catching method of drive-in fishery is also them over a school of fish which will be entangled used to catch eels with trammelnets (Freytag & when trying to escape. Mohr 1973). Trammelnets are more familiar as sta- tionary gear, but they can also be used as driftnets 20.5 Double-walled entangling nets and can even be towed. The so-called ‘Kurrennet’ of the fishermen of the Curishes Haff were tram- Trammelnets are made of two large-meshed melnets several hundred metres long and were outside sheets of netting and one small-meshed towed by two sailing boats (Benecke 1881). It inside netting. When a fish tries to swim through seems that formerly trammelnets were more often this three-walled gear, no matter from which side, DFC20 4/23/05 8:40 PM Page 300

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Figure 20.18 Fishing with a towed trammelnet for ‘Huchen’ in the Bavarian Forest in southern Germany. (Photo: Graf Mandelsloh.)

Figure 20.19 Dragged ‘trandadaia’ in the lower River Danube, Rumania (1976). DFC20 4/23/05 8:40 PM Page 301

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Figure 20.20 Construction of a ‘trandadaia’ in Rumania. The bagnet is made of trammelnetting.

the inside netting, with plenty of slack, forms a bag through one of the outside large mesh in which the fish will entangle itself (Figure 20.15). Where the Figure 20.21 Principle of catching in two-walled netting. fish always come from the same side of the gear, as (From Mengi 1977 with permission.) in the drive-in fishery, or wherever fish swim against the current, a two-walled gear with the small meshed netting at the side from which the fish is expected to come would have the same effect as the current, comes from the large-meshed side and has three-walled one. Indeed, it is mentioned in an no difficulty in passing through the very large mesh older Russian publication that two-walled netting but will be entangled in the following bag of small- was operated in such a manner that the bags for meshed netting. This description is in agreement entangling the fish were not made by the fish swim- with a later observation made of the Turkish ming through the netting but were made in advance double-walled tangle nets known in the Black Sea by the fisherman (Kusnetzow 1898). fishery (Mengi 1977). In this case the two-walled Two-walled driftnets have been known since nets are used for encircling fish shoals, always in olden times in Russia (Kusnetzow 1898; Leonhardt such a manner that the netting with the large mesh 1908). The catching method has been described as is inside the circle. The frightened fish, trying to being like that given for trammelnets, but there is escape, swim through a large mesh, push against the some doubt whether this is right. When there are small-meshed netting and in attempting to escape two walls only, the fish must come from the small into the depth the fish become entangled (Figure meshed side, forming a pocket through one of the 20.21). Two-walled nets are always set in such a large mesh. But this is not always so. Two-walled manner that the large meshed netting is on the side nets can be used in another way. A traveller visit- from which the fish is expected, therefore the ing Russia at the end of the 18th century (Pallas oncoming direction of the fish must be known. 1801) explained that this double-walled gear was Double-walled nets are operated today in Siberian operated by the Cossacks as a driftnet floating with rivers (Andreev 1966), as well as in south-eastern the current, in quite another manner for catching Europe. It seems that formerly two-walled nets sturgeon. A shorter large-meshed netting drifts were also operated in the Baltic (Henking & before the bag made of a deeper small-meshed Fischer 1905). They are also known in Japan, to a netting. The sturgeon, swimming against the small extent only. DFC20 4/23/05 8:40 PM Page 302

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Figure 20.22 Some combined nets from: (a) Molivos, Lesbos (Greece); (b) southern France. (From Gourret 1934 with permission.)

20.6 Combined entangling and gilling nets Trammelnets and gillnets can also be combined and used together. In this case, the upper part of the net consists of one wall and the lower part of three walls of netting (Figure 20.22). The lower trammel section of the nets acts by entangling the larger fish near the bottom. The upper gillnet is designed to catch smaller pelagic fish (von Brandt 1960). Nets combined in this way are used in the Mediterranean (Spain, Morocco, France, Malta, Greece and Turkey) (Nédélec 1975) and it is somewhat remark- able that the Japanese have also developed and employed such combined nets (Figure 20.23). It is scarcely to be supposed that the knowledge has been communicated directly but, as in other cases, Figure 20.23 A gillnet combined with a trammelnet as used in Japan. the same solution would seem to have been found to the same problem, although the areas concerned are so far apart. In both cases bottom fish as well as pelagic fish are caught. According to a Japanese the water. This causes it to stay more or less diago- explanation (M. Nomura, pers. comm.), when nally – possibly nearly horizontally.To prevent this, fishing in some strong currents a gear made com- half of the gear is made of one-walled netting which pletely of trammel netting has a high resistance in stays vertical because of its lower resistance, and DFC20 4/23/05 8:40 PM Page 303

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guides the fish into the trammelnet below the gillnet. This means the upper single-walled part is more a guiding section than a catching one. Turkish fishermen in the Black Sea also combine trammelnets with double-walled nets. In this case two upper trammelnets are combined with two double-walled nets below. The lower part of the double-walled nets is provided with a broad strip of rough netting as a selvage.This strip is not, as a rule, combined with the netting mesh by mesh, but both parts are mounted together on a common line. As can be seen in Figure 20.21, with two-walled nets the small-meshed netting has to build a bag to entangle the fish. For this reason, the small-meshed netting has a high degree of slack. To prevent this bag gathering near the leadline and contacting the bottom, the aforementioned broad selvage is added under this netting. Of course, this strip of netting Figure 20.24 Simple hand-driven hauling device for also helps in handling the gear. By such combina- trammelnets on a Greek vessel from Crete, fishing off tions, very deep gear can be constructed (up to Denia, Cyrenaica. (Photo: J Schärfe, 1961.) 30m and more) suitable for catching bottom as well as pelagic fish. ones, are, like gillnets, cheap fishing gear with low costs of maintenance and handling but, like gillnets, 20.7 Future trends and mechanization they become labour-intensive and may be uneco- A disadvantage of entangling nets is that they have nomic when operated in large numbers in industrial low selectivity, and this greatly hinders the man- bulk fishing, especially when high-priced products agement of fish populations. There are only a few like salmon, sturgeon and tuna do not form a high cases where entangling nets are operated in large proportion of the catch. Nevertheless, in view of an quantities. This can happen in sea fisheries, such extended artisan fishery under the new national as when single-walled nets are used for salmon, economic zones, entangling nets, like gillnets, may Spanish mackerel, etc., or when trammelnets are have an increasing importance in fishery develop- used for flatfish such as sole and halibut. Entangling ment, not least because both types of fishing gear nets are also successful in tropical waters where dif- belong to those methods of catching having a low ferent species of fish of different sizes are caught. energy consumption. The danger of unwanted by- In freshwaters and coastal waters trammelnets, can catches, however, and the problems associated with be helpful for drive-in fisheries, as can double- lost gear (‘ghostnets’) applies for them as well as walled nets. On the other hand, trammelnets, as well for gillnets (see Chapter 32). as double-walled nets, are sometimes considered too complicated in their construction, too difficult References to repair, and also more labour intensive. Mechanization of the operation of entangling Andreev, N. (1966) Handbook of Fishing Gear and its nets (Figure 20.24) can be similar to that of gillnets Rigging. Israel Program for Scientific Translations. Jerusalem. (see Section 19.5). In some cases entangling nets Bacalbas¸a,N.(1977) Die Fischerei in der Donau in der have participated in the progress made for gillnets. Zone des jetzigen Stausees ‘Eisernes Tor’, als Basis zur Monofilament fibres are now used for the netting Organisierung der Stauseefischerei. Hydrobiologica 15, of both types of fishing gear with great success. 337–349. Bucharest. Benecke, B. (1881) Fische, Fischerei und Fischzucht in The same can be said for the mechanization of the Ost- und Westpreussen. Königsberg Pr. operation of entangling nets, especially for hauling Berger, A. (1928) Die Jagd aller Völker im Wandel der mechanisms. Entangling nets, especially one-walled Zeiten. Berlin. DFC20 4/23/05 8:40 PM Page 304

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Bertuccioli, U. (1955) Il Primo Libro del Pescatore. Kasuga & Osaka, L. (ed.) (1975) Catálogo de Artes y Venice. Métodos de Pesca Artesanales de la República Popular von Brandt, A. (1960) Bemerkenswerte Fangmethoden China. Instituto Nacional de Pesca, México [in und Geräte in der griechischen Fischerei. Protokolle Spanish]. zur Fischereitechnik 6, 327–365. Kusnetzow, J. (1898) Fischerei und Thiererbeutung in den Burgess, J. (1973) Trammel Netting. Bridport. Gewässern Russlands. St Petersburg. Davies, D.H. (1964) About Sharks and Shark Attack. Leonhardt, E.E. (1908) Die Entwicklung der Fischerei Durban. und ihrer Geräte. Zeitschrift für Fischerei XIII, 87–171. Drennière, P.Y. & Nédélec, C. (1977) Données sur les Mengi, T. (1977) Batikçilik teknigi. [Fishing techniques.] bateaux et engins de pêche en Méditerranée. Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of FAO/CGPM Etudes et Revues No. 56. fishing gear. Istanbul [in Turkish]. Freytag, G. & Mohr, H. (1973) Untersuchungen über die Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Pulsfischerei auf Aale. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik Fishing Gear. Farnham. XIII, 60, 82–106. Neumann-Neudamm, J.(ed.) (1936) Illustriertes Fischerei- Gourret, R. (1934) Les Pêcheries et les Poissons de la Lexicon. Neudamm. Méditerranée. Paris. van Nhiem, R. (1956) Des poissons et des hommes. Halme, E. & Aalberg, A.F. (1959) Parhaita kalanpyydyk- Nomura, M. & Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing Techniques. siä. [Best Fishing Gear and How to Make It.] Helsinki Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the [in Finnish]. Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. Heidrich, G. (1905) Wahrnehmungen auf einer Studien- Nomura, M. (1978) Outline of Fishing Gear and Method. reise in die Vereinigten Staaten. Mitteillungen des Kanagawa International Fisheries Training Centre. Deutschen Seefischerei-Vereins 21, 443–475. Nagai, Kanagawa-ken. Henking, H. & Fischer, E. (1905) Die Ostsee-Fischerei in Pallas, P.S. (1801) Reise durch Verschiedene Provinzen des ihrer jetzigen Lage. Publicatios de Circomstance des Russischen Reichs. St Petersburg. Conseil Perm. International pour l’Exploration de la Saito, I. (1960) Pelagic fisheries. Fishery Science Series Vol. Mer No. 13B. Copenhagen. 4 [King crab fishery] 252–277. Tokyo [in Japanese]. Holden, J. (1979) Shorefishing. London. Schärfe, J. (ed.) (1978) FAO Catalogue of Fishing Gear Huber, A. (1952) Gerätschaften und Fangmethoden der Designs. Farnham. Berufsfischer. In: Fisch und Fischerei, 167–182. Schiemenz, P. (1903) Die Verwertung der Fische, anderer Winterthur. Süsswassertiere und Süsswasserpflanzen. In: Katalog: Jenkins, J.G. (1974) Nets and Coracles. Newton Abbot. Brandenburgische Fischerei-Ausstellung, 88–96. Berlin. DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 305

21 The Drive-in Fishery

We are accustomed to talk of active and passive can be driven into a gear by rows of wading and fishing gear in literature as well as in legislation. It splashing people. This is a specific fishery for large has already been mentioned (Chapter 1) that it is a families, hordes of villagers or whole tribes. The mistake to think that all active fishing gear are participation of many people driving the game moved or towed and that all passive gear are sta- sought to be captured is an old principle in both tionary. Whether the gear is moved or not does not hunting and fishing practices. Not only fish can be determine an active or passive gear. What is impor- driven into a gear; in a few cases it is known that tant is whether the fish takes the gear involuntarily crayfish have also been driven into small gear or voluntarily.Angling lines, also movable gear like (Ligers 1953). To catch fish by the drive-in or drifting or pulled lines, are passive gear as the fish driving-in method, many small gear can be oper- accept the bait voluntarily. Rip lines, however, are ated or a single large one. In both cases it is a col- active gear because the fish is taken more or less lective fishery, with sometimes up to 100 or more involuntarily. But there is yet a third possibility, people co-operating. Driving the fish is not only where both the fish and the fishing gear may be carried out by wading men but can also be done by called passive, that is in cases where the fish to be horses and cows as mentioned before in Chapter caught are driven into the gear. That can become 11. In deeper water, fish can be driven by swimming necessary if the bottom is so rough that towed gear and diving fishermen, as the Japanese do in the cannot be used.This may be the case with coral reefs coastal waters of the Ryukyu Islands and in other or around volcanic islands. Here the bottom may be places where the bottom is too rough for towed and so rugged that even passive gear such as pots or dragged gear (Hester 1974). Fish are mostly driven longlines are lost when being hauled, through being by noise created by striking the water with caught on the rocks. Another reason to drive the branches, poles and paddles, or by beating the gun- prey into a gear may be that the quantity of fish wales or garboards of a fishing boat as mentioned actively entering a passive gear is so small in rela- for frightening jumping fish with the ‘white board tion to the time involved that the gear has to remain method’ (Chapter 17). Sometimes fish are driven set for a very long time before a profitable catch has into a fishing gear by casting stones into the water. developed. But this is impossible in tropical waters Such stones can be used many times over by tying and can scarcely be done even in the Mediter- them on a line and dragging them back for recast- ranean. The fish first caught would very quickly die ing. The Japanese use this system, just as do the in the warm water, or would soon be eaten by cray- Greeks and the Turks. Through using marble, the fish or other predators. In such cases the so-called Greeks speak of a ‘fishery with white stones’ ‘drive-in’ fishery would be useful. To achieve this, (Figure 21.1; see also Figure 21.12). both normal and specially constructed fishing gear Occasionally special noise-making implements are set up into which the fish are driven. are known for operation outside the water, like As discussed in Chapter 11, many methods are those formerly used in the Philippines to drive fish known of frightening fish. In shallow waters they into a large trap (Villadolid 1932). Generally,

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however, implements are used to make the noise developed for driving the fish in small rivers into under the surface of the water. Such an instrument gillnets or specially constructed bagnets using can be a wooden stick with a steel pipe or a hemi- electrical currents (Hayer & Halsband 1965; spherical device fixed at the end of the stick, which Meyer-Waarden & Halsband 1975). is pushed into the water in special rhythms. Such ‘pulse sticks’ are also used to prevent the escape of 21.1 Scare lines fish before a fishing gear like a seine net or a sur- rounding net is closed (Figure 28.4). Such scaring In Chapter 11 the so-called lure line has been men- implements are even used to frighten eels into tioned for attracting fish and other water animals. trammelnets (Freytag & Mohr 1973). During the Similar lines can be used also for frightening fish. night, fish can also be frightened by light used under These so-called ‘scare lines’ are made in a boa-like some conditions. Indians of North America have manner by twisting ropes together with some driven salmon by swimming with torches (Treide leaves, or using twisted leaves alone (Figure 21.2), 1965). A newer idea was to use electricity for this or by twisting old netting together (George 1971). purpose. In this way a form of drive-in fishery was In water that is not so deep the scare lines are used horizontally, like a seine net, to drive the prey together and to concentrate them in shallow waters. This is done, e.g. on fishing grounds with rough corals in the South Seas. For a fish drive on the Tonga Islands, a community of about 30 people may be involved. For the scare line, coconut fronds are wound round a rope which is set around a large area to be fished. The scare lines are then pulled towards the shore. As the lines come closer, the fish are concentrated and are finally caught with some other gear (Koch 1971; Wilkinson 1980). The fishery with scare lines is known not only in south and South-east Asia (Gruvel 1925) but also in Africa (Hickling 1961). Native fishermen on Lake Victoria in Kenya put broad floating garlands of papyrus in a circle on the water near the shore, and the suspended stalks from these bundles sur- Figure 21.1 Fishery with ‘white stones’ in Greece to drive fishes into gillnets (1958).

Figure 21.2 Part of a frightening line used in Laguna de Bay, Philippines. DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 307

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round the fish like a net or fence. To concentrate fish together by towing branches of trees with the fish further, the circle is gradually diminished by leaves along a watercourse, a method which not towing it to the beach, when the small fish that have only may have been known in prehistoric times in been unable to escape are scooped up with a bagnet northern Europe but was also reported in 1794 as (Weyer 1959; Hickling 1961). In this case the scare having been used by American Indians. This is why lines are used like a fishing gear and do not drive some people think that such towed brushes are the the prey into any other gear, but they can also be earliest forerunner of dredging fishing gear. used for driving the fish forward into a fishing gear set beforehand on a suitable spot. This is done 21.2 Genuine drive-in nets especially in the reef fishery, where bottom-dragged gear cannot be operated. Almost all fishing gear can be used for drive-in In deeper water, the lines for fish chasing are not fishing, but there are some types that are not effec- used in a horizontal direction, but in a vertical one tive unless they are combined with drive-in tactics. when transported by swimming fishermen or by There are movable as well as stationary specialized boats (Figure 21.3). Such long vertical lines, reach- gear for this fishery. The simplest form is to fish in ing nearly to the bottom and provided with palm very shallow water using old clothes, no longer of leaves, are moved towards the drive-in net at the use, such as the lamba of the women of Madagas- Ryukyu Islands by swimming fishermen or by car or the sarong of Indonesian women. Two boats. Up to 100 fishermen can participate effec- women hold the cloth at a shallow angle in the tively with vertical frightening lines in such a fishery water while other women and children drive the (NN 1959–65). Frequently, too, some divers are fish onto the cloth (von Brandt 1964) (Figure 21.4). engaged in this hunt to kill larger fish with spears In Oceania, women use a mat for the same purpose (Bartz 1964–74). and sometimes, in Europe, boys can also be seen The idea of operating scare lines in fishing may using their shirts in their enthusiasm for catching be a very old one, based on the possibility of driving minnows.

Figure 21.3 Drive-in fishery with divers over rough ground near the Ryukyu Islands. (From NN 1959–65 with permission.) DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 308

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But there are more specialized gear for drive-in fishing gear with a frightening line, operated from fishing. Figure 21.5 gives a characteristic example of a canoe behind the gear. Once the fish have been such a gear from the Japanese fishery. In design, it driven into the net or on to the net shovel, the gear could be a seine net or a long-winged trawl that has must be closed by lifting the front edge of the been fixed by anchoring. Generally speaking, nets bottom of the net so that the fish cannot escape specialized for drive-in fisheries usually have a again. Usually these are nets of considerable size dust-pan shape similar to that used by some of the and have been known and used from south Japan older types of surrounding nets. Figure 21.6 gives an to as far as Burma. Figure 21.7 is another example example of a stationary dustpan-shaped drive-in of a large Japanese stationary gear used in the drive-in fishery. Sometimes fishermen wait for the fish to swim into the gear at random, during their migrations, before beginning to haul the catch; sometimes fish are driven by noise into this gear. The fish are caught by gradually lifting the bottom of the net which concentrates the fish in the farthest corner of this gear. A well-known net for the drive- in fishery with lights is the ‘torch net’ (sometimes called the Chinese torch net) used especially in the South-east Asia sardine fishery (von Brandt 1960). The net is kept stationary in the current by two boats, while a third boat at first concentrates the fish by means of lights and then guides them into the net (Figure 21.8. The method used in the Chinese fishery at Taiwan and Hong Kong has been carried out successfully during the 1960s by only one motor vessel. This keeps the net stretched in the current by bamboo rods over the side or over the stern, and

Figure 21.4 Young girls fishing with a ‘lamba’. The fish are driven from the left into the cloth held open like a bagnet, Madagascar (1964).

Figure 21.5 Japanese drive-in net (Iwashi nakabiki ami) for catching sardine-like fish. (From NN 1959–65 with permission.) DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 309

Figure 21.6 This drive-in net used in the Philippines is like a dustpan in design. The fish are driven into the net by a frightening line seen on the right-hand side. (From Capco & Manacop 1955 with permission.)

Figure 21.7 Japanese triangular barriers for sardines. This is called the ‘Oshiki ami’ and when the fish enter the catching room the bottom net is drawn up. (From NN 1959–65 with permission.)

Figure 21.8 Chinese torch net operated by two boats: (a) a boat with a lamp attracts fish in front of the opening of a torch net; (b) the fish are guided into the net. Li Kwan-ming. DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 310

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the fish are guided into the net by means of an fishing method. In this case a shoal of fish found in underwater lamp held on a long pole (Figure 21.9). not so deep water can be encircled completely with gillnets (Chapter 19) and, when frightened by any 21.3 Encircling gillnets method, they will gill and entangle themselves in the surrounding netting. For frightening, a boat is Fishing gear designed especially for the drive-in usually placed in the middle of a shoal encircled by method are not very common. Usually, well-known gillnets and then the fish are frightened by noises. fishing gear, especially gillnets, are used for this In Florida, fishermen operating such ‘run around’ gillnets regularly use ‘cherry bombs’ to drive fish into the nets. Sometimes the net is set around a shoal not in the form of a circle, but more in the form of a spiral. The fish are then frightened by striking the water with sticks or oars and by this means are driven into the gillnet, just as Turkish fishermen do to catch kefal (grey mullet) even when a great number are jumping over the floatline (Figure 21.10). The use of stones tied to a retrieving line to frighten fish into encircling gillnets has been already mentioned at the beginning of the chapter (Figure 21.1). This technique of drive-in fishing with gillnets is so wide- spread and important that some people consider encircling gillnets to be a special type of fishing gear like stow nets or trawls. This method is especially

Figure 21.9 The operation of a Chinese torch net fishery with one boat: the fish are attracted by an under- water lamp (middle of picture). At this moment the ground-rope has been hauled to close the gear. Taiwan (1960).

Figure 21.10 Turkish fishermen driving mullet into a gillnet set like a spiral in the Black Sea harbour of Samsun (1967). DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 311

The Drive-in Fishery 311

Figure 21.11 Operating a German drive-in trammelnet in a freshwater fishery.

known off the Mediterranean coasts and also off those of West Africa and south Asia. Sometimes not only gillnets are used for this purpose but also three-walled trammelnets and two-walled nets (see Chapter 20). In European freshwater fisheries, trammelnets are used in this manner. In this case a certain area of reed is surrounded with the nets and the fish are driven into the net by thrusting a long stake in a special manner into the reed bed as demonstrated in Figure 21.11. Figure 21.12 Turkish fishermen in the Bosporus driving fish with the help of a white stone into a scoop net 21.4 Other gear for drive-in fishery (above). The white stone is fixed on a line and a stick like an angling rod (below). (Photo: T Mengi, Istanbul There are many other types of fishing gear which 1977.) can be used for a drive-in fishery. It seems that scoop nets are especially preferred for this fishing tactic. These can be scoop nets in the usual round form or, better still, like push nets. A round scoop each with two nets, encircles fishes seen during net is used by Turkish fishermen in the strong daytime or at night in order to catch the frightened current of the Bosporus where, close to the shore, fish with their scoop nets. During ebb tide the men fish migrate against the current. The net is placed may also stay in a line waiting to catch the fishes behind the fish, which are scared back into the gear swimming with the outgoing tide. The form of the by throwing stones. To use the stones more than scoop nets used in this manner can differ, but in once, they are fixed to rods with short lines as in principle it is always the same method – known in pole-and-line fishing (Figure 21.12). Oceania, Asia, Africa and Europe. A few examples A scoop net with quite another shape, nearly like follow. that shown in Figure 24.12b, is used in a drive-in The gear in the form of a push net is known fishery of the Santa Cruz Islands in Oceania (Koch as a ‘glib’ in north-western Europe (Figure 1971). In this case a collective of maybe ten men, 21.13) and other variations of this gear are widely DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 312

312 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 21.14 Chasing gear from eastern Europe. (From Seligo 1925 with permission.)

Figure 21.13 So-called ‘glib’ for catching eels off the European North Sea coast.

Figure 21.15 Young Turkish men driving fish into a pushnet in a small river flowing into Lake Van, East Anatolia (1975).

distributed (Figure 21.14) (Benecke 1881; Walter the same method of operation. In Eastern Europe 1910; Seligo 1925; Znamierowska-Prüfferowa it was known that two gear fishing opposite each 1976). The method of operation can be seen in other could be very effective (Seligo 1925). In this Figures 21.13 and 21.15.The last figure shows young manner crayfish are caught in Latvia (Ligers 1953). Turkish men operating this method in a small river But there are other examples known in other parts flowing into Lake Van in eastern Anatolia. One of of the world. Nearly the same description can be them stays in the river, pressing a large scoop net given to the method used in Oceania where two with a half-round opening and a very long bag fishermen work together: one keeps the scoop net against the bottom. Two others try to frighten fish in the shallow water, the other drives the fishes into with sticks into the gear. In principle this is always this net by wading and splashing the water. DFC21 4/23/05 8:54 PM Page 313

The Drive-in Fishery 313

There are still more types of fishing gear for the Capco, S.R. & Mancop, P.R. (1955) The abuyan, an drive-in fishery.Traps like baskets and fyke nets are improved type of goby fishing gear, used in Laguna de also used for this purpose. Even tubular traps are Bay. Philippine Journal of Fishing 3, 65–84. Freytag, G. & Mohr, H. (1973) Untersuchungen über die used, placed on the bed of a shallow stream with Pulsfischerei auf Aale. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik the mouth directed upstream. The fishermen or XIII, 60, 82–106. fisherwomen proceed upstream for some distance George, V.C. (1971) An account of the inland fishing gear and then return downstream, splashing and shout- and methods of India. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology Special Publication 1. Ernaculam. ing in order to frighten any fish which may be about Gruvel, A. (1925) L’Indo-Chine, ses Richesses Marines et and so drive them ahead into the open mouth of Fluviales. Paris. the traps (Hornell 1950). Hayer, F. & Halsband, E. (1965) Elektrische Befischung Possibly there is no gear which cannot be used to größerer Gewässer mit einer kombinierten Scheuch- harvest fish by frightening. Even liftnets (Chapter Fangmethode. Fischwirt 15, 10–14. Hester, F.J. (1974) Some considerations of the problems 23) are used by Turkish fishermen in the Bosporus. associated with the use of live bait for catching tunas They use stones to frighten small fish like sprats, in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Marine Fisheries Review anchovies or horse mackerel over the gear, and 36 (5), 1–12. then lift the nets. It may be surprising to learn that Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. some types of cast nets are used in the drive-in Hornell, J. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. Koch, G. (1971) Die materielle Kultur der Santa fishery. In the so-called ‘dhor’ fishery in Indian Cruz – Inseln. Veröffentlichungen des Museums für freshwaters, two or three cast nets are tied together Völkerkunde, Berlin, NF 21. Berlin. in such a manner that they form something like a Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en stow net.The fish are driven into the gear with scare Lettonie. Paris. lines. As soon as the fish have entered the gear, the Meyer-Waarden, P.F., Halsband, E. & Halsband, I. (1975) Einführung in die Elektrofischerei. In: Schriften der upper part of the mouth of the gear is dropped, con- Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Vol. 7. Berlin. fining the prey in the gear (George 1971). It may NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and be that gear which can also be operated without Fishing Gear.Tokyo. drive-in tactics should not be mentioned here. Nev- Seligo, A. (1925) Die Fischerei in den Fliessen, Seen und ertheless, we should understand that besides a few Strandgewässern Mitteleuropas. Stuttgart. Treide, D. (1965) Die Organisierung des indianischen genuine drive-in fishery gear there are also many Lachsfanges im westlichen Nordamerika. In: Veröf- others which can be operated with the same tactics. fentlichungendes Museums für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig The most important may be the gillnets operated as Vol. 14. Berlin. encircling nets. Villadolid, D.V. (1932) Methods and gear used in fishing in Lake Taal and the Pansipit river. Philippine Agricul- ture 20, 571–579. References Walter, E. (1910) Der Flussaal. Neudamm. Weyer, E. (1959) Primitive Völker Heute. Gütersloh. Bartz, F. (1964–74) Die großen Fischräume der Welt Vols Wilkinson, W.A. (1980) Tonga – the spirit fishery. Fishing I–III. Wiesbaden. News International 19(2), 17. Benecke, B. (1881) Fische, Fischerei und Fischzucht in Znamierowska-Prüfferowa, M. (1976) Bemerkungen Ost- und Westpreussen. Königsberg Pr. zur traditionellen Fischerei in Polen. In: Studien zur von Brandt, A. (1960) Fishing methods in world sardine Europäischen Traditionellen Fischerei (ed. E. Solymos), fisheries. Proceedings of the World Scientific Meeting on Bajai Dolgozatok 3, 17–34. the Biology of Sardines and Related Species. FAO, Vol. II, 563–623. von Brandt, A. (1964) Madagaskar, fischereiliche Reisenotizen. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX (41), 148–196. DFC22 4/23/05 8:55 PM Page 314

22 Cover Pots and Cast Nets

The liftnets described in the next chapter secure out through the opening. This catching method will their catch from below. Completely opposite in only be successful in turbid, especially muddy,water their method of operation are so-called ‘falling wherein grow many plants, including floating water gear’, which are clapped down on the fish or other hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) as in tropical areas; animals to be caught – which are thus taken from otherwise the victim will escape. It is also a method above. This can be carried out with the help of two used for fishing in inundated paddy fields (Figure types of fishing gear: wooden cover pots and cast 22.2). This is a fishing method used primarily for nets made of netting. There are many variations of capturing single fish and those that have dug them- these two types, and also some hybrids. The main selves into the mud. Operating cover pots is known thing with the liftnets is that the fish or crayfish in Asia as well as in Africa. Single pots are usually appear over the net, and are then lifted with it from used blindly on the supposition that something the water, where the prey can easily be taken. If a might be caught, and the method is more effective falling net is clapped over an aquatic animal it is when a large number of operators, usually women, then well enclosed by the gear, but not yet removed are working together (Figure 22.3). from the water so as to be really in the possession The fish that is caught must next be secured with of the fisherman. The situation is simply that of a the hand through the opening at the top of the little boy, who, having cast his cap over a frog, is not plunge basket. Small scoop nets can also be used yet sure whether he will capture the frog or whether for this purpose; and in addition, spears can be used it will escape him when the cap is lifted. Neverthe- if the fish to be caught have poisonous spines, or if less, if we agree with Burdon’s definition, the prey aggressive dangerous snakes are expected. Seldom is caught when it is held in a condition in which its are the fish removed from the cover pots by grasp- chance of escape is negligible (Burdon 1951). This ing them with the hand slipped in from below the is true for the boy’s cap, as for all types of falling lower edge, although this may have been the origi- gear. Nevertheless, the problem remains of secur- nal method for securing the prey. Recently, a new ing the prey in the hand, and this is solved in a idea for securing the fish under the cover pot has number of different ways. come from Thailand. In this method the cover pot has a netting to close the opening at the bottom. A 22.1 Cover pots ring of netting is fixed at the inside of the pot, and this can be drawn together by a line running The simplest falling gear is the cover pot or plunge through the rings fixed on the rim of the netting like basket, sometimes also called a thrust basket a purse seine (Figure 22.4). In this case the fisher- according to the manner of operation. Usually the man has to reach into the pot to reach the purse cover pot is of wicker construction, like a beehive line of the bottom netting and to draw it together with an opening at the top (Figure 22.1).The basket before hauling the gear with the catch. Purse lines is clapped over the animal by the fisherman wading are not used very often for the gear construction. in shallow water and the prey inside the pot is taken They are well known with purse seines (Figure

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Figure 22.2 Indian boy fishing with a cover pot in a paddy field.

Figure 22.1 Cover pot used in Kerala, southern India.

Figure 22.3 Thai women fishing using cover pots. (Photo: FAO.)

29.3) and their brails (Figure 24.21); they are also aries; less so in shallow coastal waters. While the known with a special type of cast nets (see Figure liftnets do not depend on the depth of water – 22.10) but their operation with cover pots may be the fish need only be within the range of the nets – an exception. the cover pots, as used in the original form, can only Cover pots are a specific gear of the freshwater be operated in knee-deep water. That is a disad- fishery – especially in inundation areas and in estu- vantage, as also is the difficulty of removing the fish. DFC22 4/23/05 8:55 PM Page 316

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Figure 22.6 Rumanian boys fishing in a backwater using drums, etc. for cover pots (1976).

Figure 22.4 Cover pot from Thailand, closable with a bottom net. (Photo: Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam.) and south-east Europe and even in south Germany (Anell 1955). In south-east Europe they are con- sidered to be the fishing gear of the White Russians and the Magyar fisheries (Jankó 1900). The old fishery of the Indians in America did, however, use cover pots too. The plunge baskets found in South America might be considered to be the same as were built by Negro slaves after the original pattern. But there is some evidence that cover pots may have been known in pre-Columbian times in the New World (Kirchhoff 1901). A very remarkable adaptation to modern times can be seen in Rumania. Here the old cover pots made of wickerwork have been replaced by steel oil barrels – without the bottom and with netting replacing the top (Bacalbas¸a 1965) (Figure 22.5). The purpose of the netting is to prevent the fish jumping out again. Clever boys also fish here with Figure 22.5 Rumanian fisherman using an iron barrel other round tubelike implements (Figure 22.6), as a cover pot. (Photo: Balcalbas¸a.) including bottomless waste baskets. This is striking evidence for the survival of an old fishing method considered useful even today. How both problems may be solved is a matter still Except for the origin of the material, wooden to be discussed. cover pots scarcely differ from each other. All in Cover pots are widely used in east and south fact are of much the same patterns. It is, however, Asia, in the Melanesian part of Oceania, in Africa possible that the relationship between diameter DFC22 4/23/05 8:55 PM Page 317

Cover Pots and Cast Nets 317

and height, and their size, may vary.Tiny cover pots fishing gear reserved for women and children. only 15cm high and 15cm in diameter have been Therefore they must not be too heavy. It is there- developed for use in the paddy fields of the Philip- fore better if they can be made with netting instead pines. There are others which have a height of of wood, in the same way as has been done with >1m. In the African fishery of Angola there is a many other fishing gear. Such pots with a wooden plunge basket which is provided with a handle, and frame covered with netting are known as ‘ lantern with a lid at the side which can be opened for nets’ (Figure 22.7). Figure 22.8 shows the operation removing the catch.The same design, with a handle, of a lantern net in the River Danube in Hungary, has been seen on the south coast of New Guinea. and Figure 22.7(a) shows one which was used in By this construction it is possible to fish in waters southern Germany for the capture of spawning fish, deeper than the height of the pot. and of predatory fish in shallow, turbid or over- grown waters. The wickerwork has been replaced 22.2 Lantern nets by netting held by two crossing rods. By the use of netting the weight has been dimin- Wooden plaited cover pots have, of course, a certain ished and the size increased. The south German weight and are thus limited in their size, especially basket is 140cm high (that is about shoulder height) when no bamboo or other light wood is available and the opening is c.90cm diameter. Similar gear for making them. In some countries, cover pots are is known in the Philippines and is called ‘salakab’ (Figure 22.9) (Umali 1950). If the netting is replaced by a trammelnet, as is the case with the Hungarian lantern net, the problem of making the actual catch is also solved. While trying to escape, the fish becomes entangled in the mesh of the tram- melnet and can be taken out of the water together with the gear (Figure 22.7b). This construction also has the advantage that the gear may be operated in deeper water (Solymos 1957).

Figure 22.7 European lantern nets: (a) southern Figure 22.8 Hungarian fisherman fishing with a lantern Germany; (b) Hungarian-type with trammelnet: (c) old net in the River Danube. (Photo: E. Solymos, Baja, ‘Deckbären’ of Switzerland. 1974.) DFC22 4/23/05 8:55 PM Page 318

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Figure 22.9 Fishing with a lantern net in Laguna de Bay, Manila. (Photo: FAO.)

22.3 Cover nets As mentioned before, most cover pots and lantern nets can be operated in shallow water only, other- wise it becomes difficult to remove the fish covered by the gear. It has been mentioned too, that in some cases, when the water is not much deeper than the height of the gear, cover pots with a handle are used and the catch is taken out of the gear by hand, from an opening at one side. In these conditions it may be much more effective to use lantern nets covered with entangling netting (Chapter 20). But there is another way of solving the problem of how to use the cover technique successfully in deeper water. In the African and east and south Asiatic fish- eries, a cone-shaped net is found which is held open by a hoop and usually stretched by three or some- times even four or more sticks (Figure 22.10). This variation of the gear is also used like a cover pot, but before the net is clapped over a fish, the top of the conical net is held fast. Once the target fish is Figure 22.10 Alantern net from Central Africa. (From covered, the net is allowed to fall: the fish then Monod 1928 with permission.) becomes entangled in the loose netting. In this way the problem has been solved in a simple manner; namely, to actually secure the fish which has been DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 319

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Figure 22.11 Rumanian hand-operated cover net. (From Antipa according to Bacalbas¸a 1965 with permission.)

covered by the gear, and to fish in deeper water.The wooden frame may be connected to a long handle, and the covering net bag held with a suitable long line (Figure 22.7c). This idea led to many variations in construction, such as the bag for the catch being inside the frame (Figure 22.10), as well as outside (Schmidt 1956; Solymos 1965) (Figure 22.11). In Switzerland, this long-handled gear is known as ‘Deckbären’ (this means cover trap) and in eastern Germany it is called ‘Stuker’ which has something to do with the operation of the gear by a quick pushing action. This gear is lowered carefully from Figure 22.12 Different types of Hungarian cover nets. a distance of half a metre or so above the observed (From Solymos 1965 with permission.) single fish, e.g. carp or bream, and then the catch is made by pushing the ring of the bagnet very quickly onto the bottom.The bag is loosened, the fish trying to escape swims into the bag, and the gear is hauled been used in Poland and in the Baltic countries immediately (Schmidt 1956). The handle and the including Latvia (Ligers 1953).There exists another length of the line fixed on the conical end of the cone-shaped net used as a falling net in the fishery net bag can each have a length of c.2m. With such of the lakes of the south German Alps. This, gear an effective fishery can only be carried out in however, is without any stretching sticks (Figure clear water where the prey can be seen. This 22.13). method of fishing is also done with lights, during the This gear is composed of only a net cone and a night. ring. Held at the end by a line, it is lowered care- There are many more examples of the same idea. fully from the boat over a spawning fish when one The Rumanians have a similar gear for fishing is seen.As soon as this has been carried out, the ring under ice (Antipa 1916) (Figure 22.11), but there of the net can be turned up by a second line. The are also many other forms like that in Hungary frightened fish is then entangled in the net. In (Figure 22.12). This form of construction has also Finland a similar gear is used – especially to catch DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 320

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Figure 22.14 Turkish fisherman casting a net in an Anatolian lake. The cast net is constructed of triangular sections of netting.

Figure 22.13 Falling net developed and used in south- ern Germany (Sims-See).

perch over a hard bottom where spears cannot be operated (Mäki & Pitkänen 1969). That the fishery using this covering gear is effective is evidenced by the following. Formerly, in the River Rhine, fisher- men operated liftnets like falling nets to catch Figure 22.15 A cast net falling on the water like a circle bream (Böckling 1978). In this case a liftnet with a in Sri Lanka. Great dexterity is developed by fishermen deep bagnet is stretched by two sticks and framed in using this method (1960). by wire. When fish were expected, the gear was let down suddenly to create a bag with the opening downwards. The covered fish tried to escape and swam into the bag hanging over the wire when the edges, they fall over the fish that has been seen or net was hauled. So a liftnet became a cover net! is supposed to be there. In contrast to the cover pots, the cast nets can only be used in waters that 22.4 Hand cast nets have no obstacles or plants and, possibly, have a smooth bottom. If the ground is uneven, fish and A quite different type of falling net is represented crayfish cannot be completely covered by the net by the cast nets. Generally these are circular nets and will escape sideways. This also explains why it which, as the name implies, are thrown. They have is that cast nets are not used in areas that are fished to be thrown or cast with great skill in order to fall by cover pots, and vice versa. flat upon the water’s surface (Figures 22.14–22.16). Hand cast nets are today widely used all over the Then, quickly sinking by reason of their weighted world. They have come to Europe, in particular to DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 321

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Figure 22.16 Cast net fishing on the lagoon of Benin. (Photo: G. Fortoh/FAO.)

south Europe, by way of Greece. The Greeks took especially in the flood plain lakes and in the main over the cast nets from the Near East and intro- streams at low water, when the fish are sufficiently duced them into the Mediterranean area, from concentrated to give a good chance of capture where they spread over Europe and North Africa. (Welcomme 1979). Europeans also introduced the It is suggested that the cast nets were originally cast net into the New World. developed in India and spread from there over east The operating of a cast net requires considerable and south Asia into Oceania, the Near East and knowledge, and several different variations are Europe. Drawings of cast nets >1000 years old can known. The correct method of casting the nets can be seen in the ruins of Angkor in Kampuchea.They only be acquired by practical experience as it is were doubtless taken to the east coast of Africa by done by a skilled movement of the whole body. On Arabian merchants and tradesmen. They may also this point the Japanese say that a fisherman should have arrived directly from India. The Europeans, be so efficient that, depending on the conditions especially the Portuguese, took them to the West obtaining, he should be able to cast the net in such African coast. They arrived at the Zaire River a manner that it takes on a flat round shape, or that during the last two centuries and spread up that of a temple bell*, or even of an umbrella.These nets river with the earliest travellers and their West are cast from the river bank, the beach, or from a African followers around the beginning of the 20th boat. In the latter case, however, either a stable boat century (McLaren 1958). or a high degree of skill is required of the person In central Africa they are not known or used. Like hooks and lines, the cast net is not suitable for use in the waters of virgin forests. In contrast to this, * The Asiatic temple bells are more barrel-shaped, dif- cast nets are considered as one of the mainstays of fering therefore from the conventional European bell the fisheries in the flood rivers of southern Africa, shape. DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 322

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Figure 22.17 Very large cast nets of the Ivory Coast. (Photo: Steinberg, 1965.)

casting the net (Figure 22.16). The fishermen of will collapse when hauled, its edge is weighted with southern India are said to be especially skilful in lead or chains. To attain the right shape, the hand operating from a boat. Peruvian fishermen are able cast nets are constructed very carefully (von Brandt to cast their nets while sitting on a raft. In this case & Kaulin 1971). Their size is designated by the the casting point is very near to the water surface radius or the circumference of the net and is limited and it needs great skill to cast the net under these by the technique itself. The radius of the gear is circumstances (Nachtigall 1966). In Columbia, identical with the height of the collapsed net. sometimes ten or more boats fish together. The Mostly the hand cast nets have a radius of 2–3m. boats encircle a shoal of fish, frightening them But cast nets with a radius of > 7m are used (Hick- together by noise with the oars during the process ling 1961).The African cast nets are known to be of narrowing the circle. On a given signal all the extremely large (Figures 22.16 and 22.17). The fishermen cast their nets, with a diameter of c.4m, operators must be very experienced to cast such a so carefully that the nets nearly touch each other large net in such a manner that it falls flat, like (Richter 1966). A collective fishing with cast nets is a circle, on the water surface (Figures 22.14 and known in many parts of the world, like Africa (Wel- 22.15) and sinks, fully spread in that form, to the comme 1979) and Asia. As known from other gear bottom of the water. operated in a collective, the catch of many gear cast Cast nets usually have a central retaining line at the same time is larger than if the cast nets are (Figure 22.18), which is held in the hand for hauling thrown one after the other (Anell 1955). the net. But there are some cast nets without a Casting from a boat is also practised by Turkish central line (Figure 22.18a). Then the fisherman fishermen in the Black Sea. Here – most unusually must dive in after casting, in order to haul the net. – the cast nets are used in very deep water, 150m Even if there is a central line, the fishermen may and more. Sometimes the net is not cast but is let dive in to arrange the nets in the right position at down in the water and spreads itself while sinking the bottom of the water to prevent any fish, which to these great depths. The net is required to cover are perhaps not quite covered, from escaping the fish and, when being hauled, to collapse into during the hauling of the net. folds so that the fish remain in between its folds. To This is frequently done in the cast net fishery of make sure that the net will spread when cast, and south Asia. It has been observed in African fisheries DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 323

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Figure 22.18 Different construction of cast nets: (a) without central line and without pockets; (b) with central line and without pockets; (c) with central line and fixed pockets; (d) with central line connected with pockets.

that the gear, with the fish, will not be hauled by a during the hauling of the central line. The apex of line, but that a diver takes each single fish out of the the gear has an opening held by a short tube of dif- netting under water before hauling back the gear ferent material, to tow the strings together with the (Welcomme 1970). central line. Cast nets without pockets are used in The gear can be a simple circle of netting and water in which plants or obstacles are expected. the fish are entangled in the net webbing which Cast nets with fixed pockets are especially made for collapses when carefully hauled. The mesh can be shallow water, free of obstacles; the other type with of such a size that the fish are gilled in the mesh as pockets is considered to be better for deep waters with gillnets. Many of the African cast nets are free of the danger of the different lines entangling simple entangling fishing gear or are designed to themselves around stones and other obstacles keep the fish in the mesh (Figures 22.18a and (Floyd 1965). 22.18b). Finally, the cast net may have pockets at Besides these well-known cast nets, there is the edge, in which the fish get caught when the net another type of hand cast net which is seldom found is being hauled. These pockets can be fixed by and may be known only in south eastern Europe. turning up the lower edge of the net and fastening This is a cast net without pockets, which has no it by short lengths of twine, forming a cast net central line, but instead employs a purse line with fixed pockets (sometimes erroneously called through rings of lead at the edge of the net (Figure ‘Spanish type’, Figure 22.18c).Alternatively, each of 22.19). Russian and Turkish fishermen (Jankó these twines can be connected to the central line – 1900), fishing in the Black Sea (Mengi 1977), know forming a ‘stringed’ cast net (erroneously called of this sophisticated gear. The gear is cast like a ‘English type’, Figure 22.18d). In the case of the normal cast net, but the fish are caught by a pursing stringed cast net, the strings can be connected indi- action after the gear has fallen over some fish like vidually to the leadline or each string can end with a net bag.When the line is pursed, the gear is hauled three tie cords (Figure 22.18d). The construction out of the water with the pursed leadline first, an and operation of a stringed cast net is quite differ- operation quite different from that of the usual cast ent from that of a cast net without pockets (Figure net (Figure 22.20).The advantage of this gear is that 22.18a) or with fixed pockets (Figure 22.18c). With when cast it needs no contact with the bottom, as is the stringed cast nets, the pockets are formed necessary for the common cast nets. Therefore, it DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 324

324 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 22.19 Leadline with rings and purse line for pursing a baglike cast net. (Photo: T. Mengi, 1977.)

can be operated in deeper water to catch fish in mid-water.

22.5 Boat cast nets As with liftnets, it is only possible to enlarge cast nets by hanging them on a gallows – in which case they can no longer be manipulated by hand. By this means it becomes possible to easily lower and haul them, even if they are of considerable size.They can be stationary gear but are usually installed in a boat to make them mobile (Figure 22.21). The spreading of such a gear must be carried out in a different way from hand casting (Klust 1959). To achieve a satis- Figure 22.20 Operation of a cast net with purse line in factory spread, in the example under discussion, an free water without contact with the bottom. (From Mengi iron ring of at least 2m diameter is used to keep the 1977 with permission.) central nets spread while the free edges, with the leads attached, hang down like a bell. The edge is connected with a central line by means of twine pockets are closed with the help of the twines con- and, thereby, the pockets can be formed, as has necting the leadline with the central line. Now it can been described above for some types of hand cast be hauled out of the water, hopefully with a catch. nets (Figure 22.18d). Before casting, the pockets are Such stationary cast nets were formerly used on the completely closed so that the lead weights lie quite River Havel and, until some decades ago, in the high. Just before the gear is lowered, the pockets estuary of the River Elbe, partly in the port area of are suddenly opened, the weights fall down and the Hamburg. If they are colloquially called ‘all wedder edge spreads out as in Figure 22.21. Thus the net is nix’ – this means ‘again nothing’ – which is not to let down, spreading widely as it goes and covering be taken as a reflection on their efficiency, but a large area. When the gear has fallen right to the rather to demonstrate the shortage of fish owing to bottom of the water, it is lifted a little and the the pollution of the River Elbe! DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 325

Cover Pots and Cast Nets 325

Figure 22.21 Cast net on the River Elbe. (Photo: Klust.)

The catching area covered by this semi- stationary boat cast net is no greater than that with the usual hand cast nets, but the net is easier to set because, for casting, little manpower is needed. There are still larger cast nets, but they are so big that they cannot be used as set or stationary gear. They have to be cast or set from moving boats. These are large round net webbings provided with weights at the edges, as is typical for cast nets. They can resemble an enlarged hand cast net with fixed pockets. In the river fishery of German-speaking countries, these nets are called ‘Schleifgarne’. According to their special operation they are also Figure 22.22 Hauling a ‘Schleifgarn’ on the River Rhine called ‘drift cast nets’. Before being used, part of the near Bacharach. net is hung over the side of a boat which is allowed to drift transversely in the current. Only a narrow edge is held fast along the boat, as well as the (Figure 22.22), as is usual for cast nets. Such nets central line. In this way the gear is towed for a time were, and are still, used on the large rivers of mid- with its lower edge sliding over the bottom and Europe: the Elbe, the Rhine and the Danube. But driving the fish forward.After a certain time the net they are also known in other European rivers such is let down completely. It then spreads like a hand as the River Mosel. Here such a gear with a cir- cast net on the bottom of the water to cover the fish, cumference of 40m (i.e. a radius of c. 6.4m) has and is then carefully hauled by the central line been operated (Krause 1904; Leonhardt 1908). DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 326

326 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 22.23 Newer Chinese giant-size cast net for a freshwater fishery operated from a net boat with winch and four rowing boats. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.)

Even today these drift cast nets are considered fishes by throwing a sheet of netting over them has helpful for catching small fish in river fisheries. also been achieved in another manner. Polynesian In the Far East, Japanese fishermen know a fishermen are considered as the inventors of rec- similar gear, but it is in a more rectangular form tangular cast nets as ‘a special form between cast (‘nagashi ami’). In the freshwater fishery of the net and seine net’ (Anell 1955). These are strips of mainland of China, an over-sized cast net is used. netting of different sizes, which may have floats on As can be seen in Figure 22.23 this gear is operated the one side and sinkers on the other and are with a winch placed on a net boat with some thrown in such a manner as to either prevent the gallows and is spread over the bottom by four addi- escape of fish from the bank into the open sea, or tional rowing boats. The gear has fixed pockets as to catch fish directly (Parkinson 1907; Demandt in Figure 22.18c (Kasuga & Osaka 1975). Never- 1912; Anell 1955). This type of gear has been theless, these boat nets have not, by any means, the adopted also from Micronesian and Melanesian same importance as the hand cast nets, which are fishermen, and is therefore known from the used in commercial fishery in all parts of the world, Solomon Islands to as far as Easter Island.A special and often also for taking samples in pond farms. type of these nets is the ‘manavi’, a net used by the inhabitants of Botel Tobago (Lan Yü) in the east of 22.6 Polynesian rectangular nets southern Taiwan (Kano & Segawa 1956). This is a rectangular net 4–5m long and 1m wide, stretched As has been said, cast nets are round nets with or between two bamboo rods of 1.5–3m long.The fish- without pockets and are thrown by experienced erman stays in the shallow water (the ideal depth is fishermen in such a manner that they fall like a about 1m) in a bent position, and keeps the float circle on the water surface. But the idea of catching line in his mouth or (when the teeth are no longer DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 327

Cover Pots and Cast Nets 327

Figure 22.24 Fisherman of Botel Tobago island (Lan Yü) with Polynesian rectangular cast net just before whipping the netting forward.

so good!) between chin and breast, and stretches Bacalbas¸a,N.(1965) Cors de Tehnica Pescuitului. Pescuitul the net between the two sticks (Figure 22.24).When Ind. Bucharest [in Rumanian]. he lets go the net, the netting whips forward, Böckling, R.L. (1978) So fischte man am Rhein. Die Heimat 49, 54–60. surrounding or covering the fishes. It is considered von Brandt,A. & Kaulin, M. (1971) Netze knüpfen – Netze necessary that at this moment the fisherman takes schneiden. Berlin. one stamping step forward, simultaneously shaking Burdon, T.W. (1951) A consideration of the classification the two sticks to frighten the fish into the netting of fishing gear and methods. In: Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, Sect. II/21. Madras. spread behind them in the water. Then the sticks Demandt, E. (1912) Die Fischerei der Samoaner. are brought together and the netting, with the fish, Mitteilungen des Museums für Völkerkunde. Hamburg is towed onto the beach like a very small seine III, 1. net – which encouraged the definition mentioned Floyd, H.M. (1965) Castnets constructed of machine- above. Of course, this is a very individual form of made netting. USA Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Leaflet 579. gear. But ideas different from the usual fishing gear Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. are rare in fisheries and therefore are worthy of Jankó, J. (1900) Herkunft der Magyarischen Fischerei. mention. Budapest/Leipzig,. Kano, T. & Segawa, K. (1956) An illustrated ethnography of Formosan aborigines. 1: The Yami. Tokyo. References Kasuga & Osaka, L. (eds) (1975) Catálogo de Artes y Métodos de Pesca Artesanales de la República Popular Anell, B. (1955) Contribution to the History of Fishing in China. Instituto Nacional de Pesca, México [in Southern Seas. Uppsala. Spanish]. Antipa, Gr. (1916) Pesca˘ ria si Pescuitul in România. Kirchhoff, A. (1901) Mensch und Erde. Reihe aus Bucharest [in Rumanian]. Wissenschaft und Geisteswelt No. 31. Leipzig. DFC22 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 328

328 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Klust, G. (1959) Wurfnetze in der Elbfischerei. Fischwirt Parkinson, R. (1907) Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee. 9, 176–177. Stuttgart. Krause, E. (1904) Vorgeschichtliche Fischereigeräte und Richter, G. (1966) Im Kolumbianischen Küstengebiet um neuere Vergleichsstücke. Zeitschrift für Fischerei 11, Santa Marta. National Museum 96, 74–83. 133–300. Schmidt, G. (1956) Karpfenfang mit dem Stuker. Leonhardt, E.E. (1908) Die Entwicklung der Fischerei Deutsche Fischerei-Zeitung 3, 106–108. und ihrer Geräte. Zeitschrift für Fischerei XIII, 87–171. Solymos, E. (1957) A boritó halászszerszámok fejlödése Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en Magyarországon. [The development of cover gear in Lettonie. Paris. Hungary]. Ethnographia LXIII, 468–469 [in McLaren, P.J.R.(1958) The Fishing Devices of Central and Hungarian]. Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the Solymos, E. (1965) Dunai halászt. [Artisan Fishery in the Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. Hungarian Part of the River Danube]. Budapest [in Mäki, T.V. & Pitkänen, H (1969) Kalastajan tietokirja. Hungarian]. [Fishermen’s encyclopedia]. Helsinki [in Finnish]. Umali, A.F. (1950) Guide to the classification of fishing Mengi, T. (1977) Balikçilik teknigi. [Fishing Techniques.] gear in the Philippines. Fish and Wildlife Service, Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of Research Report No. 17. Washington. fishing gear. Istanbul [in Turkish]. Welcomme, R.L. (1970) Les moyens de pêche dans les Monod, T. (1928) L’industrie de Pêche au Cameroun. eaux continentales du Dahomey. Études Dahoméennes Paris. NS No. 17, 5–35. Nachtigall, H. (1966) Indianische Fischer, Feldbauern und Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain Viehzüchter. Beiträge zur Peruanischen Völkerkunde. Rivers. London. Marburger Studien zur Völkerkunde 2. Berlin. DFC23 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 329

23 Liftnets and Fish Wheels

A description has already been given of how small liftnets and for some stationary ones, the netting is scoop nets can be pushed beneath any prey sought kept spread by a stretching device. For small types – either fish or crustaceans – and lifted with them the netting is fastened in a round frame without a from the water. On the same principle, another handle (Figure 23.1), but some may have square or group of fishing gear – but a very different one – is triangular frames (Figure 23.2). They are also kept used in almost the same way. These are called lift- spread by transverse rods, especially if the stretched nets or dipnets. Whereas the scoop nets are bags nets are large (see Figure 23.13). These rods have pushed beneath a fish that is seen or suspected to the advantage that when folded, with the netting be present, the dipnets are sheets of netting wrapped around the rods, they can be easily trans- lowered into the water in the hope that the fish will ported. The flat liftnets used by sport fishermen for later swim over them, or that crayfish or shrimp will catching bait fish can be handled in this way, but creep on to them. Strictly speaking, the term many other nets used by commercial fishermen can ‘dipnet’ is not quite correct. The catch is not made also be similarly transported. With the very large by dipping the nets, but by lifting them again from liftnets, however, frames or crossing rods cannot be the water at the right moment when the fish sought used – and that problem, with the so-called blanket to be caught have gathered over them. The term nets, will be discussed later. ‘liftnet’ is therefore much more correct. The refer- In order to attract fish, crustaceans and other ence here to ‘nets’ is because in modern fishing only aquatic animals over the liftnets, bait is often put on liftnets made of netting are known. It must, the nets or suspended over them. Over large lift- however, be supposed that like many others these nets, lamps are also installed to attract both fish and gear made of netting had predecessors that were crustaceans. In general liftnets are flat, especially made of twigs and bast. Herodotus, the Greek the smaller types. By quick lifting, the prey is historian, reported that some lake dwellers had pressed onto the netting and so prevented from such an abundant supply of fish that they had only escaping. Sometimes deeper bags of netting are to lower a basket from their dwellings into the lake used, especially when large quantities are expected, and they could lift it after a short time full of fish. because the bigger types of liftnets can be hauled They would have used a wooden lifting implement. only slowly. To give the net a deeper form, the Many fish would gather beneath those dwellings middle of the netting is sometimes weighted because of the domestic offal thrown into the with stones. Such weights also help to accelerate water. It may be of interest to note that the descen- the sinking of the net. On occasions the centre dants in this area, Rumanian fishermen, operated is strengthened, or a second, loose, wide-meshed the same technique with baskets used as liftnets netting layer is sewn onto it to hinder the fish by (Antipa 1916). entangling them when the net is hauled. For better Modern liftnets are made of netting set horizon- operation of the middle-sized and large liftnets, tally on the bottom or kept suspended in the water. especially to overcome the adhesion effect when For small and middle-sized types, as used for hand the netting has to break free from the water surface

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Figure 23.1 Various small hand liftnets: (a) crayfish ring; (b) bait net; (c) Philippine liftnet with bait box; (d) fixed crayfish net.

Figure 23.2 Square-framed liftnet from the River Danube near Passau. (Photo: Graf von Mandelsloh.) DFC23 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 331

Liftnets and Fish Wheels 331

during lifting, gallows with rollers or levers have Malayan fishery (Charempol 1951; Burdon 1954; been used since ancient times. It may be that some Parry 1954) (Figure 23.3), and also in the fisheries liftnets were the first mechanized fishing gear in this of Finland and Baltic countries (Ligers 1953; respect. Lehtonen 1975). The end of the pole is sharpened and is pushed into the mud until the hoop lies on 23.1 Portable hand liftnets the bottom. The bait is held about 10cm above the level of the hoop, sometimes in a wire bait holder, Small liftnets can be used as hand nets, and large or is fixed directly on the hoop. The gear has to be numbers of this gear are often operated by a single monitored at regular intervals. fisherman, mostly for catching crabs. Round framed Liftnets are usually set separately, even when liftnets can hang by three lines fastened to a ring used in large numbers. The reason is that they have (Figure 23.1a). Those with transverse rods hang on to be lifted carefully without losing the prey. The a single line. Figure 23.1c shows a hand liftnet with lobster rings belong to the hand liftnet type of gear bait box. The gear is set on the bottom of a river, and are widely distributed in commercial fisheries. marked by a red ball floating on the water surface. As an example, the rock lobster fishery off the coast Small liftnets can be fixed also on a rod, like the of Namibia (south-west Africa) can be mentioned. crayfish rings in European freshwaters, and by this These baited lobster rings have a diameter of 70 cm, means they can be set on the bottom (Figure 23.1d). are rather deep, and are fixed on floated lines 20 In the shape of ski sticks they are used in the fathoms long (Figure 23.4). This may also be an

Figure 23.4 Baited liftnet for the lobster fishery off the Figure 23.3 Ski-stick-like lobster rings of Thailand. coast of Namibia. DFC23 4/23/05 8:56 PM Page 332

332 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.5 Crayfish liftnets from Finland: (a) from Lehtonen 1975 with permission; (b) from Mäki & Pitkänen 1969 with permission.

Figure 23.7 A hand liftnet used in Bangkok (1960).

opening at the top (see Chapter 16). Such a simi- larity to traps with non-return devices is shown in an old Danish liftnet with a funnel – a feature typical of traps (Figure 23.6). Not only crustaceans are caught with hand lift- nets but also fish, especially middle-sized and larger ones. Sport and commercial fishermen catch bait fish with liftnets (Figure 23.1b) from bridges in rivers, and on the sea coast from harbour walls. As long as the gear is small it can be hand-operated. It has been recommended that such hand-operated Figure 23.6 Danish crayfish net with retarding device. liftnets should not be larger than 1.25m2.The resis- tance of the liftnet by adhesion increases with the example of a very small gear not only being oper- size of the netting and with smaller sizes of mesh. ated as a traditional fishery but also becoming an For this reason, liftnets for bait are, in general, 0.80 implement of highly developed industrial fisheries or 1.00m2, with a mesh width (bar) of 12–15mm. – the important South African lobster fishery. Sport fishermen use small liftnets, sometimes called It is understandable that in commercial fisheries dropnets (also an incorrect name, like dipnets) for the small hand liftnets are mostly used to catch landing hooked fish when angling from a pier where crabs, which do not escape as quickly as fish. But the usual landing nets cannot be used. If the hand many variations in gear construction are known in liftnets are larger, they are dipped into and lifted fisheries to prevent the escape of crabs and fish from the water by means of a long pole (Figure from the bag of a liftnet. Figure 23.5 gives two 23.7). The pole is handled like a lever to achieve examples of crayfish liftnets used in Finland. The support in making the lift from the water. A special construction of the gear, made of wood or wire, hole in the ground, or a foot put forward, or a leg reduces the possibility of escape of the crustaceans. well set provides the necessary leverage. By this Modern forms of small and large liftnets are made simple method of mechanization of the handling with wooden frames and netting. Moreover, the of liftnets it becomes possible to overcome the entrance can have a tube as a non-return device so resistance of the water and the surface tension that this gear can be considered as a basket with an mentioned before. DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 333

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Figure 23.10 Japanese and Korean liftnets for catching snails.

Figure 23.8 The purse hoop net of Wales, which can be closed. (From Davis 1958 with permission.) By using this principle of closing the net, there is much greater security in preventing the fish from escaping. Small liftnets can also be used to catch snails, as the Japanese and Koreans do. In this case there is no danger that the prey will escape when hauling.The liftnets are used on the longline system and look like traps, but are without any retarding devices (Figures 23.9 and 23.10).

23.2 Stationary liftnets If the liftnets become larger, some better mecha- nism is needed to reduce the manpower needed to operate them. This is especially so for very large liftnets which will be mentioned in the following Figure 23.9 Korean gear for catching snails. (From NN sections of this chapter. 1968–70 with permission). The stationary liftnets used in Asia and usually called ‘Chinese liftnets’ work on the lever principle, To avoid the escape of fish in British fishing, a as described for the scrape nets (Figure 24.30). The hand liftnet has even been developed which can be net is balanced by counterweights so that it can be closed by shutting the opening hoop by means of a pivoted for dipping and lifting. Such nets set on the line. This is the so-called ‘purse hoop net’ of Wales beach may be found on the South Indian Malabar (Figure 23.8) (Davis 1958). The French know of a coast, where they were apparently brought by the similar gear (Sinsoilliez 1968).The Malayan fishery Portuguese (Figure 23.11). During the night, lamps also uses a collapsible hand liftnet (Parry 1954), and are hung at the crossing point of the rods to attract last but not least, the Japanese fishermen knew the fish. Depending on the current, this fishing lasts ‘closing hoop nets’ (Katsuki 1951) long before sci- until noon. After the netting has been skilfully entists invented similar gear for scientific purposes. folded, the fish are removed by means of a long- DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 334

334 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.12 Liftnet installed on a bamboo raft in southern Taiwan. Figure 23.11 ‘Chinese’ liftnet operated off the Malabar coast, southern India.

Figure 23.13 Newer Chinese liftnet. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.)

handled scoop net. This has to be carried out very people have very little trouble with that fishery and quickly as otherwise the crows which abound there that is what matters, provided they do not know a steal the fish from the net. Installed on bamboo way to abstain from working at all – which they rafts, these types of nets with long levers are very would prefer at any rate’ (Zimmermann 1865). One common in the fisheries of east and South-east Asia should not forget, however, that the net must be (Figures 23.12 and 23.13). It is an impressive spec- lifted and sunk at short intervals, which requires tacle to see how easily (apparently) these giant nets much bodily effort in spite of the balancing equip- are sunk and lifted. This casual elegance may have ment; fishery is not the easy work it sometimes induced a Dutch surgeon, who travelled in the seems to be to people without an insider’s Philippines in the 1860s, to write the following:‘The knowledge. DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 335

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Because of the general shortage of wood, the large crossed rods for these big liftnets strongly crossed rods of the large liftnets are often com- enough, in spite of this shortage of wood. posed of several parts. Jokes have been made about The more modern stationary liftnets known in this fact, and comparisons drawn between the con- European fisheries are operated with the help of structions of the rods with the farcical drawings of hand- or motor-driven winches. They are operated Debout, the French cartoonist. It should, however, especially in rivers, in the upper part and down to rather be the subject of admiration that the people the estuaries, as far as they are not polluted. The of these countries have been able to build such gallows required for this method are preferably installed on bridges, moles or other protruding buildings (Figure 23.14). As with the salmon fishery on the upper Rhine, the so-called ‘Stuhlfischerei’ or the ‘bilancia’ of the Italians, solid buildings with waiting rooms and accommodation for the fisher- men may even be constructed for this fishery (Figure 23.15). On the Austrian Danube, similar arrangements exist known as ‘Krandaubel’. This is a liftnet with a gallows placed on an anchored vessel with a little house for shelter (Figure 23.16). Similar houses with liftnets are also operated in the Swiss part of the upper River Rhine. These types of liftnet no longer work on the lever system with a two-armed lever on the longer part of which hangs the net and, on the shorter, arm, the counterweight. The Swiss liftnets are also operated with a gallows. The net is held spread out like the middle-sized lift- Figure 23.14 Stationary liftnets to be seen on the nets by two crossing arms (Figure 23.17). The gear harbour mole of Ostend. They can be hired by sports is operated with two small hand-operated winches. fishermen for bait fishing. With one of them (1) the liftnet can be moved

Figure 23.15 Liftnets with houses for shelter in Fiumicino, Italy (1959). DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 336

336 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.17 Diagram of a liftnet on the River Rhine near Basel (1974). Winch 1 moves the net closer to, or Figure 23.16 Austrian ‘Krandaubel’ on the River farther from, the bank; winch 2 raises and lowers the net. Danube near the Island of Wörth. (Photo: Dr Bruschek.)

farther out over the water of the river. With the case the so-called ‘blanket nets’ have to be kept other winch (2) the gear is let down into the water stretched by some other means. They can be oper- or lifted when a catch is expected. Moreover, the ated as stationary gear, or on a boat as movable lifted gear can then be moved again nearer to the fishing gear. Some of them are placed on the Italian working place. This working place, with the two sea shore as a further development of the smaller winches, is inside a small hut where the fisherman Italian bilancias mentioned before (Figure 23.15). can sit comfortably on a chair to watch the gear. In general, the construction of a blanket net is less This fishery is, therefore, called ‘chair fishing’ or complicated. Non-framed netting, sometimes of in German ‘Stuhlfischerei’ (Klunzinger 1892). It is impressive size, is hung with the help of some of interest that the place where the net is dipped beams over the water at some distance from the and lifted in or out of the water is sheltered behind shore (Figure 23.18).As stationary gear, the blanket a small artificial wall, where the fish like to rest. In net can be held by rammed-down piles on the shore the River Rhine this fishery originally specialized in or in shallow water. The netting is dipped and lifted salmon. To attract fish, a captured female salmon, over blocks at the end of the piles. Sometimes it is tied to a long line, was towed slowly over the liftnet. sufficient that dipping and lifting is done with one The ‘lure’ might then be followed by some male side of the blanket net only. So with another salmon which were then caught, together with the method the blanket net is held on one side by piles luring female (Kuhn 1976) (see also ‘sexual lures’ and operated from the opposite side from a boat. in Chapter 11). Finally, the blanket net can be worked from a vari- able number of boats, as will be discussed in the 23.3 Blanket nets next section of this chapter. Stationary blanket nets held by blocks fixed on four piles, one at each Obviously the net surface, if enlarged even further, corner of the netting, are even used in river fishing can no longer be stretched by frames or rods. In this as can be seen in Figure 23.19. They are operated DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 337

Liftnets and Fish Wheels 337

Figure 23.18 Blanket nets operated from the beach. Chioggia, Italy (1975).

elevated. When the fish have gathered over the net lying on the bottom of the water, the net is quickly lifted up from the bank or beach, so that the fish fall into the bag which is formed by the netting between the stakes and the bank or beach. Then it is a simple matter to remove the fish from the net using scoop nets. Such nets are used even today off the Turkish Black Sea coast (Figure 23.20). The large rectangular nylon nets are fixed on the shore side by a row of poles in the water. The opposite Figure 23.19 Italian blanket net in a river near two corners are fixed on lines leading to two high Terracina. platforms, with an observer on each. When enough fish are over the netting, the gear is lifted and the fish are taken by scoop nets as usual. The Turkish from both banks.This method is known in many dif- name of this gear is ‘dalyan’, but this is misleading ferent areas of the world, particularly in the fresh- because larger pound nets for tuna have the same water fishery of the Chinese mainland (Kasuga & name. It may be that the blanket net of Sinop, Osaka 1975). On the seashore the netting can be shown in Figure 23.20, is the largest gear of this operated from one side only. For this fishery a large type. According to old Turkish and Russian draw- sheet of netting is fastened on the one side to stakes ings (NN 1871), this gear was used in great numbers standing in the water, so that its edge projects over until the 19th century (Figure 23.21). the water. The central section of the net is spread Another method of operating large blanket nets on the bottom, covered by the water. The opposite from a stationary or anchored platform in the sea side lies on the bank which, preferably, should be is typical of the Malayan fishery of Hong Kong, DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 338

338 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.20 Large Turkish blanket net (dalyan) off the coast of Sinop, Black Sea.

Figure 23.21 Old Russian drawing of a fishery with blanket net. (From NN 1871 with permission.)

Malaysia and Indonesia. Even though the definition left under water when the position of the platform is not clear, the gear is called ‘kelong’ in Malaysia has to be changed for any reason. Moreover, the and ‘bagan’ in Indonesia. In Malaysia these are operation of the kelong becomes difficult because large stationary platforms, with houses for shelter of the lack of manpower. For building such and living accommodation for fishermen (Figures arrangements, no rams are available and the long 23.22 and 23.23). From this platform the liftnet is trunks of the nibong palms used to hold the plat- operated with the help of simple hand-driven forms became rare in Malaysia and now have to be winches (Figure 23.24). Stow nets are also used imported from Indonesia. Some of these liftnets can from these platforms. Whichever gear is used, these have leaders like wings for traps (Figure 23.25) so permanent fixed ‘fishing stakes’ are considered an that sometimes this gear is considered as a large undesirable fishing method in Malaysia because trap, even when the catch is cleared by a liftnet. trawling and gill netting can be hampered by the The Indonesian platforms are also stationary but platforms and especially, by the remains of stakes set on anchored rafts (Figure 23.26), from which the DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 339

Figure 23.22 So-called ‘Kelong’ off the coast of Johor Baharu (Malaysia) opposite Singapore (1978).

Figure 23.23 Blanket net hanging under the platform of a Malaysian ‘kelong’ (1978).

Figure 23.24 Blanket net operated by a ‘kelong’. (From Abu Bakar 1977 with permission.) DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 340

340 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.25 Kelong with blanket net and leaders made of fences (From Abu Bakar 1977 with permission.)

Figure 23.26 Indonesian ‘bagan’ in West Flores, Indonesia. (Photo: Kollmannsperger, 1971.)

Figure 23.27 Norwegian liftnet operated by four boats for sea fishing. (From Brobak 1952 with permission.) DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 341

Liftnets and Fish Wheels 341

Figure 23.28 Korean three-boat liftnet. (From NN 1968–70 with permission.)

in east and south Asia. In Malaysia, the four-boat liftnets are held and operated by anchored boats, and lure lines are brought over the gear with a fifth boat. During the night a floating lamp is also used. This lamp is connected to each of the four boats with a line of monofilament, so that the light can be positioned in the best possible place over the gear. When enough fish are concentrated, the four vessels begin the hauling of the netting. For this, the boats come nearer to each other and the catch can be hauled by scoop nets (Parry 1954). Smaller types of blanket nets, each side 15–20 m long, can also be operated from two boats only, as fishermen of Lake Figure 23.29 A Lowestoft boat liftnet. (From Davis 1958 Nyasa (Mozambique) are doing (da Costa 1967). with permission.) Here also light is used for luring the fish over the gear, or some bait is scattered over the net with the liftnet is operated as usual. This is also a night help of a small boat. In the Far East not only are fishery and the fish are attracted by light. The plat- four-boat blanket nets with rectangular netting form has a building as shelter for the fishermen, and known, but so also are some with an irregular also a room for preparing the catch. The same extension, as can be seen from the Korean three- method can be used if one side of the blanket net boat liftnet (Figure 23.28). There are not only is fastened to poles and the other to a boat lying Japanese four-boat liftnets but also five-, six- and alongside, as with the Philippine ‘kabyaw’ (Umali eight-boat types operating blanket nets (NN 1950) or the old ‘aloli dela’ of the Singhalese of Sri 1959–65). Lanka (Pearson 1922). This technique has been used in Europe as well as in Asia. More popular are 23.4 Modern boat liftnets blanket nets used only from vessels. The simplest way to achieve this is for sheets of square net to be As mentioned in Section 23.2, smaller liftnets can held at each corner by a boat so that they can be be operated with gallows. In most cases, these lowered and lifted in combination. Such liftnets, consist of a stationary gear on a promising place in worked by four boats, are in fact widely used in fresh or sea water. If such gallows are installed on freshwater and sea fishing (Figure 23.27). Four-boat rafts or boats in fresh waters (Figures 23.2, 23.13 liftnets are used in Scandinavian fishing as well as and 23.16), the liftnet becomes mobile. In this form DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 342

342 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.31 Large liftnets for bait fishing hanging up for drying in Camara de Lobos, Madeira (1964). Figure 23.30 Russian boat liftnet used in the Caspian Sea. (From NN 1951 with permission.)

Figure 23.32 Large framed liftnets in use during fishing off Ponta Delgada, Azores (1962).

liftnets have also been introduced into the sea starboard and port sides for capturing fish attracted fishery (Figure 23.29). There are, for instance, by light. In contrast to stationary liftnets, those Russian liftnets in the Caspian Sea for catching mounted in vessels have the advantage of being sprats from an anchored boat (Figure 23.30). For able to change their fishing place when necessary. this purpose, two nets are used alternately from the As seen before, the old Chinese liftnets (Figure DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 343

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Figure 23.33 Middle-sized framed liftnet for catching bait fish in the harbour of Horta, Azores (1962). In the foreground is a waterfilled permeable container for live bait.

Figure 23.34 Blanket net operated by boat near Comacchio, Italy (1975).

23.12) are also operated mostly from rafts. There is like some ladies’ purses (Figure 23.31). This liftnet no difficulty in operating smaller framed liftnets is operated from a vessel with the help of sticks from vessels, as can be seen in Figures 23.16, 23.29 (Figures 23.32 and 23.33). and 23.30. Medium-sized unframed blanket nets can also be But there is an example also of a large framed operated from boats (Figure 23.34). But in this case liftnet used in sea fisheries for catching bait. It is the size of the blanket net must be smaller in com- used by Portuguese fishermen of the Azores and parison with the stationary ones operated from the Madeira. The wooden ring of this liftnet is com- shore (Figure 23.18). Nevertheless, there are some posed of two pieces which can be folded together boat liftnets which are not just beach liftnets placed DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 344

344 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.35 The development of the Philippine ‘basnig’ for work at sea. (From Rasalan 1959 with permission.) DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 345

Liftnets and Fish Wheels 345

Figure 23.36 Japanese ‘saury’ stick-held dip net. (From Nomura 1962 with permission.)

on a vessel but are specially developed for boat set and hauled from a single boat, the basnig fishing.There are two such highly developed fishing became an efficient large-scale fishing gear by 1950. gear – one originated in the Philippines, the other The fish are attracted by light and guided over the in Japan. The Philippines have adopted single-boat sunken net.The Philippines people sometimes took liftnets provided with a rim which shapes them like 90% of their sardines by means of this gear. Inter- a box on the top (Umali 1950; Rasalan1959; Schärfe estingly, a similar construction to that shown in 1978). These liftnets, called ‘basnigs’, have under- Figure 23.35c, but with a much deeper liftnet, is gone a special development (Figure 23.35). They operated with two or three canoes on Lake were originally nothing more than the liftable Tanganyika, Burundi. bottom of a large trap (a), but by about 1920 they Another type of specialized boat liftnet for a developed into a stationary gear mounted between large-scale fishery is the Japanese ‘bouke ami’ poles (b). This developed further (1924) into a gear (Figure 23.36). This gear is better known under the worked by two boats (c) and finally into a liftnet English name ‘stick-held dipnet’ (Nomura 1962; spread by poles installed on a single boat. This took Nomura & Yamazaki 1975; Schärfe 1978). The place about 1935 (Figure 23.35d, e). When the blanket net is held by sticks on one side of the problem had been solved of how such nets could be vessel. Meanwhile, the fish are attracted by strong DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 346

346 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.37 An Alaskan salmon fish wheel.

lights on the other side of the vessel. Then, by undershot water wheels with two or three shovels, switching off this light and switching on a single operating like liftnets and lifting from the water fish lamp on the other (port) side above the dipnet that are ascending the river (Heidrich 1905; Bartz when a large shoal has been attracted, the fish are 1950). The fish must be taken by scoop nets very guided beneath the keel or around the vessel into quickly before they fall back into the water from the net over its lowered side. When enough fish are the wheels, which are permanently rotating in the gathered, the lowered side of the gear is hauled and current. Generally, however, the shovels are canted the caught fish are brailed. This net, too, has proved in such a way that the fish, when lifted by the wheel very efficient for catching pelagic fish. The fish are from the river, slide automatically into a collecting not only attracted by light but also by bait scattered box (Figure 23.37). over the netting. Then the fish are caught by sud- There is some evidence that the original auto- denly lifting the net. The Pacific saury (Cololabis matically-driven fish wheels were built in France in saira) especially is caught by the Japanese with this the River Garonne and in the River Rhône in the gear. The method was adopted in 1955. As a large area of Avignon. Here this gear was operated to crew is needed to operate this gear there are some catch shad when they were ascending the river for doubts whether commercial application of the spawning. Originally, the fish may have been caught stick-held dipnet in the usual form is ever likely to by large scoop nets. The first step forward in the be economic. Therefore attempts have been made development of this gear was the connection of the to mechanize this fishing method and to modify it handles of two scoop nets which turned like a wheel by pivoting the vessel through 90°, thus bringing the around their connection point in the current of the net under the shoal instead of attracting the catch river. This gear was known as the ‘Sarlan double’ over the netting. (Daubrée 1900). With this gear the fish caught by one of the two rigid wings of the gear had to be 23.5 Fish wheels taken out quickly by the watching fishermen, oth- erwise they fell back into the water and escaped. The fishing gear by which fish are caught by lifting The gear had to be permanently watched because, the net placed beneath them include a particularly if it was running too slowly, the shovels could stop strange group: the fish wheels. These are large turning when both were out of the water. Then the DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 347

Liftnets and Fish Wheels 347

Figure 23.38 Fish wheel operated on the River Rhône until 1974. (Drawn by master fisherman M. L. Ramaye. Arles, 1975.)

was solved by adding slanting slides made of reed (Arando donax). With these, the fish slid automati- cally from the shovel into a collection tank on board the vessel with the wheel. Nevertheless, the fish wheel could not work unwatched. This fishery came to an end when the shad, migrating against the current, could no longer do so when the current of the River Rhône was interrupted by damming up the river.Therefore, these fish wheels have not been operated since 1974. Until the 1950s, fish wheels were also known to be used in the River Tiber in the ancient centre of modern Rome. The Italians named the gear ‘gior- nelli’ or ‘girarelli’. It is thought that knowledge of Figure 23.39 Afish wheel used on the River Tiber, fishing wheels came to Rome in the 14th century Rome, Italy. when the Popes returned from their captivity in Avignon. The last gear in Rome was near the Ponte Sisto (Figure 23.39). When, one springtime, this fisherman had to keep the gear turning by pushing wheel was destroyed by floods, it was not rebuilt. the shovels forward. This difficulty was overcome As can be seen from the paintings of E. Roesler by the introduction of two oar-like boards fixed at Franz (1845–1867), there may have been many fish 90° to the catching shovels.With this adaptation the wheels by the bridges of Rome during the 19th gear was always in contact with the running water century. One of his paintings of the Ponte Rotto, and therefore constantly driven (Figure 23.38). The formerly Ponte Emilio (Pons Aemilius) even shows problem remained of taking the caught fish out of two fish wheels. Twaite, shad, and also salmon, have the shovels before they fell back into the river. This been caught with this gear. DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 348

348 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 23.42 Moving a ‘sow’ or boat fish wheel, on the Figure 23.40 Fish wheel operating on a branch of Columbia River, Oregon. (Photo: Donaldson.) the Copper River in Alaska. (From Bartz 1950 with permission.)

Mediterranean. Some very highly advanced sta- tionary and movable boat fish wheels are operating today on the Columbia River in Oregon, USA (Figures 23.41 and 23.42) (NN 1975). They are also used for salmon fishing, especially for supplying the breeding stations with spawning fish. The Japanese, too, have introduced and used fish wheels in Hokkaido for the same purpose.

References Abu Bakar Abd. Rahman (1977) Belat-belat di Johor. Bil.53 [in Malay]. Antipa, Gr. (1916) Pesca˘ria si Pescuitul in România. Bucharest [in Rumanian]. Figure 23.41 A stationary wheel in the Celilo area, Bartz, F. (1942) Die Fischgründe und Fischereiwirtschaft Oregon, USA. (Photo: Donaldson.) an der Westküste. Schriften des Geographie Institut der Universität Kiel XII. Bartz, F. (1950) Alaska. Stuttgart. Fish wheels are also used on the west coast of Brobak, K. (1952) Fartøy og Redskap. Oslo. [in Norwegian]. North America for capturing salmon as they ascend Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. the rivers, especially the rivers of British Columbia. Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 From there, their use spread as far as Alaska (Bartz (2), 5–76. 1942, 1950).The Indians of central Alaska even now Charempol, S. (1951) Indigenous marine fishing gear of Thailand. Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries use simple water wheels for fishing (Figure 23.40). Council Sect II + III, 99–123. Nowadays, commercial fishermen are not allowed Da Costa, M. (1967) Métodos et apetrechos de pesca. to use these wheels, but Indians and trappers obtain Moçambique Publicaçoes Serie B, Divulgaçao No. 32. food for themselves and their sledge dogs with [in Portuguese]. them. But that might be no coincidence. It must be Daubrée, M.L. (1900) Pêche fluviale en France. Principaux engins et modes de pêche autorisés ou interdits. Paris. supposed that the knowledge of the fish wheels Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England (as with other fishing gear) was taken to the west and Wales. Fishery Investigations Series II, Vol. 21, coast of America by immigrants from the western No. 8. DFC23 4/23/05 8:57 PM Page 349

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Heidrich, G. (1905) Wahrnehmungen auf einer Studien- NN (1968–70) Korean Fishing Gear and Illustrations,Vol. reise durch die Vereinigten Staaten. Mitt.des Deutschen 3. Pusan. Seefischerei-Vereins 21, 443–475. NN (1975) Dip net fishery is revived on Columbia river. Kasuga & Osaka, L. (eds) (1975) Catálogo de Artes y Fishing News International 14 (9), 95–96. Métodos de Pesca Artesanales de la República Popular Nomura, M. (1962) Stick-held dip net fishery in Japan. China. Instituto Nacional de Pesca, México. [in Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 7, 330–348. Spanish]. Nomura, M. & Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing Techniques. Katsuki, J. (ed.) (1951) Illustration of fishing gear. Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the Otaru/Hokkaido [in Japanese]. Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. Klunzinger, C.B. (1892) Bodenseefische, deren Pflege und Parry, M.L. (1954) The fishing methods of Kelantan and Fang. Stuttgart. Trengganu. Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Kuhn, G. (1976) Die Fischerei im Oberrhein. Hohen- Society 27, Sect. 2, 77–144. heimer Arbeiten 83. Agraroekonomie, Stuttgart. Pearson, J. (1922) Fishing appliances of Ceylon. Bulletin Lehtonen, J.U.E. (1975) Kansanomainen Ravustus ja of the Ceylon Fishieries 1,65–134. Rapujen Hyväksikäytto Suomessa. [The popular Rasalan, S.B. (1959) The development of the Philippine methods to catch crayfish and their use in Finland] bagnet (Basnig) for increased sufficiency. In: Modern Helsinki [in Finnish]. Fishing Gear of the World, 418–421. London. Ligers, Z. (1953) La Cueillette, la Chasse et la Pêche en Schärfe, J. (ed.) 1978) Catalogue of Fishing Gear Designs. Lettonie. Paris. Farnham. Mäki, T.V. & Pitkänen, H. (1969) Kalastajan Tietokirja. Sinsoilliez, R. (1968) La Pêche à Pied, Coquillages et [Fishermen’s Encyclopedia.] Helsinki [in Finnish]. Crustacés. Paris. NN (1871) Zur Erforschung der Fisch- und Tierausbeute Umali, A.F. (1950) Guide to the classification of fishing im Weissen- und Eis- Meer. (ed.) Ministerium für Staatl. gear in the Philippines. Fish and Wildlife Service, Besitztümer. St Petersburg. Research Report 17. Washington. NN (1951) [Fishing gear of the Caspian Sea.] (ed.) Zimmermann,W.F.A.(1865) Die Inseln des Indischen und Ministry of Fisheries, Moscow [in Russian]. Stillen Meeres. Berlin. NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and Fishing Gear. Tokyo. DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 350

24 From the Scoop Basket to the Stow Net

The first fishing gear was made of wooden materi- scoop baskets or scoop nets can be used for han- als such as sticks and flexible branches; maybe also dling or transporting caught fish – like the landing from grass and bast. Later on, net-making was nets of sport fishermen or the brail nets for scoop- invented, and netting of various different fibres has ing large catches out of other gear in commercial been used for gear construction right up to the fisheries. present. The technique for making netting for Scoop nets of different sizes, which are typical in fishing has been known for several thousand years. pond fisheries, are sometimes the only fishing gear On the other hand, knowledge of how to knit nets in this branch of fisheries. Moreover, transportable is still not so very old, so that even in highly devel- scoop nets can also be used for the direct catching oped fishing countries, fishing gear made of wood of fish in many waters. In this case, the framed only, without any textiles to supplement them, have bagnet is no longer a supplementary gear but a true remained in use until the present time. It may be fishing gear. This is much truer for the stationary supposed that these wooden gear date back to stow nets which are considered as one of the most those ages when the art of knitting nets was still important types of gear in the river fishery,although unknown. they can also be operated in the outlets of lakes or The previously mentioned fish baskets, consid- in coastal waters with some current. This chapter ered to be the predecessors of fyke nets, are an also shows that these gear, as they are made of example of the transformation of a gear of plaited netting, need some current to operate in an effec- wooden material into one made of netting. In the tive manner, i.e. the current has to stretch the bag construction of other traps, and of barriers, there in the horizontal, downstream direction while the has also been a transition from plaited or woven frame holds the entrance open. wooden material to netting – just as happened with much other fishing equipment. This development is 24.1 Scoop baskets also true for the type of fishing gear discussed in this chapter. In their smallest forms these ‘bagnets’ Scoop baskets are examples of an old fishing gear are hand-operated devices for scooping fish and made of wooden materials. Originally, they were other prey out of the water. Originally made of shallow plaited or woven plates (Figure 24.1) or wood, like flat baskets, these are now more or less shovel-shaped wickerwork implements (Figure deep bags made of netting of different materials. 24.2) and they are still used in that form in the Typical of this gear is that it is held open by a frame Asiatic fisheries to filter fish from water. As these around the opening of the bag. This gear, today scoop implements are small, they are quite easily usually made of knotted netting, may be called a and capably used by women and children wading in framed bagnet even though, as shown later, the the water, sometimes working together in a line, frame can sometimes be replaced by some other who catch small fish and shrimps with scooping arrangement. Very different forms and methods of movements. They can also be used for screening operation of this gear are known in fisheries. Small small animals such as mussels, worms and crabs out

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From the Scoop Basket to the Stow Net 351

Figure 24.1 Scoop baskets used in the Bena Lulua area of Zaire.

Figure 24.3 Thai woman using her foot in a basket to wash animals out of the mud (1960).

Figure 24.2 Japanese boy fishing with a shovel-like type of basket used in agriculture.

of the mud, which may be needed for bait. This can be done by moving the gear up and down only, or by stirring up the mud by hand, or, as is mostly done Figure 24.4 Thai multi-purpose basket called a ‘leh’ (1960). when fishing in breast-high water, with the foot (Figure 24.3). When used in this way the basket is pressed against the bottom and the mud is shov- device, which can be used also as a trap by setting elled by foot into the basket before being screened against the current in narrow waterways, or which out through the mesh. can be operated to scoop small fishes in shallow The form and operation of the scoop basket – waters like rice fields.Very often,catching by scoop- long known and widely distributed – differs very ing demands rapid action for successful results. much from area to area, like all gear manufactured Therefore the scooping implement must be able to individually and not mechanically mass produced. be guided easily through the water; i.e. it must not An interesting form of scoop net is known from be swollen and bulky in form and, when lifted, the Thailand. Made of bamboo and called a ‘leh’, this water must run out quickly to leave the filtered gear can be considered an old type of ‘multi- catch behind. This, therefore, requires that the purpose gear’ (Figure 24.4). It is a basket, open on scooping gear is plaited as lightly as possible and is its upper side, and equipped with a non-return not too large. Strong wooden gear can, especially DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 352

352 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 24.5 Special form of plaited basket used for scoop fishing in Madagascar.

Figure 24.6 Push or scoop basket from Benin. (From when wet, become heavy and tiring for the opera- Welcomme 1970 with permission.) tor. One solution to this problem is to use light mats for the construction of fishing gear for scooping as is done in Madagascar (Figure 24.5). Fishing with scoop baskets is popular with indigenous people in Africa. As in Asia, it is normally a fishery for women, working in a collective. In this case, a line or circle of vociferous women – it can number several hundred (MacLaren 1958) – crowds into the water to place their scoop baskets in the flow, opening downstream, or, by pushing the gear with the opening forward, the lower and larger edge of the basket upstream. One woman alone would not Figure 24.7 Remarkable and unusual scoop net made catch anything, as the fish could easily swim out of of strong spiders’ web as used in New Guinea. (Photo: the way of her basket. So, after some steps forward, Überseemuseum, Bremen.) the basket is pushed up by all the people at the same time; the caught fish are put in a collecting made to decrease the weight of the gear by using container, and the line of women goes on again lighter materials, especially by making the catching (Brelsfjord 1946). Boys can join the women. When bag of plaited mats, woven textiles or of netting, the current is too strong, men take over this basket instead of wood. Many other materials have been fishery from the women. Large scoop baskets can used to transform a scoop basket into a scoop net. be operated by two women (MacLaren 1958). The An interesting example is the replacement of the women can also stand in a line with their baskets filtering area of the bag by natural spider webbing touching side by side and wait till helpers drive the (Figure 24.7). These scoops have practically no fish into their baskets. Some of the baskets can be weight, or only that of the frame, and the water temporarily operated as cover pots (Chapter 22). filters away quickly. There are some spider webs There are also some observations that large found in Papua New Guinea, in Jamaica, the wooden baskets can be fitted out with a long handle Bermudas and Brazil which are so strong that they and pushed forward over the bottom (Figure 24.6) can be used for making baskets. It is known that (Welcomme 1970). spider webs are also used in fishing in Papua New Guinea (Pownall 1972) and the Solomon Islands. 24.2 Scoop nets and skimming nets The webs are collected when many insects have been caught in them; they are fixed in a frame and Even though wooden scoop baskets have the set into the water. The insects act as bait, attracting advantage of high stability, and can be operated for small fish which entangle themselves or can be a long time without deterioration, efforts have been easily landed by the ‘baited scoop net’. It has been DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 353

From the Scoop Basket to the Stow Net 353

Figure 24.9 Fishing with scoop nets. Illustration in an old Mexican manuscript.

Figure 24.8 Indian boys fishing with scoop nets without frames for mussel shells on the Malabar coast.

reported that scoop nets have been operated with a filtering area made of spider web with a diameter of up to 2m and strong enough to catch frogs or even fish the size of a trout. Sometimes loosely woven cloths are used for making the bags of scoop nets, but in general netting is preferred. Sometimes only very small pieces of netting are needed for hand-operated scoop nets. On the basis of probability, it may be supposed that the first netting used in fishing could be manufactured only in small quantities and there- Figure 24.10 Flat scoop net from Geelvink Bay, New Guinea. fore could only be used for making small scoop nets.To keep open the bags made of different mate- rials they are framed, but under certain conditions depends on the form of the frame (Figures 24.11 even hand-operated bagnets can be used like scoop and 24.12). The most common form for small nets nets, without frames (Figure 24.8). How old and is a round frame with a net bag attached. As Figure widespread this type of fishing gear is can be seen 24.11(a, b) shows, they can be more or less of cir- not only from the drawings of Aztec fishermen in cular form. The filtering bag can be either stretched Mexico (Figure 24.9) but also from the fact that flat or allowed to hang in the form of a bag. The sometimes scoop nets are found with a netting round scoop nets can be without a handle, like made by a very old technique (Figure 24.10). those operated by women and children as a device The scoop nets include the many other hand nets for collecting small fish (Figures 24.10, 24.13 and regularly used in all parts of the world. Their shape 24.14). DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 354

354 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 24.11 The usual forms of small scoop nets: (a) without handle; (b) with handle; (c) skimming net; (d) push net.

Figure 24.12 Special forms of scoop nets from different islands in the South Seas: (a) Yap; (b) Luangiua; (c) Yap; (d) Truk.

Figure 24.13 Tilapia fishing in Guinea. (Photo: FAO, Figure 24.14 Thai woman fishing with scoop net in a A.M. Wirtz.) klong in Bangkok (1960). DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 355

From the Scoop Basket to the Stow Net 355

Figure 24.15 Mexican fishermen with ‘butterfly nets’ at work on Lake Pâtzcuaro. (Photo: FAO, H. Ortiz.)

of three sticks of equal length.With one type of this Indian gear the opening of the bag is covered with large-meshed triangular netting, mounted on the three sticks of the frame. Because of this large- meshed netting, small fish can enter the net but the entrance of unwanted seaweeds is prevented (George 1971). This is an idea which can be found again with dredges and beamtrawls (Chapter 25). In addition to the round and triangular scoop nets, there are also others, sometimes of rather strange shapes. Figure 24.12 shows only some of them. Among these, the butterfly nets are quite famous, as used by the Mexican Indians of the Tarascan tribe on Lake Pátzcuaro (Figure 24.15). The frames, shaped like butterfly wings, gave the name to these large oval scoop nets. Another strik- ing form is a large scoop net from the island of Penang (Malaysia) with an oval rattan frame more Figure 24.16 Large scoop net from Penang (Malaysia) than twice as long as it is high (about 2.6 ¥ 1.1 m) operated from the side of a sailing vessel (1973). (Figure 24.16). Scoop nets in whatever form, used as direct Another basic form of small hand-operated nets fishing gear, will be operated in a different manner are the skimming nets (Figure 24.11c). These are V- by men, women and children. The usual method is shaped scoop nets with two crossed mobile or fixed a scooping movement when wading in breast-deep rods to keep the net open. The mobile poles can be water, as mentioned before for scoop baskets clapped together to close the net bag, which is (Figures 24.13 and 24.14). Sometimes the gear is therefore also called a clap net with movable also operated from the shore, or from a boat as branches. Skimming nets are, as we will see later on, described for the gear of Penang. In the Samoa not so limited in size as the round-framed scoop Islands, palolo worms are scooped from the water nets. A special form of the V-shaped skimming net surface with small nets during the night, just as fish- is the Indian triangular net with a ‘V’ frame made ermen do in north-western Europe when collecting DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 356

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Figure 24.18 Triangular scoop net for catching mullet in the surf off the east coast of Malaysia (1978).

Figure 24.17 One of the largest hand-operated scoop nets used in night fishery with a light in Lake Tanganyika. largest scoop nets known is from Lake Tanganyika (Photo: FAO, H. Kristjonsson.) (Kristjonsson 1974) (Figure 24.17). This gear has a diameter of 2–2.5 m, a pole of about 3 m, and a very bait worms after stirring them out of the bottom large net bag (Nédélec 1975). For scooping, the fish mud (Chapter 2). A peculiar form of scoop net are attracted and concentrated with light during the fishing is known in the sea fishery of the Cape Verde night. In most cases, however, the hand-operated Islands. To catch small fish, mostly mackerel scoop nets are smaller (total length c.2 m), like the (Decapterus sp.), during sunset, the fishermen place triangular nets operated in Malaysia for catching their canoes in a long row in the open sea, luring mullet during the rough weather of the north-east and keeping the fish near the boats by spitting monsoon (Figure 24.18). To operate this gear the chewed raw fish into the water. The attracted fishes fisherman has to stay deep in the surf, similarly to are then caught either with small hooks or with flat the Chinese when catching eels with small round scoop nets (von Brandt & Steinberg 1964). scoop nets during bad weather surf on the Penghu When larger quantities of small fish, prawns or Islands (Pescadores) (Figure 24.19). When heavy squid, or large single fish have to be caught, a bigger storms press the waves onto a small beach, the fish- gear is needed, possibly with special handles several ermen stay behind protecting walls with scoop nets, metres long. This can be very large fishing gear, observing the water surface. As soon as they see an which needs not only great skill but also some con- eel swimming more or less exhausted by the waves siderable energy; therefore the so-called ‘pole net on the water surface, they jump into the shallow fishing’ is special work for men only. One of the water to catch the fish with their scoop nets. DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 357

From the Scoop Basket to the Stow Net 357

Figure 24.19 Chinese fisherman catching eel with a scoop net during the bad weather season on Penghu Islands, Taiwan (1978).

A special form of the operation of large round North America have done in their salmon fisheries scoop nets is known in the Bosporus (Figure 21.12). (Figure 24.20). Their scoop nets had very long When fish (Engraulis) are observed swimming near handles and great skill was necessary to catch the the quay against the current, a large scoop net is jumping salmon in the foaming water. The artificial placed behind them in the water and they are then platforms from which the gear was operated were frightened back into the net with the help of a white considered typical for this fishery (Treide 1965). stone fixed by a short line to a long pole (Mengi This ‘pole net fishing’ of the Indians in the river cas- 1977). This method of frightening fish with the help cades of North America is considered an age-old of a ‘white (marble) stone’ we will find again in use method of salmon fishing. To catch salmon – and with Greek gillnets used for drive-in fishery also shad – with the help of long-handled scoop nets (Chapter 21). Another strange form for operating is considered an inexpensive fishing method as well large scoop nets has already been mentioned, and as a most selective one! The diameter of this gear that is the catching of flying fish in the air (Chapter is about 1.75m. The bag is made of monofilament 17) (Figure 17.20). and is up to 2.5m deep. There must be a pole long Sometimes bigger scoop nets and skimming nets enough to handle the gear from a scaffold high over are used for working in muddy water. When the the strongly running water. To hold the gear in the fisherman feels a fish strike the net, he quickly lifts strong current, its frame is connected to the scaf- it out of the water. In this way salmon have been fold by a fine steel wire. Moreover, a ‘feeler line’ caught in strong currents in Ireland (Went 1964). (see Figure 24.37) runs from the bagnet to the Simple round scoop nets can be used as catching upper end of the handle held by the fisherman. gear, as the Indians on the north-west coast of When a fish hits the bag, he can feel this touch, DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 358

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Figure 24.20 Indians fishing for salmon with scoop nets at the former Celilo Falls on the Columbia River. Chinook salmon in particular were caught here before the area was flooded by the construction of the Dalles dam. (Photo: M. H. Naggiar.)

which is the signal to raise the scoop net hand-over- England the fishermen had no artificial platforms, hand to prevent the escape of the fish from the net with the exception of ‘standings’ on huge blocks of bag (NN 1975). The scaffold is a temporary plat- stone, set up centuries ago, on an ebb channel into form only and has to be rebuilt every year because the sea. At low tides the tops of these standings it is often washed away with the winter rains. were exposed and there the fishermen watched, A similar fishery for catching salmon with scoop with their scoop nets, for the salmon coming down- nets existed formerly in England and in Finland. stream (Jenkins 1974). These examples are given to Also the Finns have known the fishery from scaf- show that simple scoop nets can be useful as catch- folds, but the Finnish scoop nets were relatively ing gear not only in small-scale collecting fisheries, small, 0.9 ¥ 0.6m and only 1m deep. The pole of but also in more lucrative ones. As mentioned elastic pine wood had a length of 4–5m (Vilkuna before, scoop nets are better known as additional 1975). There the salmon were caught in artificial implements with which to scoop the catch out of channels built in front of the barriers where the fish large fishing gear such as stationary traps, or purse paused to rest. In Finland also white fish (Core- seines (Chapter 29) and other gear, but they are gonus lavaretus) have been caught with scoop nets also useful in many other fishing activities, particu- from scaffolds over rapids (Sirelius 1934). In larly in pond farms. The most well-known type of DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 359

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Figure 24.22 A skimming net used on the Pacific coast of Taiwan.

one end by a strong iron hoop 1m or more in diam- eter, connected to a handle several metres long. At the other end of the tube of netting, small purse rings are sewn on to hold a purse line (Figure 24.21). For brailing large catches, or for catching squid attracted and concentrated by light as in California, at least three people may be needed (Kato 1976). One guides the brail by the handle and holds the purse line for opening and closing the bagnet. A second person operates a winch for low- ering and lifting the brail, and a third one tows the Figure 24.21 Brail net, or brailer, for emptying purse bagnet through the catch (Figure 29.32). It is, seines. The bottom of the bagnet can be opened or however, possible that two people or even one closed with the help of a purse line drawn through the person could operate the gear. rings. 24.4 Push nets and dragged scoop nets scoop nets may be the landing nets used by sport Scoop nets can be used in quite another way. They fishermen in fresh water and sea water. They are can be pushed over the bottom in shallow water. In collapsible and are used when there are no lines this form of operation, push nets are widely used by with free hooks which may entangle in the netting. fishermen and their wives. They wade up to the When large fish are caught, gaffs have to replace waist in the water and push the nets forward ahead landing nets. of them, especially to catch shrimps. For this purpose, the frames that keep the nets open must 24.3 Brail nets with purse lines have a straight edge so that they can be pushed along the bottom like a snow scraper (Figure In general, scoop nets are bagnets with a closed, 24.11d). The prey is collected by pushing or thrust- sometimes strengthened, bottom. For brailing out ing the net, and caught when it is raised from the large catches from purse seines (Chapter 29) and water (Figures 24.22 and 24.23) (Burdon 1954). for the direct catching of squid, scoop nets are used Such gear, when made of wood, must be weighted with a bottom which can be opened and closed to enough to prevent it rising onto the surface of the facilitate the emptying of the bagnet. Such scoop water. Not only are scoop nets with a more or less nets are made like a tube of netting kept open at round frame used as push nets, but so too are those DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 360

360 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 24.24 Another skimming net used in Manila Bay, Philippines.

rope. This limits the gap between the collapsible poles, but it also causes the shrimps and prawns to leave the bottom. However, it does give the fisher- man warning of obstacles which might otherwise damage the net (Burdon 1954). Skimming nets can also be guided through the water near the surface by a fisherman wading Figure 24.23 Fishing on the water surface with skim- forward (Figure 24.24). Large skimming nets, which ming nets in Taiwan (Chen 1973). are attached to a vessel, are also operated (Figure 24.25). They resemble the scraping nets which will be discussed in the next section. However, large with triangular fixed and movable frames such as gear of this type, pushed along the sea bed with an the skimming nets already mentioned. Skimming engine-propelled boat, is forbidden in some coun- nets can be used as scoop nets but they are mostly tries (e.g. in Malaysia). used for pushing according to their construction. Bagnets can also be dragged or towed towards a The triangular push nets are handled in the same fisherman staying on shore or in an anchored boat. manner as the usual scoop nets, by pushing forward The smaller forms of these nets are often trilater- to catch shrimp, prawn or milkfish fry. To ensure ally pyramidal (Benecke 1881). The bag is some- that the points of the scissor-like cross sticks of times made not of netting but of loosely woven the skimming nets glide smoothly over the bottom canvas (Figure 24.26). This operation of bagnets is they can be provided with runners. These can be a link with another fishing method – that based on hoe-shaped shoes made from hardwood, pieces of dragged nets. There is a particularly remarkable coconut husk (Kesteven 1949; Burdon 1954) type of bagnet, with a square or triangular frame, (Figure 24.24) or cow horns. In the early river fish- which is dragged behind a fisherman wading eries of England, a square piece of leather was through the water (Figure 24.27). Ancient descrip- nailed on to the ends of the sticks of the skimming tions tell how it was also dragged by horses. In this nets to facilitate their sliding along the river bed way, larger and heavier bagnets with an iron frame during shrimping (Jenkins 1974). As has been men- in the opening could be towed. Reminiscent of this tioned before (Chapter 2), even today in France fishing method are the famous ‘garnallvissers to there are, in the ‘pêche à pied’ fishery, semi-profes- paard’ of Oostduinkerke in Belgium (Chapter 26) sional people who use push nets of different types (Figure 26.16). The original gear was like a triangu- when fishing for ‘crevettes’. Skimming nets are also lar scoop net with a bottom board of about 4m long used, especially those with the slender curved ends and a stick in the middle to keep the bag of netting which glide easily (Sinsoilliez 1968). In the open (Beun 1969).The rear end of the bag could be Malaysian fishery, the extremities of the sticks of opened to take out the catch. Since 1940 this gear the skimming nets are sometimes connected by a has been replaced by a small trawl with otter DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 361

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Figure 24.25 Philippine skimming net fixed on a motor boat in Laguna de Bay.

boards. This indicates that these framed drag nets are the predecessors of the dredges and trawls which became so important in some industrial countries. When these bagnets became larger and the fishery moved to deeper waters, such gear as this could no longer be dragged by men, even on horses, but needed to be pulled by sailing boats, steam or motor vessels, as will be described in Chapter 26. Nevertheless, some so-called ‘manpower trawl- ing’, which may be identical to dragging bagnets, can be found even today in some parts of the world. In a net reported from Benin, the frame is reduced to two sticks, about 2m long, which are towed by two fishermen (Figure 24.28) (Welcomme 1970). Figure 24.29 shows the so-called ‘soppevod’, which means ‘splash net’ – used in Denmark for catching eels and bait fish in shallow waters (Rasmussen 1975). The gear is a simple net bag with the frame of the opening replaced by floats and sinkers. Two fishermen, with a small boat to hold the catch, tow the gear for a short distance. They then come Figure 24.26 Dragged bagnets made of woven manila together, and one of them takes the two towing fibres as used in Taiwan. lines whilst the other frightens the fish into the far DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 362

362 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 24.27 Dragged scoop nets, the predecessors of trawls. (From Duhamel & la Marre 1776.)

Figure 24.29 Danish fishermen towing a net bag in the so-called ‘soppevodsfiskeri’, which is still operated today. (From Rasmussen 1975 with permission.)

Figure 24.28 Drag net from Benin which would be towed by two fishermen. (From Welcomme 1970 with hand, nor can they be pushed or towed. Instead permission.) they are mechanically operated using a lever system, from a vessel, with the edge of the boat end of the towed net bag by splashing (hence the acting as the pivot. A simple form of such a large name of the gear).This gear resembles a mini-trawl. gear, previously used in northern Germany for eel There are more examples of ‘manpower trawling’ fishing, had scissor-like crossed rods > 5m long. but – as with the Belgian shrimp fishery using They were held from the boat against the current horses – the original bagnet with frame is now and were lifted by leverage over the boat side at largely replaced by a trawl with wings and otter short intervals. Such nets are also used in the fish- boards. eries of Asia and of Africa as movable gear oper- ated from boats (Figures 24.30 and 24.31), or as 24.5 Scrape nets stationary ones operated from the bank of a river or a suitable beach by installing them on a special Bagnets, especially of the skimming net type, can platform (Figure 24.30c). Because this gear is oper- become such a size that they cannot be operated by ated by lowering and lifting like liftnets (Chapter DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 363

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23), they are often included in that group of fishing gear. Strictly speaking, however, scrape nets, as they may be called, are quite different in construction and operation, and are nothing more than large (sometimes very large) scoop nets which are oper- ated in a different manner. They are frequently so large and heavy that counterweights have to be fitted to them so that they can be handled more easily (Figure 24.30a,b). The scraping nets from Lake Chad in Africa are especially well known (Blache & Miton 1962). They are found in Africa only in the areas of Lake Chad and the River Niger and became such a symbol that they were printed on the stamps of French Equatorial Africa and have also been adopted by the Republic of Chad on her own stamps. These may be the largest skimming nets used in fisheries. Similar types are also known in East and South Asia (Figures 24.30a and 24.31). Here a gear can be included which can also be considered as a scrape net. For catching elvers in the River Severn (UK), fishermen use special hand Figure 24.30 Fixed scraping nets in boats or on the nets like a long stretched scoop net of a curious beach in: (a) Japan; (b) Lake Chad, Africa; (c) parts of construction (Jenkins 1974) (Figure 24.32b). The Cameroon. (a) From NN 1959–65 with permission; (b) handle of the gear passes through the bag (c) from Monod 1928 with permission.

Figure 24.31 Scrape net on the Ganges in Bangladesh. (Photo: FAO, W. Williams, 1952.) DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 364

364 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 24.32 Hand scrape nets: (a) ‘sacovistea’ from the lower Danube (from Nédélec 1975 with permission); Figure 24.33 Rumanian fisherman handling a ‘sacovis- (b) elver fishing equipment in the lower River Severn tea’ in the lower Danube (1976). (from Jenkins 1974 with permission).

(nowadays made of a webbing of Terylene (PES) or nylon (PA)) almost to the end of the gear, with some smaller branches which keep the bag open like a hand. A similar gear, but one more compli- cated in its construction, is known only from the lower River Danube and is called, in Rumania, ‘sacovistea’ (Figure 24.32a). There are also other names like ‘billeg’ (Seligo 1925) or ‘billing’. The sacovistea has the similar unusual construction described earlier (Bacalbas¸a & Pectu 1969, 1970). Smaller sizes of this gear are hand-operated any- where from the shore (Figure 24.33); larger ones Figure 24.34 Rumanian ‘sacovistea’. (Photo: Bacal- need special platforms (Figure 24.34). bas¸a & Pectu 1969.)

24.6 Stationary stow nets in rivers In previous sections, different types of bagnets have been described. Some are very small, operated by hand and easy to transport; others are large, sepa- extended. To be successful the gear must be rated from the shore, and transportable only when watched permanently, otherwise it will not work. mounted on a boat or raft. Common to this gear is But there are other types of bagnet, important for a frame around the opening to keep the net bag river fisheries, which do not need to be watched. open at its mouth, and they all need a current of These are large bagnets with the typical frame for water flowing through the net bag to keep it the opening, fixed firmly in running waters against DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 365

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Figure 24.35 Barrier for stow net in the lower Danube near Braila in Rumania. In the middle of the barrier, there is a gap for the fishing gear; on the right side, an opening for passing boats (1976).

catching position. Often these bagnets are set in barriers, as in Europe for catching eels, and else- where for catching fish and shrimps. In this case the gear is usually designed for long-term operation (Figures 24.35 and 24.36). With gape nets there are two problems: how to control the entrance of fish into the gear, and how to prevent them from escaping. To detect that fish are in the gear, warning strings – so-called ‘feelers’ – are used. One of the ends is tied inside the net Figure 24.36 Stow net ending in a wooden trap behind bag; the other is held by the watching fisherman so a barrier in Kampuchea. (From Fily & d’Aubentin 1965 with permission.) that he can feel the fish if it touches one of the lines as it enters the gear. Figure 24.37 shows an old Russian drawing of the entrance of a stow net with eight feelers, as operated in the Sea of Azov during the current, and they are known as gape nets or the 19th century. Such warning lines were known in stow nets. This gear, too, is derived from older many parts of Europe (Jenkins 1974), and although models constructed of materials other than netting. used mainly with gape nets, they can also be used In the fisheries of eastern and south-eastern as messenger lines with other types of fishing gear. Europe, there existed wooden constructions built in When a fish is located by feeling, the gear has to be running waters in the shape of large funnels with hauled quickly because, originally, there was no rectangular openings of wooden rods arranged in retarding device in the gear. As with the archaic parallel. Today this gear is made of netting and is tubular traps (Chapter 16), the fish is pressed into operated in many running waters, particularly in the stow net on the current. To prevent fish escap- large rivers and estuaries, but also in the open sea ing, stow nets are now often fitted at the end with when a current is available to keep the gear in a a fishing trap, fyke net or basket (Figure 24.36) DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 366

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Figure 24.38 German stow nets as used on the River Weser. (Photo: G. Klust.)

Figure 24.37 Old Russian drawing (Azov Sea, 1871) showing the opening of a stow net with eight feeler lines for controlling fish entering the gear.

which retards the fish by valves or a funnel-shaped throat of netting inside the gape net. This is the reason why, in fishing gear classification, gape nets are sometimes grouped together with traps. But in contrast to fishing traps, all bagnets, including gape Figure 24.39 Indian stow nets from Kerala, South India. nets, need some water current flowing through In the foreground, stow nets are drying and behind, in them to be effective. the river, the sticks for fixing the nets can be seen. Stow nets can be stationary gear, fixed for a long time at the same place in rows. They can also be stationary gape nets when rigged in a special operated from a vessel, when they become movable manner. Figure 24.40 shows a row of frameless stow gear which can change the fishing place very easily nets in the River Mosel. The nets are set before the when wanted. The simplest form are single stow outlet of a barrier and, with the help of lines, the nets kept open by a complete frame (Figure 24.37). net bags can be towed to and fro like a curtain to When set in a row the frames are replaced by stakes bring them into a fishing position in the river and (Figures 24.38 and 24.39).There are also ‘stake nets’ to tow them back, with the catch, to the shore. The with cross-shaped split bamboos in their opening, setting of stow nets on stakes becomes difficult as described from the ‘kona jel’, a common stow net where deep water and hard bottoms are found. row of the lower River Brahmaputra (Joseph & Here the development is the same as that already Narayanan 1965). Bagnets can also be used without described for the use of trap nets. The stakes are the typical frame. The entrance of the bag is held replaced by anchors. Such bagnets, anchored at the open in another way.This is also possible with large bottom and floating free, are known in many coun- DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 367

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Figure 24.40 Set stow nets not fixed on sticks or anchors but mounted on lines which allow them to be towed to the shore and back like a curtain in the River Mosel, Germany. (Photo: G. Jens, 1979.)

Figure 24.41 The English swing net. (From Davis 1958 with permission.)

tries, like the English swing nets formerly operated gape net vessels are able to avoid transport vessels in the River Thames (Figure 24.41). Other types will and convoys if necessary. Stow nets operated from be mentioned later in the context of stow nets used vessels can be kept open by a complete frame as in sea fisheries. used with the stow nets of the rivers Mosel and Elbe (Figures 24.42 and 24.43). One of the famous 24.7 Stow nets with vessels river stow nets is the so-called ‘Ankerkuile’ or ‘Schokker net’, named after the vessel from which Very often one or two stow nets are fastened to a this gape net is operated in the River Rhine and vessel, from which they are operated (Klust 1971). some other large rivers in Europe. This gear origi- This has some advantages when fishing in rivers and nated in the Netherlands and the lower part of the river estuaries with much traffic. In this case, the River Rhine for eel fishing. About the year 1900, DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 368

Figure 24.42 Full-framed stow net in the River Mosel.

Figure 24.43 German framed gape nets as used on either side of a vessel on the River Elbe. DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 369

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but for some years now the operation of two gear, one on each side of the vessel, has made this fishery more effective (Kwan Soh Ko, pers. comm.). The Korean stow nets are now set with an anchor each and are no longer connected to the vessel. By this method each vessel can operate up to four stow nets. Moreover, the vessels are now motorized, and the formerly hand-driven capstan has been replaced by a powered one, driven from the main engine.The hauling of the gear is now much quicker and less labour is needed. Finally,the bulky bamboo bundle used as float and upper frame of the net bag is replaced by a closed steel tube, not because of the increasing shortage of bamboo, but because it is more convenient to handle, being smaller and lighter. The lower sinker beam is also of steel. Of great interest is that pieces of clothing are used as Figure 24.44 ’Schokker’ on the River Rhine. The net is hanging from the mast for drying. underwater sails or kites to increase the opening of the gear (Figure 24.46). There are more places in Asia where stow nets are operated in sea fisheries, possibly with the help the gear spread from the middle Rhine to other of the tidal current. The ‘pompang’ of Malaysia is a rivers of north-west Germany. By the introduction completely frameless stow net for fishing in deeper of this gear, the commercial fishery boomed in the water and is held open by floats and bottom stakes first decade of the last century (Kuhn 1976).As with (Figure 24.47). In Malaysia and Indonesia also, sta- other bagnets, the gear has a reduced frame – in this tionary arrangements for long time fishing are case consisting of a floating upper beam and a known in sea fisheries. In Malaysia these platforms weighted lower beam only (Figure 24.44). More- are called ‘kelong’ and can be combined like the over, it is remarkable that the vessel equipped with ‘ambai’ in Indonesia with a frameless stow net the ‘Schokker’ is not mechanized. The vessel is (Figure 24.48). However, they are mostly used for anchored by long cables and is shifted simply by fishing with liftnets (Chapter 23, Figure 23.25). these cables being shortened or extended. Today the gear has lost much of its importance, mostly due 24.9 Gape nets with wings to increased shipping traffic. All types of stow nets mentioned up till now are 24.8 Stow nets in sea fisheries typical bagnets, with an opening held by a more or less complete frame and a bag stretched by the Generally speaking, stow nets are fishing gear for water current. But there are some types with wings fresh waters, especially for rivers and river estuar- also, for guiding fish or shrimp into the bag. As has ies. In the open sea, gape nets are rarely used been shown in connection with traps (Chapter 16), because they are too much affected by the weather. such guiding arrangements can be fences made of Moreover, a permanent current is necessary. A different materials, including netting, but they can favourable site for marine stow net fishery exists be a row of stakes only, which guide the prey into around the south and west coasts of Korea. Here the gear. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, the Koreans use anchored gape nets held by boats; such stow nets with swinging guiding lines can be the openings of the nets are not kept apart by a placed miles away from the coast. In this case they frame but, like the Schokker nets of the River have to be combined with a working platform and Rhine, by two beams only – a bamboo bundle at the houses to give shelter for the fishermen, who need top and a weighted beam below (Figure 24.45). a cooking place for their own food and also for Originally, one net only was operated by each boat cooking the catch before drying it (Figure 24.48). A DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 370

Figure 24.45 Korean stow net used in sea fishery. The beams (an upper bunch of bamboo and a lower one weighted with stones as can be seen, left) are hauled and the catch is set on board (1960).

Figure 24.46 Korean stow net with underwater sails to keep the gear open. (Photo: Kwan Soh Ko, Busan.) DFC24 4/23/05 8:58 PM Page 371

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Figure 24.48 A watched Indonesian stow net (‘ambai’) Figure 24.47 Malaysian stow net known as a with guiding sticks set under an artificial platform in the ‘pompang’. open sea. (From Yamamoto 1975 with permission.)

used for shrimp fishing in tidal currents (Figure 24.49a). The origin of this so-called ‘channel net’ is said to have been a trawl set between two anchored boats (Guthrie 1966). This became such a success that trawl-like stow nets with wings were specially made for this purpose. This explains why, some- times, stow nets are defined as ‘stationary trawls’ (Welcomme 1979). As with modern trawls, the anchored gear is held open not by a complete or partial frame, but by a system of floats and sinkers, and sometimes also by spreading sticks as known from other types of fishing gear (Figure 26.9). Such winged stow nets are also used in other parts of the world (Figure 24.49b). Highly developed types of winged stow nets are the otter board stow nets (Köthke & Klust 1956). This gear, used without a vessel in the rivers Elbe and Weser, can be used to fish in a shipping channel and yet be able to avoid hindering the shipping, which is not possible with other types of winged stow nets on stakes or anchors. The gear consists of a bagnet with two wings added to the net to cover Figure 24.49 Stow nets with wings: (a) American a large area of the river to be fished (Figure 24.50). channel net (from Guthrie 1966 with permission); (b) One wing is connected to the river bank while the Korean ‘long bag’ stow net (from NN 1968–70 with other is attached to a large otter board which is permission). kept floating by large tin containers. The use of otter boards in currents has already been men- hand-operated winch is installed on the platform tioned in connection with line fishing (Chapter 8) for operating the gear. The stow net hangs from the as being one of the elements typical of the effective platform for fishing operations and a frame is no construction and use of fishing gear. The board, set longer necessary. obliquely towards the current, pulls the entrance of This is also the case with other winged stow nets. the bagnet wide open and thus takes over the func- In North Carolina (USA), such a winged gear is tion of the frame. In this case the otter board has a DFC24 4/23/05 8:59 PM Page 372

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Figure 24.50 An otter board stow net, as introduced in European river fisheries by master fisherman Hugo Köthke in 1936. controlling wing which can be operated from the type of gear was typical of this river. The net can be bank. By shifting it, the otter board’s position can considered a ‘closable stow net’, and was designed be changed. It then no longer shears away from the specially for catching salmon during the night. This bank and stretches the net, but is pressed by the was the so-called ‘Salmenwaage’ (salmon balance). current in the opposite direction, namely, against It is a local gear developed a long time ago, and was the bank, thus closing the net. In that way, the otter already known in the 15th century. The ‘Salmen- board stow net can, if necessary, be moved out of waage’ was a large bagnet operated from a the way of shipping and be returned again to the pontoon-like vessel (Figure 24.51) anchored broad- current once the vessel has passed. This is an inge- side on to the river at places behind barriers where nious method of fishing with stow nets, with rela- the salmon like to rest in the counter-current. The tively little effort, in waterways where there is much bag was kept open by counterweights but could be traffic. At the same time, the otter board stow net closed with the help of two, three or four levers must be regarded as the most advanced gear of its (Figure 24.52) as soon as the watching fisherman, type. It is very effective, but for a long time its effi- keeping some part of the netting in his left hand, ciency was threatened by water pollution, which could feel a fish touch the netting. The gear is no caused trouble for all types of river stow nets and longer used today.The fishery stopped at the end of many other fishing gear used in the rivers of indus- the 1930s when the salmon fishery in the River trial countries. Fortunately now, with increased Rhine collapsed completely (Böcking 1967, 1976). public awareness, this environmental situation is Fortunately, owing to considerable private and definitely improving. public effort and the general improvement of the water quality, salmon are now slowly returning to 24.10 Closable stow nets their old spawning sites in the tributaries of the River Rhine as well as of other big European rivers. Before eel fishing with ‘Schokker’ nets was intro- The idea of using a closable and watched stow net duced in the fishery of the River Rhine, another is also known in another part of the world, where DFC24 4/23/05 8:59 PM Page 373

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Figure 24.51 ‘Salmenwaage’ (salmon balance) formerly operated in the River Rhine with four balanced beams oper- ated near Xanten (until 1949). (From Böcking 1967 with permission.)

Figure 24.53 Closable stow net for catching hilsa in the River Ganga. (From Hornell 1950 with permission.) Figure 24.52 Principle for opening and closing the bag of a ‘Salmenwaage’.

it is still used today. In the River Ganges a trans- old-type purse for small coins (Figure 24.53). This portable stow net, with some variations in its form, bag is suspended with two ropes from a dinghy is operated for catching hilsa (Clupea ilisha), an drifting down with the current of the river. Its anadromous clupeid (Hornell 1950; George 1971). opening is framed with bamboo and can be closed The gear is constructed of two sheets of rectangu- by a closing-cum-hauling rope as soon as fish have lar or polygonal netting, resembling a very large entered the bag. This can be controlled by a feeler DFC24 4/23/05 8:59 PM Page 374

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rope, branching in two to four lines, connected with Hornell, J.S. (1950) Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge. the surface netting of the gear and held taut in the Jenkins, J.G. (1974) Nets and Coracles. Newton Abbot. hand of a fisherman. As soon as a signal is felt, the Joseph, K.M. & Narayanan, K.P. (1965) Fishing gear and methods of the river Brahmaputra in Assam. Fish.Tech. net is closed and hauled for emptying. The boat is 2 (2), 205–219. then paddled upstream and allowed to drift down Kato, S. (1976) The California squid fishery. FAO Fisheries again. During the season, sometimes two of these Report No. 170, Spl. 1: Contributed Papers Submitted to nets may be operated by a single vessel. the Expert Consultation of Fishing for Squid and other Cephalopods, 107–127. Rome. Kesteven, G.L. (ed.) (1949) Malayan fisheries. References Singapore. Klust, G. (1971) Eel stownets in German rivers. Bacalbas¸a,N.& Pectu, A. (1969) Pescuitul cu sacovistea FAO/EIFAC Technical Paper No. 14. EIFAC Consulta- in zona viitoruliu lac de acumulare de la Portile de Fier. tion on Eel Fishing Gear and Techniques (ed. C. J. Hydrobiologica 10, 151–161 [in Rumanian]. McGrath), 39–56. Rome. Bacalbas¸a,N.& Pectu, A. (1970) Pescuitul cu vîrsele în Köthke, H. & Klust, G. (1956) Der Scherbretthamen. zona viitorului lac de acumulare ‘Portile de Fier’. Archiv für Fischereiwissenschaft 7, 93–119. Lucrarˇi S¸tiint¸ifice,Vol. IV, 419–431 [in Rumanian]. Kristjonsson, H. (1974) A desk study of needs and oppor- Benecke, B. (1881) Fische, Fischerei und Fischzucht in tunities for a regional approach to development of arti- Ost- und Westpreussen. Königsberg Pr. sanal/small-scale fisheries in Lake Tanganyika. Report Beun, J. (1969) Garnaalvissers to paard. Bachtn te Kupe to the Swedish International Development Authority, 11(4), 73–81 [in Flemish]. FAO. Rome. Blache, J. & Miton, F. (1962) Première contribution à la Kuhn, G. (1976) Die Fischerei im Oberrhein. In: connaissance de la pêche dans le bassin hydrographique Hohenheimer Arbeiten 83, Agraroekonomie. Stuttgart. Logone-Chari Lac Tchad. ORSTOM, Paris. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Böcking, W. (1967) Lachsfang mit der Salmenwaage. and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of Heimatkalender des Kreises Rees, 158–162, Wesel. the Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Böcking, W. (1976) Ursprung und Herkunft der Zambia. Fanggeräte Hamenwaage und Salmwippe Die Heimat. Mengi, T. (1977) Batikçilik Teknigi. [Fishing techniques.] Zeitschrifl für niederheinische Kultur- u. Heimatpflege Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of 47, 119–124. fishing gear. Istanbul [in Turkish]. von Brandt,A. & Steinberg, R. (1964) Fischereimethoden Monod, T. (1928) L’industrie de Pêche au Cameroun. der Kap Verden. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik IX, Paris. 63–80. Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Brelsfjord, W.V. (1946) Fishermen of the Bangweulu Fishing Gear. Farnham. Swamps; a Study of Fishing Activities of the Unga Tribe. NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boat and The Rhodes–Livingstone Papers No. 12. Rhodes– Fishing Gear. Tokyo. Livingstone Institute, Livingstone, Zambia. NN (1968–70) Korean Fishing Gear and Illustrations,Vol. Burdon, T.W. (1954) The fishing methods of Singapore. 3. Pusan. Journal of the Malayan British Royal Asiatic Society 22 NN (1975) Dip net fishery is revived on Columbia river. (2), 5–76. Fishing News International 14 (9), 95–96. Chen, M.-T.(1973) [Fishing Gear and Methods in Taiwan.] Pownall, P. (1972) Fisheries of Papua New Guinea. The Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction Special Australian Fisheries 31 (9), 2–13. Publication No. 11. Taipei [in Chinese]. Rasmussen, H. (1975) Vodfiskeri. In: Dansk fiskeri før Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England industrialisieringen. (ed. M. Lundbaek). National- and Wales. Fishery Invstigations Ser. II, Vol. 21, No. 8. museet, Copenhagen [in Danish]. Duhamel du Monceau, H.L. & de la Marre, L.H. Seligo, A. (1925) Die Fischerei in den Fliessen, Seen und (1776–79) Traité des Pêches, et Histoire des Poissons. Strandgewässern Mitteleuropas. Stuttgart. Neuchâtel. Sinsoilliez, R. (1968) La Pêche à Pied, Coquillages et Crus- Fily, M. & d’Aubenton, F. (1965) Report on fisheries tech- tacés. Paris. nology in the Great Lake and the Tonle Sap. Report of Sirelius, U.T. (1934) Jagd und Fischerei in Finnland. In: France, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of Tech- Die Volkskultur Finnlands,Vol. 1. Berlin. nical Co-operation, National Museum of Natural Treide, D. (1965) Die Organisierung des indianischen History. Paris. Lachsfanges im westlichen Nordamerika. Veröf- George, V.C. (1971) An account of the inland fishing gear fentlichungen des Museum für Völkerkunde zu Leipzig and methods of India. Central Institute of Fisheries 14, Berlin. Technology. Special Publication 1. Ernaculam. Vilkuna, K. (1975) Unternehmen Lachsfang. Die Guthrie, J.F. (1966) The channel net for shrimp in Geschichte der Lachsfischerei in Kemijoki. Studia North Carolina. Commercial Fisheries Review 28 (11), Fennica. Review of Finnish Linguistics and Ethnology 24–27. No. 19. Helsinki. DFC24 4/23/05 8:59 PM Page 375

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Welcomme, R.L. (1970) Les moyens de pêche dans les Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- eaux continentales du Dahomey. Études Dahoméennes ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No. 6, NS No. 17. 5–35. 191–244. Welcomme, R.L. (1979) Fisheries Ecology of Floodplain Yamamoto, I. (1975) Ketentuan Kerja Buku I, Standard Rivers. London. Statistik Perikanan. Jakarta. [In Indonesian.] DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 376

25 Dredges and Beamtrawls

In the last chapter it was demonstrated that bagnets 25.1 Hand-operated scratchers can not only be pushed over the bottom before a wading fisherman or before a slowly moving boat, Hand-operated scratchers are types of fishing gear but they can also be thrown behind them onto the that can be found all over the world in different seabed, especially when more power is needed for forms and with various methods of operation. They scraping or scratching the surface of the bottom. can be small baskets made of branches or wire, as This is especially true when digging into the bottom used by Malaysian fishermen to separate cockles for shellfish living on, or in, the seabed deposits. from the mud during low tide (Figure 25.2). For This can be carried out not only with towed bagnets this, no vessel can be used, nor can the fisherman or scoop nets but also with iron rakes which, wade over the soft and very deep bottom mud. according to their type of teeth, are especially suit- Here, mud sledges are used, as they are all over the able for removing animals living deep in the world – even in areas of neglected fishing technol- seabed. But rakes have the disadvantage that the ogy – to catch prey in this dangerous ground and prey dug out has to be collected later on, usually by transport it to the shore (Nishimura 1969; Rauch- hand, unless the rake has a special form (Figures fuss 1974, 1978). Gliding with the mud sledge over 7.13b and 7.13c) or is combined with a bag made the ground, the fisherman draws the small basket of netting to store and secure the raked-up by hand through the surface of the mud to dig out catch until it is brought out of the water (Figure the cockles and wash them free of mud and sand 7.13d). In this case, such combined gear is (Figure 25.2). considered as a scratcher or dredge, even when the In general, the scratchers used in fisheries are tines or teeth are replaced by sharp edges of large ones combined with a long stick (Figure 25.3), a strong frame at the opening of the bagnet resembling long-handled scoop nets with a strong (Figure 25.1). Different forms of such towed framed opening. The so-called pole scratchers used bagnets, and other developments like dredges and by biologists for scratching organisms from the beamtrawls, are used in fisheries to drag out seden- bottom, from stones, from poles, etc., are designed tary and bottom-dwelling animals such as mussels, in that manner. Their fishing bag consists of netting snails, sea cucumbers and sponges, and also some or strong fabric or, in the case of heavier gear such crustaceans and flatfish in shallow or deep water. as the American clam rakes used by commercial Here also a dragged gear of an unusual construc- fishermen, of rigid material – in particular wire tion has to be mentioned: that is the runner net (in mesh. That is especially necessary if mussels with German ‘Kufennetz’), used for catching near- their sharp edges are to be gathered, as otherwise bottom fishes in shallow waters in Eastern Europe. they would destroy the netting. The fishermen The gear was popular till the beginning of the last operate these devices by means of long handles, century (see Appendix, 13 Dragged gear) (Benecke which enable them to push the rake or scratcher 1881; Leonhardt 1908; Mendez-Arocha 1963; into the bottom as far as can be reached from the Solymos 1976). beach or from an anchored boat. The gear is then

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Figure 25.1 A small scoop net like a hand scratcher: (a) formerly used in Malta with three prongs only (from Figure 25.2 Hand-operated scratcher gear for separat- Burdon 1956 with permission); (b) with a sharp edge on ing mussels out of the mud in Malaysia, west coast. The the frame; (c) Japanese form with a wire prong (from NN fisherman operates the gear from a mud sledge (1978). 1959–65 with permission).

the bag larger. Some of these boat-operated scratchers have frames similar to those for push nets, like the ‘qoofa’ gear used for shrimp fishing in Kuwait with each side 3.5 m long (Figure 25.4).This gear, with its wooden frame and the long handle, is similar to the hand-operated dredges.The same can be said of the Italian ‘draga a rastrello’, even though the handle of this dredge is a short one. For oper- ating the gear when digging wedge shells (Donax trunculus) out of the mud, a small hand-operated winch is used. With increasing depth and heavier gear, the stick for handling the scratcher is com- pletely discarded, or retained only for guiding pur- Figure 25.3 Dredge basket made of wire with support- poses.The gear now becomes a real dredge – towed ing line in Malaysia, west coast (1978). by a vessel and characterized by a frame opening low in height in comparison with its width (Figure 25.5).The lower opening edge is often sharpened or dragged back so that it scratches over the bottom. provided with rake-like teeth (Figure 25.6). The For deeper water, the handles of these scratchers upper edge can have a pressure plate at an angle of can be very long, up to 6 or 7 m. Iron-framed hand 30–35° in order to press the gear close to or into the scratchers of this type can be found in use in many bottom as it is towed (Manacop & Capco 1953).The fisheries, especially in shellfish digging, or for col- shape of these dredges can vary considerably, as lecting small mud-dwelling animals needed for bait. they are known in many parts of the world and are locally manufactured (Figure 25.5). Their size, 25.2 Boat dredges shape and construction will also vary according to preference, size of operation, and also type of The handling of larger and heavier scratchers, by bottom. For the same reason also, the material from means of long rods or sticks from a fixed place or which the collecting bags of the dredges are made boat, is rather tedious. It also becomes impossible varies widely. Smaller types are made of netting to simply drag them over the bottom by hand.Then, (Figure 25.7), heavier ones of wire or iron rings held a better way is for the scratcher to be pressed together with clips. The Dutch shellfish dredge against the bottom while the boat itself is driven (Figure 25.8) used in north-west Europe, has an forward. Almost the same gear is used as for hand upper part made of nylon netting and a lower part operation, but the implement can be heavier and made of iron rings (Schärfe 1972–78). At the end of DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 378

Figure 25.4 Shrimp vessel with two long-handled dredges in the harbour of Kuwait showing the push-net-like frames and the net bags hanging out to dry on the left side (1970).

Figure 25.5 Different types of dredges: (a) small German ‘trynet’ for shrimp; (b) Dutch mussel dredge; (c) French type (from Boudarel 1948 with permission); (d) Japanese ‘manga’ net; (e) Russian type of the Black Sea (from NN 1952 with per- mission); (f) shellfish dredge of Ireland. DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 379

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Figure 25.6 French dredge, Dutch type, with teeth for Figure 25.7 Icelandic ‘kúhfiskplógur’ for dredging collecting venus shells. (Photo: R. Piboubes, Brest.) Arctica islandica. (Photo: G. Thorsteinsson, 1968.)

the bag, an iron rod is fastened for better handling of the gear. Also, a hollow iron roller is fixed on the gear to give it support when gliding over the ground. Generally, this type of dredge has no teeth, but heavier ones, with teeth, are known (Figure 25.6). The dredge for the American scallop (Pla- copecten magellanicus) is similar to a large-sized Dutch dredge (Dow 1969; Sainsbury 1971), and, until recently, was almost exclusively operated by boats in this fishery. Sometimes these dredges are of very heavy construction (Peters 1935). The Figure 25.8 Dutch shellfish dredge, upside down, with narrow rectangular frame is made of steel and has netting on the upper side and a mat of rings on the lower a sharp underbar which scrapes the bottom, digging side. out the shellfish which pass into the collecting bag. The upper part of the frame is connected with the DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 380

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Figure 25.9 Large French dredge for catching venus shells with gallows and the arrangement for operating the gear. Erquy, Baie de St Brueuc. (Photo: R. Piboubes, Brest.)

towing arms. The lower part of the collecting bag towed by the winch of an anchored vessel. An orig- and the rear end of the upper parts are made of inal idea for moving the boat forward, and conse- steel rings. The rest is made of strong netting yarn. quently also the fishing gear, is to use a submarine Quite another type of boat dredge is operated on sail. Such sails were known in Europe 200 years the French Atlantic coast. Long box-like dredges, ago. The French encyclopedists of the 18th century made of long iron rods, are used for catching reproduced in their illustrations submarine sails mussels, scallops and venus (Figure 25.9). Smaller such as were used by the French coastal fishery to types can end in a bag of strong netting. Teeth can set before vessels and nets.These real sailing cloths, be fixed on the light outside curved lower part of suspended from a beam, floated on the surface of the opening, but they are forbidden in some places the water and were driven forward by the current, and they are then replaced by a sharp blade, shear- slowly dragging after them both the nets and the ing downwards (Figure 25.10). Smaller types of boat (Diderot & d’Alembert 1751–82; Schnaken- boat dredges are dragged by rowing or sailing beck 1942). Even after World War II in Far Eastern boats. Sometimes the boat is pushed forward by underwater operations, sails were used for towing hauling with its winch along a line fastened to a dredges and other gear (Figure 26.18) (Katsuki pole which is driven into the ground ahead or is 1951).The fishermen of the Tanshui River in north- attached to an anchor. The dredge can also be ern Taiwan use flat plaited baskets for sails (Figures DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 381

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have encouraged the improvement and moderniza- tion of dredging. Powered vessels made it possible to use larger and heavier dredges, but heavier dredges also need mechanical handling. The Italian dredge operated in the area of Venice is an example of a heavy but good mechanized dredge operated by a special gallows from the bow of the vessel (Figure 25.13). When fishing, the boat is anchored with a long wire and, after setting the dredge, the vessel, together with the gear, is towed backward by a small winch (Figure 25.14). This is a technique very often used in dredging. Moreover, water jets from two tubes connected to the dredge wash out deeper-sited shells, which are collected in the wire basket of the dredge. The catch can be brought on board the vessel when the dredge is hauled in, by a system which is often used with trucks which are emptied very quickly by lifting one end of the plat- form. The shells are washed in a washing machine on the vessel and packed into bags for the market. A similar dredge is used in fishing for scallops in Australia (Figure 25.15). In this case, the old system of towing the vessel to an anchor is abandoned, and the dredge is towed from the stern of the vessel like Figure 25.10 French dredge without teeth, which are a trawl (Nédélec 1975). replaced by a sharp-edged blade shearing downwards. A disadvantage of dredges is that they are not (Photo: R. Piboubes, Brest.) highly efficient harvesters. Tests have shown that they collect only a small proportion of the shells in their path. Moreover, many are badly damaged (Joyner 1971). Dredges are also ineffective when the shells sit deeper in the mud – as some mussels 25.11 and 26.17). The boats are towed broadside by do when, for example, the salinity is decreased in five or six such baskets in the tidal waters as they rainy seasons. The problem of digging out shells tow long-handled scratchers through the mud to more carefully and in greater quantities when they catch small mussels (Meretrix meretrix L.) (Chen are deep in the mud has been solved, to some 1960; von Brandt 1970b). extent, by using high pressure jets of water with the In modern dredging, powered vessels usually tow dredge. When large quantities of mussels are two dredges, one on each side. Sometimes more caught, other systems of hauling the catch out of the may be operated from a single vessel (Figure water are by suction pumps or conveyer belts. By 25.12), in which case special arrangements are these improvements the dredge becomes a quite made to tow the dredges with beams, and to haul different type of fishing gear. It is no longer a simple and shoot them by means of hand-operated or, fishing gear as described at the beginning of this nowadays, mostly powered hydraulic winches. As chapter but has become an integrated fishing mentioned before, dredges are considered espe- system like a harvesting machine, which will be dis- cially suitable for mussel fishing by digging the cussed in Chapter 30. Finally, dredges are not only animals from the bottom and separating them from used for collecting living mussels, but also mussel the mud. In this manner, boat dredges are used in grit for producing lime is gathered in this way. In the mussel fisheries of East Asia, North America, Sao Vicente, one of the islands of Cape Verde, the Australia and Western Europe. Mussels have a inhabitants use simple hand dredges to collect coal good market all over the world and this fact may from the bottom of the harbour in Mindelo. By this DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 382

382 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 25.11 Mussel dredging in the Tanshui River, North Taiwan. The boat is towed broadside by underwater sails made of bamboo, as can be seen behind. Three sticks of long-handled dredges fixed on the boat can be seen (1969).

regarded as specific gear for catching fish as distinct from shellfish. The opening of the dredges used for shellfish is too small, and the towing speed so low that even a slow fish can escape with a slight move- ment. This means that to catch fish the gear should have at least a wider and a higher opening. Then, Figure 25.12 Japanese dredging system for clams, those fish which stay on the bottom, as some flat- shrimps, prawns, flatfish and sea cucumber. (From NN fish do, may be caught. There are dredges that have 1959–65 with permission.) been specially developed to catch flatfish. The prin- ciple used is the same as that in mussel or shrimp dredging: a frame keeps the bagnet open and technique, marine snails, Murex sp., are also caught special implements, such as rake-like prongs, can be and used for bait and food. fitted to the lower edge for digging the fish from the bottom and rousing them (Figure 25.16), as already 25.3 Beamtrawling described for the dredges. The only difference is that the rectangular frame is much larger than for Bottom fish can of course be caught by means of dredges used in shellfish fisheries, and the bag is dredges but, generally speaking, dredges cannot be longer and more slender. In towing, however, a DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 383

Figure 25.13 Italian mussel dredge in the area of Venice during transport from or to the fishing place (1975). The dredge is mounted on the bow of the vessel.

Figure 25.14 Italian mussel dredge in the area of Venice during fishing. The boat is towed backwards on a wire towards an anchor (1975). DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 384

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square frame is a hampering implement, particu- larly on uneven ground or when a high towing speed is necessary (Figure 25.17a). Therefore, the lower transverse beam of the original frame, which kept the net open in a horizontal direction, can be removed and also the teeth or digging blades, but the remaining upper beam is retained along the upper edge (Figure 25.17c) or is fitted more into the centre of the net opening (Figure 25.17b), as is done

Figure 25.15 Australian scallop dredge mounted on the stern of a vessel. (Photo: R. Wawrowski, 1979.) Figure 25.16 Italian beamtrawl used to catch flatfish. The gear is shown upside down. The lower part is visible and beneath it is the upper part with a board for press- ing the gear to the bottom.

Figure 25.17 Simple types of dragging gear: (a) towed stow net; (b) ‘Keitel’ from Curishe and Frische Haff (lagoons on the southern coast of the Baltic); (c) Japanese beamtrawl; (d) modern European beamtrawl for shrimps. DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 385

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Figure 25.19 Sketch from the back of a state paper of 1635, undoubtedly showing a beamtrawl towed by a sailing boat.

have been a beamtrawl. Again in the 17th century during the reign of Charles I there was a strong opposition amongst fishermen against a gear now called ‘draw net’ or trawl. Fishermen from Strood and Rochester who appeared in the Star Chamber gave a description of this instrument which corre- sponds in principle to the design of a beamtrawl used today.The sketch on the back of a state paper from 1635 undoubtedly shows a beamtrawl towed by a sailing boat (Figure 25.19; Graham 1956). Several models of beamtrawls are used in the north-west European fisheries as well as in the Mediterranean. The first European trawlers used beamtrawls for capturing flatfish. Beamtrawls are also used off the African coast and in North Figure 25.18 German double-rig beamtrawls for shrimp American waters, although to a lesser extent. They fishing. have been, and are even now, sometimes widely used in the Far East. There have been, also, some other ideas to facilitate the movement of a beam- with the so-called ‘plumb staff type’ of beamtrawl trawl over the bottom. One of them is to fit the gear operated in Alaska and northern America for with wheels. This idea is not new. It has been pro- catching shrimp (Nédélec 1975). The two shorter posed from time to time, but without success – with lateral parts of the frame are usually still retained two exceptions: the Turkish ‘kankava’ beamtrawl in their places to keep the net open vertically; these with two or three wheels, used for harvesting can, however, be converted into guides (called sponges, and the Taiwanese three-wheel beamtrawl shoes, or iron runners, etc.) to secure easier move- for shrimp fishing. In contrast to the gear operated ment by sliding over the bottom (Figures 25.17d in Taiwan, the Turkish beamtrawl with wheels and 25.18). seems to be an old endemic invention. This gear The horizontal transverse beam is considered to generally has two iron wheels, one on each end of be typical of these nets and therefore they are the beam, a steel tube of 4–10m long (by law no called ‘beamtrawls’ (Figure 25.18). The beamtrawls more than 9m) (Figure 25.20). With the longer are the simplest type of modern bottom trawls. The beams, two bags of netting can be operated and origin of the beamtrawl is not known exactly, but three wheels may support the beam (Figure 25.21) during the reign of Edward III of England efforts (Mengi 1977). The Chinese beamtrawl with three were made in 1376–77 to have a fishing gear called wheels was introduced into the fishery of Taiwan ‘wondyrchoun’ prohibited as being destructive of some years ago. The wooden wheels have only a small fish and the sea bottom. This gear seems to small diameter of 20–40cm and the beam has a total DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 386

386 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 25.20 Turkish vessel with a beamtrawl (‘kankava’) with two nets and two wheels for collecting sponges. (From Mengi 1977 with permission.)

Figure 25.21 Turkish ‘three-wheel’ vessel with two ‘kankava nets’ for sponge fishing. (From Mengi 1977 with per- mission.)

length of 10 m. The wheels are fixed on both ends Beamtrawls with a single upper beam supported and in the middle of the beam (Figure 25.22). Two by a gliding shoe on each end are mostly operated bagnets are towed with one beam, but they can be for fishing and shrimping. Originally, the net bag of constructed differently. It may be operated with the beamtrawl was a completely uniform bag, pos- two simple net bags or two traditional shrimp sibly composed of congruent upper and lower parts beamtrawls with two codends each. Some of these and maybe also of two lateral sections, like the net beamtrawls can be electrified (Figure 25.23) to bags of stow nets and dredges. More modern pat- chase up the shrimps, especially in daytime fishing terns have a receding notched edge at the lower (see Section 25.4). net, or a protruding upper net which is typical of all DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 387

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Figure 25.22 Chinese beamtrawl with three wheels for shrimping; in the harbour of Kaohsiung, Taiwan (1978).

ated by rowing boats on the River Tejo near Lisbon. Here the beams are not more than 2 m long. Some- times the beam is placed more forward of the net opening (Figure 25.24). In this case the bagnet can have wings, to the points of which the beam is fitted (Figure 25.24b). The beam may even be set further forward yet and so spread the drag lines, as was for- Figure 25.23 Electrified Chinese three-wheel shrimp merly done in the Baltic (Figure 25.24c). But there trawl with frightening chain in front of the net opening may be some doubt as to whether these are true and retarding pocket near the headline. beamtrawls or whether they are regular trawls additionally spread by sticks or beams. Modern beamtrawling is carried out according to the modern bottom trawls (Figure 25.24b, c). It is double-rig system, i.e. one beamtrawl on each side through the beams that the net can be kept open in of the vessel (also called twin-trawling or twin-rig a horizontal direction. But as mentioned before, trawling) (Figure 25.18). Formerly the nets could be this extension is limited in that the gear becomes of different sizes but today they are always equal. more and more unwieldy as the beam becomes Sometimes a smaller third beamtrawl or a try-gear bigger and longer. Thus, in practice, the beam (Figure 25.5a) is operated from the stern of the without wheels can scarcely be much longer than vessel. Some attempts have also been made to 6–8 m. Nevertheless, the longest used for flatfish tow beamtrawls for shrimping in shallow water by extends to 12 m. In Europe, the smallest are oper- tractors. In the UK, shrimp nets have also been DFC25 4/23/05 9:04 PM Page 388

388 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 25.24 Trawls with the beam pulled forward: (a) ‘gangui’ of the Mediterranean; (b) old type of beamtrawl from California (from Scofield 1948 with permission); (c) old type of Baltic beamtrawl.

towed by cars and trucks. Because it is not possible to fish with these vehicles beyond a certain depth of water, amphibious vehicles have been used suc- cessfully to tow beamtrawls in shrimping (NN 1969). In the shrimp fishery off the continental North Sea coast it is the beamtrawl that is nowadays mostly employed (Figure 25.18) (de Boer 1970), but less so for the capture of fish, with the exception of flatfish. For this purpose the beamtrawls have been altered. They became heavier, as with the big beamers of the Netherlands (Figure 25.25). The reason is that rows of ‘tickler’ chains (sweep chains) or chain mats are added in front of the ground-rope of the beamtrawl to scare up the flatfish, especially soles. This was done, originally, by the teeth and blades of the earlier dredge-like type of beam- trawls. Another interesting variation of the beam- trawl, looking like an American scallop dredge, is also used by the Dutch and some German fisher- men to catch whelks (von Brandt 1970a). In this case a large-meshed netting, made of chains, is fixed in front of the net opening to deflect stones (Figure 25.26). Fixing a square meshed netting in front of the opening of a dragged gear made of chains is also known with the American scallop dredges and, to Figure 25.25 Heavy Dutch beamtrawl for sole fishing. (Photo: R. Steinberg.) DFC25 4/23/05 9:05 PM Page 389

Dredges and Beamtrawls 389

Figure 25.26 Dutch beamtrawl for whelk fishing. The chains in front of the net opening repel stones.

some extent, also with the Indian stow nets which be stirred up off the bottom to come within the have large meshed netting in front of their opening reach of the net opening. For this reason, so-called to repel seaweed and other unwanted matter. Using ticklers, tickler chains or sweep chains are placed large and heavy netting made of chains before before the net opening. In the fishery for soles, beamtrawls requires strong motors to deflect the these can be heavy steel chains. In the Netherlands stones. This is not possible for smaller vessels with up to 11 rows of chains with a total weight of > 2 low power, which would be stopped by such stones. tons are used, towed by vessels of up to 7000 hp or However, the heavy chains used as tickler chains or more at a speed of 7 kn. It is thought that such a as stone-repellent netting raised many objections heavy gear towed across the bottom may be respon- because they were considered responsible for the sible for some destruction of the seabed, and this destruction of the bottom of the sea and its fauna caused many objections, with the result that the and vegetation (see also Chapter 32.3). gear was banned from some fishing grounds. Gear similar to dredges or beamtrawls is also In shrimp fisheries, electrified beamtrawls were used for fishing at a great depth, maybe deeper than operated in many areas of the world, such as north- 2000 m. In most cases, this is done for scientific west Europe, East Asia and North America investigations only. Such dredges are constructed in (Nomura & Yamazaki 1975; Boonstra 1979).There- such a manner that both sides are the same and the fore an electrical stimulation system for stirring up dredge can fish regardless of which side is up or flatfish has also been produced – so reducing the down. Some of them are well known in marine bio- number and weight of the transverse tickler chains logical research work like the ‘Agassiz trawl’ for needed. Then only one single light chain is placed catching demersal macro-fauna (Figure 25.27). 0.5 m before the ground-rope of the beamtrawl.The electrodes are a few iron chains plaited together 25.4 Electrified beamtrawls with a copper braid and running in the same direc- tion as the towing direction. The electrical stimulus As mentioned before, beamtrawls are used for is delivered from a pulse generator mounted on the catching fish, especially flatfish, and shrimps of dif- centre of the beam or placed on the deck of the ferent species. In both cases the wanted prey has to vessel. The power is transmitted from the towing DFC25 4/23/05 9:05 PM Page 390

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Figure 25.27 Agassiz trawl for making scientific catches at great depths. (Photo: H. Thiel, Hamburg.)

vessel via an armoured cable. The fish are induced De Boer, E.J. (1970) [Beam trawling.] Afdeling technish to move off the bottom by this electric tickler onderzoek Directie van de Visserijen [in Dutch]. system. The fish attempt to swim ahead of the Boonstra, G.P. (1979) Onderzoek naar de Mogelijkheden van toepassing van elektrische visserij op garnalen en ground-rope, but this zone is rendered frightening platvis 1968–1978.Visserij 32 (2), 107–121 [in Dutch]. by the electric field.The fish react by dropping back Boudarel, N. (1948) Les Richesses de la Mer. Paris. into the beamtrawl. This system is considered not von Brandt, A. (1970a) Baumkurren für die Fischerei auf only less destructive to the seabed but reduces gear Wellhornschnecken. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 12, 129–137. drag and, hence, towing power. It is also more selec- von Brandt, A. (1970b) Treibanker und Treibsegel in der tive, catching larger fish with a higher average Fischerei. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 12, 160–163. weight (Horn 1976, 1977; Stewart 1978). Burdon, T.W. (1956) A Report on the Fishing Industry of The problem of fishing with electrified otter Malta. Govt. printing office. Valetta. trawls, and the question of how to separate fish and Chen, C.T. (1960) [A survey of fishing gear used in the coastal fishery of Taiwan.] Taipei [in Chinese]. shrimps during fishing, not only to avoid work and Diderot, M.D. & d’Alembert, J.L. (1751–82) Pêches, unwanted catch, but also to preserve juvenile fishes, pêche de mer, etc. In: L’encyclopedie. Paris. will be discussed at the end of the following Dow, R.L. (1969) Sea scallop fishery. In: The Encyclope- chapter. dia of Marine Resources (ed. F. E. Firth), 616–623. New York. Graham, M. (1956) Sea Fisheries.Their investigation in the References United Kingdom. London. Horn, W. (1976) Rationalisierung der Seezungenfischerei Benecke, B. (1881) Fische, Fischerei und Fischzucht in durch Einsatz elektrifizierter Baumkurren. Informatio- Ost- und Westpreussen. Königsberg Pr. nen für die Fischwirtschaft 23 (1), 20–22. DFC25 4/23/05 9:05 PM Page 391

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Horn,W. (1977) Weitere Ergebnisse von Untersuchungen NN (1969) Tide-line shrimping new style. World Fishing an elektrifizierten Baumkurren für den Seezungenfang. 18 (4), 43. Informationen für die Fischwirtschaft 24 (6), 226–228. Nomura, M., Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing techniques. Joyner, I. (1971) Resources exploitation – Living. In: Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the Impingement of Man on the Oceans. Hood, D.W. (ed.), Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. 529–551. New York. Peters, N. (1935) Angeln. Handbuch der Seefischerei Katsuki, J. (ed.) (1951) [Illustration of Otaru/Hokkaido. Nordeuropas 4. Stuttgart. [in Japanese]. Rauchfuss, W. (1974) Schlickschlitten an der Nord- Leonhardt, E.E. (1908) Die Entwicklung der Fischerei seeküste. Jahrbuch der Männer vom Morgenstern 54, und ihrer Geräte. Zeit. F. Fischerei XIII, 87–171. 279–311. Liu, C.L. (1956) Mackerel Lining in Su-ao. Fishery Survey Rauchfuss, W. (1978) Schlickschlitten als Mehrzweck- No. 8. Taiwan. Transportgerät an der Nordseeküste. Jahrbuch Heimat- Manacop. P.R.,Capco, S.R. (1953) The globy dredge-trawl bund Männer vom Morgenstern 57, 255–277. fishery of Laguna de Bay. Philippine Journal of Fishing Sainsbury, J.C. (1971) Commercial Fishing Methods, an 2, 125–160. Introduction to Vessels and Gear. London. Mendez-Arocha, A. (1963) La pesca en Margarita. (La Schärfe, J. (ed.) (1972–78) FAO Catalogue of Fishing Gear pesca en la isla de Margarita1963, Venezuela). Caracas. Designs.Farnham. Mengi, T. (1977) Balikçilik teknigi. [Fishing techniques.] Schnakenbeck,W. (1942) Schleppnetze,Waden. In: Hand- Black Sea, Marmara Sea and some special forms of buch der Seefischerei Nordeuropas,Vol. 4. Stuttgart. fishing gear). Istanbul [in Turkish]. Scofield,W.L.(1948) Trawling gear in California. Fisheries Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Bulletin No. 72. Fishing Gear.Farnham. Solymos, E (ed.) (1976) Studien zur Europäischen Tradi- Nishimura, A. (1969) The most primitive means of trans- tionellen Fischerei. Baja Dolgozatok 3. Baja. portation in Southeast and East Asia. Asian Folklore Stewart, P.A.M. (1978) Comparative fishing for flatfish Studies XXVII (2), 1–93. using a beam trawl fitted with electric ticklers. Scottish NN (ed.) (1952) [Fishing Gear in the Azov Sea and the Fisheries Research Report No. 11. Black Sea] Ministry of Fisheries. Moscow [in Russian]. NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and Fishing Gear. Tokyo. DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 392

26 Fishing with Bottom Trawls

There are arguments about which gear is more trawl increases with the size of the gear. Larger gear important to fisheries trying to feed the hungry also means greater energy requirements. For the world: the trawls or the purse seines. But the answer heavy, highly developed modern trawls, powerful is influenced by the question of whether bottom sophisticated vessels are needed if trawling is to be and mid-water fish are to be caught, or whether the economical. This may create difficulties in further target is large concentrations of fish near the development of trawling through the increasing surface of the water. Both trawls and purse seines price of fuel. Further, it may be that sometime in are gear for bulk fishing and the operation of both the future not enough oil will be available for the needs a lot of experience and skill to be successful. operation of effective trawlers. Moreover, both gear need highly specialized vessels, especially when operated in large-scale sea 26.1 Trawling with outriggers fisheries. Therefore, there are some doubts as to whether trawling and purse seining can be com- As mentioned before, trawls can be considered as bined on a so-called multi-purpose vessel without a further development of dredges and beamtrawls. some compromise, as this always means some loss By their construction, these latter gear have the dis- of efficiency for both methods. Trawls are consid- advantage of their net opening being limited. To ered to be further developments of towed bagnets catch more fish, it became necessary and desirable (Figure 24.27), dredges and beamtrawls, as dis- to operate a broader gear than that permitted by cussed in the previous chapter.These are gear espe- the maximum length of the frames of dredges and cially operated in fisheries for bottom fish or, at beamtrawls. A relatively early solution to this least, near-bottom fish, but also for cephalopods, problem was to tow a net bag without a frame in its sponges, some shellfish like shrimps or prawns, and opening, from a vessel sailing broadside, or at least different types of molluscs. Trawls are used in sea in a slantwise direction, so that the two warps were fisheries and to a lesser extent also in fresh waters fastened to poles protruding from the bow and the where there is sufficient space for towing. The stern at the greatest possible distance (Figure 26.1). importance of this fishing method can be seen by For sailing the boat sideways, not only wind power, the fact that many special variants of bottom trawls but also current and manpower can be used. In this have been developed. There are very small ‘baby it is possible, even without using the two protrud- trawls’ and very large ones, with an opening higher ing beams, to keep the opening of the towed than a house, which have to be towed by high- unframed net bag horizontally spread as far as the powered vessels. Until the end of the 1970s, the length of the vessel or the distance of the protrud- introduction of trawling was considered to be one ing poles will allow (Nomura & Yamazaki 1975). of the main features of fishing development. But This method has been widely used in both trawling in most cases is a fishing method needing European and Asiatic fisheries. The sailing boats of high energy for towing a gear with sufficient speed. the fisheries in the Far East, as in Japan and Korea, Moreover, it has been found that the efficiency of a generally use this method. Sometimes other gear

392 DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 393

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Figure 26.1 A broadside sailing boat towing a trawl.

with otter-board trawls (Figure 26.2). But outrig- gers alone can only provide a limited horizontal opening of the trawl, which then decreases with the length of the warps. Therefore, better methods are required to spread the opening of the trawl wider to increase the fishing area.

26.2 Pair trawling A much better way of keeping a towed net open horizontally (despite the missing frames or beams) is to tow it not by a single ship but by two equal vessels. This so-called pair trawling, with both sailing and power-driven vessels, is widely known, as it also meets other desirable points in fishing. For Figure 26.2 A horizontal opening of the trawl effected by means of sticks together with otter boards in: (a) instance, double towing power is available when Japan (from NN 1959–65 with permission); (b) Mexico two vessels operate. The net can thus be made sub- (from Sanchez 1959 with permission). stantially larger so that the area of operation is increased and the yields can be expected to be can be towed by a broadside or slantwise sailing larger. In fact, the yields must be at least double the vessel: in addition to a large unframed net bag, single quantity in order to cover the costs of two small beamtrawls or framed dredges may be towed. vessels with their double crews, and also earn some On the other hand, the method is disadvantageous profit. in that, when sailing broadside, vessels can achieve The most favourable factor in pair trawling is only a low speed. Moreover, this method can really that, in contrast to normal trawl fishing methods, only be used by sailing boats. Therefore, for the vessels will neither travel across the fish shoals powered vessels, another system has to be used to sought to be caught nor tow their warps through increase the opening of the trawl horizontally. The them. In that way, the frightening effect of their single trawl can be towed behind the vessel by passage can be avoided – at any rate in shallow towing booms or outriggers, as is done, even today, waters. DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 394

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Figure 26.3 Bottom trawl used for fishing on rough grounds: (a) with danlenos as ‘butterflies’; (b) with pony boards replacing danlenos.

There have been some experiments with methods to discontinue operations under certain weather to increase the efficiency of the gear by three boats conditions, even though single vessels could still together towing two trawls. In contrast to pair trawl- operate under those same conditions. In addition, ing with two boats this idea has not been successful difficulties of a human nature are likely to arise; it for nautical reasons and also because of higher vul- is not always possible to find skippers who are able nerability during bad weather, which may also to co-operate, to subordinate themselves and to hamper pair trawling with two vessels. One idea to work together amicably for a long period. It is, in overcome the difficulty of keeping two or three fact, a standing joke in the fishing industry that two vessels at a constant distance is to connect their skippers who are normally on friendly terms may bows with a wire line of sufficient length. become estranged when they are required to In Europe, pair fishing with bottom trawls, as operate their vessels in pair fishing. carried out by the Spanish pareja fishery, is well known, but towing trawls with two vessels is also 26.3 Otter boards for bottom trawling popular in many other areas, particularly in the Far East. It is a form of trawling typically used by low- The most developed method for keeping towed powered vessels since olden times. Primitive forms trawls open horizontally is the use of otter boards of pair fishing were in fact practised by the Indian (Figure 26.3). These boards are, as described in a tribes on the Pacific coast of North America before previous chapter, not an invention of the trawl the time of Columbus (Underhill 1944; Nachtigall fishery, but have been known in the hook-and-line 1966). Two rowing boats towed net bags through fishery for a long time. As in line fishing, these otter the water, especially for catching salmon. There are boards are set obliquely against the current. They also old sketches of South American life, dated are thus pressed to one side and so tow the gear in 1565, showing Indians towing a type of drag net that direction. Such boards in different forms, rec- with two balsa rafts. Much older are the models of tangular or even oval (Figures 26.4 and 26.5), and pair trawling with papyrus vessels which were of several square metres, when attached to either deposited in Egyptian graves 3000 years ago. A dis- side of the opening of the trawl net suffice to keep advantage of fishing with two vessels is, however, it open horizontally. In this way, a net opening is that not only have the vessels to be more or less achieved without using beams, without sailing twin vessels – of similar size and power – but the broadside and without using two vessels for towing. masters of the vessels must also co-operate most For the first time otter boards for a trawl ‘have accurately. That is frequently possible only in day- come into favour amongst yachtsmen on account of light and in relatively good weather. The need to a beam not being required, which is a very ugly keep a constant distance between the vessels during thing on board a yacht’ (Wilcocks 1875). First towing, and then come close for hauling the catch experiments were made by an Irishman named or for shooting the net, compels these fishermen Musgrave between 1860 and 1870 (Bickerdyke DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 395

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b

a

c

Figure 26.4 Different types of otter boards: (a) conventional flat, rectangular, wooden planks with steel fittings; (b) oval, cambered, with one slot, full steel construction; (c) V-form, full steel construction. (From Sea Fish Industry Authority 1993 with permission.)

1895). The English trawler Irawaddy made the first attempts to use such otter boards in 1885 but achieved little success. It was in 1894 when the engi- neer James Robert Scott from Granton on the Firth of Forth, having experimented several years with otter boards, designed an otter trawl which was operated successfully on 16 or 17 steam trawlers from Granton, Hull, Grimsby, and Scarborough (Cunningham 1895–97). The main features of Scott’s trawl were: two separate warps instead of one warp, connected to the otter boards by means of a crowfoot; two triangular steel brackets at the inner side of each otter board, to which the warps were connected; the groundrope, being definitely longer than the headline (120 feet to 75 feet), running some distance behind the headline, thus preventing fish stirred up from the bottom to rise above the headline and escape the net (Figure Figure 26.5 Hydrodynamic otter boards: (a) Süberkrüb 26.6). Scott’s application for a patent for his gear board; (b) spherical board. was accepted in 1894 (Scott 1894) and was followed DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 396

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a

b

Figure 26.6 Scott’s patented otter trawl: (a) the complete trawl with the boards fixed at both sides of the net opening; (b) the port side board with the warp (J) fixed to two brackets (H). (From Scott 1894 with permission.)

later by a great number of other patents. In 1895 fuel. Very often, engineering investigations were the otter board reached Germany by way of made without knowledge of the practical needs of Holland. The ship-owner, August Bröhan of Cranz fisheries and without knowledge of their influence on the River Elbe, was the first to equip a German on fish behaviour. For this reason, only a few trawler, PC 18 Witt und Bartels, with such boards types of otter boards have had real success in fish- for a fishing voyage (Edden 1897). In the same year eries (FAO 1974; Sea Fish Industry Authority et al. (1895) in France the first experiments were made 1993). with the ‘chalut à panneaux’.The experiments were Originally the otter boards, or trawl doors, were so successful that the ‘otter trawl’ became popular simple rectangular flat wooden plates, strengthened in many countries in the following years. Neverthe- by a steel frame and iron struts (Figure 26.4a).They less, it was some time before trawling with otter were not only inexpensive but also simple to handle boards spread over the whole world. How slow this and easy to store. On the other hand, the design of development was can be seen from the fact that these flat doors was completely uninfluenced by all otter boards were not introduced into Japanese hydrodynamic rules to obtain optimal shearing trawling before 1905, and did not appear in other effect. Many proposals have been made to increase countries until much later (e.g. Malaysia in 1936). the efficiency of the boards, but most of the new Since the introduction of these shearing devices, proposed boards were not only too complicated to a number of suggestions have been made for build and repair, but also too difficult to handle and improving the otter boards. The basic idea is to to store on a small fishing vessel. Others were vul- shape the board in such a way that its shearing force nerable under bad weather conditions. So these (side force) becomes as great as possible while its ideas only increased the number of patent rights, drag is as small as possible. Moreover, the boards without obtaining practical success. This was to should have less wear on trawl gear and should be change with the development of mid-water trawls easy to store and handle. Finally, effective otter (Chapter 27). Nevertheless, beside rectangular flat boards should save power and fuel, a problem doors, a few other forms came into bottom trawling which has often been forgotten, but which may before the middle of the last century (Walderhaug become decisive for trawling due to rising prices of & Åkre 1963; Rehme 1978; Gabriel 1987). Oval DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 397

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cambered, slotted otter boards were introduced by a French company, Morgère of St. Malo, their oval outline gliding much better over rough bottoms than did the rectangular flat trawl doors (Figure 26.4b). Moreover, the single vertical slot at mid- length improves the efficiency of these oval boards slightly. V-shaped trawl doors (butterfly otter boards) were designed by the Chinese Captain Loo Chi Hu in 1956/57 (Loo Chi Hu 1961; NN 1961) (Figure 26.4c) and became very popular in small- scale inshore trawling. A good performance on Figure 26.7 ‘Oertz’ cambered, rectangular otter board. rough ground is claimed for these boards.Although (From Oertz 1921b with permission.) physical investigations demonstrated that the V- boards had a low shearing force in comparison with other types of boards, these boards are often pre- extent, by replacing the large Süberkrüb boards by ferred by successful fishermen. Recently, Scottish two smaller ones which together have the same investigations showed very strong sand clouds pro- shearing area as the large ones. These two boards duced by these boards during fishing. It may be that are connected together like the wings of a biplane. these clouds play an important part in leading fish The so-called tandem boards have the same shear- into the path of the net (NN 1979a,b; Main & ing effect as a single board with the same surface Sangster 1981). and are much easier to handle (Gabriel & Karow As mentioned before, flat boards have been con- 1969; Gabriel & Schumacher 1977). Recently, the structed without regard to aero- or hydrodynamic Russians made another proposal to replace large rules. Concerning the relation between drag and Süberkrüb boards used in mid-water trawling by shape of otter boards, there is no doubt that, like spherical otter boards, so-called saucer-shaped the wings of an aeroplane, cambered boards boards, or ‘O-boards’ (Figure 26.5b).With spherical designed on hydrodynamic principles must give a boards, some difficulties in handling very large much greater efficiency than the conventional flat Süberkrüb boards could be avoided because boards boards. But it was some time before the experiences of this type, with smaller dimensions, can be used of aeroplane design inspired the design of otter with the same effect (Horn & Mohr 1979; Lange boards with cambered surfaces. As far as is known, 1975, 1976). In general, two boards are used in the first model and full-scale experiments with a trawling, one for port and one for starboard. These cambered board were performed in 1920 by Max boards are not interchangeable. Efforts have been Oertz (Oertz 1921a, b, 1923) (Figure 26.7) but, like made to construct the boards in such a manner that others, without success. It seems that the German they can be used on either side of the vessel. engineer F. Süberkrüb was the first to succeed with However, some interchangeability is possible with cambered boards (Figure 26.5a). These boards are flat doors and V-doors, but especially with the at least twice as high as they are long. When used spherical boards. Originally the otter boards were with a small angle of attack, an excellent shearing made of wood and could be readily repaired, often force is created with low drag (Roscher 1947; on the vessel. Later, trawl doors were made of steel. Süberkrüb 1943, 1959).These boards are especially Other materials, such as fibreglass-reinforced successful in mid-water trawling (Chapter 27) but plastic or aluminium have been tried, but none of in Japan, boards similar, but only one and a half them came into common use. Cambered boards times as high as long, have been developed for with increased spreading efficiency have been bottom trawling. There is no doubt that flat otter developed in France and have been combined with boards can be stored on the deck of a vessel much oval boards suitable, especially, for rough fishing more easily than curved ones.This is especially true grounds.They are well known as polyvalent boards, for very large boards of 12 m2 and more, used by which can be used for bottom and pelagic trawling. powerful stern trawlers in mid-water fishing. The problem of multi-purpose boards will be men- Recently this problem could be solved, to some tioned again with mid-water trawling in the next DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 398

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Figure 26.8 Pony boards for replacing danlenos (Nédélec and Libert 1962).

chapter. When more shearing arrangements are used with trawls, e.g. with mid-water trawls, they are not considered as otter boards, apart from the so- called ‘pony boards’ (Figures 26.3b and 26.8) replacing the danlenos at the end of the wings of the trawl operated on rough grounds. They are so named from the fact that this second pair of otter boards, much smaller than the first, is running behind the large boards, like a pony behind its Figure 26.9 Vertical opening of a beamtrawl by means mother. Otter boards with a great horizontal of vertical sticks. (From NN 1959–65 with permission.) spreading effect and with a small drag are essential for economic trawling with low energy costs. Of ficient. But it was found that sometimes fish stay at course, the drag of a trawl gear is not only caused a certain distance above the bottom and so high- by the otter boards moving through the water and opening bottom trawls were wanted. the friction of the boards gliding on the bottom, but A simple method exists for keeping the opening also by the resistance caused by the water flowing high vertically as will be discussed with seine nets. through the meshes of the net and against the This is by fixing upright sticks between the upper warps. These factors have been neglected for a long and lower edges of the net opening, at varying and time but are now being recognized more as it graded distances. These serve to keep the net aper- becomes necessary to achieve greater speeds with ture open vertically, without regard to the height of the same propulsive power. On a soft bottom, the the lateral parts of the net. Figure 26.9 shows an old boards can be provided with broad mud skids to Japanese trawl that is kept open horizontally by a prevent them from digging into the seabed. Gliding beam, and vertically by just four spreading sticks. It of the gear is also achieved by mud rollers or will be understood that the vertical opening bobbins of different weight fixed to the decreases with any increase of the horizontal groundrope. They also protect the netting against opening, and vice versa. On the other hand, the use damage on rough ground. of spreading sticks is a simple method of achieving a considerable opening height. It may, however, be 26.4 Increasing the vertical suspected that such sticks in the opening of the net trawl opening might have the effect of frightening fish away from entering the trawl. It is, therefore, now customary In the last section, the horizontal spreading of the to keep the aperture of the net open by attaching trawl opening with different techniques has been floats to the upper line and sinkers, in various forms, described. As long as mainly flatfish, shrimps and to the ground-rope. There has to be a balance other near-bottom animals were fished, a wide hor- between the buoyancy of the floats and the weight izontal opening of the gear was more important of the sinkers in the water. Simple forms of dragged than the vertical opening. The height of such gear may have more weights to keep them in dragged gear, influenced only by the size of the contact with the bottom, and the floats can have guiding shoes with beamtrawls, or the height of the more buoyancy, as necessary, to keep the opening otter boards with other appropriate trawls, was suf- of the gear as high as possible. Sometimes, to DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 399

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prevent damage to gear, lines are set at short dis- relation to the net opening. Figure 26.10 demon- tances between the ground-rope and the floatline. strates the development of the herring bottom But the same objections which can be made for the trawl. It will be seen that the aperture of the net was sticks set in the net opening can be made also continually being enlarged over the years; in the against such connecting lines frightening the prey horizontal direction by enlarged wings pulling the away by their swinging from the entrance of the lateral otter boards forward, and in a vertical direc- gear. Therefore, an appropriate relation between tion by adding floats and one or more kites. It must floats and weights is necessary. be mentioned that for stern trawlers kites are often Floats on towed gear, however, have disadvan- replaced by torpedo-shaped buoys. This is to guard tages in that they may be pressed back, even down- more effectively against the wake of the propeller. wards, by the resistance of the water. In that case Later a new idea arose to increase the opening they would no longer fulfil their function. Further, of a trawl with the help of a so-called ‘sail kite’ their buoyancy decreases with the increase of (Figure 26.11). This is a piece of strong canvas or towing speed unless the floats are given a shearing similar strong webbing slightly less wide than or as shape which would increase their buoyancy with wide as, the length of the headline bosom, sewn any increase of towing speed. Remarkable progress with its longer edge to the trawl net bosom. During in this field was made when, in 1920, Captain Johann fishing, this webbing will be pushed by the flow of von Eitzen of Hamburg had the idea of putting a water into the trawl, pressing its opening upwards third otter board at the headline of his trawl, adopt- like wooden kites, floats and other lifting devices ing the construction of some pelagic nets used by (Ben-Yami 1979; Karpenko & Fridman 1980; the biological station at Heligoland since 1903 for Finnern 1982; Lange 1989). By this means the catching fry and eggs. This trawl, used for pelagic fishing height of the trawl is increased and the drag fishing, had two boards on the headline and a single is diminished. In comparison with the usual lifting one in the middle of the ground-line (Figure 27.4). devices, the sail kite simplifies the construction and Captain von Eitzen changed this by adding a single handling of the trawl and the cost of each trawl is board on the headline to extend the opening of the reduced. It will be understood that this arrange- gear upwards. Under the influence of the towing ment can be effective with trawls in which the speed the upper board acted like a kite above the forepart of the roof (the square) does not stay in a net opening, counteracting the horizontal spreading horizontal position during fishing and does not effect of the lateral boards and keeping the headline have too acute an angle of attack. Especially with of the net high (von Eitzen 1960). Nevertheless, the the so-called rope trawls (Chapter 27) sail kites are shape of a trawl opening must be based on the con- useful because wooden kites or floats fitted to the struction of the gear and the type of netting used, so headline of the rope trawls have the disadvantage that floats, shearing boards and sinkers do not that these devices can entangle with the ropes when distort and damage the net through unequal shooting or hauling the trawl. Wooden kites also loading. The addition of the extra shearing board cannot be used when operating the gear with a net helped to keep the gear opening at an optimal size drum. In such cases sail kites of canvas mounted at and shape while maintaining a greater vertical the headline should replace wooden kites. PE opening than had been possible before. The net canvas has been used for this purpose (Figure opening became higher and the fish which kept 26.12) and has proved successful when mounted in position well above the bottom, in particular a suitable manner (Horn 1979). A special applica- herring, could be caught. The result was so remark- tion of sail kites can be found in fishery research. able that yields increased 10-fold, or even more, and Kites have been used successfully to open the this led to the development of the outstanding trawl codend cover in selection experiments with trawls fishery for herring in north-west Europe. (Madsen et al. 2001). Very soon it was found that one kite was not suf- ficient. Second (NN 1979b) and even third kites 26.5 Bottom trawls for sea fisheries were attached, so extending the opening height considerably, as the area encircled by the lines of Originally the trawls operated as beamtrawls had a the kites is also considered to be the fishing area in round conical net bag only, as can be seen from DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 400

400 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 26.10 Development of the German bottom trawl used for herring. DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 401

Fishing with Bottom Trawls 401

Figure 26.11 Sail kite inside the opening of a bottom trawl. (From Ben-Yami 1979 with permission.)

drawings published in the 19th century (Harvey 1857). This did not change when otter boards were introduced. The net bag of the beamtrawls was retained and the boards were attached to either side of the opening, in place of the runners (Wilcocks 1875). To retain the fish, pockets with openings facing backwards were fixed into the bagnet. Then a funnel was introduced into the bag and the afterpart of the bag was made of stronger and smaller-meshed netting. Later, the bag of the trawl was made of two more or less equal panels of netting, the upper and the lower part, which were sewn together as a two-panel trawl. Each part was divided into more than two sections. The end of the bag for the catch was made much stronger, and the so-called codend was separated from the main part of the gear. This meant that the shape of the net became more complicated, and this was reflected in various ways. The trawl used in northern Europe was composed of transverse sections (Garner 1977); that of the Mediterranean, like the common Figure 26.12 Sail kite for a rope trawl. (Photo: W. Horn Italian type, of longitudinal strips of netting incor- 1980.) porating a large meshed triangular ‘sky piece’ (scaghetto) to enlarge the opening. The European shape was adopted by other trawl fishing interests DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 402

402 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 26.13 Double-rigged shrimp trawler, for twin trawling, in the Arabian Gulf. (Photo: H. Kristjonsson.)

throughout the world. But the net no longer con- been made, seeking to increase the efficiency of sisted only of a bag, like that used on the dredges trawls by better construction, as with bigger or and on the beamtrawls. It had been given a slender higher openings, larger meshes in the forepart of shape and was equipped with wings. These were the trawl, and even better materials. By the use of lengthened and so extended the net opening in a larger meshes in the trawl opening, the water resis- horizontal direction. tance of the trawl could be greatly decreased A further important step to improve the effi- (Figure 27.13a). Sometimes the large-meshed ciency of the otter trawl was taken 1922 by Jean- netting in the forepart of the trawl has been Baptiste Vigneron from Cetté (Herault) in France replaced by parallel ropes in the so-called ‘rope who fitted legs between the wings and the boards trawl’ (Figure 27.13b). The large-meshed trawls, as (Vigneron 1922). The superiority of the new well as the rope trawls, became not only of interest Vigneron-Dahl trawl compared to the traditional in bottom trawling, but also much more in mid- otter trawl was proved in the hake fishery west of water trawling; therefore they will be discussed in the British Isles (Hickling 1931). Later on the legs detail in Chapter 27. were terminated with danlenos, and so-called but- The trawl quickly became the fishing gear mainly terflies and bridles were fitted between the dan- used in large-scale fisheries. One should not forget, lenos and the boards (Figure 26.10). At this point it however, that an adequate development of fishing was found that with the heavy bottom trawls used vessels had to occur simultaneously. Sufficient in the fisheries of the northern seas, it was helpful power had to be available for towing these if the danleno or butterfly was replaced by another large nets, as well as adequate auxiliary equipment smaller lateral otter board; the so-called pony for handling them. That could not be carried board, sometimes also called danleno board. This out without powerful winches. So it will be seen supported the horizontal spreading of the net that a constant relationship exists between the opening (Figures 26.3b and 26.8). Many trials have development of a trawl net and that of a fishing DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 403

Fishing with Bottom Trawls 403

Figure 26.14 Two different or similar shrimp trawls towed simultaneously from a single stern trawler. (From FAO 1973 with permission.)

Figure 26.15 A net fixed behind a vessel and held by a man wading in the water is towed forward by winding the boat along a cable anchored on shore, Kampuchea. (From Fily & d’Aubenton 1965 with permission.)

vessel, the propulsion power and the deck can be operated, and these together will have the equipment. same, or even a larger, horizontal net opening than In connection with the problem of the towing may be possible with a single larger net (Sainsbury power of a vessel, in fishing with large trawls usually 1971). The need for increased towing power one gear only will be operated by a single vessel. became greater with the development of trawls. This will be, in most cases, an otter trawl. In twin- Manpower may be sufficient for small trawls; they trawling, one vessel tows two beamtrawls or two can be towed directly by the fisherman wading in otter trawls, one on each side (Figure 26.13). In the shallow water (Figures 24.27 and 24.29), or they experimental work it has been found that a single are towed like dredges with the help of a hand- stern trawler can tow two trawls simultaneously operated winch from an anchored vessel, or with a (Figure 26.14) (FAO 1973). Also in pair trawling movable vessel towed by hand along a line two trawls, connected at their inside wings, can be anchored to the shore (Figure 26.15). In some operated according to a Russian proposal (NN places horses have to do some towing, even with the 1980). Moreover, single Asiatic broadside sailing smaller otter trawls which have replaced small boats can tow more than one gear – multi-net trawl- types of beamtrawls or dredges (Figure 26.16). As ing or multi-rig trawling (Nomura & Yamazaki is known, sailing boats have more power than those 1975). Multi-rig trawling with modern vessels is rec- propelled by a person with oars. Underwater sails ommended especially in shrimp fishing where a (Figures 25.11, 26.17 and 26.18) – now better known large trawl is replaced by several smaller ones. as parachute-like drift anchors – not only give Smaller trawls will have less towing resistance, better stability to a fishing vessel but also help to which means, too, that with the same power needed drag gear over the seabed (von Brandt 1970). for a large gear, two shorter (and also cheaper) gear Underwater sails are still used in Japan, Korea and DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 404

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Figure 26.16 Horses tow small otter-board nets for shrimp fishing in Oostduinkerke, Belgium. (Photo: J. H. Klaus- ing, Ostend, 1968.)

relations between the vessel, power and deck arrangements on the one side, and the size of the gear and the towing speed on the other. There are many variations in size, construction, rigging and mode of operation for trawls. The development of the German herring trawl, as an example of a light trawl of large size, has been mentioned before (Figure 26.10). In contrast to this type, the heavy bottom trawls operated from Europe in northern Figure 26.17 Flat baskets, moved along by the current, tow a Chinese boat dredging for mussels. waters had quite another development. Designed for demersal fish – but not for flatfish – it was dis- covered that for this heavy bottom trawl a kite on Taiwan. Formerly they have been also known in the the headline could also be helpful. But in this case European inshore fishery (Diderot & d’Alembert the horizontal opening of the net is more important 1751–82). than the height. The use of pony boards in sup- In the second part of the 19th century, sails of porting the lateral shearing instead of danlenos or fishing vessels were replaced by steam engines, and butterflies has already been mentioned (Figure the first steam trawlers were operated in fisheries 26.3b). The bottom trawls which are frequently from Boulogne (France) in 1865, in 1872 from used on very rough bottoms require special protec- Trieste (at that time part of Austria), and in 1877 tion from mechanical damage. Efforts were made from North Shields (UK) (March 1953). In the to provide protection by means of bobbins made of 1950s coal was superseded by fuel oil. The towing wood, plastics, steel, or rubber on the groundrope power of trawlers increased from some hundreds of in place of the simple, more or less protected horsepower to thousands, making the efficiency of groundrope itself. This method of protecting trawling greater and greater. There are some inter- groundropes against any damage is now also used DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 405

Fishing with Bottom Trawls 405

Figure 26.18 Japanese underwater sails for towing dragged gear. (From Katsuki 1951 with permission.)

in the form of discs made of old rubber tyres. In and long-distance fishing method. Since the 1950s addition to the two aforementioned basic types of new synthetic fibres have been introduced for trawl bottom trawls a lighter one was developed with a nets, and hand-knitted nets have been replaced by high opening to catch fish staying near the bottom, machine-made ones. like herring, and a heavier and better-protected one The behaviour of trawls was studied during was also developed for fish living nearer to the fishing operations, which produced the first impres- bottom – the so-called round fish or white fish sive underwater films about trawls and fish behav- trawl. In Europe many other types have been oper- iour during fishing operations (Margetts 1952; NN ated, especially smaller types for low-powered 1952). Since these first cine-films of trawls in action vessels, particularly in coastal fisheries (Schnaken- the underwater observation technique developed beck 1942; von Eitzen 1960; Garner 1962, 1977; rapidly, leading to remote-controlled towed vehi- Schärfe 1969; Nédélec 1975). Nevertheless, there is cles equipped with low light level video cameras a tendency for some unification of the types of and sonar transducers enabling scientists to observe trawls. The development of the bottom trawl in trawls and the reaction of fish to this fishing gear at north-west Europe has been mentioned first full scale under real operational conditions on the because nowhere else in the world has the trawl fishing grounds (Main & Sangster 1979; Priestly et fishery established such a degree of importance. al. 1985; Lange 1986; Kordian 1989; Lange & Many countries in north-west Europe depended Steinberg 1991) (see Section 31.2). One of the most mainly on their landings of sea fish caught by trawls. important developments took place in the 1950s This is why, in Europe, many experiments have when stern trawlers were used instead of side been undertaken by fishermen, fishing companies, trawlers. In many parts of the world the trawl was naval architects and shipyards and specialized gear hauled over the side when the catch was not too technologists, to improve trawling as a large-scale heavy, and large-scale side trawlers needed not only DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 406

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ventional two-panel trawl was replaced by trawls with four or even eight panels. Stern trawling made it possible to operate much bigger trawls provided the propulsion power of the vessel was sufficient. In order to operate large trawls, especially on smaller vessels with limited space, and to facilitate net han- dling, drums or net reels were introduced (White Fish Authority nd). Net drums were a North American invention, used with purse seines (Chapter 29) and gillnets (Chapter 19) and later for longlines (Chapter 9) and seine nets (Chapter 28). The drums were developed by the British to the stage where they became capable of handling heavy bottom trawls and also large mid-water trawls (Chapter 27) (Eddie 1973). Net drums became suc- cessful not only on small vessels (Figures 26.21 and 26.22) (Fulton 1969), where deck space is restricted, but also on large stern trawlers with stern ramps where trawls often have to be changed quickly. There are vessels which have more than one drum to store different types of trawls. Where drums could not be used to eliminate the physical effort required of the crew in hauling the trawl, power blocks were used, as they were for operating purse seines (Chapter 29). For easier handling, these Figure 26.19 Hauling the trawl by hand on a small side blocks are mounted on folding compact cranes trawler (lugger). (Figure 26.23). Until recently, trawling was considered the most important fishing method beside that of purse seining (Chapter 29). This was true, and may be to some extent also true today for inshore, coastal, and long-distance fisheries, for small sailing boats as special navigation, taking up much time, but also a well as for large self-catching and self-processing great amount of manpower (Figure 26.19).The new vessels. Naval architects and shipyards, fishing com- stern trawlers were equipped with a chute in the panies and research institutes all competed to stern, similar to the ramp which the whaling vessels improve the efficiency of large-scale trawling by had used since 1924. The whole catch could now be increasing the trawl size, towing and winch power, hauled in with the help of a winch with less man- and mechanization to economize on manpower. power (Figure 26.20). The shooting and hauling of Trawling should have become one of the first fully the net, which required so much bodily strength mechanized fishing methods. Such development when done manually on side trawlers, was thus needs a lot of money but it seemed worthwhile for achieved mainly by winches alone, saving both the future of this and other fishing methods. labour and valuable time. The most important However, this situation has been changed com- advantage of stern trawling over side trawling may pletely by the extension of Exclusive Economic be that the net can be shot in any weather condi- Zones (EEZs) to 200 miles from the shore, which tions.This development stimulated further attempts has led to a lack of suitable fishing grounds for to improve trawling techniques. Gear designs, some nations specializing in long-distance fisheries. tested during fishing operations or as models in But there are other factors affecting the modern- flume tanks, greatly helped in understanding trawl ization of trawling. These include overfishing of behaviour during fishing (Section 31.2). The con- well-known stocks of marketable fish; difficulties in DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 407

Figure 26.20 Modern stern trawler showing the chute up which the net is drawn. (Photo: T. Mengi.)

Figure 26.21 Net drum with trawl on a small vessel in Esbjerg, Denmark.

Figure 26.22 Hauling in the trawl with a net drum on a cutter 30 m long. (Photo: W. Karger, 1970.) DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 408

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Figure 26.23 Swedish trawler with folding deck-crane, power block and net drum. (Courtesy of HIAB-FOCO AB, Hudiksvall, Sweden.)

introducing new species of fish and other products and other crustaceans. For these, mostly small of the sea, to fill the gaps in the markets; and the trawls with less power requirements are used such increasing cost of fuel. Small-scale fisheries are as the beamtrawls mentioned before (Chapter 25) beginning to consider how to return to sailing, using and small otter trawls. Twin trawling for those modern techniques which are being devised for species is carried out in the Gulf of Mexico and in cargo vessels. Many are also considering whether the Arabian Sea (Figure 26.13). Fishing is done with coal may have now become more economic than oil two outriggers, on each of which a single net with as a fuel for trawling. It may be that this problem otter boards is towed with one warp only (Knake et cannot be solved and that trawling in the modern al. 1958–69). As already mentioned sometimes a highly-mechanized form will no longer be eco- trynet (Figure 25.5a) is towed on a small davit on nomic in the future and will have to be replaced the stern of the vessel. Double-rig otter trawling by other fishing methods with lower energy (Figure 26.24) with a trawl system of four trawls requirements. does give some advantages and was therefore adopted for shrimping in many countries in Central 26.6 Shrimp trawling America, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Guinea (Kristjonsson 1968; NN 1979b). Although there are some apprehensions about the Because small-meshed trawls are used in shrimp- future of bottom trawling, especially in large-scale ing there is a problem of how to prevent juvenile fisheries, this applies less to trawling for high-priced or undersized fish being caught by shrimp trawls. products, not only for fish but especially for shrimps Even if the sorting operation only could be DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 409

Fishing with Bottom Trawls 409

Figure 26.25 Shrimp trawl with separator. (From Schärfe 1978 with permission.)

(Watson & McVea 1977).It has been found that this method not only allows some shrimps to escape with the by-catch through the chute, but also that the escape chute can become clogged when many fish are caught, and that some smaller fish can be gilled in the vertical guiding nets.To avoid these dis- advantages, a new proposal was made recently, based not only on the behaviour of shrimps when disturbed but also on the different behaviour of shrimp and fish opposite an electrical field. The electrification of beamtrawls and otter trawls was proposed a long time ago, in spite of all difficulties involved in using electrical currents to attract and to stun fish and other animals in sea water (Chapter Figure 26.24 American double-rig shrimp trawl system. 5). Some experiments with electrified trawls were (From NN 1979 with permission.) successful. It was found that in a regular trawl, towed at the usual speed, larger and stronger fish can escape from the opening of the gear at the last reduced, a considerable amount of labour on deck moment. This, it was thought, could be prevented could be saved (FAO 1973). Two basic ideas have by stupefying or killing the fish by electrical pulses been proposed at first to separate fish and shrimps. at the trawl opening (Figure 26.26) (McRae & Both are based on the fact that shrimps jump when French 1965; Schärfe 1965; Elliot 1969; Meyer- stirred up, but fish do not – at least not to the same Waarden & Halsband 1975). This has been carried extent. The European proposal for a selective out experimentally and it is claimed that with this shrimp trawl (beamtrawl or otter trawl) uses a trawl technique not only could bigger catches be with a double codend, with a nearly flat horizontal obtained, but also that the fish would be of better large-meshed netting fixed in the middle of the quality. The electrification of trawls has been trawl to separate fish and shrimp. The stirred up proved in seawater and freshwater (Hattop & shrimps can jump through the mesh of the separa- Predel 1969; Freytag et al. 1971). However, the pre- tor netting, and will be caught in a small-meshed dicted revolution of trawling by electrification has upper codend, whereas the by-catch of fish is sup- not come true up to the present. posed to swim under the horizontal netting into the Returning to the problem of separating shrimp bigger-meshed lower codend (Figure 26.25) (FAO and fish in shrimp trawls, it is well known that elec- 1973). The lower codend can also be replaced by trical current can be used in shrimping on rough chutes through which the by-catch can escape. fishing grounds (Meyer-Waarden & Halsband The American proposal for the solution of the 1975). With the help of electricity, the shrimp can problem uses a vertical netting, which covers the be brought out of its hiding place. Shrimps dug into inner sides of the wings of the net opening, allow- the bottom jump out immediately when the elec- ing the shrimp to swim through to the single codend trical current is switched on. The shrimp can jump of the trawl.The fish are guided by this vertical sep- some centimetres high, so that the animals come arator net to a fish escape chute under the codend within reach of the trawl towed some distance off DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 410

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Figure 26.26 The electrical trawling method according to C. O. Kreutzer (from Schärfe 1965 with permission). 1, Diesel engine; 2, generator; 3, electrical impulse transmitter; 4, transformer; 5, control apparatus for impulse trans- mitter; 6, impulse transformer; 7, electrodes; 8, warps.

the bottom. Shrimps can be caught in this way nology of trawl fishing gained in deep sea and during daytime as well as during the night inshore fishing to inland waters was only possible (Vanselous 1977). Electrified otter or beamtrawls where an area of water yielded sufficiently large were used in America (Florida), the Netherlands catches to warrant the necessary investment in and in Belgium. This knowledge was used for towing power, fishing gear and deck machinery another proposal to separate fish and shrimp in the (Ferguson & Regier 1963; Bergstrand & Cordone trawls. In this case the opening of the trawl is com- 1971; Roberts 1975). In general, the conditions of pletely closed with a piece of netting which allows inland waters required special constructions and water to flow through the trawl but prevents fish operational techniques (Nelson & Boussu 1974; from entering. The bottom of the trawl, which is Steinberg & Dahm 1975). This applies particularly made of large-meshed netting, is electrified. By this to inland water bottom trawls. If adequate deck arrangement, the shrimp is stirred up and jumps machinery is lacking, the size of inland water through the large mesh of the bottom netting into bottom trawls has to be such that these nets can be the trawl, while the fish are driven away by the shot and hauled by manpower. Insufficient towing netting closing the entrance of the gear and by the power limits the size of the trawl and towing speed. electrified area under the trawl (Seidel & Watson Therefore, inland water bottom trawls are compar- 1978). This is achieved by using low pulse rates – atively small and light (Nédélec 1975). To some sufficient to induce a jumping reaction in the extent, low towing power can be overcome by using shrimp, not enough to induce electrotaxis in the the pair trawling technique by which the power of fish, but enough to frighten them away. By this two boats is concentrated on one net,and a decrease means, the capture of bottom fish and other marine of up to 40% of the towing resistance of a given organisms should be eliminated when trawling trawl may be gained if no otter boards are used shrimp. (Figure 26.27). In this way, relatively small engines may tow a big net (Rathcliffe 1974). If the weight of 26.7 Inland water bottom trawls the trawl in water is to be suitable for handling by manpower, experience has shown that the possible (by Dr E Dahm) depth range should be restricted to the first 20 m After the sharp rise in the importance of trawls in below the surface. In lakes with a steep slope, as in sea fisheries after the end of the World War II, trials Norway, southern Germany or Austria, bottom were started at different places seeking to apply this trawling is therefore only possible to a limited efficient method of catching to inland waters. extent. A reduction of the towing speed to increase Fishing gear related to beamtrawls or drag nets have the depth range only proves efficient at certain been traditionally used in inland waters in the past times of the day or year, e.g. at night, during the cold (Benecke 1881; Seligo 1925). Nevertheless, modern season when some fish tend to gather in aggrega- trawling can be considered a new fishing technique tions, or during the spawning season. The economic in most freshwater fisheries. A transfer of the tech- use of inland water bottom trawling could only be DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 411

Fishing with Bottom Trawls 411

Figure 26.27 Schematic representation of the rigging for freshwater two-boat bottom trawls. (From Steinberg & Dahm 1975 with permission.)

reached where human interference impeded the use Bickerdyke, J. (1895) Sea Fishing. London (with reference of other efficient fishing gear, e.g. traps, longlines, to Holdsworth, Deep Sea Fishing and Fishing Boats. gillnets and entangling nets.An increase in catching London, 1874). von Brandt, A. (1970) Treibanker und Treibsegel in der efficiency was gained by electrification of the gear Fischerei. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 12, 160–163. (Hattop & Predel 1969; Freytag et al. 1971). Cunningham, J.T. (1895–97) North Sea investigations. II Bottom trawling is not possible everywhere, even Observation at sea and in the markets. 3. Hull – the in shallow waters. Whereas the soft and muddy adoption of the otter trawl in steam trawling. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United bottoms of eutrophied lakes in middle Europe offer Kingdom IV (N.S.). no severe unexpected obstruction to bottom trawl- Dahm, E. (1980) Importance of active fishing gear in the ing, this is not so in some Scandinavian lakes seeded management of waters for recreational fishing. EIFAC with boulders, or on the usually rough grounds of Technical Consultation on the Allocation of Fishery large reservoirs, or on the beds of large rivers where Resources. EIFAC/AFR/80/EP 14. Vichy. Diderot, M.D. & d’Alembert, J.L. (1751–1782) Pêches, excavation and navigation has left many snags. pêche de mer, etc. In: L’encyclopédie. Paris. Some importance has been gained by inland water Edden, E. (1897) Das baumlose Grundschleppnetz. Mitt- bottom trawls in recent years as a useful tool in the heilungen des Deutschen Seefischereivereins. XIII, No. administrative task of restoring the disturbed 3. März. balance of species in water which has been selec- Eddie, C.G. (1973) The engineer’s contribution to fish- eries development. Fishing News International 12 (4), tively exploited. In many cases this has led to 20–26. uneven coarse fish populations, because their von Eitzen, J.H.C. (1960) Schleppnetze in der Hochseefis- predators have been decimated by a dispropor- cherei. Berlin. tionate selection of fish. Inland water bottom trawls Elliot, F.E. (1969) On the status of electric fishing. yielded catches of several tons in a few days and Oceanology International ’69, Brighton. FAO (1973) Report of the expert consultation on selec- proved an efficient means of restoring the balance tive shrimp trawls. FAO Fisheries Reports No. 139. with comparatively little expenditure of time and FAO (ed.) (1974) Otter Board Design and Performance. personnel (Dahm 1980). FAO Fishing Manuals. Rome. Ferguson, R.G. & Regier, H. (1963) Selectivity of four trawl codends towards smelt. Transactions of the References American Fisheries Society 92, 125–131. Fily, M. & d’Aubenton, F. (1965) Report on fisheries tech- Benecke, B. (1881) Fische, Fischerei und Fischzucht in nology in the Great Lake and the Tonle Sap. Report of Ost- und Wetpreussen. Königsberg Pr. France, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department of Tech- Ben-Yami, M. (1979) Sailkite’s value proved in model nical Co-operation, National Museum of Natural tests. World Fishing 28 (9), 77–79. History. Paris. Bergstrand, E. & Cordone, A.J. (1971) Exploratory Finnern, D. (1982) Wissensspeicher Fangtechnik. Berlin. bottom trawling in Lake Victoria. African Journal of Freytag, G., Horn, W. & Steinberg, R. (1971) Erfolgreiche Tropical Hydrobiology and Fisheries 1 (1), 13–23. Weiterentwicklung binnen-fischereilicher Schlepp- DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 412

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netze durch Elektrifizierug. Protokolle zur Fischerei- Loo Chi Hu (1961) V-Section steel trawl doors prove pro- technik 12 (58), 417–426. ductive in Formosa. Pacific Fisherman 59, (1), 19–22. Fulton, G. (1969) Drum stern trawling. Fishing News Madsen, N., Hansen, K.E., Moth-Poulsen, T. (2001) The International 8 (4), 24–27. kite cover: a new concept for covered codend selectiv- Gabriel, O. (1987) Auswahl und Einsatz von Grund- ity studies. Fisheries Research 49, 219–226. scherkörpern. Fischereiforschung 25 (1), 41–55. Main, J. & Sangster, G.I. (1979) A study of bottom trawl- Gabriel, O. & Karow, M. (1977) Entwicklung neuer ing gear on both sand and hard ground. Scottish Fish- Scherkörper für die pelagische Schleppnetzfischerei. eries Research Report No. 14. Seewirtschaft 9 (5), 282–286. Main, J. & Sangster, G.I. (1981) A study of the sand clouds Gabriel, O. & Schumacher, W. (1977) Windkanalunter- produced by trawl boards and their possible effect on suchungen zur Verbesserung der hydrodynamischen fish capture. Scottish Fisheries Research Report No. 20. Eigenschaften pelagischer Scherkörper. Fischerei- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland. Forschung 15 (1), 59–75. March, E. (1953) Sailing Trawlers. The Story of Deep Sea Garner, J. (1962) How to Make and Set Nets. London. Fishing with Longline and Trawl. London. Garner, J. (1977) Modern Deep Sea Trawling Gear. Margetts, A.R. (1952) Some conclusions from under- Farnham. water observation of trawl behaviour. World Fishing 1 Harvey, W.H. (1857) The Sea-side Book. London. (5), 161–165. Hattop, W.H. & Predel, G. (1969) Die Anwendung elek- McRae, E.D. & French, L.E. (1965) An experiment in trischer Schleppnetze in den Binnengewässern der electrical fishing with an electric field used as an DDR. Zeitschrift fuer Fischerei NF 17, 216–226. adjunct to an otter-trawl net. Communal Fisheries Hickling, C.F. (1931) A comparison of the Vigneron-Dahl Review 27 (6), 1–11. Trawling Gear with the Steam Otter Trawl, in the Meyer-Waarden, P.F., Halsband, E. & Halsband, I. Hake Fishery. ICES, Journal du Conseil VI (1), (1975) Einführung in die Elektrofischerei. Schriften 421–431. der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei Vol. 7. Horn, W. (1979) Modellversuche mit Schersegeln bei Berlin. Tauwerknetzen. Informationen für die Fischwirtschaft Nachtigall, H. (1966) Indianische Fischer, Feldbauern und 26 (6), 189–193. Viehzüchter. Beiträge zur peruanischen Völkerkunde. Horn, W. & Mohr, H. (1979) Modellversuche zur Weiter- Marburger Studien zur Völkerkunde 2. Berlin. entwicklung des Kugelkappen-Scherbretts. Informatio- Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale nen für die Fischwirtschaft 26 (2), 66–70. Fishing Gear.Farnham. Karpenko, W.P. & Fridman, A.L. (1980) Ustroistwa Nédélec, C. & Libert, L. (1962) Etude du chalut. Revue Raskritija Rybolownich Tralow. [Devices to open des Travaux XXIII 2 et 3, XXIV 4, XXV 4. trawls.] Moscow [in Russian]. Nelson, W.R. & Boussu, M.F. (1974) Evaluation of trawls Katsuki, J. (ed.) (1951) Illustration of Fishing Gear. for monitoring and harvesting fish populations in Oahe Otaru/Hokkaido [in Japanese]. Reservoir, South Dakota. Fish and Wildlife Service Knake, B.O., Murdock, J.F. & Cating, J.P. (1958/1969) Technical Paper No. 76. Double-rig shrimp trawling in the Gulf of Mexico. US NN (1952) Comparative studies of trawl behaviour by Fish and Wildlife Service Fishery Leaflet No. 470. underwater observation. World Fishing 1 (4), 116–120. Kordian,A. (1989) Die Flachwasser-Schleppkörperanlage NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boat and FSK 100 – ein neues Unterwasserbeobachtungsgerät. Fishing Gear.Tokyo. Seewirtschaft 21 (4), 134–137. NN (1961) A ‘V’-Type Trawl Door. World Fishing 10 (4), Kristjonsson, H. (ed.) (1968) Techniques of finding and 77. catching shrimp in commercial fishing. FAO Fisheries NN (1979a) Trawl boards. World Fishing 28 (6), 83, 87. Report No. 57 (2), 125–192. NN (1979b) Performance and efficiency of otter board Lange, K. (1989) Design and operation of a flexible sail designs. World Fishing 28 (7), 57, 59, 61, 65. kite. International Council for the Exploration of the NN (1980) Developments from French trawl and gear Sea C.M. 1989/B:20. research. World Fishing 29 (5), 85, 89, 93. Lange, K. (1975) Erste Versuche mit runden Scherbret- Nomura, M. & Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing Techniques. tern. Informationen für die Fischwirtschaft 22 (5), Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the 140–141. Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. Lange, K. (1976) German experiments with spherical Oertz, M. (1921a) Neue Gesichtspunkte bei Scherbret- otterboards. International Council for the Exploration tern. Der Fischerbote XIII,No.9. of the Sea, CM 1976/B:40, Gear and Behaviour Com- Oertz, M. (1921b) Scherbrett für Grundnetze. mittee. Patentschrift No. 345642, Klasse 45 h, Gruppe 73/04. Lange, K. (1986) Observation of trawl gear by means of Deutsches Reich. Reichspatentamt. 15 December. underwater TV. Marine Technology 17 (2). Oertz, M. (1923) Fair – Leader Board. US Patent Lange, K. & Steinberg, R. (1991) Einsatz ferngesteuerter 1,449,910. United States Patent Office. Patented March Fernsehkameras zur Beobachtung von Schleppnetzen. 27. Jahrbuch der Schiffbautechnischen Gesellschaft 85, Priestly, R., Wardle, C.S. & Hall, C.D. (1985) The Marine 39–46. Laboratory remote controlled fishing gear observation DFC26 4/23/05 9:06 PM Page 413

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vehicle. ICES Paper CM 1985/B:10, Fish Capture Seidel, W.R. & Watson, J.W. Jr (1978) The trawl design: Committee. employing electricity to selectively catching shrimps. Rathcliffe, C. (1974) Commercial small craft pair trawling Marine Fisheries Review 40 (9), 21–23. (Fishing News trials: Lake Chilwa, Malawi 1971. African Journal of International 18 (4), 22–23, 1979). Tropical Hydrobiology and Fisheries 3 (1), 61–78. Seligo, A. (1925) Die Fischerei in den Fliessen, Seen und Rehme, W. (1987) Freiwasserversuche mit Modellen von Strandgewässern Mitteleuropas. Stuttgart. Grundschleppkörpern. Seewirtschaft 10 (12), 619–622. Steinberg, R. & Dahm, E. (1975) The use of two-boat Roberts, P.A. (1975) Developing a lake fishery in North- bottom and mid-water trawls in inland waters: experi- ern Kenya. Fishing News International 14 (2), 21–25. ences in the German fishery. EIFAC/T 23 (Suppl. 1), 1, Roscher, E.K. (1947) Süberkrüb-Scherbretter für die 23–35. Hochseefischerei. Die Fischwoche 16, 103/106. Süberkrüb, F. (1943) Praktische Erfahrungen mit neuen Sainsbury, J.C. (1971) Commercial Fishing Methods, an Scherbrettern. Schiff und Werft 19, 282–284. Introduction to Vessels and Gear. London. Süberkrüb, F. (1959) Otterboards for pelagic trawling. In: Sanchez, P.M. (1959) Breve Reseña Sobre las Principales Modern Fishing Gear of the World. Halsband, Vol. 1, Artes de Pesca Usadas en Mexico. Mexico [in Spanish]. 359–360. London. Schärfe, J. (1965) Neue Versuche mit Elektrofischerei im Underhill, R. (1944) Indians of the Pacific Northwest. Meer. Allgemeine Fischwirtschafts-Zeitung 17 (28–29), Washington. 12–16. Vanselous, T.M. (1977) Fishery engineering advance- Schärfe, J. (1969) The German one-boat midwater trawl ments: A 5-year SEFC progress report. Marine Fish- (development since 1959 to the beginning of 1960). eries Review 39 (4), 12–24. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 12, (54), 1–75. Vigneron, J.-B.J.A. (1922) Improvements in and relating Schärfe, J. (ed.) (1978) FAO Catalogue of Fishing Gear to trawling gear for deep sea fishing. British patent no. Designs.Farnham. 175,824. The patent office, March 2. 1922. Schnakenbeck, W. (1942) Schleppnetze, Waden. Hand- Walderhaug, A.A. & Åkre, A. (1963) Model tests with 3 buch der Seefischerei Nordeuropas 4. Stuttgart. trawl otterboards. Norwegian Fishing and Maritime Scott, J.R. (1894) Improvements Applicable to Trawl Nets. News No.1, 10–15, 33–38. British Patent No. 3187. Accepted 1st September. Watson, J.W. Jr & McVea, C. Jr (1977) Development of a Sea Fish Industry Authority et al. (1993) Otterboard Per- selective shrimp trawl for the southeastern United formance and Behaviour. Final report of Research States Penaeid shrimp fisheries. Marine Fisheries Project No. TE 1 214 of the ‘FAR’-program, financed Review 39 (10), 18–24. by the Commission of the European Communities, White Fish Authority (nd) Net drums. Data sheet No. 1. Research Project. SFIA, Hull; IFREMER Brest; Wilcocks, J.C. (1875) The Sea-Fisherman. London. DIFTA, Hirtshals. DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 414

27 Trawl Fishery in Three Dimensions: Fishing with Mid-water Trawls

Dredges and trawls, described in the previous Theoretically, there is only one fishing method by chapter, are used for catching fish or other aquatic which it is possible to catch fish at any depth, and animals which live directly on the bottom, or which that is with hooks and lines. As has been shown in usually stay near the bottom. Therefore such gear Chapter 9, some line fisheries operate at depths of must be as wide as possible in order to fish the some hundreds of metres. But in the great depths largest possible area. The remarkable progress of the sea it is difficult to secure large quantities of achieved by the herring fisheries industry of north- fish with hooks and lines, as they swim at varying west Europe when it succeeded in increasing the depths. But the echograph, penetrating to 1500m or opening height of its trawl nets has already been more below the water surface, reveals fish shoals described. Herring do sometimes only hug the although they may still be some 1000m or so above bottom, but are mostly located several metres the bottom. above it. Previously, it was not possible to catch them in sufficient bulk with the small trawl nets 27.1 Predecessors of mid-water trawls working along the bottom, as they had but little opening height. Experience gained in line fishing and semi-pelagic trawls and driftnet fishing has shown that many keenly For a long time, thought has ranged over the possi- sought fish, like herring, do not live only near the bility of designing a trawl in such a way that it could bottom, but also range in the upper waters, even not only be used on the bottom, but could also be near the surface. Many fishing gear have been used for working freely in all depths of water. This developed for fishing the surface waters and these was wanted not only in sea fisheries but also in the are described in the appropriate sections of this great lakes, and many attempts had been made to book. develop such a gear. Whereas, previously, the inten- We now face the old problem of catching fish in tion was to keep the trawl in close contact with the mid-waters. Fish detecting instruments have con- bottom, the desire was now to lift it from the firmed that many species of fish do undertake bottom. If the depth to be fished is not too great, regular daily migrations, and that they can be that problem can easily be resolved. The trawl, and found, temporarily, at considerable distances above also a seine net, can be suspended by means of the bottom. They could, therefore, never be caught floats on the water’s surface (Figure 27.1; see also (or only occasionally) by gear trawling over the Figure 27.15). The desired depth can be obtained bottom. Equally, it is also impossible to be sure of simply by adjusting the length of the connecting catching them with gear designed for operating on lines between the floats and the net.This is a widely the surface of the water because the range of such used method for keeping trawls and other gear sus- gear is not deep enough.The unfished area between pended in the water. Asiatic fishermen catch the fishing range of gear trawling on the bottom and surface fishes by this method (Figure 27.2) and that operating near the surface became greater as German cutter fishermen have used the same the fishery extended out into deeper waters. method to catch sprats and small herrings off

414 DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 415

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Figure 27.2 Japanese mid-water trawl used on Kasumi- ga-ura Lake. The gear is hanging on the floats shown on the water in front of the broadside sailing boat.

middle waters. The length of the connecting lines between floats and nets is limited and no fishing is possible by such means in any great depths of water. A greater disadvantage is that the depth of the nets cannot be changed during fishing, although the fish may be ascending or descending. Any Figure 27.1 Possibilities for the construction of mid- change in depth can only be made by interrupting water trawls: (a) hanging on floats; (b) with depressor; the fishing operation and altering the length of the (c) balanced by weights and floats. connecting lines. As will be shown later, in modern mid-water trawling, the towing depth of the trawl is regulated by the towing speed without interrupting Heligoland. In the beginning of such experiments the fishing operation. Nevertheless, the ‘hanging up’ they used trawls and also stow nets suspended from method has to be used in mid-water trawling in floating iron barrels and rubber floats, even though inland waters where, very often, only a slow towing the additional drag reduced the towing speed. Such speed is possible which is insufficient for any depth suspended nets are often shaped in a special way. regulation (Figure 27.15) (Steinberg & Dahm The upper net of the bottom trawl protrudes like a 1975). roof, but the floating trawl is sometimes designed in A similar disadvantage exists with another the opposite way. A bottom trawl was used in an patented suggestion which may not have been real- upside down position, or constructed in such a ized in practical fishing. This was to tow a sledge manner that it is not the upper net that protrudes over the bottom, to which was attached a net with but the lower net, so that the net takes on a shovel- great buoyancy, like that of a mobile kite balloon. like form. The idea was to prevent fish, which By such means, it was thought the trawl could be usually dive downwards when confronted with a kept at some distance from the bottom. However, net opening, from escaping into deep water. its height above the bottom would be limited by the However, such nets, suspended from floats on the length of the connecting lines and, therefore, no surface, are not the ideal type of gear for fishing the depth control during fishing would be possible. On DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 416

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Figure 27.3 Types of trawls: (a) mid-water trawl; (b) semi-pelagic trawl; (c) high-opening bottom trawl.

the other hand there is no doubt that trawls fishing a sailing boat. Accordingly, depressors were at a greater distance from the bottom are very suc- designed to counteract the ascent of the net. The cessful under suitable conditions. The method of faster the tow, the stronger would be the pressure fishing with a trawl with high buoyancy, but never- of ascent, but the depth shearing effect of the theless in contact with the bottom, has been put into depressors would also be increasing. Both forces practice not with a sledge towed over the ground, could be held in balance so that the net would but with otter boards gliding over the ground and remain floating. By adjusting the length of the towing a floating trawl behind (Figure 27.3b). This warps, the trawl, it was thought, could be operated is the so-called ‘semi-pelagic trawl’ developed by at any depth desired.This method has actually been the French for ‘near bottom trawling’. The genuine used with several gear employed for catching mid-water trawl, which operates in any depth of plankton or young small fish for scientific purposes water, could not be fulfilled by either of the two (Figures 27.4 and 27.5). By this means it is possible proposals described. to fish the pelagic area and so one is justified in Another idea is to provide the net with depres- describing it as pelagic trawling, because the gear sors or diving boards (Figure 27.1b). When not can be operated at any depth.The concept has been towed, the relatively small net would sink to the further pursued on behalf of commercial fishing. bottom, but during towing it would ascend by With larger gear it is found that a special depressor reason of the resistance of the water acting in the is no longer necessary (Figure 27.1c). The trawl can same way as it does on a bucket towed on a line by be balanced in such a manner that it slowly rises DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 417

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Figure 27.4 Pelagic trawl held open by two upper kites (not in the drawing) and one diving board, used for catch- ing fish eggs and fry near the Biological Station, Heligoland in 1911. (Photo: Archives.)

with an increase in towing speed and descends with decreasing speed. Equally it can be towed at a certain depth by an even speed in towing. The nec- essary depth is roughly secured by adjusting the length of the warps. The longer they are, the deeper the trawl will float and the shorter they are, the higher it will rise. By regulating the length of the warps as well as the speed of towing, real pelagic, mid-water trawling became possible. The range of this fishery is limited only by the length of the warps and the power of the engines for ship and winch. But generally speaking, by this method fishing can be carried out in three dimensions. Mid-water trawling, also known as ‘aimed trawling’, has been Figure 27.5 Mid-water trawl with depressor: the successfully developed; and could become very Isaacs–Kidd mid-water trawl. important in the future. DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 418

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Figure 27.6 Echograms of net sounders with fish between headline and footrope of a mid-water trawl and also between footrope and bottom. (Courtesy of Honeywell Elac, Kiel.)

detected (Schärfe 1960). But more decisive is the 27.2 Aimed trawling fact that the position of the trawl in relation to the The prerequisite for the development of a fishery fish can be controlled constantly during fishing. with pelagic or mid-water trawls was the devel- From observation of fish behaviour towards the opment of fish detecting devices such as echo- mid-water trawl, it appears that sometimes fish sounders and, in particular, of the echograph. As change their position, mostly swimming deeper, long as these did not exist, it could never be ascer- when the vessel is passing over the shoal. As long tained if there were fish about and, if so, at what as the relationship of the swimming depth of the depth. Moreover, there was the difficulty of fish and the depth in which the floating gear was knowing at what depth the net was floating. Fisher- operated could not be recorded with the help of the men tried to calculate the length of the warps in net sounder, many failures were experienced, even relation to the towing speed and, correspondingly, when the net was placed exactly at the depth where at each depth at which fishes were recorded. But the fish had been located before fishing began. Now, there were many errors and, at the beginning of the according to the information received from the net- development of mid-water trawls in the 1950s, it sonde, the trawl can follow the fish until they can was never clear if there was a failure due to the be seen between the headline and foot-rope, i.e. incorrect design of the gear or to the fact that there until they can be seen to be entering the gear. But was too great a difference between the depth of the it was a long time before the variations of fish fish and the depth of the floating trawl. Depth behaviour, especially the variations in the behav- recorders fixed to the trawl could not solve the iour of herring, in relation to mid-water trawls was problem.They were helpful in finding out where the understood (Mohr 1971). Today, the netsonde is trawl had been during towing, but they could not considered a prerequisite for successful mid-water show the depth in relation to the fish and gear trawling. Only with the help of this gear is ‘aimed during fishing. This problem was solved at the end trawling’ possible.This term was introduced to indi- of the 1950s by the invention of the ‘net sounder’ cate that, with the help of the ship’s sonar and echo- (netsonde). With the help of a headline transducer, sounder, and with the netsonde on the headline of not only the distance of the trawl from the bottom, the trawl, more efficient operation of the net was or from the surface of the water, but also the verti- possible. During experimental work the net cal opening height of the gear can be shown by the sounder became a ‘multi-net-sounder’, which pro- recorder on the bridge of the vessel (Figure 27.6). vided the feasibility of control of the area before Any disarrangement of the net can immediately be the net opening or of measuring the horizontal DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 419

Trawl Fishery in Three Dimensions: Fishing with Mid-water Trawls 419

Figure 27.7 The Danish two-boat mid-water trawl in operation (Larsen type).

width of the gear. The net sounder provides many mid-water trawl when the first echo-sounders were opportunities for controlling the operation of the being experimented within fisheries. The ‘Larsen gear and the quantity of the catch.The fish between mid-water trawl’ (Figure 27.7) became very suc- headline and ground-rope can be monitored when cessful and has been introduced into many fisheries entering the gear. With an additional receiver, the throughout the world (Glanville 1956). In north- fish passing under or over the gear can also be mon- western Europe, mid-water trawling by two boats itored. Some apparatus can give a total view of the became very important in the herring fisheries situation and, at the same time, an enlarged section (Figure 27.8). Not only cutters of 20–30m long, but of the most interesting depth. There are also com- also larger vessels of > 40m long and 600hp and binations of equipment providing fish recording more had been successful in two-boat mid-water and measurement of temperature at the depth of trawling (Steinberg 1967). Fishing with two vessels, the mid-water trawl. however, involves nautical problems and is espe- The signals from the netsonde can be transmit- cially dependent on the weather. Operations must ted by wire to the recorder on the bridge of the be stopped at Beaufort Force 5 or 6, depending on vessel. This can be by a long cable reaching from the power of the vessels. In addition, the seamen, in the net sounder on the headline of the gear to the particular the skippers, are not always of the kind vessel. For storing and operating this cable a special that are able to work together, not only in co- winch is needed. Transfer of the signals can also be operating but also in being able to subordinate the achieved by radio. In this case the signals are trans- wishes of the one to the needs of the other. Many mitted from the headline to a floating transmitter efforts have therefore been made to make it possi- which sends the signals to the vessel. Both methods ble to tow pelagic trawls with a single vessel, have their advantages and disadvantages. Radio because that would avoid some human and techni- transmission can be disturbed by turbulence in the cal difficulties. Single craft can still operate in wind water or by scattering layers. strengths up to 7 or 8 Beaufort. Two-boat trawling is restricted to small and medium-size vessels. The 27.3 Two-boat and one-boat one-boat system can be carried out by larger vessels with > 1000 hp, which can also fish at greater depths mid-water trawling and on more distant grounds for species such as It was the Danes who developed mid-water trawl- cod, hake and redfish that are to be found (like ing with two boats, and it was not the first time that herring) off the bottom in certain seasons. By using the fisheries of the world were indebted to this a single vessel, however, it becomes necessary to country for an important new fishing method. In use otter boards for spreading the nets horizontally 1948 Robert Larsen of Skagen designed the first (Figure 27.9). It was speedily ascertained that DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 420

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Figure 27.8 Operation of a two-boat mid-water trawl; (a) shooting; (b) hauling. (From Steinberg 1967 with permission.)

boards designed on hydrodynamic principles are also French semipelagic trawls which have two (higher than long) were specially suited for achiev- small pelagic otter boards on the upper wings and ing that spread. The most common boards for mid- larger bottom trawl doors on the two lower wings water trawling became the Süberkrüb otter boards of a four-seam trawl (NN 1980). Other designs can already mentioned (Figure 26.5a). These high have different shearing devices, like elevators or aspect-ratio cambered boards have not only a very depressors on headline and footrope, respectively. good spreading efficiency, but by increasing speed Not only did alterations in the form of the otter the boards climb immediately. This quick response boards become necessary when used in one-boat to speed changes gives the basis for the technique mid-water trawling but also the trawl itself had to already introduced as ‘aimed trawling’. There are be changed when used in one-boat or two-boat also other boards operated in mid-water trawling mid-water trawling. like the aforementioned French polyvalent boards First of all, investigations of fish behaviour made with an oval form. In the beginning of mid-water it clear that mid-water trawls must have a wide trawling, regular flat and rectangular boards were opening to be successful. Some fish keep a distance used, but they had a high degree of instability which of 5m or more off the netting. That means that the increased with the length of the lines between the opening must extend > 10m in both directions. The trawl and the boards. Usually one pair of boards theoretical net mouth area thus increased from was used but there have been designs with more about 250 to about 2000m2, which means even than one pair of otter boards (Figure 27.10). There > 50m wide and nearly 40m high (Schärfe 1969). DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 421

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Figure 27.9 Various one-boat mid-water trawls: (a) Icelandic Breidfjord trawl; (b) Steinar Persson’s six-wing net; (c) Canadian trawl (from Barraclough & Johnson 1955 with permission); (d) Japanese one-boat mid-water trawl. DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 422

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This could be realized only by changing the design to get an optimal size of trawl opening. Moreover of the trawl. In the beginning, mid-water trawls mid-water trawls, much more than bottom trawls, were constructed, like large bottom trawls, of two must have a low resistance when towed or, in other panels – an upper and a lower one. But now mid- words, the water flow through the trawl must be water trawls are designed as four-seam nets with good. This means that very large mesh have to be two equal top and bottom panels and two equal, used in the forepart of the trawl and that the diam- usually smaller, side panels (Figures 27.9 and 27.11) eter of the netting yarn must be small. This could be achieved only with the netting yarns made of polyamide fibres which not only have a high break- ing strength with a small diameter but also high elasticity to overcome sudden jerks when a fish shoal enters the trawl. Fishermen sometimes called the mid-water trawls ‘fly catchers’ because they are very light in contrast to some heavy bottom trawls. Fine netting material is necessary in mid-water trawling to avoid frightening pelagic fish away from the opening of the trawl, which has some water Figure 27.10 One-boat mid-water trawl with four otter boards, used in the Belgian and Dutch fishery.

Figure 27.11 German one-boat mid-water trawl with headline recorder (Netzsonde), up/down-type. (From Schärfe 1969 with permission.) DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 423

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Figure 27.12 Large-meshed forepart of a mid-water trawl stored on a net drum in St Jean de Luz harbour, France (1978).

swell which will increase with the diameter of the The connecting points of such large mesh, mostly net material and smaller size of mesh. A new idea made of plaited lines, are sometimes not knotted in for decreasing the water resistance of the trawl the usual manner, but the four bars of each mesh arose in the 1970s. This was to replace the netting are connected with each other by eye splices of the front part of the trawl by a very large meshed (Figures 27.12 and 27.13a) (Brabant & Portier one. Until recently it was thought that the forepart 1979). To prevent floats or headline transducer mesh should not be larger than 80 to 120cm. entangling in the large mesh of the forepart of the Recently the size of these mesh has been increased gear during shooting, the trawl opening should substantially without losing their effectiveness in begin with a strip of small meshed netting. guiding the fish into the centre of the trawl. The so- Another idea, with the object of saving energy called Biscay trawl of the French fishery has mesh required for towing by decreasing the resistance of with a length of 10m in the wings and belly (Figure the gear, came from the German Democratic 27.12), and in the Faeroes and Norway mesh of 16 Republic (Rehme 1973; Thiele 1975; Dürr et al. m have been used, especially for fishing for blue 1975; Kemp 1977). This is the so-called rope trawl, whiting in depths of 120m down to 400m. With the also named ‘rope wing trawl’ or ‘spaghetti trawl’ by ten metre wing mesh, a net opening of 1000–1500 fishermen (Figure 27.13b). In this case, the netting m2 has to be towed, needing at least 1200 to 1500 of the front part of the mid-water trawl is replaced hp. With such large mesh a very good water flow by parallel ropes with considerably less drag com- and low resistance of the gear when fishing for very pared to a panel of netting material. By means of sensitive fish is possible but also, when it is used model tests (scale 1:10) with a two-panel mid- with bottom trawls, the unwanted catch like crabs, water trawl and two corresponding rope trawls per- stones and sea trash, will fall between the large formed in the flume tank of the White Fish mesh and out of the gear (Steinberg 1975). Authority, Hull, a reduction of drag down to 60% DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 424

424 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 27.13 Four-seam mid-water trawls with forepart of (a) large mesh size or (b) ropes, to decrease drag.

(short ropes) and 34% (long ropes) could be smaller gear and slower speed. With the increasing proved (Lange 1979a). These results were con- size of vessels, and stronger engines, one-boat mid- firmed in full-scale testing with the same trawls water trawling became more profitable. Therefore, (Lange 1979b). Methods for calculating and design- even today it is possible that mid-water trawling is ing were developed (Niedzwiedz 1984; Lange 1978; not used to its full extent. MacMullen 1978, 1979; Brabant 1977; van Marlen 1979) and rope trawls became popular in mid-water 27.4 Mid-water trawls in fresh water trawling all over the world (Steinberg & Dahm 1976). (by Dr E Dahm) Originally, mid-water trawls were designed for Mid-water, or pelagic, fishing is also found in lake small boats in pair trawling. The advantages of the fisheries. Until recently these fisheries were mostly one-boat mid-water trawl and the need for trawls exploited by efficient, inexpensive gillnets but these with larger openings resulted in this gear being are, however, time and labour consuming in opera- designed for use by larger and stronger trawlers tion. Trials to catch pelagic fish in inland waters by such as factory stern trawlers only. Mid-water the very efficient purse seines have been under- trawls have been operated by stern trawlers of taken, but have brought no remarkable results more than 3000 tons and up to 5000 hp (Figures (Hunter & Mitchell 1966; Durkin & Park 1967; 26.20 and 27.14). One-boat mid-water trawls Johnson & Sims 1973). Generally, this applies also became the gear for use in distant water fisheries to inland water mid-water trawls, but there are a for herring, and also for pelagic cod, redfish, few exceptions which are mentioned below. pollock, saithe, blue whiting, mackerel-like fish and A net towed in mid-water requires special towing krill. Nevertheless, there have been some skilled power because it has not only to be towed forward, skippers who have succeeded in one-boat mid- as in bottom trawling, but has also to be kept at the water trawling with smaller vessels of < 300 hp. A required fishing depth. As shown by the develop- good knowledge of fish behaviour made it possible ment of the inshore mid-water trawls, this can be to find situations where they could succeed with achieved by buoys towed on the water surface car- DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 425

Trawl Fishery in Three Dimensions: Fishing with Mid-water Trawls 425

Figure 27.14 Successful catch in mid-water trawling: 80 tons of herring in 20 min. (Photo: J Schärfe.)

Figure 27.15 Schematic representation of the rigging for a freshwater two-boat mid-water trawl.

rying the weight of the net. It has proved advanta- The required fishing depth can then be arranged by geous to fasten these buoys not directly at the adjusting the length of the connecting line between upper wing tips but at the connecting points buoy and front weight. However, this means that between the bridles and towing warps where the the depth cannot be changed during the tow. front weights are fastened (Figure 27.15). By this Careful observation by an echo-sounder before the means, distortion of the trawl body can be avoided. tow must reveal the depth layer where most of the DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 426

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fish aggregate. In bottom trawling in fresh water, an bution of the weights on the bridles, and by reduc- echograph is a useful additional piece of equip- tion of the towing resistance of the towing warps, ment: in mid-water trawling it is not possible to the depth range may be extended to c.40m. operate without one (Steinberg & Dahm 1975). Without buoys, the depth has to be adjusted by the There are examples of mid-water trawling in speed of the boat because the length of the warps inland waters with boats that could carry out the cannot be changed during the tow. Accurate instru- same task in coastal and inshore waters (Ferguson mentation for measuring speed at this low range & Regier 1963). Generally, on smaller lakes, fishing is scarce and expensive. An engine revolution boats with an engine of > 20–30hp are seldom counter, found on most larger boat engines, fulfils found because the smaller boats are quite suitable the same purpose but the relation between depth for their main purpose of transporting personnel, and engine revolutions at a given warp length has fishing gear and catch. However, if such boats to be determined, at least once, in a calibration attempt to tow a small mid-water trawl of about table. This can be carried out by using a third boat 20m headline length, they very soon come to the with an independent echo-sounder over the towed limit of their power. Therefore, the method of pair net, but this method is difficult and full of possible trawling is to be recommended. Besides which, on errors. The direct measurement of the distance such boats there is often a lack of deck machinery, between headline and surface by means of a second e.g. motor-driven winches, which could facilitate the sounder fastened at the middle of the headline and work of hauling the trawl. For this reason many connected by cable to a second echo-sounder in one inland water mid-water trawls are small and suit- of the towing boats, gives far more reliable results. able for handling by manpower (Nédélec 1975). In the view of present experience, it is still ques- Such a small size of inland water mid-water trawl tionable whether mid-water trawling in inland should be a handicap to successful fishing. As waters will ever reach more than local importance described in the preceding section, many fish try to in commercial fishing. Nevertheless, there are good keep a safe distance from a moving netting panel. prospects for scientific application. At many places This reaction is used in the design of the giant mid- in the world, scientists are working on methods for water trawls of the deep sea fisheries. These huge ascertaining fish stocks by the use of echo-sounder trawls seek to concentrate the fish in the middle of signals. It was demonstrated by a Working Group the net opening, where they swim in the direction of EIFAC, during the evaluation of such a method of the trawl for a while and then drop back into the in a big lake in Finland in 1980, that no other fishing codend from exhaustion. Trawls of this size cannot gear is suited to sample pelagic fish concentrations. be used in inland waters. Some fishermen never- theless obtain good catches with small mid-water 27.5 Problems of mid-water trawling trawls towed during the night. Fish which respond mainly to optical stimuli apparently at that time Bottom trawling and, more so, mid-water trawling, have a substantially reduced judgement of distance have been considered the essential methods for (Dahm 1974). Obviously, in European inland bulk fishing by large self-fishing vessels, especially waters, mid-water trawls are, at the moment, only stern trawlers and large factory processing vessels. used on a commercial basis for the catch of a rela- For reasons mentioned earlier (Chapter 26) smaller tively few related species (Coregonus albula, Core- vessels with smaller power requirements, in the gonus artedii and Osmerus eperlanus) where its form of multi-purpose vessels, are now considered application has proved successful in saving time as the fishing vessels of the future (Smith 1979). and manpower. This fishing method may be inhib- However, there remain some problems which have ited by the fact that with the trawl suspended on not yet been resolved adequately.There is the ques- buoys it is practically impossible to fish for traces tion of a multi-purpose trawl, that is, a trawl which deeper than 18 m. This is because the weight of the can be used as a bottom trawl or a mid-water trawl. trawl is limited by the fact that it has to be handled This includes suitable otter boards when operated by manpower, which prevents a descent below that in one-boat fishing. The question is, therefore, if a depth at a towing speed of about three knots. By trawl suitable for bottom fishing can also be suit- leaving out the carrier buoys, by appropriate distri- able for mid-water fishing. The so-called ‘delagic DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 427

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trawl’ (this word is a combination of pelagic and fact that the shape of the mesh in the different parts demersal), developed in Scotland, is considered the of the codend will alter according to the amount of most appropriate gear. It may be used either in mid- fish it contains. In an empty codend all mesh are water as a floating gear, or in contact with the nearly closed and in a rhombic form. When fish fill seabed during the same haul, without changing the the end of the codend the mesh in this area become rigging. As has been explained earlier, a large net more or less opened, nearly to a quadratic form. opening is necessary for mid-water trawls but there Along the backside of the codend some sensors are is no doubt that, in an earlier period, smaller vessels fitted measuring each change of the stretching of fished with two-seam trawls only, and these could the mesh from closed to open according to the be used for demersal as well as for pelagic trawling, increasing quantity of caught fish first in the end of in contrast with the high-opening four-seam trawls the codend, then in its middle and forepart. Appro- which have been very vulnerable to damage when priate signals are given from the sensors by wire to touching the bottom. For mid-water trawling a high the headline transducer and from there, via the opening and light trawl is necessary. For bottom cable of the net sounder, to the indicator aboard the trawling, the high opening is often not so important, vessel. By this means it is possible to see how full but the gear must be sufficiently heavy to have a the trawl is at any point of time. Overloading the good bottom contact and a strong resistance to codend and losing the gear and catch by rupture, as wear and tear. Therefore, it seems as if a combina- happened on former occasions in pelagic fishing for tion of a bottom and mid-water trawl, as one-boat herring and blue whiting, can now be prevented. It or two-boat gear, is a ‘contradiction in terms’ even is an advantage for the sensors to be small enough today. A hybrid trawl, such as a four-seam ‘delagic to pass through the power block, triplex and similar trawl’, can not be as efficient at taking bottom fish hauling gear. The sensors can also remain on the or mid-water fish as special trawls for bottom trawl- trawl when the gear is hauled by a net drum. In this ing or for mid-water fishing (Foster 1976). It seems respect, cables are much more vulnerable. This is that there has been more success with otter boards why partial wireless transmitting became necessary. which can be operated in both forms of trawling. Another idea for avoiding rupturing a trawl Nevertheless, the best mid-water boards are con- when hauling it in with a large catch is to remove sidered to be the Süberkrüb boards: they have a some of the catch with the help of suction pumps quick lifting power in mid-water fishing, but they do whilst the net is still in the water. The pumping of not have sufficient stability for bottom trawling. fish out of the net on board a vessel was of great A special problem of mid-water and sometimes interest during the time of large catches of herring, also bottom trawling is that often large catches of and became of interest again with the growth of fish can be made within the space of a few minutes. fishing for krill and blue whiting. This is ‘fish To avoid overloading the trawl for quality reasons pumping’ and not ‘pump fishing’, as will be dis- is one thing, but to haul big quantities along cussed later (Chapter 30).To combine fish pumping the chute of a stern trawler is quite another. The with trawling is an old idea. Most inventions problem is not so much the winch power or the required the towing vessel to be followed by breaking strength of the net material as the pres- another one pumping the fish continuously from sure in the trawl which may damage the soft fish. the codend during fishing. This could never be Therefore some means of determining to what achieved. However, we have to learn that, in the extent a codend is filled has been needed for a long future, smaller fish and animals lower in the web of time. There have been a number of ideas for mea- life in the sea may become important. It has been suring the quantity of fish in the codend, mostly said that estimates of potential catches from the sea based on some measurable variations of the water must include the smaller but exceedingly abundant resistance of an empty or a filled codend. But there animals such as the krill (Euphausiids) of the were some surprising results, including the fact that Antarctic and the lantern fish (Myctophides) in a full codend could sometimes have less water resis- tropical seas. Methods of krill fishing have been dis- tance than an empty one. A later idea for measur- cussed and there are some ideas that in many cir- ing the quantity of fish in a codend was developed cumstances a combination of mid-water trawl and in Norway (1977) and Germany. It is based on the pump may prove best (Morgan 1970). In this case, DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 428

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the catch could be pumped from the codend into a to create what has been called ‘an integrated fishing specialized collector vessel astern, which would act system’. This was to be achieved with some large as a carrier to and from a shore base or mother ship. sophisticated stern trawlers which not only were Another idea to ensure effective operations in the highly mechanized but also had computer- krill fishery was to use mid-water trawls as pair controlled operation of the whole trawling process. trawls towed on short warps at low speeds, and to The system could begin with a decision on which pump the krill out of the codend continuously, or at area to fish. This can be arrived at from data intervals, through flexible pipes from the after end obtained from satellites on factors favourable for of the codend, along the towing warps to each the presence of fish. It is well known that fish cannot vessel. be directly detected by satellite, but satellites can These ideas of using pumps during fishing proved give some hints by indicating indirect parameters impractical, with the exception of fishing with a one- such as upwellings, surface temperature, water boat mid-water trawl towed at low speed, and when colour (e.g. by chlorophyll) and water transparency. the pumps were used only when fishing was finished The absence of favourable parameters can indicate and the gear hauled to the ramp of the vessel. It is where fish are not likely to be found. If an area not difficult for a catch such as krill to be pumped where fishing may be successful is indicated, the out of the codend during fishing. This can be done computer can give data for navigation, taking into by fixing a hydraulic underwater pump, with the account weather and other conditions. After arriv- suction head outside but on the codend, and leading ing at the fishing place, the search for promising fish the tube for pumping, as well as the hydraulic lines, schools begins with the help of fish-locating instru- outside the trawl to the separator on the deck of the ments like horizontal echo-sounders, or sonars, or vessel. From here the catch can be guided directly automatic sector scanners. The computer can indi- by tubes to the storeroom of the vessel. In krill cate which school may be the most promising one fishing, the main problem is to keep the percentage according to fish species, size, quantity or density of of krill damaged during transportation from the net fish concentration. The computer can then provide to the vessel as low as possible (Horn 1979; NN data for navigating the ship so as to bring the gear 1979). Damage to the catch is always a problem in to a correct position at the right time for an effec- fish pumping, as well as in pump fishing, which will tive catch.The computer can indicate when to begin be discussed later (Chapter 30). shooting the gear and the warps, how long the lines have to be in relation to the depth of the fish, and 27.6 Progress of trawling in the future? the optimum speed of the fishing vessel. Moreover, the computer can, with a forward looking multi-net Some ideas and problems for the future of trawling sounder, monitor the position of the fish, which may have been mentioned, but there are doubts as to change for any reason, and can keep the mid-water whether there will be much further progress with trawl at the right depth by increasing or decreasing this method of fishing. Although the time of large the speed of the vessel. The computer can indicate stern trawlers seems to be numbered, there will be when the towing direction should be changed or the a future for some of the large vessels for economic towing ended because the trawl has the predeter- trawling in special conditions such as in Antarctic mined quantity of catch or because there are no waters and some areas with a known high produc- more fish in the direction of towing. The computer tivity. Even though the number of large vessels will can give warning when the temperature in the become smaller, the problems of trawling will towing area around the trawl is changing or remain and new ones will arise, but the efforts made something is happening to the fishing gear. The to solve these problems will become slower. computer can give the correct instructions to the Leaving aside the energy problems, trawling in any engine of the vessel when fishing should stop and form is a labour-intensive fishery. It was because of when the winches should haul the gear. In each case this that the first mechanized methods of fishing the computer can only make proposals: the actual were developed, to minimize hard labour and to decision will be made by the skipper. However, the reduce the number of people required to operate computer can make calculations not only more the gear. It was in trawling that the first ideas arose quickly, but also with a greater degree of security DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 429

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and accuracy, than is possible by humans (von Glanville, A. (1956) The Larsen midwater-trawl. FAO Brandt 1979). Fisheries Bulletin IX, 113–129. All these ideas were developed and some com- Hamuro, C. (1971) Studies on automation of fishing with otter trawls, Danish seines, midwater trawls, and purse ponents were tested during the past decades seines. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 3, (Hamuro 1971; Schärfe 1979), but up to now a com- 504–508. London. plete integrated fishing system has not been real- Horn, W. (1979) Versuche zum Einsatz einer Netzpumpe ized and the possibility of ‘push a button and let the in der Krillfischerei. Informationen für die Fisch- wirtschaft 26 (1), 32–35. machine do the fishing’ is not likely to be realized Hunter, J.R. & Mitchell, C.T. (1966) Design and use of a in the near future. Even under the most favourable miniature purse seine. Progressive Fish-Culturist 28, conditions, such developments cannot be achieved 175–179. speedily, but only step by step. On the other hand, Johnson, R.G., Sims, C.W. (1973) Purse seining for there are already some developments of this kind, juvenile salmon and trout in Columbia river estuary. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 102, as in the Norwegian ‘synchro-automatic trawling 31–345. system’ which includes automatic synchronizing of Kemp, H. (1977) Anwendung des Jagernetzprinzips in der shooting and hauling by the winch, with hydraulic Grundschleppnetzfischerei. Seewirtschaft 9 (12), 691– braking to a pre-set warp length, and automatic 692. tension control with alarm to give warning of the Lange, K (1978) Calculation of rope trawls. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Paper C.M. trawl being snagged. The main problem is not to 1978/B:7, Fishing Technology Committee. make a fully automated trawling system, but to Lange, K. (1979b) Schleppwiderstand von Tauwernetzen. achieve the further development of trawling with Hansa 116 (4), 319–321. less energy and better working conditions for Lange, K. (1979b) Full scale trials with long-rope trawls. human labour. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Paper C.M. 1979/B:6, Fishing Technology Committee. MacMullen, P.(1978) Rope trawl development.White Fish Authority Field Report No. 620. Hull. References MacMullen, P. (1979) Ropetrawl trials on FRV Tridens. Barraclough, W.E., Johnson, W.W. (1955) Progress report White Fish Authority Field Report No. 718. Hull. on the development of the British Columbia mid-water van Marlen, B. (1979) Draft Report. Ad-hoc Meeting in trawl for herring. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Hamburg (10–11 January 1979) on ‘Design and Calcu- Circular No. 36. lation of Rope Trawls’. In: Report of the Working Brabant, J.C. (1977) Calcul des differentes longuers dans Group on Research and Engineering Aspects of un chalut à cordes. In: Report of the Working Group Fishing Gear, Vessels, and Equipment. ICES Paper on Research and Engineering Aspects of Fishing Gear, C.M. 1979/B:3. Vessels, and Equipment. International Council for the Mohr, H. (1971) Behaviour pattern of different herring Exploration of the Sea. Paper C.M. 1977/B:2. Gear and stocks in relation to ship and midwater trawl. In: Behaviour Committee. Modern Fishing Gear of the World,Vol. 3, 368–371. Brabant, J.C. & Portier, M. (1979) 16-metre mesh trawl. London. World Fishing 28 (5), 40–43. Morgan, R. (1970) Harvesting krill as food. Hydrospace 3 von Brandt, A. (1979) Trawling from the past, at the (2), 39–40, 43. present, and in the future. Department of Fisheries Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Technology 8, 4–18. Taiwan Province College of Marine Fishing Gear. Farnham. Science and Technology, Keelung. Niedzwiedz, G. (1984) Beitrag zur Berechnung von Jager- Dahm, E. (1974) Erfolgreiche Schleppnetzfischerei in der netzen. Fischerei-Forschung 22 (1), 58–66. Möhnetalsperre. Informationen fuer Fischwirtschaft 20 NN (1979) Germans test krill pump. Fishing News Inter- (4–5), 128–130. national 18 (6), 13. Dürr, R. et al. (1975) Freiwassermodellversuche des NN (1980) Twin trawls for pair trawling. World Fishing 29 Jagernetzes P1J-119/86 in der UdSSR. Seewirtschaft 7 (5), 95. (8), 489–492. Rehme, W. (1973) Das Jagernetz – eine Neuentwicklung Durkin, J.T. & Park, D.L. (1967) A coarse seine for sam- imVEB Fischkombinat Rostock. Seewirtschaft 5 (1), pling juvenile salmonids. Progressive Fish-Culturist 29, 58–61. 56–59. Schärfe, J. (1960) A new method for ‘aimed’ one-boat Ferguson, R.G. & Regier, H. (1963) Selectivity of four trawling in mid-water and on the bottom. Studies and trawl codends towards smelt. Transactions of the Reviews 13. American Fisheries Society 92, 125–131. Schärfe, J. (1969) The German one-boat midwater trawl Foster, J.J. (1976) Two new trawls from Aberdeen lab. (development since 1959 to the beginning of 1960). World Fishing 24 (10), 28–30. Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik 12 (54), 1–75. DFC27 4/23/05 9:07 PM Page 430

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Schärfe, J. (1979) Fishing technology for developing coun- Steinberg, R. & Dahm, E. (1976) The use of two-boat tries. Oceanus 22 (1), 54–59. bottom and mid-water trawls in inland waters: experi- Smith, K. (1979) Facing up to challenges of multi-purpose ences in the German fishery. EIFAC/T 23 (Suppl. 1), 1, vessels. World Fishing 26 (6), 39. 23–35. Steinberg, R. (1967) Entwicklung und gegenwärtiger Steinberg, R. & Dahm, E. (1977) German Experiments Stand der pelagischen Schleppnetzfischerei der with a modified Four Panel Rope Trawl. 1975 ICES deutschen Kombilogger. Protokolle zur Fischereitech- Paper C.M. 1976/B:39. nik 10 (47), 213–318. Thiele, W. (1975) Produktionsergebnisse mit dem Jager- Steinberg, R. (1975) Neue Entwicklungen auf dem Gebiet netz und dessen Weiterentwicklung. Seewirtschaft 7 (2), der Schleppnetzfischerei. Arbeiten des Deutschen 115–118. Fischerei-Verb. 17, 52–65. DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 431

28 Seining in Fresh and Sea Water

In their fishing activities, the Romans employed a bag. But generally speaking the net is composed of large gear which they called ‘sagena’, and as they a central bunt (bagnet or loose netting) for secur- occupied very large areas of Europe this net was ing the catch, and wings attached to either side of introduced by them to many countries. The terms it. The wings are connected with the towing or ‘segi’, ‘saege’, ‘zege’ and similar ones are still used hauling lines, also called drag lines, which may be in Switzerland, southern Germany and the Nether- operated so that they work like a lengthening of the lands. In France the gear is known as ‘seine’ or wings. Also the hauling lines can be of unequal ‘senne’ and, in the British Isles, as ‘seine net’. The length. gear is now known all over the world. The Romans There is also a third form of seine net. In the did not invent this fishing gear. The early Greeks Indian freshwater fishery, a beach seine is known knew of seine nets (sagene), as did the Phoenicians which is like a seine net without a bag but with a and Egyptians, at least since the third millennium pocket along the lower edge of the gear (Figure BC (Figure 28.1). 28.3) (George 1971). There can be one or two rows In its simplest form the seine net is a net wall con- of such pockets, made by folding the lower margin sisting of two wings and a section to hold the catch of the netting along with the footrope and (the bunt or bag) more or less in the middle (Figure the sinkers. The folded netting can be laced to the 28.2). The wings are long and each is lengthened by netting at regular intervals, thus sectioning the a long towing line or warp. For the bunt it is suffi- entire long pocket into a series of smaller ones. All cient that the net is allowed to hang loosely. For this three types of seine nets are operated in such a reason, this section of the net is deeper than the net manner that the gear is set in a circle around an forming the wings. For large catches it is better for area considered to contain fish. They are caught by the section between the wings to incorporate a hauling both towing lines simultaneously to a place bagnet of appropriate size. This bag may also incor- determined in advance. This place can be on the porate a retarding device to prevent the escape of shore, or at one or two anchored boats. By towing, the fish, especially when towing has to be inter- the wings come closer and closer, sweeping, fright- rupted for any reason. The two constructions show ening and concentrating the fish towards the catch- that there are two basic types of gear: seine nets ing part of the gear until the catch can be lifted out without a bag (Figure 28.2a) and seine nets with a at the hauling place. Not only the wings but also the bag (Figure 28.2b). It is thought that seine nets towing lines attached to the wings help to drive the without a bag were evolved from a net wall, while fish. To increase the herding effect of the towing the seines with a bag may have developed from a lines, they can have twigs (e.g. branches of conifer- bagnet like the stow nets mentioned earlier. It is not ous trees), leaves, straw and nowadays also strips of necessary for the bag to be exactly in the centre and plastic and other material attached to them. in this case the wings are not of equal length (Figure Although there are very small seine nets, gener- 28.2c). As will be described later there are, in early ally this gear is typical of large-scale bulk fisheries and modern fisheries, seine nets with more than one in fresh waters, especially in lakes and on the

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432 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 28.3 Indian seine net with pockets along the leadline. (From George 1971 with permission.)

seashore (in the form of beach seines), and also in sea fisheries where they are operated in the open sea as boat seines. The possibility of larger catches is increased with the size of the gear. It is therefore not surprising that there are seine nets with wings Figure 28.1 Egyptian seine-net fishery according to a wall painting in the tomb of the Prince Rahotep in some hundreds of metres or even kilometres long. Medum, 4th dynasty, c. 2575 BC. Not only the wings, but also the towing warps sup- porting the herding effect, can be of considerable length. This means that the operation of large seine nets is very labour-intensive – and also expensive, at least until recently. Setting and hauling of seine nets can be carried out in two different ways. The simplest form is to set and haul the gear from the same place, as is generally done in beach seining and also in some freshwater fisheries. In this case the gear can be operated by a single boat (or by a fisherman wading in shallow water or swimming) towing the warp in a loop shape from the shore and setting first a wing and then the bag, then turning back towards the shore and setting the other wing and the other warp on the return to the starting point. Hauling begins by simultaneously drawing in the towing lines by hand or by winches until both wings and the catching part of the gear have reached the shore. Another form of setting and hauling a seine is to work with two boats. In this case setting begins as it would with a trawl; the bunt first, farthest away from the beach and about oppo- site the hauling place. The two boats then sail away from the setting place of the bunt, each setting (shooting) first a wing and then a towing line. In most cases the boats do not sail immediately towards the hauling place but begin hauling the lines some distance from each other to keep the gear widely spread for as long as possible. Before reaching the hauling place the vessels come nearer to each other until they can haul the last part of the wing and the bunt with the catch between them, or Figure 28.2 Seine nets: (a) without bag; (b) with bag in the gear is towed ashore where the catch can be the centre; (c) with bag in the side. brailed out. DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 433

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Table 28.1 Comparison of seine nets and trawl nets

Details of seine nets Details of trawl nets

Construction long wings, no (or small) bag Construction no, or small, wings; large bag for the catch Bag placing different (Figure 28.2) Bag placing in the middle only Bag number no bag, or one, or more Bag number one only in general; sometimes two Mode of setting one wing first Mode of setting codend first Catching area limited by the length of the wings and Catching area unlimited, so long as dragging is possible hauling lines Catching depth limited up to 50 m in lake fishing; 400 m Catching depth more than 1,000 m; nearly unlimited or so in sea fishing Hauling place fixed in advance Hauling place at any time, not fixed in advance Catching unit haul or set Catching unit towing hour

Figure 28.4 Turkish fishermen hauling a seine net. The fish are driven into the bagnet by beating the water. (Photo: T. Mengi.)

Seine nets have nothing to do with purse seines By the contrasts shown in Table 28.1, it is clear (Chapter 29), which have quite another principle of that the seine nets are restricted to working at a catching, although the operation of the gear is also specific place and operate quite differently to the called ‘seining’ and the boats operating this gear are much more mobile trawls. But it has to be con- called ‘seiners’. In contrast to purse seines, seine fessed, too, that there are examples where circum- nets discussed here cannot enclose the catch from stances create different situations so that opinions beneath, which is characteristic of purse seines. and practices may differ. In comparison with Seine nets also have no relationship to dragged gear bottom trawls there are the advantages of lower such as trawls (Chapter 26), from which they differ energy consumption and improved selectivity very much in construction and operation. The dif- caused by the slower movement of the bag over the ferences between seine nets and trawl nets are sea floor, which could provide a better future for listed in Table 28.1. seining than for trawling (Figure 28.4). DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 434

434 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 28.5 A double-stick net.

28.1 Simple seining gear and ‘baby’ seine nets The method of catching fish or other prey by herding them between two movable barriers of any material may be a very old one. In the African fish- eries, long rolls of grass are known which are used Figure 28.6 Small Korean double-stick net with bag in the shallows for herding fry (MacLaren 1958). (1960). Also, the long papyrus walls (used in Africa) or walls made of palm leaves (Tahiti), can be operated like seine nets when they are used in the shallows to catch small fish. Lines, screens, mats, clothes or But there are also typical miniature editions of other webbing can be used for seining (Wenban- seine nets known in east and south Asia (Figure Smith 1963). Of course, sometimes it may be ques- 28.7). This gear is operated by a single boat or by tioned whether this form of fishing is more akin to two fishing boats as is done with the ‘sardine hand- dragging or drive-in fishing (Chapter 21) or to operated trawl’ (NN 1959–65). This gear is by no seining. means a trawl but a typical seine net. Therefore, it As mentioned before, in the very beginning of would be better called a ‘baby seine net’ and not manufactured nets it was possible to make only ‘baby trawl’.That this is not a trawl can be also seen very small pieces of netting because of the initial by the long wings in comparison to the short bag difficulty of providing suitable net material and which is typical of seine nets. second because of the time taken in knitting by hand. The earlier modern seines may, therefore, 28.2 Seine nets in freshwater fisheries have been of much smaller size. They may have been small sheets or winged bags of netting held Seine nets both with and without bags are widely between two sticks (Figure 28.5). Such ‘double-stick used in freshwater fishing. Seines without bags are nets’ of small type can also be used for scooping up frequently used in pond farms for taking samples. the catch. If they are of a larger size (so-called ‘pole They are also used in river fishing. More popular in seines’) it becomes possible to encircle an area and fresh waters, especially in lakes, are seine nets with thus to narrow the space and so secure the bag. In lake fisheries, seines of considerable size entrapped fish in the way described for typical seine with heavy bags are often employed. They are used nets. Double-stick nets of varying sizes are to be the whole year round in Europe, especially in the found all over the world. They are especially winter-time when the fish are concentrated in popular with river fishermen (Figure 28.6). schools near the bottom of the lake. The fishing Small, seine-like double-stick nets are held in the areas of the European lakes and the hauling places river current and they attempt to encircle their on them are well known; in fact, they have been victims and lift them with the net from the water. named from olden times and have been duly DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 435

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Figure 28.7 Japanese small hand-operated boat seine net. (From NN 1959–65 with permission.)

stick stretchers, fitted to the net at regular distances (Figure 28.8). In Africa (Lake Tanganyika), seine nets were used with spreading rods and not only one bag, but sometimes with several bags. The ‘sennes à poche multiple’ from this lake have three, four, or even more bags for securing the catch (Poll 1952; MacLaren 1958). In Lake Chad the seine nets are composed of many single bagnets, each 10 m wide. The total row can be 200 m long and the different parts are owned by different fishermen. Each fish- erman gets only the catch from his own part of the net. The seine nets with many bags from Lake Malawi are kept open by rods attached to either side of a bag. Those of the gear on Lake Chad are 1 m high. In general, to keep the seine net in a ver- tical position, another much more important method is used.This is done by attaching weights at Figure 28.8 A seine net with spreading rods in South India. the lower edge (the lead line), and by arranging floats along the upper edge (the cork line) and on the upper side of the bag of the net. With many recorded on fishing charts. As long as the seine-like passive and active fishing gear, floats and weights gear are of small size only they can be spread and are accurately balanced so the net is held in a ver- maintained in the correct vertical position by two tical position almost as though suspended. With lateral rods like the double-stick nets. With larger seine nets, floats can be mounted in such numbers gear, however, the edges of the wings and the that the gear hangs on the water surface. But mostly opening of the net bag must be kept high and open the weights are heavier, so that the gear sinks to the by special arrangements. This can be carried out by bottom of the water, but is held wide open by the a great number of spreading rods, sometimes called floats. DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 436

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Figure 28.9 Seine-netting in the lake of Plön in northern Germany. The wings of the gear are towed together and the fish are frightened into the bag of the gear by the boat in the middle.

In fresh waters the gear is set on a suitable place prevent the nets from cutting into the bottom. But with two boats, with the bag or net set centre first, in freshwater fishing, seines can also be used over then the two wings, and lastly the towing lines, each considerable depths of water; that is, for fishing laid in a large arc and encircling the area to be pelagically, such as with the ‘Klusgarn’, a seine net fished. Both ends of the towing lines are brought to used formerly on Lake Constance since 1288. This a fixed place on the shore or to an anchored boat. pelagic fishing net was pulled up from the depths With the help of a winch (usually hand powered), almost vertically (Figure 28.10). When this was the warps, with the gear and its bag, are hauled. done at high speed, the mesh came up nearly closed When the bagless seine net is operated, the and therefore unwanted small fish were also caught. footrope is hauled faster to make a more pro- To avoid this, efforts were made to fix the time nounced bag at the centre of the gear. To prevent during which the net was hauled from the water, so the fish escaping from the slowly towed net that the small fish would have time to escape opening, they are frightened into the gear by through the open mesh of the non-towed netting. beating the water before the net opening (Figures This was difficult to control and because large 28.4 and 28.9). quantities of fish fry were wasted, this pelagic seine In freshwater fisheries, the places for hauling the was forbidden in 1967 and, even though in 1975 its seines are often sited on specially prepared spots on reintroduction was proposed to overcome some the bank. In larger waters, they must be sometimes overpopulation of bream (Abramis brama) it was situated in one or two boats anchored in shallow not allowed. water. As mentioned before, the gear is drawn over Similar pelagic seine nets are known in the the bottom by the two lines from the beach or from African lakes. Such a net is shot by two canoes, anchored vessels. There may be an exception, that which may drag the net for a short distance. The the middle part of the gear can be held by a boat men splash the water vigorously to scare the fish or, with smaller gear, by a swimming fisherman, all towards the bag and, while hauling the net, they drawn with the help of a winch to an anchor on the work in such a way that the footrope comes up beach. faster than the headrope. In fresh water, seine nets Seine nets are generally towed over the bottom. are used in ponds and lakes, and, as far as the If the ground is soft, arrangements are made to current will allow, also in rivers. Mostly they are DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 437

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Figure 28.10 Hauling of the ‘Klusgarn’ in Lake Constance.

used with at least two boats, or without boats but brought into the right position by people entering the water and possibly swimming. This is very often done in tropical waters but was also known in tem- perate areas (Jenkins 1974). Seine nets can also be operated by fishermen wading into the shallow water, or in the form of beach seines, with one person on a raft or boat rowing along the beach and another person walking along on shore at the same time. They can also be operated by horses, as prac- tised in South America, in Rio Uruguay and Rio de la Plata, as well as in the Columbia River of North America. A very serious objection can be raised against the use of some types of seines in fresh waters and this is that they have only a small degree of selectivity. Fishes of all sizes are taken and it is often impossi- ble to spare young fish, even with wider mesh. Freshwater seines, as used in some areas, are said to damage the fish stocks, therefore, very often other fishing methods are advocated which work more selectively. But this applies only in a comparison with the very selective gillnets or trapnets, not with trawls.

Figure 28.11 Plan showing how a seine net is operated 28.3 Seining below ice under ice: (a) the hole for shooting the net; (b) the hole for hauling the net. In front is a small hole for frighten- One very special method of seine fishing is that ing the fish into the bag of the seine net. On the sides used below ice in northern countries. By means of are small holes for pushing the net forward below the a clever system of holes the large winter seine is ice. pushed beneath the ice until it can be hauled again from the water (Figure 28.11). In this case the DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 438

438 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 28.12 ‘Jigger’ for towing lines under ice: (a) the spring is stretched by pulling the line. When the line is let go, the board is pushed in the opposite direction by the spike; (b) the jigger in operation.

operating system differs from that with one or two and to transport the hauling lines with the gear boats mentioned earlier. The seine used for this ice under the ice from one hole to the next. The long fishing is also composed of a large bag with very wooden sticks provide one method: another long wings. For shooting, a hole, sometimes a trian- method is to push the lines forward with so-called gular one, is made in the ice and first the drag lines ‘jiggers’ or ‘jigging machines’. These are imple- are pushed under the ice simultaneously; the two ments that creep along the underside of the ice with wings follow, the bagnet follows last. Usually the the help of a lever pulled by a rope operated by the drag lines are attached to long wooden rods. These fisherman (Figure 28.12). This is the same imple- rods floating beneath the ice are pushed forward by ment used to set gillnets in Canadian lakes under means of special forks from one ice hole along to ice during winter (Chapter 19). Another sophisti- another, towing the lines behind. Reaching the first cated proposal is to replace the long wooden sticks hole, some part of the line is taken out of the water by small floating tubes of steel, which are guided by and is towed by a small hand-operated winch electromagnets similar to those used for lifting and placed on a sled. In this way the lines and wings, moving scrap iron.The magnets should be towed on with the net bag, are horizontally widely spread out the surface of the ice, moving the steel tubes below the ice on both sides. Then the rods are forward with the hauling lines and net below pushed along with the gear from one ice hole to the (Schreckenbach 1966). other to the hauling place, in form of a much larger There is no doubt that seining below ice is a very hole in the ice. Here the rods and lines are pulled successful fishing method for large-scale fisheries in from the hauling hole until the wings and the net northern countries with large lakes. But it also is bag can be brought out. To prevent the escape of a labour-intensive fishery, especially when the win- the fish before hauling the bagnet, the fish are tering places of concentrations of fish are not frightened with special sticks acting as scarers. known, or vary from one year to the other. The Sometimes frightening lines (Figure 21.2) are used making of large numbers of holes in the ice can be for the same purpose. an exhausting job. But with the use of jiggers or The main problem of seining below ice is to make electromagnets the number of holes can be the holes in the ice, which is sometimes > 1m thick, reduced.The most labour-saving method of making DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 439

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holes in the ice is with the help of electrically driven even be the oldest method for bulk fishing in the ice axes wherever electrical current is available. seas. The setting of the gear from the beach, maybe This equipment is very like the rock-drilling by means of a single boat, is mostly carried out in machines used by the ice fisheries of Russia. such a way that the drag line of one wing remains fastened to the beach, while one wing, the net bag 28.4 Beach seining and then the other wing with its drag line are taken out in a wide arc and then brought back to the Beach seining, or fishing with beach hauling nets, is beach (Figure 28.13). Sometimes the second line is a very old fishing method in coastal fisheries. It may longer than the first one in order to encircle a wider area. Then the hauling lines are towed simultane- ously from the beach, herding the fish opposite the bag or bunt of the gear. Also the ground-rope is sometimes made shorter, to make the bagnet more voluminous. The ground-rope has to be always in touch with the bottom (Figure 28.14) and should reach the shore before the headline. Setting can also be done without boats, as on the west coast of Africa where swimming fishermen set the net in the sea before it is towed onto the beach, accompanied by the swimmers (Figure 28.15). In Peru, two fishermen wade with the net into the surf until the water is chest height, then they set the Figure 28.13 Plan for operating a beach seine. seine net and tow it with much strength on to the

Figure 28.14 Beach seining in Lake Van in eastern Anatolia, Turkey (1974). The groundrope is already ashore. DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 440

440 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 28.15 Beach seining on the coast of Togo. The hauled gear is accompanied by swimming fishermen. (Photo: R. Steinberg, 1955.)

beach (Nachtigall 1966). On the Turkish coast of the species of fish migrating near the shore are really Black Sea, a fisherman sometimes rows his boat, decreasing, then the beach seine fishery will proba- accompanied by two boys along the shore looking bly decline more and more (Morgan 1956).As men- for fish. If a shoal is found, the net bag is set, held tioned before, beach seining is a form of early in its middle by the fisherman remaining in the large-scale fishing, operated on the sea coasts and boat. The boys jump into the water with the towing in some large lakes (Figure 28.14). Extremely large lines and swim to the shore on each side of the beach seines are used and have been used from shoal. On the shore, the boys haul the net, smack- early times. It has been said that the Maoris of New ing the water with the towing lines to prevent the Zealand had beach seines a mile or more long, fish escaping, until they are completely encircled by requiring 500 people to handle them (Phillips the wings of the seine net. The fisherman follows 1966). As a modern example, it can be mentioned with the boat, watching the bag of the net and the that in Sri Lanka the very important beach seine, fish shoal. To be successful, all manipulations have with wings each of 400 m long and towing lines up to be carried out very quickly. to even more than 2000 m, requires 20 to 70 people Beach seines differ greatly in size and construc- to operate it (Tiews & Minnemann 1963). Beach tion.There are small ones like some ‘sweep nets’ for seines need many helping hands. This is not only catching salmon (Garner 1976), but there are also true in fresh waters, but is much more so with the very large ones. In any case, to use beach seines suc- larger gear used on the sea shore (Figures 28.15 and cessfully it is necessary to have a fairly smooth 28.16). bottom and not too much surf. They cannot work Traditionally, seining had been hard work for a effectively in the estuaries of rivers when there are collective of men. Now, with the current high level floods (Went 1964). On the other hand, small and of wages for human labour, mechanization is found large quantities of fish are caught, particularly the in nearly every lake seining fishery. Not only the herring-like species, as long as they come suffi- towing ropes but also whole wings are wound on ciently close to the beach. If the stocks of these special winches. DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 441

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Figure 28.16 Chinese beach seining with floats keeping the netting above the water surface to avoid the escape of jumping fish. (From Kasuga & Osaka 1975 with permission.)

28.5 Boat seining in sea fisheries because the gear with closed lines will catch no more fish, but where two boats are operating one With the ever-growing tendency of fishermen to gear, as in pair trawling, so also in pair seining operate further out from the beach to secure bigger towing could be operated for some time (Thomson catches, it is not surprising that the sea fishery – 1978). This means that, from the point of the catch- more than the freshwater fishery – is now operat- ing method, seining is something like pair trawling. ing seines from vessels as boat seines. In north-west In Canadian pair seining two vessels operate the Europe the ‘snurrevaad’ of the Danes, also called gear with the aim of spreading it around the fishing the ‘Danish seine’, is well known as a boat seine area as widely as possible: towing is limited to the (Sainsbury 1971; Noel 1976; Thomson 1981). stage of bringing together the two draglines as usual Seining as discussed in this chapter is a fishing also in single boat fishing. In the following, only method in which the seine net with long wings, and typical seining, with one vessel and without long long towing lines which have a high influence on the towing time, is described. catch, is set around a certain area with a fixed place Danish seining was introduced by the Danish from which the gear is set and hauled. In sea fish- fisherman Jens Laursen Vaever in 1848. The net is eries this fixed place can be an anchored boat or a set out from an anchored dhan (marker) buoy in set buoy.The importance of the long towing lines is the same manner as is done with a beach seine. The that they come nearer and nearer during hauling, operation is carried out by a larger vessel or by an frightening the fish between them along the wings additional smaller one launched for this purpose. and into the bag of the gear. This action can be First, one dragline is put into the water, then one enhanced by towing the gear for a short distance, net wing follows and, while the cutter swings round like a dragged gear (usually not done with seine in an arc or circle back to the buoy, the bagnet and nets). Towing for a longer distance has no purpose, the other wing with its dragline are set. Thus a big DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 442

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area is encircled by the time the boat comes back to the anchored buoy or the cutter from which it started out (Figure 28.17). Now the net is hauled in by the anchored boat, which is done by hauling the two draglines simultaneously with the help of a rope-coiling machine (Figure 28.18) until the bag with the catch can be taken on board the vessel. Decisive for the success of the operation is that the two draglines must contact the bottom near the opening of the gear as far as possible to frighten the fish together between the two lines and guide them into the netbag. This assumes clear water and good sighting conditions, otherwise the frightening effect does not work. If the catch is sufficiently large the vessel will remain on this place making one set after the other but always following the tide so that the current is flowing into the net opening when the gear is hauled. By this means the area to be fished is changed with each setting. The coiling machine Figure 28.17 Danish seine net called the ‘snurrevaad’. for the draglines, as well as many coils of rope and

Figure 28.18 Rope coiling machine for Danish seining in Killybegs, NW coast of Ireland (1956). DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 443

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Figure 28.19 Modern seining with drums for the draglines in Esbjerg (1979).

a brightly coloured buoy, were considered typical of synthetic ropes with a lead core to ensure that they Danish seiners. sink immediately when set.The coils are stacked on Danish seining is a daytime fishery for the reason both sides of the vessel in such a manner that the mentioned before: four to ten sets can be made in line is ready to run out for the next set. Each coil a day in summertime. It can also be carried out in has a length of about 120 fathoms, over 200m wind forces Beaufort 7 to 8. Other variations of this (Thompson 1978). The number of coils depends on type of Danish seining (also called ‘anchor seining’) the depth to be fished. It may be five or six with a have been developed – like ‘Scottish seining’ or ‘fly small vessel fishing at about 70m, and 10–15 for a dragging’. In this case the seine net is set from a larger one fishing down to 180m or so in depth free-floating marker buoy as described before. (Noel 1976). The stacked coils of lines have always When the vessel has reached the buoy again, it is been dangerous, and their handling became more lifted aboard, the two ends of the hauling lines are difficult when heavier and larger-diameter ropes connected to the winch and dragging and hauling became necessary. Therefore reels, set on the deck begins from the forward-moving vessel. It is of the vessel, were developed to handle the lines claimed that fly dragging brings in larger catches (Figure 28.19). These reels, with up to 4000m of than the original operation with an anchored buoy. heavy dragline, take up deck space and their weight On the other hand, fly dragging needs more energy may influence the stability of the vessel in spite of than anchor dragging, and increasing prices of fuel their relatively broad beam. To overcome this may make the latter more successful economically. problem for smaller vessels, the lines are stowed in Many coils of ropes are carried by the vessels special tanks placed below deck, underneath the engaged in this form of fishing. The original ropes coilers (Thomson 1981). This has the advantage of made of natural fibres are nowadays replaced by providing a clear area for the lines to be set or DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 444

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28.6 Modernization of seine net fishing Compared with trawling, seining needs less towing time and uses less fuel. On the other hand, espe- cially with beach seining and seining under ice, it is a labour-intensive fishing method and some capital is required to acquire the larger gear. Such capital can sometimes only be raised by a group of fisher- men. Nevertheless, seining remains an artisan fishing method and large-scale company operations are rare, although there are some exceptions. Such an exception is the Korean Kwan-Hyon-Mang fishery, originally established in Hiroshima in Japan (Figure 28.21). This method is used in fishing for sardine-like fishes with a type of ‘mid-water seine net’ hanging on floats and operated by two towing boats. Besides those, two net boats, three smaller boats, one cooking boat and one motor boat are required, with a total crew of forty-five – a regular fleet. The two motorized towing boats draw the netting together in a similar way to the Danish seine nets. Real towing, as with the two-boat system, was forbidden up until the beginning of the 1960s. Since that time, the towing boats have worked as in pair trawling and the typical seining with this gear became known as low-speed mid- water trawling but, of course, now with more modern boats. Figure 28.20 Powered reels for hauling the seine net in Esbjerg (1979). A very modern form of nearly large-scale boat or beach seining has been developed in Tasmania for catching the so-called Australian salmon (Arripis trutta). In this case the seine net is not set until the fish are plotted by airplane. When this is successful the vessel launches a smaller boat for the setting of the seine net. This may be a rowing boat because the fish are very sensitive to noise and will easily be hauled and less deck space is required. But it has frightened away.The seine net has a detachable bag the disadvantage of the loss of some fish-room in the case of hauling from the vessel, or it is used space. It seems that the earlier idea of rope storage as a bagless gear when hauling is done from the on two or three reels on deck is more popular. The beach. Hauling on the beach can also be carried out number of reels depends on the method used to with tractors and other four-wheel drive vehicles in turn the ropes, after hauling, for a new set. The size this Australian fishery (Firth 1969; Pownall 1979). of the reels is determined by the number of coils The former Soviet Union planned to introduce, for they can hold. For hauling the seine net, a power beach seining, motor winches which were intended block can be placed at the stern of the vessel to be mobile, on the beach, or installed on boats. In (Thomson 1981).This can be similar to a block used the Caspian Sea, a number of machines had been for purse seining, or a three-part reel more typical designed to facilitate major beach seining opera- for seining (Figure 28.20). With this hauling device, tions for herring fishing (NN 1951, 1977; Teruni the net can be hauled in such a way that it can be 1964). Generally, two motor cars were needed to laid ready for shooting again. operate the beach seine, although there were some DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 445

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Figure 28.21 Korean surface seine net (Kwan-hyon-mang). The net is hanging on the floats seen between the two boats.

erwise they can tow themselves into the sea (NN 1977)! Nevertheless, generally speaking mechanization came late to seining, especially in freshwater fishing. Here the first attempts to mechanize the operation of seine nets were made during World War II to overcome the lack of manpower during Figure 28.22 Motorized hauling of the wing of a seine that time. Different methods had been developed, net with an additional line as operated in Germany especially in the German inland fishery (Heyde (1939). 1939; von Brandt & Kaulin 1966). In one of the oldest methods, the two towing lines were hauled by a small powered winch. Each hauling line was lengthened with an additional line reaching to the bag of the gear. On this additional line the wings Russian proposals to work with one car only. An were fastened with small lines which could be freed Israeli method is to fit each vehicle with a hauling very easily. By means of this additional line the wheel. For towing the ropes of the beach seine, a wings, when hauled, fall into the vessel when freed gipsy head is mounted on this wheel.Two such vehi- (Figure 28.22). Another method was developed cles are placed near the water line, as close as pos- some years ago by which the gear was hauled by a sible. The rope of one wing of the gear is attached small winch from an anchored boat, as can be seen to one of the vehicles, the net is set as usual, maybe in Figure 28.23. By this method, the seine net is with the help of a boat, and the second line is hauled in stages, which has the disadvantage that brought back to the second vehicle. Both vehicles some fish may escape when the gear is stopped haul the ropes over the gipsy head and coil them before beginning a new stage. A more satisfactory inside the vehicle. When the net reaches the beach, method was introduced in the second half of the hauling of the lines is stopped and the net passes 20th century in the Masurian lakes of Poland and over the hauling wheels until the bag appears and also in Germany with good results. Two motorized can be towed onto the beach with the help of the net drums are used with two special boats with vehicles. It must be emphasized that, during inboard motors. Each drum holds one dragline and hauling, the vehicles have to be firmly braked; oth- one wing of the gear (Figure 28.24). The two boats DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 446

446 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 28.23 Mechanization of seine net hauling in a German lake fishery. (From von Brandt & Kaulin 1966 with permission.)

Figure 28.24 Mechanized seining by hauling each wing of a seine net with a special anchored pontoon with net drum on a lake in northern Germany (1980). DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 447

Seining in Fresh and Sea Water 447

operate as in seining with two boats. The gear is hauled in one draw without interruption. There is no doubt that of all types of seines, the boat seines in sea fisheries are the most interesting ones.A number of attempts, however mostly unsuc- cessful, have been made to improve the gear because it is a fishing method needing low energy and demonstrating improved selectivity compared to trawling. In order to keep the net and the wings wide open for as long as possible, floating otter boards like the ‘Hong Kong diverter’ (Figure 28.25) were attached to the ends of the wings, some dis- tance before the towing lines. It is true that by this means the fished area remained a large one for a longer period (Figure 28.26), but there is some doubt whether more fish are caught. Moreover, the Figure 28.25 Floating Hong Kong otter board. towing resistance is increased, which means more energy is needed and this detracts from one of the

Figure 28.26 Expected shape of a Danish seine during hauling, with and without floating otter boards. (From Buckingham 1975 with permission.) DFC28 4/23/05 9:08 PM Page 448

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advantages of boat seining – its low energy needs. Nachtigall, H. (1966) Indianische Fischer, Feldbauern und Other proposals included electrification of the Viehzüchter. Beiträge zur peruanischen Völkerkunde. seine net with copper wires along the headline and Marburger Studien zur Völkerkunde 2. Berlin. Nachtigall, H. (1972) Völkerkunde, von Herodot bis Che footrope as electrodes (Dembinsky & Chmielewski Guevara. Naturvölker werden Entwicklungsländer. 1970; Halsband 1975). The current came from a Stuttgart. generator placed in one of the towing boats.As with NN (1951) [Fishing gear of the Caspian Sea.] (ed.) Min- trawls, the use of electrified seine nets had not been istry of Fisheries, Moscow [in Russian]. NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and very successful and, presently, has to be considered Fishing Gear. Tokyo. as a part of the history of fishing. NN (1977) Beach seine power hauler. Fishing News Inter- national 16 (3), 69. Noel, H.S. (ed.) (1976) Fisherman’s Manual. London. References Phillips, W.J. (1966) Maori Life and Custom. Sidney. von Brandt, A. & Kaulin, M. (1966) Zur Mechanisierung Poll, M. (1952) Exploration hydrobiologique du Lac Tan- der Zugnetzfischerei. Fischwirt 16, 231–235. ganika (1946–1947), 1 Les vertébrés, 103–165. Brussels. Buckingham, H. (1975) A new approach to seine netting. Pownall, P. (1979) Fisheries of Australia.Farnham. World Fishing 24 (6), 22. Sainsbury, J.C. (1971) Commercial Fishing Methods, an Dembinsky, W. & Chmielewski, A. (1970) A new Introduction to Vessels and Gear. London. approach to the electrification of seine nets. Schreckenbach, K. (1966) Die Erleichterung der Eisfisch- FAO/EIFAC Consultation on Eel Fishing Gear and erei durch Einsatz von Magneten. Deutsche Fischerei- Techniques. Hamburg. Zeitung 13 (3), 67–72. Firth, F.E. (ed.) (1969) The Encyclopedia of Marine Teruni, N.I. (1964) [Mechanization of marine fishing with Resources. New York. beach-seine.] Rybnoe Khozyaistro 40 (1), 64–69 [in Garner, J. (1976) Sweep nets for salmon catching. Fishing Russian]. News International 15 (2), 26–27. Thomson, D.B. (1978) Pair trawling and pair seining: the George, V.C. (1971) An account of the inland fishing gear technology of two-boat seining. Fishing News Books, and methods of India. Central Institute of Fisheries Farnham. Technology. Special Publication 1. Ernaculam. Thomson, D.B. (1981) Seine Fishing: Bottom Fishing with Halsband, E. & Halsband, I. (1975) Einführung in die Rope Warps and Wing Trawls.Fishing News Books, Elektrofischerei. Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt Farnham. für Fischerei 7. Berlin. Tiews, K. & Minnemann, K. (1963) Report on the fisheries Heyde, G. (1939) Motorisierung der Zugnetzfischerei. All- of Ceylon etc, Sessional paper No. XX. Colombo. gemeine Fischerei-Zeitung 42. Neudamm. Wenban-Smith, H.B. (1963) The coastal fisheries near Dar Jenkins, J.G. (1974) Nets and Coracles. Newton Abbot. es Salâam. Tanganyika Notes and Records, 165–174. MacLaren, P.J.R. (1958) The Fishing Devices of Central Went,A.E.J. (1964) The pursuit of salmon in Ireland. Pro- and Southern Africa. The Occasional Papers of the ceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 63, Sect. C., No. 6, Rhodes–Livingstone Museum. Livingstone, Zambia. 191–244. Morgan, H. (1956) World Sea Fisheries. London. DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 449

29 Fish Shoals and Surrounding Nets

Some species of fish appear in large shoals, not close the bight, and the fish can then be caught staying near the bottom but ranging pelagically in as the enclosed area is gradually reduced. The the water as detailed in Chapter 27 on mid-water Norwegians employ this principle for herring trawling. Whilst fishing in ‘three dimensions’ with fishing in the spring when the fish enter their fjords the mid-water trawl was unknown, such shoals in millions. With the aid of one or two walls of could be fished only if they sometimes came near netting reaching from the surface of the water to to the surface in large quantities, or if they migrated the bottom, the fjords are effectively blocked. The in shallow water nearer to the shore at regular so-called ‘stengenot’ used for that purpose is but a intervals. When these shoals entered shallow water simple wall of netting with floats on the upper line or penetrated into bays, firths or estuaries, thriving and sinkers on the lower line. The catch, very fre- large-scale fisheries could develop with simple quently, is simply scooped out of the water. fishing techniques. This shoaling of fish at certain Just as a fish shoal can be enclosed in a bight, so seasons in coastal waters influenced the lives of the can it also be encircled in shallow water by means local people. Instances of this are the fishing of the of fences and nets. The prerequisite is that the salmon and herring shoals off the American north shoals be encircled quickly before they can escape, and north-west coasts, the cod shoals off the and also that the water is not too deep and the Lofoten Isles and the Pacific coast of Canada, and bottom not too uneven, so that the encircling can the herring shoals, formerly common off the be carried out properly. In Macedonia, on the Swedish west coast, and still occurring off the south Dojran Lake – that interesting water which has and central Norwegian coast and to some extent already been mentioned in a previous chapter – fish around Iceland. The coalfish and capelin off the shoals are caught, even recently, by being encircled Norwegian and Icelandic coasts, and the herring with wickerwork fencing and then concentrated in shoals of the Georges Bank, are also examples, as a narrow chamber (Apostolski 1958). What can be well as the shoals of mackerel, squid and sardine- done with fences, can also be done much more like fishes and some types of tuna in many parts of easily with netting. Gillnets (Chapter 19) and the world. Formerly, even porpoises were caught entangling nets (Chapter 20) can be used to encir- when shoaling off the coasts of the Black Sea.There cle fish. Sometimes also a gear is used which is oper- are many other examples of seasonal fish shoaling ated like a seine net with a high opening (Chapter near the shore and on banks influencing coastal life 28). Such a method was known for encircling sar- by causing large migrations of fishermen eager to dines in the early English fishery. The shoal would catch them. Even in freshwater areas, large shoals be surrounded by a special type of net (a Cornish of pelagic fish are often found concentrated in pilchard seine) reaching from the surface to the shallow waters where they can be caught with bottom, and the net with the shoal in it was then simple methods. It is relatively simple to close a slowly worked nearer to the coast. There the fish bight once a shoal has entered it. A dam can be were removed with small seines or by means of built, a plaited fence or wall of nets may be set to scoop nets (Davis 1958). Strictly speaking, this is a

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Figure 29.1 ‘Sapyaw’, a dustpan-like encircling net used in the Philippines. (From Umali 1950 with permission.)

variation of seining. The main area for catching surrounding the shoal both horizontally and verti- large pelagic or surface shoal fish is, however, the cally. Quite different in construction and operation, high seas and men have always endeavoured, by but with the same effect, are purse seines.These are every possible means, to take advantage of such now the most important gear for catching pelagic shoaling of oceanic fish. Moreover, stocks of pelagic fish and, according to the statisticians, purse seines fish, squid, crustaceans, and some smaller prey such may produce the highest percentage of the total as krill and sardines, will probably form the basis of catch of the world. Purse seining for pelagic fish larger yields of sea fisheries in the future, and it is near the water surface, and trawling for bottom and predicted that there will be a trend to catch smaller mid-water fish or other prey, are therefore consid- pelagic sea animals, not currently harvested for ered by some people to be the most important feeding humans and animals. fishing methods in commercial bulk fishing. In deeper water, where the nets hang on surface floats and do not reach the bottom, such a method 29.1 Lampara-like surrounding nets cannot be entirely successful. Under such circum- stances, the encircled prey will dive under the net To catch pelagic fish near the water surface, the fish- and no catch will be made unless predatory fish eries of East and South Asia have invented a below the net ring prevent the fish from diving into number of gear which are shaped like a dustpan deeper waters (von Brandt 1960). In the examples (Figure 29.1). Once the shoal has been surrounded, described so far, the shoal has only been encircled then the fourth side – the open front side of the net from the side. In some waters the fishing area would ‘shovel’ – is closed by the anterior edge of the net be enclosed below by the natural bottom or by ther- being lifted. These gear are used like pelagic seines, moclines, or, in rarer cases, by predatory fish waiting but they have a protruding bottom and can only be below. But in deep water where the nets do not used on the surface of the water. There are various reach to the bottom, fishing gear have to be types of these nets and we met some of them in designed to surround the fish shoal from below as Chapter 21, on drive-in fisheries. One type of net well as from the sides in order to prevent them which can be pushed beneath the shoal of fish or escaping in any direction – especially into the squid to encircle it from each side has become depths. This can be achieved with shovel-shaped familiar all over the world; this is the lampara net gear, which surrounds the fish completely when the originating in the Mediterranean (Figure 29.2). It is ground-rope is lifted. Similar, and better known, are also shaped like a dustpan, but is provided with lampara nets, which work on the same principles of wings. While the net bag, or bunt, is made of small- DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 451

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of lampara netting or lampara-like surrounding nets. When this is finished and the catch in the net is concentrated at one side of the vessel, with or without the help of an additional smaller boat, hauling can begin. As mentioned before, the typical lampara net originated in the Mediterranean area. The name is said to originate from the Italian word ‘lampo’, as the nets are usually used with lights.This gear is now known in many parts of the world. The Italians took the Mediterranean lampara net to the California coast for fishing sardine and mackerel Figure 29.2 Design of the lampara net. (From (1905). Dieuzeide & Novalla 1953 with permission.) Beside the typical form of the lampara net, many other variations are known (Figures 29.4 and 29.5). All these nets have the typical shape of a winged dustpan with upper and lower lines of various lengths and varying mesh for the individual net sec- meshed netting, the wings are made of coarse mate- tions. Small mesh are used in the net bunt for the rial with wider mesh.The dust-pan shape is attained catch, and very large ones in the wings. Lampara or because the weighted ground-rope is much shorter lampara-like nets are operated by smaller vessels to than the upper line which carries the floats. This catch small bulk fishes – as in the Mediterranean, construction causes the middle part of the gear to the European Atlantic coast (Figure 29.7) and be formed like a bag, as has been seen with the so- South Africa especially for sardines, in Argentina called ‘seine nets without bag’ (Chapter 28). In con- for anchoveta and mackerels (Scofield 1951; trast to the seine nets, the lampara nets are Cordini 1962; Schärfe 1978), or in Japan, not only sometimes called ‘purse seines with bag’.This name for sardines, but also for sea bream, dolphins and should be avoided because, in contrast to genuine flying fish (Nomura & Yamazaki 1975). Lampara- purse seines, this gear has no arrangement for like nets are also used for catching live bait for pursing (see next section). pole-and-line fishery (Chapter 9) (Nédélec 1975). The net itself is now mostly used with a single The Indians of the Malabar Coast use their vessel, like a boat seine operated by a single vessel. lampara-like ‘kolli net’ (Figure 29.5) in the same The end of one wing is fastened to a buoy and from way, also with two boats, especially for sardine-like that buoy the remaining net can be carried by a fishes. They are also operated during the night with boat around the fish shoal. The buoy can also be lights. The Japanese ‘nuikiri ami’ (Figure 29.4), and replaced by a boat, or skiff, which remains at the many other types of full or semi-surrounding nets, spot, or drifts slowly while the main boat encircles are used with two boats in the Japanese fishery the fish shoal. That boat then returns to the initial (Figure 29.6) for sardines, flying fish and dolphins. spot and begins, uniformly, to haul the two wings. They resemble the lampara net. The leadlines come together closing, downwards, Lampara nets are not restricted to sea fisheries. the area surrounded by the gear before the wings This gear has also been introduced in the Great are drawn together. To prevent fish or squid Lakes of America for commercial fishing (Hickling escaping before the gear between the two wings is 1961). They are very effective when operated over closed completely, a submerged fishing light is often rough ground where seine nets and trawls cannot hung from the vessel into the water or a line with be used. A suitable lampara net for inland waters is white boards is submerged and moved up and about 200m long, 20m deep at its middle and 4m down. Splashing or ‘cherry bombs’, or loud ham- deep at its end (Lagler 1968). Another reason for mering on the deck, or the gunwale, can serve the operating lampara nets in the lakes may be that same purpose (Kato 1976). The last step in the sometimes the beaches are unsuitable for hauling a operation of the lampara net is shown in Figure gear like a seine net, as is the case in some of the 29.3a. This pulling together of the wings is typical larger African lakes (Hickling 1961). DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 452

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Figure 29.3 Main types of encircling nets and their method of operation: top row, when encircling the fish shoal; bottom row, when the gear is closed. (a) Lampara net; (b) purse seine; (c) ring net. (From Dieuzeide & Novalla 1953 with permission.)

Figure 29.5 Indian ‘kolli’ net. At the back is the shovel- Figure 29.4 ‘Nuikiri Ami’, a lampara-like Japanese like net and in the forefront are the two large meshed encircling net. (From NN 1959–65 with permission.) wings. DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 453

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Figure 29.6 Japanese surrounding net in operation. (From Hyogo-Ken 1959 with permission.)

Figure 29.7 Lampara nets being dried on the shore in Nazaré, Portugal. DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 454

454 Fish Catching Methods of the World

29.2 Purse seines For catching pelagic fish near the water surface, another type of gear is now used which is not only more effective but more recent than the lampara nets. These are the purse seines. Like lampara nets they work on the same principle by surrounding the fish both vertically and horizontally. But in contrast to the lampara nets, closing of the bottom of the net to prevent the escape of the fish is carried out in quite another and more complicated manner. Purse seines are made of long walls of netting, sometimes several km long, with a leadline of equal length or longer than the floatline. With this form of con- struction, no permanent bag can be incorporated in the netting, in contrast to lampara nets. However, some form of bag shape is necessary to retain the catch. This is achieved by incorporating a suitable loose form of hanging (see later). Characteristic of the purse seines are the rings hanging at the lower edge of the gear (see Figures 29.14, 29.16 and 29.17). They can be made simply of wood, lead or iron, and be more or less heavy implements. Today, they are often made of non-rusting metal alloys in a more oval form and with a mechanism to open the ring. The purse line runs through the rings. The Figure 29.8 Purse seine operation with two boats. net is set round a detected school of fish. This has (From Bertuccioli 1955 with permission.) to be carried out very quickly; therefore, the sinking speed of the net is an important feature of the gear. Especially fast sinking purse seines have been the hold of the purse seiner.Very often, fishing with developed for tuna fishing. After setting, the gear is surrounding nets is a nocturnal activity for sardines closed by hauling the purse line running through or squid. The fish are lured, concentrated, and kept the rings at its lower edge (Figure 29.8). By this in a certain place by means of so-called ‘light boats’. operation the purse seine is pulled together and These can be one-person motor- or rowing boats almost closed, thus hampering the escape of the (Figures 11.1 and 11.2) or unmanned floats in trapped fish. The fish are now concentrated within Greece (Figure 11.3) and Israel (Ben-Yami 1974). the towed netting and can no longer escape. As can Today, strong surface lamps (and sometimes also be seen in Figure 29.8b, one part of the netting, for- underwater lamps) are used as the source of light merly hanging vertically for encircling the fish, is (Chapter 11). Light fishing can be carried out now towed more or less horizontally under the fish during dark nights without bright moonlight or to prevent their escape downwards. This part of the when the sky is cloudy and (this is true for all sur- netting keeping the catch, the bunt, need not always rounding nets) when there are no high waves. be in the middle of the gear as will be shown later During daytime, in the Malayan fisheries, instead of on. In any case this part must be made of one of the fish-gathering lamps, lure lines are used (Chapter strongest materials used for the gear. When purse 11). To find out if enough fish have concentrated at line and rings are taken on board, the netting is the required place, fish searching implements are dragged tighter. This was carried out originally by now used. In the early traditional tropical fishery in hand (Figure 29.9).This procedure has the object of South Asia, and even now, the assessment of the concentrating the fish closer together so that they concentration of fish will be made by underwater can be bailed out or sucked up by fish pumps into listening. To do this, the swimming fisherman hangs DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 455

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Figure 29.9 Hauling a purse seine by hand from a Japanese purse seiner (two-boat system) before introduction of the power block. (Photo: M. Nomura.)

with one hand on the railing of a sampan and puts the American west coast at least since 1863. In any his head under water from time to time. Experi- case, most people agree that the general use of enced fishermen can not only make estimations purse seines for menhaden began after the about the species of fish: experts, particularly the American Civil War (1861–65) (Schaff 1975). Thais, can distinguish up to six different species and On the other hand it is known that lampara nets they can also determine whether there are many were introduced into California by the Italians at fish or a few only, whether they stay near the the beginning of the last century. Purse seines may bottom or nearer to the water surface and, of also have been introduced to the North American course, in which direction the fish can be found. Indians by European immigrants from the Mediter- Purse seines are considered to be one of the most ranean and Aegean Sea areas (Wright 1979). In this recently developed gear in large-scale fisheries for connection it is of interest that in an early edition pelagic fishing, and can be used on the high seas far of Duhamel du Monceau’s History of Fisheries and from the coastline. Generally it is supposed that the Fishes (Vol. 2, Section 3, Chapter 11 of the 1772 typical purse seine, with rings and purse line, is of edition), a sardine gear used by the Basques and American origin. In one version the purse seine, as operated ‘comme une bourse’ (like a purse) is described, is said to have been developed from the described. After mentioning the dimensions of the beach seine used in the American menhaden gear it is stated that on the lead-line, at distances of fishery off the Atlantic coast of the United States, four feet, are placed rings of horn similar to those as well as on the west coast from Alaska to used for curtains. Through these rings is passed California. It has also been said that the first purse another line (a purse line) by which the net is closed seine was developed in the fjords of Rhode Island when full of fish. Such a description suggests that in 1826. Others think that a fisherman of Maine the gear was a genuine purse seine. Unfortunately, invented the purse seine for catching menhaden in the author obtained this description second-hand, 1837. Chinese fishermen have used purse seines on and is therefore unable to provide a drawing – DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 456

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though he does claim to have seen the gear himself the middle of the seine net. In one-boat purse at some earlier date. The fact remains that this gear seining the gear is set, beginning with one end, can be considered a true purse seine, operated around the located fish shoal. This method of oper- (even if only occasionally) off the coast of France ation has some influence on the construction of the in the late 18th century. gear. Generally speaking, the main part of the net Later on, the purse seines, like other surrounding of a purse seine is made of the same material with gear, were distributed from America to many other constant mesh size. Only that part of the gear where parts of the world. As far as is known, in Europe, the catch will be concentrated, the so-called bunt, Sweden was the first to adopt purse seining from will be strengthened, and its position in the gear the USA. This was in the early 1880s in the Bohus- varies according to the method of operation in the län herring fishery off the Swedish west coast. The two-boat or one-boat system. Norwegians introduced purse seining a little later, Purse seines vary greatly as regards length, about 1890. Scandinavian fishermen took the purse depth, hanging ratio* and size of mesh, depending seine to Iceland at the end of the 19th century on the fish to be caught and the personal experi- (1899–1904). In 1906 the Swedes made the first ence of the skipper. The relationship between attempts to use purse seines in the Baltic; the Danes length and depth is about ten to one (Roughley followed suit, and in 1913 the German Baltic fishery 1968). Examples of the differences in extent can be also adopted this new gear for the herring fishery. seen in Figure 29.10. The longest purse seines are Here it was in use until 1956, but no longer after those used for tuna and bonito fishing and these are that – because of the lack of herring, and man- often about 1000m long. In 1972 a Norwegian tuna power! purse seine was recorded as being 1500 m long and In 1882, Japan adopted the new fishing method, 200m deep, and weighed 25 tons. In 1973 a Spanish and started purse seining for tuna and bonito in tuna purse seine was 1690m long and 135m deep, 1913. The Californian fishery for tuna followed suit and weighed 23.7 tons without accessories. In other in 1914, and Norway ten years later. Purse seines types of fishing, large purse seines are used, as in have been used to catch salmon (since 1886), also the Faeroes (1975) for herring and mackerel, 630m many clupeids, mackerels, cod, capelin and other long by 162m deep; and for capelin and sprats, fish, not only in sea waters but also in the large 540m long by 135m deep. freshwater lakes of Africa, Israel and Turkey. Purse The operation of the purse seine seems to be seining became popular around the world, slowly in simpler in the two-boat system. This can be carried some areas but rapidly in others due to new inven- out even by rowing boats. In this case the two boats tions and improvements. The purse seine was con- are towed by a motor boat to the fishing ground. sidered important because, until it was evolved, The setting and hauling of the nets is done there by pelagic surface fish could only be caught with drift- those two rowing boats (Figure 29.11). It may be ing gillnets or in shallow water near the shore. Now that one vessel is powered (e.g. about 80hp) for it was possible to catch them in deep water, further towing an unpowered vessel with the fishing gear away from the coast. and the small boats with the lamps for attracting fish (Figure 11.2). So it was in Greece about 1960. 29.3 One-boat and two-boat seining Twenty years later the towing boat had about 400 hp and the five manned lamp-boats were replaced There are two different methods of purse seining: by four unmanned floats with lamps (Figure 11.3). the one-boat system and the two-boat system. Both Also, in this case, the net is shot and hauled by the have their advantages and disadvantages, but purse two vessels (one powered, the other unpowered) seining with a single boat is now considered more and these purse seines can be very large (Figure economical, even though shooting a purse seine 29.12).Another example, with slightly larger vessels with the two-boat system may be quicker and a larger gear can also be operated than with the one- boat system. In two-boat purse seining, two boats, * Hanging ratio means the relationship between the each carrying about half the gear, operate together length of the rope on which the net is mounted, and the – setting each part simultaneously, beginning with length of the stretched netting (ISO 1973). DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 457

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Figure 29.10 Comparison of the size of different types of one-boat and two-boat purse seines. (From Kristjonsson 1971 with permission.)

Figure 29.11 Setting a two-boat Thai purse seine with rowing boats. DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 458

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Figure 29.12 Mending two-boat purse seines on the Island of Mytilini, Greece.

Figure 29.13 Hauling a two-boat type Japanese purse seine. DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 459

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Figure 29.14 A Japanese two-boat purse seine with the ‘bunt’ in the middle.

the net, which bulges like a bag between the two boats. In calm conditions the fish are then lifted out by hand-operated scoop nets. All surrounding nets have a large number of closely spaced floats, to avoid sinking of the gear when large quantities are caught (Figures 29.14 and 29.15). Nevertheless, the sinking of a full gear can happen, when frightened fish press each other downwards in their attempt to escape into the depths. In most cases when the fish are concen- trated before hauling them on board, a second vessel is necessary to help to keep the floatline over the water surface. In two-boat seining this will be done by the second boat. In place of the two-boat system, in some areas it is now more and more general for only one boat to be used. Strictly speak- ing, one vessel with an auxiliary boat, the so-called skiff, is considered best for handling this type of fishery. The size of these large powered boats is directly related to the size of the net and the size of the seiner. One end of the purse seine is fixed to the skiff and set first with the net from the stern of the vessel. For this, many modern purse seiners have a Figure 29.15 Shooting a Peruvian purse seine with one ramp at the stern (see Figure 29.23) similar to, but boat and a skiff. (Photo: Brandhorst.) shallower than, that of a whaler or stern trawler. The end of the purse seine is held by the skiff until the vessel encircles the shoal with the net (Figures for the same two-boat system as used by the 29.15 and 29.16). When the encirclement is com- Japanese is seen in Figure 29.13. If the fish shoal has plete, the skiff is released and the lower part of the been encircled by the net, and the purse line is net is closed by pursing. The purse line is hauled pulled together to purse the net so that none can first, together with the rings (Figure 29.16d). Then escape towards the bottom, then the net is hauled the hauling of the net begins, to concentrate the in the manner described. First the lower part of the catch. As the hauling of the net (in contrast to the net with the ring and purse line is lifted. By hauling two-boat system) is only handled from one net end, the net uniformly from both boats, the fish shoal is the strengthened part of the net, which finally takes concentrated in the middle of the net, which means up the catch, must not be located in the middle of in the strengthened bunt (Figure 29.14). Finally, the the purse seine, but placed towards one end (Figure fish are packed in the central strengthened part of 29.17). When pursing and hauling a large gear by a DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 460

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Figure 29.16 Setting and hauling a Californian one-boat purse seine with a skiff. DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 461

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Figure 29.17 A purse seine for a one-boat system with ‘bunt’ at one end.

It has to be remembered that these types of gear are for catching pelagic fish on the surface only.The Norwegians have developed a special purse seine for fish that stay in deeper waters. The so-called ‘synkesnurpenot’ hangs on floats on the surface of the water, like some early types of pelagic freshwater trawls (Figure 29.18). A similar type of ‘mid-water purse seine’ has been introduced in Japan.

29.4 Variations of lampara nets and purse seines As mentioned before, purse seines and lampara nets are used for the same purpose. Pelagic surface shoals of fish are caught by surrounding them com- pletely, and preventing them from escaping down- Figure 29.18 Rough scheme of a Norwegian wards. Where the fish shoals to be caught are small, ‘Synkesnurpenot’. lampara nets are more economical because they require less time for shooting and hauling. There- single vessel, it could lead to the hauling vessel fore, in some fisheries, both types of surrounding towing itself into the ring of the net. This is not so nets are operated. The gear have characteristic dif- bad if it happens at the beginning of hauling. It ferences in construction, as can be seen from Table could create a situation similar to that shown in 29.1. Figure 16.9. The fish circling in the net will be There exist many transitional types between the guided away from the opening of the incompletely purse seines and the lampara nets. They may be closed gear. If this towing effect into the gear is not designed as typical purse seines, but the various net wanted, the hauling boat should be towed by the sections are made with varying mesh sizes just as motorized skiff to keep the boat away from the sur- the lampara nets are. But they can also be typical rounded fish. After the drying up, i.e. concentrating lampara nets – that is, with the ground-rope shorter the fish in a small part of the net, brailing begins by than the headline, but in this case they are provided hand or semi-mechanically (Figures 24.21 and with additional rings and a purse line so that they 29.32). If very heavy catches are obtained, a purse can be pursed like a real purse seine. For all these seine can also be divided into several strengthened intermediate hybrid forms the term ‘ring net’ parts with one bunt each, or strengthening can even should be used (Du Plessis 1959) (Figure 29.3c). be incorporated throughout the whole net. This There is another interesting gear for catching fish means the purse seine can have a bunt reaching by surrounding them, also from beneath, but not by from one end to the other. closing the bottom but by closing one side of the DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 462

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Table 29.1 Comparison of lampara nets and purse seine nets

Lampara nets Purse seine nets

Ground-rope and headline ground-rope shorter equal length or ground-rope longer Mesh size in the main part different sizes same size Rings for purse line no rings rings of different types Strengthened bunt in the middle in the middle or at one end Hauling with both wings simultaneously both wings or from one end

29.5 Porpoises and tuna purse seining It is well known that very often porpoises travel for unknown reasons in tight association with yellowfin tuna. While the air-breathing dolphins hunt near the water surface the yellowfin tuna habitually swim beneath them. That is why, to catch tuna with purse seines, the so-called ‘porpoise fishing’ or fishing ‘on porpoise’ method is operated. The prac- tice started in the late 1950s. A search is made for a shoal of porpoises and, when found, the purse seine is set around the shoal of mammals above and the tuna below. This brings some trouble in sepa- rating tuna and dolphins when hauling the gear. Even though porpoises are capable of leaping easily over the cork line of the purse seine, they show little tendency to escape in this manner. By Figure 29.19 So-called ‘chiromila’ purse-net of Lake trying to escape through the mesh, some hundreds Tanganyika, Zambia. (From Nédélec 1975 with of thousands of dolphins are estimated to become permission.) entangled in the nets and drowned every year. The problem was to find a means of retaining the tuna and, at the same time, freeing the trapped por- surrounding gear according to the pursing system. poises. Both animals are about the same size, there- This is a special gear operated in different forms on fore regulation of the mesh size cannot help to Lake Tanganyika, called ‘chiromila’ (Nédélec 1975; separate them. Many experiments have been made Ben-Yami 1976) or, as used in Lake Nyasa, ‘chilim- to frighten the dolphins out of the gear by acoustic ila’ (Hickling 1961). This gear is used to catch methods. Playing back the alarm call of the dol- pelagic fish in open water. It may be of Arabian phins, or other acoustic signals including that of origin, brought from the sea fisheries of Aden in the killer whales hunting porpoises, have not suc- Arab slave trading days (Hickling 1961). The gear ceeded. In most cases fisheries are not interested in hangs down from the water surface in the form of catching dolphins. Moreover, by the US Marine an open calotte (Figure 29.19). It seems that such Mammals Protection Act of 1972 the porpoise has nets are most effective in catching small pelagic fish become a protected species and the number of por- when the water is not deep, so that the gear can poises allowed to be killed has been restricted. almost touch the bottom, or when the fish are con- Practical fishermen found how to decrease the high centrated during the night with the help of light at mortality of porpoises in purse seining for yellowfin a suitable place. The gear is towed by two boats, tuna off the American west coast. Two different which come together for closing the opening of the procedures to release porpoises have proved net as soon as the light-boat is inside the netting. effective – one by some alterations to the method Then hauling begins by pursing the line from both of purse seining, and the other by gear construction. boats simultaneously. To release the trapped dolphins, the so-called DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 463

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the gear by small-meshed netting.This reduced por- poise entanglements very much. Of course, by this alteration the buoyancy of the gear can be lessened to such a point that the corks sink so deeply that they are squeezed by increasing water pressure and the gear can no longer rise to the water surface. When this method became successful in avoiding killing porpoises, an apron of small-meshed netting was fixed at the end of the channel formed by the backdown. This apron forms a ramp that makes it easier for the dolphins to swim over the cork line during backdown (Bahram et al. 1977; Lineham & Curtsinger 1979).

29.6 Mechanization and improvement of purse seining The fishery with surrounding nets requires many helping hands. This is especially true for hauling netting some hundreds of metres long. Figures 29.6, 29.9 and 29.13 give only an impression of how many people were formerly needed to operate a gear like a purse seine. In modern industrial countries, a fishery needing many labourers can no longer be maintained because this labour is too expensive. This is the reason why not only pursing winches but Figure 29.20 Japanese net hauler for the handling of purse seine nets. also various kinds of net hauling systems were introduced into this fishery. Mechanization was ini- tially directed mainly at the hauling of lines with the ‘backing down’ or ‘backdown’ method was devel- help of capstans or winches. The gear itself had to oped by Captain Anton Maizetich, in San Pedro, be hauled in by hand and therefore needed many California, in 1959–60 (Figure 29.34). The principle hands. This applied to both methods of bulk fishing of this method is that when two-thirds of the purse – with trawls as well as surrounding nets. There seine is hauled, the vessel moves in reverse in a could be some mechanical help by hauling the wide arc. By this movement the gear forms a long netting over a long roller – maybe power driven – channel instead of a round circle.The porpoise tend mounted on the rail like that for hauling gillnets to congregate at the extreme end, far away from the used in the herring driftnet fishery.There may have vessel, while the tuna generally range back and been, also, some non-powered or even powered forth in the channel between the dolphins and the pulleys to facilitate the hauling of purse seines. vessel. At a time when the tuna are near the vessel, There are some in use today (Figures 29.20 and the ship is backed rapidly, causing the cork line at 29.21), but they are not effective enough to do the the end of the channel to become submerged. At hauling of the heavy gear without some additional that moment the porpoises concentrated there may manpower. Therefore a spectacular development escape. Normally, three or four such rapid back- appeared when the Yugoslavian-born fisherman, down surges are necessary to get the dolphins out Mario Puretic, introduced in 1953 the so-called of the purse seine. ‘power block’. This, and the introduction of syn- Porpoises may become entangled in the mesh by thetic fibres for purse seine netting, was considered their closed or open jaws as well as their pectoral a revolution – especially for tuna fishing (Schmidt fins. To avoid this, another experienced captain of 1959; McNeely 1961). The power block is a mecha- California, Harold Medina, in about 1971 replaced nized V-shaped pulley, originally driven by an some parts of the netting in the backdown area of endless rope from the winch of the vessel but later DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 464

464 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 29.21 Greek power block for two-boat purse seines for pilchard in Molivos harbour, Lesbos, Greece (1968).

driven hydraulically. By hanging the block on the end of a beam (derrick), nowadays also on a crane Figure 29.22 Californian tuna purse seiner with power at some height over the water surface (Figures block, operating from San Pedro (1962). 29.22 and 29.23), the narrow angle of the net creates sufficient friction in the rubber-lined ‘V’ sheave to apply a strong tractive effort on the netting. By means of these powered blocks, the net is hauled tuna and herring. Today, all species of pelagic fish much more quickly and with less manual work – like menhaden, pilchard, sardines, anchovy, mack- manual tasks being confined to controlling the erel, capelin and others are caught with purse seines mechanical operation of the gear (Figure 29.24). operated with power blocks. Even the small boats When hauling, the net comes from the power block of the French pole-and-line fishermen now have a onto the deck of the fishing vessel where it can be characteristic small power block to haul their small stacked in folds for immediate use in the next set. surrounding gear for bait fishing (Figure 29.26). Before this, the net was often hitched onto a so- With the introduction of the power block, purse called turntable which was turned to the right posi- seining made an important step forward in adapt- tion for the next set, so enabling the net to run out ing this formerly labour-intensive fishery to modern in the best manner. In two-boat seining the nets can needs. This was done long before such methods be hauled simultaneously from both ends by means were introduced into modern trawling (Chapters 26 of two power blocks. Therefore, off the coast of and 27). Namibia (south-west Africa), some vessels are Not only are purse seines now operated with fitted with two power blocks in order to haul in a power blocks but so too are some other types of shorter time (Figure 29.25). gear. Power blocks are used for transporting the Salmon purse seiners of the Pacific were the first nets on board the vessel, or back onto the wharf to use power blocks, then followed the fisheries for (Figures 29.27 and 29.28).The different uses caused DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 465

Figure 29.23 Modern French purse seiner with ramp in Concarneau (1977).

Figure 29.24 Hauling the net over the power block avoids much manual work in California (1962). DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 466

466 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 29.25 South-west African pilchard vessel with two power blocks and fish pump for transferring fish from the net into the hold (1965).

Figure 29.26 French pole-and-line fisher with power block for bait fishing and a small surrounding gear, from St Luz (1978). DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 467

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Figure 29.27 Power block for gear transportation in the French harbour of St Luz (1978).

Figure 29.28 Icelandic purse seiner with power block and drum for transportation (1970). DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 468

468 Fish Catching Methods of the World

many variations to appear in the construction and with a large catch, or under rough weather condi- dimensions of the power block. And it is not only tions. With this system the net can be hauled from power blocks that can be used for net handling in a lower height than that necessary for hauling with purse seining. One hauling device is known under the usual power blocks. On the other hand, a second the name ‘Triplex’ (Figures 29.29 and 29.30). This transporter block is needed to take the purse seine net winch hauls the gear by means of three rubber- to its stocking position on the vessel, often in a coated rollers rotating simultaneously in the oppo- higher location. As explained earlier, the power site direction to each other. The net is threaded block requires the net to run over the block at a between the rollers to create friction. By this system narrow approach angle and this is achieved by the net is prevented from slipping when it is heavy hanging the block as high as possible. But the high position of a heavy block can itself cause problems. This is avoided by the Triplex net hauling device which was specially made for fishing in rough waters where heavy catches are expected. There is also another device for handling and storing the smaller purse seines and other fishing gear, and that is the net drum. When this is used, the purse seine is hauled over a large roller at the stern of the vessel and wound up together with the purse line on a large drum (Coggins 1967; Hester 1971; High 1974). This reel is used in purse seining for setting, rewinding, and carrying the gear. Drum seining originated in Canada for salmon fishing with purse seines. This reel was constructed in 1935 but forgotten again until 1953, when drum seining Figure 29.29 Working diagram for hauling and trans- became successful in the American salmon fishery portation of a purse seine with Triplex. and that for herring. Nevertheless, hydraulically

Figure 29.30 Triplex hauling a purse seine. (Courtesy of Bjørshol Mek Werkstad, Langöyneset, Norway.) DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 469

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Figure 29.31 Brailing mackerel with a long-handled scoop net with a very deep net bag. California (1962).

powered drum seining was temporarily eclipsed made per day, maybe seventeen instead of ten. This when power blocks became available. Since then, is an advantage when fishing in areas with small the advantages and disadvantages of the two shoals of fish. The drum has more power, which methods have been the subject of debate. Some- means that the vessel can be pulled more strongly times drum seining, sometimes block seining, is con- into the ring of the set gear than with a power sidered as the most effective method. Both have block.Therefore, a more powerful skiff is needed in advantages and disadvantages (NN 1972; High drum seining, to keep the seiner out of the circle of 1974; Wright 1979). The main advantage of drum the purse seine. Finally, when a purse seine with a seining may be the fact that the number of crewmen power block high over the vessel is being hauled, can be reduced to four including the skipper, in con- fish and jellyfish can drop out of the netting, and trast to the six or seven men needed for block may fall into the faces and eyes of the fishermen seining. A disadvantage is that the purse seine watching below (Figure 29.24). Such problems do needs a special construction. The floatline and the not arise with drum seining. These differences leadline must be nearly the same length; otherwise demonstrate why there are various opinions on the the gear will not come in evenly. In contrast, any value of each method. The possibility of reducing purse seine can be operated by a power block as manpower costs makes drum seining attractive – long as the floats can pass the block. Drum seining but this method is prohibited in some countries, has the advantage that, when setting the gear, the such as Alaska. operation can be stopped at any stage when it Just as hauling the lines and the gear had to be seems suitable. This is not possible in block seining, carried out by hand originally, so too did brailing where the whole gear has to be set before retriev- the concentrated catch with hand-operated scoop ing can begin. Another advantage of drum seining nets, called ‘brails’. For brailing small fish, mostly is that the gear can be hauled in twice as fast as in simple but very deep scoop nets with long wooden block seining. This means that more sets can be handles are used (Figure 29.31). With the help of a DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 470

470 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 29.32 Plan of the operation of a pursed scoop net for brailing: (a) purse seine; (b) fish hold; (c) winch; (d) bridge; (e) brail with handle. (1) Operator of the winch for lowering and lifting the brail; (2) operator of the line for towing the brad in the right position before emptying; (3) operator of the handle of the brad; (4) operator of the line to close and open the brad.

Figure 29.33 Sketch of a typical purse seiner with power block and fish pump. (Courtesy of MARCO, Seattle, Washington.) DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 471

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damaged, or where damage was not important, such as industrial fish for producing fish meal. This has changed since the 1950s. Now improved pumps are available which can pump fish undamaged for human consumption (NN 1977). In the menhaden fishery, a successful method was developed of com- bining a purse seine with a fish pump with a suction head which is also an anode. With such an electri- fied pump the fish can be transferred not only much more quickly, but also in better condition (Halsband 1975). It has been mentioned in the first chapter, that the excitement caused by the introduction of syn- thetic fibres for netting materials (with unexpect- edly successful properties) is over. This does not mean that no further improvements in the employ- ment of these materials are possible. In Chapter 13 knotless netting, made according to the Raschel system, has been mentioned, and also that these mesh can, instead of the usual quadratic or rhombic form, also have a hexagonal one (Figure 13.16). Norwegian investigations revealed that purse seines with hexagonal mesh have some advantages over netting with rhombic mesh.The reason may be Figure 29.34 So-called ‘backdown method’ for releas- that mesh with the hexagonal form stays open much ing porpoises from a closed purse seine. (From Bahram better, and therefore has a lower water resistance. et al. 1977 with permission.) This can mean not only a better sinking speed of the purse seine but also that it is lighter and easier to handle. This may also apply to other gear made until now of knotless netting according to the winch and four people, the catch can be brailed Raschel system (Olsen & Beltestad 1980). from the gear directly into the fish hold of the As can be seen, many efforts have been made to vessel. In the California fishery these scoop nets can improve purse seining. This demonstrates too how lift out several tons of fish at a time. For brailing efficient this method of fishing is considered to be. larger fish like tuna, a special type of scoop net is Of all these efforts the invention of the Puretic used, which is less deep and which has a bottom that power block may be the most important one, even can be opened and closed with a purse line and though some think that the drum seine/fish pump rings, and works in a similar way to the purse net method will be the one of the future. By mecha- itself (Chapter 24, Figure 24.21). Figure 29.32 shows nization of the hauling devices, the purse seine how this brail is operated. Brailing purse seines fishery has achieved the same status as the modern with scoop nets is a labour-intensive and time- trawl fishery by stern trawling. By such mechaniza- consuming process. To improve purse seining, tion, the growing running costs due to rising wages pumps were introduced to empty the gear may be countered to some extent. In that way the (Buagoon 1959). In this way the fish may be purse seine fishery meets modern requirements and removed even more rapidly, not only from the net will, in future, together with the trawl fishery, to the fish hold but also from the hold to shore remain the leading method for bulk fishing of (Figures 29.25 and 29.33). In the anchovy fishery of pelagic shoals. But there need to be greater efforts South Africa and in western South America, the made to decrease the time of searching, by the labour-saving pumping method could originally be introduction of better fish finding methods, not only used only for small fish or those that would not be with the help of spotter aircraft (aeroplanes and DFC29 4/23/05 9:16 PM Page 472

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helicopters) but also by satellites which can survey Kato, S. (1976) The California squid fishery. FAO Fisheries large fishing areas. Some recent ideas for an Report No. 170, Spl. 1: Contributed papers submitted to optimum handling of purse seines during operation the expert consultation of fishing for squid and other cephalopods. 107–127, Rome. using suitable hydroacoustic technologies are Kristjonson, H. (1971) Modern Fishing Gear of the World described in Chapter 31. Vol. III, 246. Lagler, K.F. (1968) Capture, sampling and examination of fishes. In: Methods of Assessment of Fish Production in References Fresh Waters (ed. W. E. Ricker), 7–40 (45) IBP Hand- book 3. London. Apostolski, K. (1958) Fishing by means of ‘Naseki’ in Lineham, E.J. & Curtsinger, B. (1979) The trouble with Dojran Lake. Izdanija II (5), 83–101. the dolphins. National Geographic 155 (4), 506–541. Bahram, E.G. & Taguchi, W.K. & Reiley, S.B. (1977) Por- McNeely, R.L. (1961) Purse seine revolution in tuna poise rescue methods in the yellowfin purse seine fishing. Pacific Fisherman 59 (7), 27–58. fishery and the importance of Medina panel mesh size. Nédélec, C. (ed.) (1975) FAO Catalogue of Small Scale Marine Fisheries Review 39 (5), 1–10. Fishing Gear. Farnham. Ben-Yami, M. (1974) Fishing with light. World Fishing 23 NN (1959–65) Illustrations of Japanese Fishing Boats and (8), 46–48. Fishing Gear.Tokyo. Ben-Yami, M. (1976) Fishing with Light.Fishing News NN (1972) Purse seining by net drum. Fishing News Inter- Books, Farnham. national 11 (8), 43–49. Bertuccioli, U. (1955) Il Primo Libro del Pescatore. NN (1977) Fish pump survey. World Fishing 26 (5), 47, 49, Venice. 51. von Brandt, A. (1960) Fishing methods in world sardine Nomura, M. & Yamazaki, T. (1975) Fishing Techniques. fisheries. Proceedings of the World Scientific Meeting on Compilation of transcripts of lectures presented at the the Biology of Sardines and Related Species. FAO, Vol. Training Department SEAFDEC. Tokyo. II, 563–623. Olsen, S. & Beltestad, A.K. (1980) Russian hexagon mesh Buagoon, D.W. (1959) The use of fishpumps in USA. In: is proved in Norway. World Fishing 29 (2), 47–50. Modern Fishing Gear of the World, 414–417. du Plessis, C.G. (1959) Fishing with South African pursed Coggins, J. (1967) Nets Overboard! The Story of the lampara. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World, Fishing Fleets. London. 391–393. Cordini, J.M. (1962) La Pesca en el Mar Argentino. Roughley, T.C. (1968) Fish and Fisheries of Australia. Direction General de Pesca y Conservation de la Sydney. Fauna. [in Spanish]. Schaff, W.E. (1975) Status of the Gulf and Atlantic men- Davis, F.M. (1958) An account of fishing gear of England haden fisheries and implications for resource manage- and Wales. Fishery Investigations Ser. II, Vol. 21, No. 8. ment. Marine Fisheries Review 37 (9), 1–9. Dieuzeide, R. & Novalla, M. (1953) La matérial de Pêche Schärfe, J. (ed.) (1978) FAO Catalogue of Fishing Gear maritime utilisé en Algire. Documents et Reseignements Designs. Farnham. Agricoles, Bulletin No. 179. Schmidt, P.G. (1959) The Puretic power block and its Halsband, E. & Halsband, I. (1975) Einführung in die effect on modern purse seining. In: Modern Fishing Elektrofischerei. Schriften der Bundesforschungsanstalt Gear of the World, 400–413. London. für Fischerei 7. Berlin. Scofield, W.L. (1951) Purse seines and other roundhaul Hester, F.J. (1971) Application of drum seining in the nets in California. Fisheries Bulletin No. 81. Californian wetfish fishery. In: Modern Fishing Gear of Umali, A.F. (1950) Guide to the classification of fishing the World Vol. 3, 228–290, London. gear in the Philippines. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hickling, F.C. (1961) Tropical Inland Fisheries. London. Research Report No. 17. Washington. High, W.L. (1974) Puget Sound drum seining. Marine Wright, H. (1979) Purse seining with a drum. Fishing Fisheries Review 36 (12), 5–11. News International 18 (6), 36–39. Hyogo-Ken, A. (1959) Development of synthetic netting and its effect on the fishing industry. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World, 152–155. DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 473

30 Fishing Systems and Harvesting Machines

In the first chapter some of the impulses which may large-scale trawling opportunities and the need to have led to the development of fishing gear and conserve fuel because of the increasing price of oil fishing methods for subsistence fishing, small-scale may complicate the development of fishing systems artisan fisheries and nowadays to large-scale com- in the future. Nevertheless, there are some begin- mercial fisheries were mentioned. This develop- nings of further developments in fishing systems, ment began in prehistoric times and will continue not only in trawling but also in purse seining and in the future. The universal gear for hunting in longlining. These new ideas range from hunting a general was replaced by specialized gear for catch- single fish to the management of large fish popula- ing fish and other water prey. Wooden gear was tions and their harvesting in an economic manner. replaced by gear partly or entirely made of netting; To some extent the well-known fishing methods fisheries in shallow waters were extended to deeper have to be varied or even replaced by newer har- waters; smaller gear was replaced by larger; the vesting methods. Originally electrical fishing was manpower needed for the operation of the larger considered to be the beginning of a new way of gear was reduced by mechanization; fishing spread netless fishing, but it was discovered that this from the coast to more distant areas, combining method could not meet the needs of the large-scale catching with fish searching; electronic gear for fish sea fisheries for reasons mentioned earlier finding brought with it the ability to control the (Chapter 5). Nevertheless, electrical fishing is catch and the gear more effectively during fishing. repeatedly recommended with new fishing systems. Most important of all, increasing observation of One such system proposed catching coastal pelagic fishing methods and the need to combine these fish from unused oil rig platforms (Seidel & observations and handling methods before, during Vanselous 1976) – the fish being concentrated first and after the catch (this includes the bringing of the with floating or submerged stationary objects, catch aboard), are leading to the development of an sometimes with lights, electrical current, sound integrated fishing system. This system will be lures or even smells. The proposal envisages the steered by computers being used to collect and to catch being taken automatically onto the platform evaluate data, and to apply fully automatic fishing (or aboard the vessel) which may incorporate a fish methods combining searching, catching and pro- processing system. There are some beginnings in cessing, so bringing the optimum of success. All this this direction for catching fish and also for dredg- can be realized only on the assumption that the new ing mussels and harvesting the different types of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), and new ideas seaweed. These completely new forms of fishing about the protection of nature, or the increasing methods are comparable with the agricultural price of energy, do not stop or change the direction combine-harvesters which reap and thresh the of fisheries development. Concerning the combina- grain and pack the corn into bags. Such machines tion of searching, catching and processing, there are generally known as ‘harvesting machines’, a have been proposals for such a system, especially in term which will be used also in this chapter. Fishing trawling (Chapters 26 and 27). However, limited with harvesting machines, sometimes with pumps

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other commercial use without nets or any other gear. It is predicted that there will be a trend towards the greater use of smaller, that means of lower trophic level, fish (Chapman 1969). If this is right, pumps will have an increasing application as a form of fishing gear. To operate pumps economi- cally in fishing, without any other gear, needs a high concentration of prey near the water surface. More- over, the concentrated prey must not be frightened by the water current caused by the suction of the pump. This should be achieved by a widely pub- lished proposal demonstrated in Figure 30.1. The fish are attracted by light from the depths to the Figure 30.1 The principle of fishing for sardine with area of the pump, and are there concentrated and electric light, electricity and pump. The fishes are narcotized by electric currents. Thereafter the fish attracted by light, stupefied by electricity, and pumped are taken on board the fishing vessel by means of a out of the water. suction pump. According to some overoptimistic newspaper reports, pump fishing could become a permanent fishing method by vessels anchored in and conveyors, with or without filtration devices, the midst of the oceans. The fact that the area of can be considered as the final step in the develop- light attraction, and the stunning effect of an elec- ment of fishing gear. tric field, are both limited is overlooked. As cor- rectly demonstrated in Figure 30.1 (III), the outer 30.1 Pump fishing area of the electrical field has a frightening effect on the fish; only the fish inside a small area are Suction pumps are mostly known in fisheries for attracted and stunned. Therefore this method ‘fish pumping’, that means transferring a catch of cannot be used as simply as many people expected. fish or other prey from a gear into the hold of the Pump fishing without electricity became success- vessel. The catch may also be pumped from the ful for small types of clupeid fishes. In the Soviet vessel in harbour directly to a fish processing area of the Caspian Sea, fishery in this way has been factory. Fish pumping is done especially in purse developed on a commercial scale (Nikoronov seining instead of brailing with scoop nets (Figures 1959). The fish, a sardine-like species found by 29.25 and 29.33). Some attempts have been made at echo-sounder, are attracted by light and pumped on continuous trawling by pumping the catch out of board the vessel while the suction nozzle, with two the gear during fishing. This chapter does not lamps of 1500 W, is moved up and down (Figure discuss this form of ‘fish pumping’ but looks instead 30.2). at the use of suction pumps to catch fish, shrimp, Originally, rotary fish pumps were used and the squid, krill or plankton without the use of nets. This suction hose was handled by a crane. Nowadays, so-called ‘pump fishing’ is mostly done with light instead of a pump system, an airlift principle has and electricity. There are two problems to face in been adopted and the hoses, as well as the pipe for pumping fish: first, the size of the fish in relation to the compressed air and the cable for electrical the diameter of the hose, and second the rate of current, are stored on reels (NN 1969). The fish can damage to the fish. The diameter of the hose used be pumped from depths of up to 110 m. The hose for pumping must be limited, therefore only small has an inside diameter of 20 cm. On the vessel a fish can be pumped. If the fish are to be used for separator (Figure 30.3) removes the water and most the production of fish meal and not for human con- of the fish scales. There are other ideas for combin- sumption, the rate of damage is not important. The ing pump fishing with electricity (Nikoronow 1964), difficulties of pumping fish diminish with the and especially for overcoming the frightening decreasing size of the fish. Up till now pumps have effect of the suction intake. More may be known been used to catch small fish to be used for bait or about this method of combining light attraction and DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 475

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electrolysis in the near future (Figure 30.4). beginning of the 20th century squid were caught (Maljawitschus 1968; Alekseev 1971; Ben-Yami with lampara nets brought from Italy. This method 1974, 1976; NN 1977). has now been improved by attracting the squid with Pump fishing became successful in the squid strong artificial lights. Until now, when enough fishery. Off the Californian coast, squid were squid had gathered under the lights they were cap- attracted by light from an anchored vessel. Origi- tured by powered or hand-operated brails. The nally, Chinese fishermen used torches hanging from attracting system remains unchanged but today the the bow of their skiffs to light the water. At the basic fishing unit is a pump with a large funnel with another light inside (Figure 30.5). The pump carries the squid to a separator on board which leads to a fish hold by means of an adjustable chute (Kato 1970; NN 1970a). There have been some ideas for using pumps for fishing krill, but up till now they have been used for ‘fish pumping’ only; that means they are used to transfer the caught krill from the trawl to the vessel. Pumps have been used very successfully for col- lecting mussel shells for lime burning, chicken food, etc. (Ursinus 1969). This form of exploitation of the sea is considered as a form of fishing; also this is true ‘pump fishing’.

Figure 30.2 Pump fishing with light in the Caspian Sea.

Figure 30.3 Pump and separator for ‘kilka’ fishing on the Russian vessel Lenkoram, fishing in the Caspian Sea. DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 476

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Figure 30.4 Pump fishing with light and electricity. The cathodes are not shown. (From Maljawitschus 1968 with permission.)

30.2 Hydraulic dredges with pumps and/or conveyors As mentioned in Chapters 7 and 25, hand-operated and hydraulic jet dredges are used to dig and to Figure 30.5 Pump fishing with light for squid off the wash out mussels that have buried themselves in Californian coast. (Courtesy Susumu Kato, National Marine Fisheries Service, La Jolla, California.) the seabed. This system is also used to stir up shrimps grown in ponds, as is done in Japan with the so-called ‘pump net’ (Shigueno 1974). This is a type of dredge with a net bag towed by a motor boat equipped with a water pump. Similar to that explained in the first section of this chapter. This is shown in Figure 7.16b, the supply pipe receives especially true in cases where mechanical shellfish high-pressure water through a hose from the pump diggers are combined with suction pumps, escala- on the boat. The water jet stirs up the bottom sand tors or conveyors. Figure 30.6 shows a schematic together with the shrimp, which are trapped in the drawing of a cockle suction dredge. In this case the bag of the dragged dredge. The shrimp are taken dredge is combined with an air lift pump, lifting out of the gear by frequent haulings. the mussels to the separator on board, from where Some of the dredges are so improved that the the clean washed cockles are delivered by a chute prey is not only dug out, or stirred up and collected to the hold (NN 1970b). Such shellfish harvesters in a bag, but is also conveyed on board the vessel are especially valuable when the mussel density is by the same gear. This was an important step too low to make hand-digging economical. The forward.Therefore this gear, combining digging and dredge is lowered from a small gallows and towed hauling, can be considered a harvesting machine as by a single warp.Two pipes run to the dredge as can DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 477

Fishing Systems and Harvesting Machines 477

Figure 30.6 British cockle dredger with suction pump. (From NN 1970 with permission.)

be seen in Figure 30.7. The smaller one is a high- pressure PVC hose directing the water, under pres- sure, into the large pipe by means of an internal jet. Suction is created in the larger pipe on the Venturi principle. It is this suction which picks up water and cockles and forces them into the boat (NN 1967). Another way of bringing the washed-out shells on board the dredging vessel is to work with ‘mechanical escalator harvesters’. In this case the Figure 30.7 Dredge with high-pressure hose and larger shells are hauled with the help of a conveyor.A dis- suction pipe of a British cockle dredger. (Photo: Meaner.) advantage of this system is that more sand is trans- ported by the belt as compared with a suction pump. Hydraulic escalator dredges became of inter- est for harvesting soft shell clams (Mya arenaria). The basic design of such elevator dredges can be seen in two schematic drawings (Figures 30.8 and There are problems involved in shell dredging in 30.9) showing the essential parts and the operation tidal areas, such as in Brittany on the French of the Maryland hydraulic escalator dredge, which Atlantic coast. There it was necessary for boats to was invented and introduced about 1951 (Figure go to the fishing places or mussel beds during high 30.10). The digging equipment is forced into the tide, work there during low water and then wait for seabed by the boat. In front of the scoop is a man- high tide again in order to return. The problem was ifold with water jets to loosen the sediment in its solved with an ‘amphibious mussel harvester’. This path. Behind is a conveyor with an endless belt vehicle can be operated like a boat to reach the which brings the shellfish up to the boat on the fishing place, work there as a wheeled craft in the surface (Dickie & McPhail 1957; NN 1970b). The low water, and drive back into deep water to return incidental mortality rate for this harvester (like that to port as boat. Four and three-wheeled models are for hydraulic rakes mentioned in Chapter 7) is < available (NN 1980). Wheeled harvesting machines 5% (Medcof 1961). This design was later improved to replace boats are not new to fisheries. In British and modified to harvest oysters and hard clams. Columbia an eight-wheeled clam digging machine Revolving spring-loaded teeth, attached to two has been operated. This machine washes out razor drums, pull or rake oysters from the bottom. Hori- clams with powerful jets and immediately picks zontal water jets and the action of the revolving them up with a large scoop net. A conveyor belt teeth lift the oysters onto a conveyor belt which carries the clams up to separators in the vehicle’s carries them to the boat. working area (NN 1972). DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 478

478 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 30.8 Shellfish harvester of the Atlantic coast of North America. (From Sunstrom 1957 with permission.)

Figure 30.9 A shellfish harvester for soft-shell clam. (Leaflet 3, Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission, Florida, 1965.) DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 479

Fishing Systems and Harvesting Machines 479

Figure 30.10 Mechanical clam digger at work. (From Dickie & MacPhail 1957 with permission.)

formed the basis for the development of harvesting 30.3 Harvesting machines for machines which not only cut the seaweed under aquatic weeds water, collect it, and lift it aboard, but can also Aquatic plants in fresh waters and sea waters can transport large quantities and discharge the mater- be harvested for commercial use and also as a form ial on the shore. Some of these harvesting machines of plant control with the object of destroying float- can also chop, press and de-water the material, so ing plants like Eichhornia crassipes or submerged that a wet pulverized weed is the final product ones such as Myriophillum, Elodea and others (Little 1979; Lunin 1980). which are a nuisance. Although much more Most projected harvesters have been based on progress has been made in the mechanical control the idea of a large flexible tube with a rotating of water plants (Little 1979), there is some related cutter at one end, the cut weed then being drawn development in commercial harvesting of seaweeds up with a pump. Kelp harvesters are like giant such as laver, undaria, kelp, etc. as foodstuff for seagoing reaping machines or lawn-mowers (Figure human needs, for feeding animals, as raw material 30.11). The barge-like harvesting machines will be for fertilizer and for the needs of chemical indus- moved back and forth over the designated harvest- tries (Scofield 1959). It is only the commercial har- ing area. The kelp is cut by the large cutting racks vesting of useful aquatic plants that is considered in at the rear of the vessel and conveyor belts haul the this section. cut seaweed aboard. In addition to such giant Originally, the methods used for collecting machines, there are smaller and simpler types that aquatic plants were very simple. As can be seen in can do the work of collecting algae. In Chapter 7 Chapter 2, sometimes fishermen only gathered the (Figures 7.14 and 7.15) some wrenching gear for kelp that was washed ashore as a result of storms harvesting aquatic plants were described. This orig- (Figure 2.2). Large quantities were lost by this inal gear was turned by hand to entangle the method. Simple gear like sickles and scythes were required plants. This can also be carried out in the also used for cutting and collecting aquatic plants. same way with a mechanized gear. Figure 30.12 Some of this gear has already been mentioned in shows a Russian design for the mechanized har- Chapter 7, e.g. rakes and wrenching gear, and in vesting of seaweed – in this case Laminaria. These Chapter 25 when dredging was discussed. In some machines operate with a crane turning a wrenching cases this gear has been mechanized and a few have gear to wind up the kelp and bring it aboard. The DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 480

480 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 30.11 Modern Californian kelp harvester.

Figure 30.13 French harvesting machine for algae, so- called ‘scoubidou’, near Brest (1977).

Figure 30.12 Russian crane with turning implement for harvesting Laminaria. (From Lunin 1980 with permission.) 30.4 Fishing systems in the future There is no doubt that in the future, owing to the high cost of manpower and energy, the importance of fully mechanized and computerized harvesting machines will increase. Some trends towards the French operate a similar gear in Brittany, also for development of such sophisticated arrangements as harvesting Laminaria (Piboubes 1973–74). There a ‘integrated fishing systems’ are apparent. Such a small crane is mounted on the vessel with a spiral system includes not only the computerized opera- for twisting together and tearing out the seaweed tion of the vessel’s engine, and of the fish process- (Figure 30.13). The Frenchmen call this arrange- ing plant on board, but includes also fish searching, ment ‘scoubidou’, which means nothing more than fish identification, and the selection of the catch. ‘what’s-its-name?’, a term used in France for many The system also includes all the navigation required other things when the exact name is not known.The to bring the vessel and gear into the best position crane is also used to unload the harvested seaweed in relation to the prey desired to be caught. Com- from the vessel onto a truck on shore. For this puters will calculate the right time to shoot the gear, purpose the crane is fitted with grabs (Figure in order to control the catching process and the 30.14). quantity of fish caught. Finally, the system includes DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 481

Fishing Systems and Harvesting Machines 481

Figure 30.14 French harvesting machine for algae, also used for unloading seaweed from the vessel onto a truck in the harbour, near Brest (1977).

automatic hauling of the gear and the handling of in fishing rights, political measures, variations in the the catch for processing. During the second Fishing needs of the international markets, and increasing Gear Congress of FAO in London in 1963, a captain costs of labour and fuel, may retard or even prevent mentioned that he would like to go fishing with a such new developments – in which case simpler large vessel and his family only. An engineer methods will prevail. Fishing is very vulnerable to answered that there are no technical problems to outside events. Periods of rapid development, such prevent realization of this dream, but he had some as after World War II, alternate with periods of doubt if any one would pay the price, for the devel- hardly any innovation. This underlines the wide- opment of such a system! In the meantime, fishing spread belief that fisheries are very conservative. It units have become more expensive, and the number may be that such a period of little progress will of people willing to work in fisheries steadily come again. decreases. With the help of space research and other technological developments the problems of computerizing complicated systems can be solved. References Overcoming the difficulties of greater automatic control in fisheries is under discussion in many parts Alekseev, A.P. (ed.) (1971) Fish Behaviour and Fishing Techniques. Israel Program of Scientific Translations. of the world. No predictions can be made at this Jerusalem. time for the future development of fishing technol- Ben-Yami, M. (1974) Fishing with light.World Fishing 23 ogy. It may be that unexpected events like changes (8), 46–48. DFC30 4/23/05 9:19 PM Page 482

482 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Ben-Yami, M. (1976) Fishing with Light. Fishing News NN (1967) High productivity dredging. World Fishing 16 Books, Farnham. (7), 60–61, 64. Chapman, W.M. (1969) Implications of space research to NN (1969) Tide-line shrimping new style. World Fishing fishery development. In: Oceans from Space, 202–216. 18 (4), 43. Houston/Texas. NN (1970a) California squid boats try fishing with pumps. Dickie, L.M. & McPhail, J.S. (1957) An experimental Fishing News International 9 (5), 73. mechanical shellfish digger. Progress report and reports NN (1970b) Purpose-built cockle dredger. World Fishing of the Atlantic coast stations. Fisheries Research Board 19 (5), 26–27. of Canada No. 66, 3–8. NN (1972) Eight-wheeled clam catcher works Canadian Horn, W. (1978) Versuche zum Einsatz einer Netzpumpe beach. Fishing News International 11, (8), 18. in der Krillfischerei. In: Erforschung und wirtschaftliche NN (1977) Fish pump survey. World Fishing 26 (5), Erschließung der Krillbestände und Nutzfische in der 47/49/51. Antarktis Vol. II (see Fishing News International 18 (6), NN (1980) The boat on wheels. Fishing News Interna- 13, 1979). tional 19 (5), 46. Kato, S. (1970) Catching squid by the ton with pumps. Piboubes, P. (1973/74) Pêche et Conchiliculture en National Fisheries, June. Bretagne-nord,Vols 1 & 2. Biarritz. Little, E.C.S. (1979) Handbook of Utilisation of Aquatic Scofield, W.L. (1959) History of kelp harvesting in Plants. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 187. Rome. California. California Fish and Game 45 (3), 135–157. Lunin, V.I. (1980) Piscevaja Promyslennost. [The methods Seidel, W.R. & Vanselous, T.M. (1976) Automated of the fishing industry.] Moscow [in Russian]. unmanned fishing system to harvest coastal pelagic fish. Maljawitschus, S.K. (1968) (La pêche du poisson en mer Marine Fisheries Review 38, (2), 21–26. sans filet, ses perspectives de development). Rybnoe Shigueno, K. (1974) Shrimp Culture in Japan.Tokyo. Khosyaistvo 44 (10), 44–46 [in Russian]. Sunstrom, G.T. (1957) Commercial fishing vessels and Medcof, J.C. (1961) Effect of hydraulic escalator har- gear. US Fish and Wildlife Service Circular No. 48. vester on under-sized soft-shell clams. Proceedings of Washington. the National Shellfish Association 50. Ursinus, P. (1969) Schillgewinnung mit Muschelsauger. Nikonorov, I.V. (1959) The basic principles of fishing for Protokolle zur Fischereitechnik Vol., 385–389. the Caspian Kilka by underwater light. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 2, 559–566. London. Nikoronov, I.V. (1964) Pump fishing with light and elec- tric current. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 2, 577–579. London. DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 483

31 Fishery and Gear Research

Fishery is often still considered as a traditional 31.1 General aspects of fishing activity with romantic and a lot of nature-related gear research aspects. It often escapes attention that even here high technology and research have become indis- The efficiency of the fish catching operation, par- pensable. Therefore, the authors of the fourth ticularly in its industrialized form, depends to a high revised edition intend with this chapter to add to degree on the quality of the technical means used the description of different fishing gear an account and, primarily, of course, on the kind of fishing gear of current fishing gear research and to refer in this used. Research carried out since the start of the context to some general publications with more 20th century in the area of material testing, engi- detailed descriptions. neering calculations and model tests, and the inclu- Fishing gear research on commercially important sion of observation and measuring techniques have fishing gear such as trawls and purse seines usually had a decisive influence on the enormous efficiency starts with a concept and calculations. It is then con- attained by fishing gear used today. It is easily tinued with model tests of different kinds (e.g. as understandable that, for example, fishing trawls 2 mechanical models either in a flume tank or in sea with 20 000 m opening area and mesh of > 50 m trials) until its verification in full-scale tests. Besides bar length cannot be designed and built by a single the optimization of the function of the gear in the brave fisherman. As with other large engineering development phase, later on during the full-scale structures, they have to be calculated and designed tests an optimization of the operation is necessary. with the aid of a computer. Their construction and The measuring instruments and procedures used in repair is only feasible by proven experts ashore. this context are also the result of longstanding Parallel to the increase in efficiency of the fishing research and development. Though using modern gear, often a stronger negative influence on fish fishing gear still needs the renowned ‘nose’ of the stocks, other marine organisms and the environ- captain and his intuition, today this is supported on ment has been observed.This is also the reason why the bridge of a modern catcher vessel by a multi- these aspects of fishing have become the subject of tude of technical equipment. Only this equipment scientific investigations. can tell reliably where fish concentrations worthy of being caught exist, when the fishing gear has 31.2 Optimization of function reached the necessary depth, how the fish aggrega- tions react to the approaching gear, and if it was Whereas at the start of modern fishing, gear devel- able to catch them. opment methods of trial-and-error predominated, today the mathematical–physical simulation has gained a status where it is possible to design and calculate whole trawl systems. Though this does not completely assure catching efficiency, at least a catching system can be designed that is fully

483 DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 484

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Figure 31.1 Different views of a large pelagic trawl generated by com- puter simulation.

operational from the point of view of a fishing gear catching system such as otter boards, lifting devices technologist. Basic work in this area of research has or towing warps may also be subjected to similar been carried out in Russia (the former Soviet back calculation. Hence it is possible that very large Union) (e.g. Fridman 1969; Baranov 1976), in catching systems are manageable already at the first Germany (Stengel & Fridman 1977; Leitzke 1981; design phases. Niedzwiedz & Hopp 1998) and in Japan (Miyamoto Before practical tests at sea, different types et al. 1952; Nomura et al. 1967). Their results are of model tests are used to obtain a function op- used today in renowned net producing firms in timization in addition to the calculations and Asia, Europe and North America. The calculation mathe-matical–physical simulations. This applies of the rope netting part of a super-size trawl will be especially to bottom trawls. Flume tanks, known demonstrated here as an example. worldwide, as e.g. the ones in St. Johns (Canada), Figure 31.1 shows different views of a trawl type Hirtshals (Denmark), Boulogne (France), Hull ‘Gloria’ generated by computer simulation. It was (UK) and Kaliningrad (Russia) are used to esti- designed for the catch of redfish off Iceland. In this mate the resulting shape and forces of new trawl example its main parameters are: 167 m vertical designs (see scheme of flume tank in Hull: Figure opening, 240 m wingtip distance and a total length 31.2). Such devices enable future users to get an of 500 m. In addition to the magnitude of stress on image of what they will usually never see again at the single ropes and the forces transferred, this sim- sea. As a matter of completeness it ought to be ulation allows for the calculation of the total gear mentioned that a series of similarity criteria have towing resistance at different speeds. The assess- to be met both for such models and the fluid if the ment of the influence of different rope material and conditions of models and full-scale gear are to be different rigging is also possible. Without such sim- judged as comparable (Tauti 1934; Kawakami 1964; ulations, where the complicated netting structure is Stengel & Fridmann 1977). replaced by a more simple and, from a mathemati- Figure 31.3 demonstrates a bottom trawl model cal–physical point of view, easier-to-manage twine- in the current of the flume tank in Hull. In addition stress systems, it would hardly have been possible to such flume tanks, inland water lakes or coastal to construct such nets for successful operation. regions with good visibility and low disturbing Principally such simulations are also applicable effects of the weather are also used for model tests with purse seines, set nets and pound nets. A com- (Figure 31.4). Two well-known test sites with a long parable gain of knowledge would in most cases not tradition for testing fishing gear models should be have been possible or would at least have been mentioned: Insko in Poland and Vishtinetz in much more expensive. Of course, other parts of a Russia. DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 485

Figure 31.2 Scheme of flume tank in Hull. (Courtesy of Sea Fish Industry Authority, Hull.)

Figure 31.3 A bottom trawl model in the current of the flume tank in Hull. (Courtesy of Sea Fish Industry Authority, Hull.)

Figure 31.4 Inland water lakes or coastal regions with good visibility and low disturbing effects of the weather are also used for model tests: observation catamaran at the research station at Insko Lake, Poland. DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 486

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Figure 31.5 Test of an otter-board model mounted onto a towing car- riage in the Rostock test channel: 1, trailing wheels; 2, supporting roller; 3, square pipe frame; 4, ball-and-socket joint; 5, towing bar; 6, bushes; 7, lever arm; 8, compensating weight tray; 9, sensor; 10, Cardan joint; 11, levelling roll; 12, levelling plate. (From Gabriel 1973 with permission.)

the marine environment is included in the test results. There are many examples of good designs of fishing gear from the technical point of view which were not at all successful in real working con- ditions, which cannot be scaled down for model tests. An important tool when regarding the practical importance of fishing gear is underwater observa- tion (Clark et al.). The traditional method for underwater observations is scuba divers using photo- or cine cameras for the documentation of their observations. Even today they are still used when modern techniques are not available and the tests are performed in shallow water with good visibility. The restriction of water depth and diving time, as well as strict safety regulations for scuba divers, were the reason for the development of solid pressure chambers for dry divers in fishing gear Figure 31.6 Solid pressure chambers for dry divers research. This technique was especially used for used in fishing gear research. (From Korotkov et al. 1977 with permission.) many years in the former Soviet Union (see Figure 31.6; Korotkov 1998). A big step forward in underwater observation techniques was the introduction of the television technique in this field (Bathurst 1954; Hammond Wind tunnels are another possibility for model 1952; Sand 1955). With the possibility of transfer- tests with fishing gear elements like otter boards, ring the signals of an underwater TV camera by a hydrodynamic lift devices, ropes and net panels cable to a surface monitor the use of divers with (Stengel & Hartung 1964). The test arrangement of high costs and risks was no longer necessary.During an otter-board model for bottom trawling is shown the 1970s, low light level cameras which can be used in Figure 31.5. These otter boards are still used without artificial light even in water depths of about today on big mid-water trawlers. 100 m were introduced in fishing gear research. Measurements and direct observation can be They were especially useful when observing the performed when testing models in flume tanks or reaction of fish to fishing gear. wind tunnels, but the final optimization can only be The leading institute for underwater observation carried out with the full-scale gear in real working techniques was the Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, conditions at sea, when the interaction with fish and Scotland, where the remote controlled towed DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 487

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Figure 31.7 Two-man wet towed vehicle made from brazed tubular steel. The curved Perspex screen shelters the divers. A fibre-glass air chamber (top) with bleed valve and compressed air supply allows control of buoyancy. Two fins (laminated wood) control vertical and lateral movement of the vehicle. (Main & Sangster 1978) (Courtesy of the Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen.)

Flotation tank

Port/starb rotors

Electric motors Tether/umbilical

Stills camera Dive/climb rotors Figure 31.8 The Marine Laboratory, TV camera Aberdeen, remote controlled towed vehicle for the observation of towed fishing gear. Control is by means of two pairs of Magnus rotors. (Priestley Pan/tilt et al. 1985) (Courtesy of the Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen.)

vehicle with Magnus rotor control was developed possible in very good weather conditions. In case which is now in use in many fishery research insti- only certain parts of the gear such as exit windows tutes all over the world (see steps to this in Figures are to be observed, the camera can be mounted on 31.7 and 31.8). On this vehicle all instruments are the trawl at a fixed position. Video signals can be mounted such as TV camera, pan and tilt unit, transferred by cable to the vessel or recorded on a sonar, spotlights, etc. The main advantage of the video recorder in a watertight housing mounted rotor-controlled vehicle is the high stability of the also on the trawl. A successful underwater obser- control mechanism. The cross force of the rotors vation system is the STIPS TV system developed in depends only on their number of revolutions which Kiel, Germany. It was developed in co-operation makes it possible to hold a position of the vehicle with the Federal Research Center for Fisheries, very close to the gear, even inside a trawl. Vehicles Hamburg, and can be used on research vessels as controlled by flaps are very sensitive to small alter- well as on commercial fishing vessels. The technical ations of the angle of attack of the flaps which principle of the STIPS system is shown in Figure can never be avoided when touching the gear or 31.9. As can be seen, one or more cameras are the bottom with the vehicle. Sometimes the vehi- mounted on the trawl and connected to a surface cle is towed by a second vessel, but the exact co- unit by cable for signal transfer. There is a wireless ordination of the two vessels is difficult and only connection from the surface unit to the towing DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 488

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Video signal receiving station Towed body with video signal transmitter

Towed body with UW-TV camera Cable

Figure 31.9 STIPS system.

depend on the water flow at the control mechanism, i.e. only towed fishing gear can be observed. For the observation of fixed gear there are self-propelled remote-controlled vehicles equipped with a camera mounted on a pan and tilt unit and connected to the control unit by a cable for power and signal transfer. The range of the optical systems described above is limited by the high absorption and the light atten- uation in water. It can be increased by the use of modern LIDAR (Light Detecting and Ranging) methods to about 50 m. However, suitable equip- ment for fishing gear research is not yet available. Acoustic methods are preferred, therefore, for Figure 31.10 STIPS system on a small Baltic cutter the observation and measurement of larger fishing when testing the effect of so-called BRDs (by-catch gear. A range of several hundred metres can be reducing devices). obtained due to the minor attenuation of acoustic waves in water (MacLennan & Simmonds 1992). Accordingly, such instruments are known as vessel at a distance of more than 1 km, depending echosounders. Echo-sounders sensu stricto work on the power of the transmitter. The system works in a vertical direction whereas the Sonar (Sound at a maximum water depth of about 50 m. Figure Navigation and Ranging) can be used for observa- 31.10 shows the system on a small Baltic inshore tions in any direction. The names may be chosen trawler when testing the effect of so-called BRDs somewhat incorrectly but they are in common use (by-catch reducing devices). The latest develop- nowadays. ment in this field is an autonomous torpedo-like Trawl sonars (e.g. SIMRAD FS20/25) produce a vehicle governed by satellites and equipped with three-dimensional image of trawls. In Figure 31.11 cameras and sensors for salinity, oxygen, tempera- a vertical and a horizontal section through the ture, etc., but these systems are complicated and too fishing gear under normal operational conditions is expensive for fishery research. The above-men- demonstrated. The vertical section shows the shape tioned rotor controlled or flap controlled vehicles of the net mouth and the position of the gear on the DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 489

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Figure 31.12 Monitor of the measurement system ITI Figure 31.11 A vertical cut with sonar through the (Integrated Trawl Instrumentation) with measurement fishing gear under normal operational conditions. results.

sea bottom. The other section allows for a view of ations. Strict adherence to a prescribed net geo- the trawl geometry and of the position of otter metry ensures optimum catches. So-called gear boards and legs. monitoring systems are applied for this purpose. Special gear monitoring systems are applied for Unknown currents or erroneous rigging of single the measurement of the geometry of fishing gear. elements of the catching system (warp length, otter Sensors fastened at the net measure distances, boards, etc.) may lead to serious deformation of the depth, forces, angles and towing speed. net geometry. This may cause catch reduction or The measurement of distances between well- even total losses. The actual amount of catch in defined points of the fishing gear (e.g. distance of towed gear is determined by special sensors mea- the wingtips, distance of otter boards, net opening) suring the deformation of the codend caused by is of particular importance. Distances can be mea- the fish enclosed. The fishing operation can be fini- sured very reliably with acoustic transponders. A shed then as soon as a sufficient amount of catch is master transponder transmits regular sound pulses. indicated. The slave transponders answer these pulses after Netsondes (echo-sounder at the headline) and receipt. The master–slave distance can be calcu- trawl sonars produce, besides the net geometry, lated from the time elapsed. Data transfer from additional information concerning the position of fishing gear to ship is via cableless transmission. the catch objects with regard to the ship and the Aboard the ship, measurement values can be dis- fishing gear. This is particularly helpful in the played on a monitor and can be recorded for later pelagic trawl fishery as here the depth of the fish evaluation. aggregations is an additional variable. Figure 31.12 shows measurement results on Figure 31.13 demonstrates a common situation in the monitor of the measurement system ITI aimed pelagic trawling. Fish aggregations are (Integrated Trawl Instrumentation). Here too, a detected by means of the ship’s sonar. Controlled vertical and a horizontal cut through the trawl by the netsonde, the trawl is then steered to the is demonstrated which has been calculated from desired depth.The netsonde, too, allows for a check the position measured and the distances of the of the success of such an operation. It is possible to sensors. determine whether the fishing gear has hit the aggregation or not. A frequent reason for failure is 31.3 Optimization of operation not only incorrect steering of the net but also the migration behaviour of the prey. A natural migra- The observation and the measurement of fishing tion tendency can be enhanced by fish reactions to gear are even of advantage in practical fishing oper- stimuli caused by the ship (sound, light). DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 490

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transmission

fish echo

headline seabed echo fish footrope

Figure 31.13 Aimed pelagic trawling.

In purse seining (Figure 31.14) the position of fish bycatch. However, it has to be mentioned that such aggregation and fishing gear is determined by the species identification requires long experience in sonar of the ship. Thus, it is possible to enclose the the fishery on this particular fishing ground. desired fish aggregation by the purse seine and to Other properties of the echo signal may also be survey the total catching operation. With transpon- used for the identification of catch objects. The ders at the purse seine it is even feasible to control target strength of a single fish depends on its length the correct deployment of the gear. (MacLennan & Simmonds 1992). It is possible to By aid of acoustic detection methods, it is not measure these parameters using a special echo- only possible to determine the position of fish sounder and to use this measurement for a length aggregation. Echo-sounders may even deliver distribution of the target species. information on the species and the amount of the In addition, quantitative measurements are fea- catch object. Some fish species concentrate in sible with hydroacoustic instruments. It is possible typical aggregation shapes causing characteristic to assess the density of the target species by echo- traces on the echogram. Thus, e.g. herring can be integrators and to derive from this the number of identified on the echogram as strong ‘poles’, very fish in a given fishing ground. However, these dense swarms with a vertical and horizontal dimen- methods are restricted to special stock assessment sion of some 10 m. It is feasible to carry out aimed investigations. No gain in information can be trawling on such traces and to avoid unwanted expected for the practical fishery. DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 491

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References Baranov, F.I. (1976) Selected Works on Fishing Gear, Vol. 1, Commercial Fishing Techniques. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. Bathurst, J.N. (1954) Underwater television. Its applica- tion to the survey and repair of underwater damage to ships and installations and to marine salvage opera- tions. Joint paper read before the Institution of Naval Architects and the Institute of Marine Engineers. Transactions of the Institute of Marine Engineers, 285–306. Ben-Yami, M. (1994) Purse Seining Manual.Fishing News Books, Oxford. Clark, J.R., Livingston, R. Jr & Crossen, J.M. (1959) Development and operation for studying fish behav- iour in otter trawls. United States Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report – Fisheries No. 320. Washington, DC. Fridman, A.L. (1969) Theory and Design of Commercial Fishing Gear. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. Gabriel, O. (1973) Beitrag zum Verhalten von Grund- scherkörpern. Fischerei-Forschung 11, 49–68. Hammond, R. (1952) Can the television camera help world fishing? World Fishing April, 20–25. Kawakami, T. (1964) The theory of designing and testing fishing nets in model. In: Modern Fishing Gear of the World Vol. 2, 471–482. London. Korotkov, W.K. (1998) Fish Reactions to Trawls, Fishing Technology. Kaliningrad [in Russian]. Korotkov, W.K., Martyschewski, W.N. & Titow, W.W. (1977) Die Ergebnisse des Einsatzes der Unter- wassergeräte ‘Atlant’ beim Studium des Verhaltens der Fische und der Arbeit der Schleppnetze. Fischerei- Forschung 15 (1), 39–43. Leitzke, H. (1981) Theorie der Zugsysteme – ein neues Berechnungsverfahren zur Lösung fischereitechnischer Aufgabenstellungen. [Theory of hauls – a new compu- tation method for specific problems in fishery technol- ogy.] Fischerei-Forschung 19 (3), 65–68. MacLennan, D.N. & Simmonds, E.J. (1992) Fisheries Acoustics. Chapman & Hall, London. Main, J. & Sangster, G.I. (1978) The value of direct obser- vation techniques by divers in fishing gear research. Figure 31.14 Purse seining. Scottish Fisheries Research Report No. 12. Miyamoto, H., Nomura, H. & Shimozaki, Y. (1952) Der Widerstand ebener Netze in einer Wasserströmung 1. Der Einfluss des Knotentyps auf den Netzwiderstand. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Science Fisheries, 17 (8–9), 39–44. Mitson, R.B. (1983) Fisheries Sonar.Fishing News Books, Farnham. Niedzwiedz, G. & Hopp, M. (1998) Rope and net calcula- tions applied to problems in ocean and fishing engi- neering and in structural mechanics. Archive of Fishery and Marine Research 46 (2), 125–138. Nomura, M., Mori, K., Osawa, Y., Hayama, Y. & Tawara, Y. (1967) Study on behaviour of purse seine I-V. Bulletin of Tokyo Labor No. 49. DFC31 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 492

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Paschen, M., Köpnick, W, Niedzwiedz, G., Richter, U. & Stengel, H. & Fridmann, A.L. (1977) Fischfanggeräte: Winkel, H.-J. (2000) Contributions on the Theory of Theorie und Entwerfen von Fanggeräten der Fishing Gear and Related Marine Systems. Rostock. Hochseefischerei. VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin. Priestly, R., Wardle, C.S. & Hall, C.D. (1985) The Marine Stengel, H. & Hartung, F. (1964) Ergebnisse von Wind- Laboratory Remote Controlled Gear Observation kanaluntersuchungen an Scherbrettmodellen. Schiff- Vehicle. ICES Paper CM 1985/B:10. Fish Capture bautechnik 14 (1), 37–41. Committee. Tauti, M. (1934) A relation between experiments on Sand, R.F. (1955) Use of underwater television in fishing- model and on full scale of fishing net. Bulletin of the gear research (preliminary report). Commercial Fish- Japanese Society of Science Fisheries 3 (4), 171–177. eries Review April. 17,No.4. DFC32 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 493

32 Fishing Effects on Fish Stocks, Other Marine Animals and the Environment

Selectivity is one of the most prominent properties The problem with research dealing with this of a fishing gear. It describes its ability to catch property is that contemporary investigations have exclusively restricted sizes or species from an exist- demonstrated over the last 15 years that selectivity ing fish community. Without its sound knowledge, is more complicated than assumed at first glance. A the gear may catch unwanted sizes or species and, multitude of internal and external factors influ- thus, cause useless by-catch, not only of fish, but ences the selectivity over a wide range, among the also of seabirds or of sea mammals. In fish stock most prominent being catch size (Stewart & Gal- assessment, missing knowledge of the selective braith 1989). Often very small changes in the gear properties of the fishing gear used to sample the fish are sufficient to abolish established selective prop- stock may lead to an incorrect picture of the real erties.Additionally, there may be hitherto unknown stock composition. Consequently, in fisheries man- limitations of detected favourable selective proper- agement technical regulations on allowable fishing ties, making them valid only under restricted con- gear are only possible if their selective effects have ditions. Even the methodology presently agreed been investigated in detail in advance. upon for its investigation is not beyond criticism With towed gear this is usually achieved by deter- and far from its optimum. There are voices in the mining the relation of fish retained in the codend scientific community to be taken seriously who to those that have escaped by catching the escapees claim that selectivity over longer periods may even in a second covering codend with smaller mesh. It change the genetic basis of a fish stock by concen- is common usage to describe the resulting retention trating the fishing effort, e.g. on the faster-growing distribution by a logistic regression curve (Pope or less intelligent parts of a size class of recruits, et al. 1975; Wileman et al. 1996). The selectivity thus changing the selective effect of a given fishing parameters can be derived from the percentage gear constantly over time. Taking all this into obtained for each length class. These parameters account, it might be concluded that determination are: of selective properties requires an amount of time and financial means which hardly can be afforded

• the L50, the length where 50% of the fish caught by anyone. are able to escape from the codend However, giving up this kind of research will • the selectivity range, corresponding to the differ- soon bring fish assessment biologists and fishery ence of the length classes where 25% and 75% managers into a situation where the validity of the of the caught fish are retained models developed or the efficiency of the technical

• the selectivity factor, the ratio of L50 to actual means envisaged is highly questionable. Examining mesh opening (Figure 32.1). selective properties, consequently, is and must be a task as continuous as taking samples from fish Knowledge of these parameters is essential for stocks for assessment purposes. But, for what the prediction of the likely effects of other mesh purpose if all fish that escape from a trawl die openings. anyway, as has been demonstrated for Baltic

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Galbraith 1989). Among them are: (a) decrease of 100 mesh size; (b) increase of extension length; (c) 90 reduction of codend mouth diameter; (d) increase 80 of number of mesh on the codend circumference; (e) cut-away of any strengthening ropes, particu- 70 larly if of shorter length. Thus, the assumption that 60 by simply increasing mesh size more young fish can 50 be saved proved to be true only under the proviso that no other gear specifications were changed, and 40 this assumption has today been classified as some-

percentage retained 30 what naive. This advance in knowledge has since initiated a 20 multitude of attempts to design codends with per- 10 manent good size selectivity. One of the most 0 prominent was the introduction of other mesh 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 shapes than the ordinary diamond mesh. Around length (cm) the turn of the last century, Ritterstad (1915) hinted at the fact that netting mounted at 45° to its origi- Figure 32.1 Schematics of a logistic selectivity curve. nal orientation after hand or machine knitting resulted in so-called square mesh where the single herring (Suuronen et al. 1995)? Fortunately, sur- mesh has its optimum opening. A codend made up vival of other fish species after passage through a of netting in such a manner of mounting demon- codend mesh is much better (Soldal et al. 1993; strated much better selective performance than Lowry et al. 1996). comparable diamond codends, even in the same Selectivity is effective in two different ways. On nominal mesh size. These results had long been for- the one hand it excludes fish under a certain size gotten until a Scottish researcher group (Ferro & from becoming caught (size selectivity), on the Robertson 1988) redetected the phenomenon and other it concentrates the effort of a given gear on confirmed it in extensive commercial fishing trials certain given fish species while excluding others (Figure 32.2). Meanwhile, the limited effect of such due to mostly behavioural reasons (species selectiv- mesh shape is also known. It is ineffective or even ity). Both phenomena have been mentioned deteriorating the selectivity against fishes whose already repeatedly in previous chapters and will be body shape deviates from the circular cross-section exemplified once more for different fishing gear in (Dahm et al. 1995; Gabriel et al. 2002). the following sections. Ordinary netting with knots is also not the best suited material for this purpose. In the square mesh 32.1 Size selectivity application there is only strain on two of the four bars forming a mesh. Even in material specially As trawls under the present conditions of energy conditioned for this purpose this will lead sooner or availability are still the most versatile fishing gear, later to a deformation of the mesh to rectangular we will start by looking at their selective properties shape with suspected reduced selective properties. more closely first. After a number of researchers There is knotless material on the market, which by (Ellis 1963; Beverton 1963) detected that the last its construction does not have this disadvantage. At end of the codend is the place where most fish present, however, only a single producer in the escape, the scientific effort of the last 40 years has world provides this material and, presently, it has a been predominantly concentrated onto this part of price fourfold higher than ordinary netting. the trawl. The common belief that bigger mesh There have been a number of ingenious solu- allow bigger fish to escape was seriously shattered tions, particularly developed during recent selectiv- by the work of Scottish researchers who detected a ity research for cod in the Baltic Sea, to overcome number of factors able to seriously deteriorate this disadvantage by not making the full codend out the proper function of a given codend (Stewart & of square mesh but to restrict the use of such mesh DFC32 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 495

Fishing Effects on Fish Stocks, Other Marine Animals and the Environment 495

the occurrence of opened mesh, either by con- struction or artificially, in the area of the escape zone. Intensive video observations demonstrated that for a number of fish species to which most of the commercially interesting species belong, this zone lies as a narrow band slightly ahead of the final bulb of the codend where the catch accumulates. Consequently, taking these facts into account, the so-called ‘Danish’ window construction later was optimized, bringing to it the same improved per- formance as other investigated constructions by shifting the position of the windows towards the rear end of the codend. At present a full upper panel window made of square mesh, the result of a three-year EU-funded research project (BACOMA) (Figure 32.5), is presented as optimum solution for the reduction of undersized fish. Because of its vulnerability to manipulation, this solution has attracted some criticism, however. Additionally, there have been a number of – genuine or otherwise – complaints over the com- plexity of the construction of window codends, impeding their repair. A Polish scientist investi- gated another astonishingly simple solution (Moderhak 1997). After manufacture, knotted netting tends to show different behaviour under stress depending on the direction from where the Figure 32.2 View of the different shape of a diamond stress is applied (Figure 32.6). If the netting yarn (a) and a square mesh (b) codend in operation. forming the rows of half mesh of which the real mesh in netting are composed runs perpendicular to parts of the codend where they are indispens- to the direction of tow the mesh tend to close very able. The first step in this direction was presented tightly. If the same netting is turned through 90° (so by a Swedish net designer who inserted stripes of that the general direction of the netting yarn now diamond mesh in the area of the lateral lestridges runs parallel to the direction of tow) the mesh still of a two-panel codend (Larsson 1994) (Figure 32.3). closes but far less than before. Experiments con- This netting had been treated by a special chemical cerning the selectivity of codends made from coating in such a way that it kept its optimum mesh netting turned in this manner demonstrated signi- opening. Danish scientists copied the principle but ficant improvements in cod selectivity (Wienbeck used square mesh knotted netting instead of the & Dahm 2000). The principle has been tested now special treated diamond mesh (Lowry et al. 1995) in a number of modifications with soft and stiff (Figure 32.4). Both constructions gave some material, in single and double yarn making, and the encouraging results in a first comparison. A closer netting always kept its superior properties (Dahm look by experts, however, after some experience 2001). with both (NN 1996) revealed the malfunction of A completely different way of permanently the second construction. No real difference could improving the selectivity of codends started when be found to conventional codends, particularly with USA environmentalists raised public concern small catches. It soon confirmed what other over the by-catch of endangered sea turtles in the researchers had found out previously (Ferro & trawl fishery. An inclined grid consisting of a solid Robertson 1988; Engås et al. 1989), that better metal frame filled with parallel metal rods which selection characteristics of a codend depended on completely blocked the cross-section of the DFC32 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 496

496 Fish Catching Methods of the World

Figure 32.3 Selectivity improving codend with lateral ‘exit windows’ made of artificially stiffened material, Swedish design. Figure 32.4 Selectivity improving codend with lateral ‘exit windows’ of square mesh, Danish design.

codend extension brought the solution. It separated essary to exclude them, too, from the catch, possi- like a sieve small objects – the fish or shrimp- bly by taking advantage of behavioural differences from big – the turtles – and guided the last to a hole of fish and shrimp. in the upper netting panel where they could escape In addition, a way was soon detected to take (Watson & Taylor 1986). A similar principle advantage of this species-selective principle also in was developed synchronously by Norwegian size selectivity investigations. A construction which researchers (Karlsen 1976; Isaksen 1984; Isaksen leads the fish entering the aft parts of a trawl et al. 1992) and was initially applied in the valuable against an inclined grid leaving them the choice shrimp fishery. There the by-catch of fish is more a either – if small enough – to pass through the grid nuisance than of additional value (Figure 32.7).This to the outside, or to be guided into the real codend principle has recently been also transferred to the (Larsen & Isaksen 1993) proved an effective means brown shrimp fishery of the southern North Sea. for size sorting of fish (Figure 32.8). The effects of Preferably elliptical grids proved an effective such grids were so convincing that they were made means to seriously reduce the unwanted by-catch mandatory in the Barents Sea and every ship of flatfish and roundfish (van Marlen et al. 2001). intending to fish there now has to use one. The device turned out to be only size selective. A heavy metal structure in a textile product like Immature fish of the same size as the target species a trawl is, however, feasible only under working still remain in the catch. Additional research is nec- conditions where there is enough room to store the DFC32 4/23/05 9:23 PM Page 497

Fishing Effects on Fish Stocks, Other Marine Animals and the Environment 497

Figure 32.5 The new legally accepted ‘BACOMA’ codend with square mesh window in top panel.

drum or to use more flexible lightweight or plastic material, but the technical solutions detected so far are still far from optimum. Unwanted by-catches such as starfish and jellyfish may also clog the bars and seriously deteriorate the efficiency of the grid. Thus, for the moment, grids seem to be an effective mean for certain fishing conditions and ship sizes but certainly are not the paramount solution for all fisheries and ship types. In fish stock assessment, codend size selectivity has recently gained continuous attention. It has become an integral part of the numerical models describing fish stocks and their exploitation. This might lead to the impression that codend selectiv- ity alone is the factor determining the true image of the existing stock and which has to be accounted for correct calculations. Recent experiments have demonstrated, however, that some of the falsifica- tion of the true situation not only occurs inside the trawl but already far ahead of it by the action of otter boards and sweeplines, and also in close vicin- ity of it. In this context, special attention has been paid to the size and species composition of the fish evading capture by diving beneath the fishing line. It was shown that both the following happen: Figure 32.6 Different shape of a diamond mesh species selectivity since some fish existing in the stressed (a) in its normal orientation and (b) when turned path of the trawl almost never get caught; and size 90°. selectivity because proportionately more small fish escape under the trawl than big ones (Engås & Godø´ 1989; Dahm & Wienbeck 1992, 1996). There hauled gear on deck. Every ship using a net-drum, are important differences between species in this as most of the smaller vessels do now, will find it respect. Herring and haddock on the one hand troublesome to wind this object onto the drum. It nearly always rise above fishing line level after has recently been tried to split the structure up into being disturbed and herded by the trawl and, thus, smaller sections, with hinges between them and get caught. They are then completely subjected more likely to fit to the round circumference of a exclusively to net and codend selectivity. Cod, on DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 498

Figure 32.7 Scheme of the ‘Nordmöre’ grid for separating fish from shrimp.

the other hand, tends particularly to try to evade makes these gear particularly suitable as reference capture by diving beneath the fishing line.There are when investigating selectivity, e.g. of static gear. documented cases where 98% of all available cod Whereas it is relatively simple to test the effect have dived and escaped. The differences observed of a mesh size or selective device in active gear in the reaction of the same species at different by applying covers to catch the escapees, this is fishing grounds have recently been explained by the nearly impossible or requires considerable effort existence and speed of tidal currents or variations in passive gear. Fyke nets and pots resemble most in towing speed. closely the conditions in a codend since they first Size selectivity is a property of any fishing gear, catch and concentrate fish and then sort them by as stated already above. Thus it comes as no sur- size by letting them pass through a suitable mesh prise that size sorting also happens in pelagic trawls size or through fitting holes. The escapees can be (Dahm 1991) and in purse seines aiming at the collected in surrounding purse seines. Gillnets and schooling species in mid-water. However, size selec- entangling nets, though, select the fish coming in tivity with these gear is often an issue which one contact with them in two ways: they let small fish tries rather to avoid than to exploit. If many of the pass through whereas they shunt away size classes smaller fish in such catches try to get out through too big to fit into the mesh. Only a very narrow the mesh a portion of them tends to get stuck in the range of fish from a given population, those where netting. These ‘gillers’ may make the use of a purse the largest circumference corresponds to or is seine impossible since it then becomes impossible slightly over the perimeter of the available mesh, is to lift the netting from the water, or may lead to caught (see Chapter 19). Though this is the main extensive damage in pelagic trawls.Thus, in the con- catching mode of gillnets, the catches usually also struction of gear aiming at mid-water fish it is often contain fishes that are caught by biting into the attempted to avoid or to reduce selectivity, which netting yarn and subsequent panic reactions which DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 499

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Figure 32.8 Scheme of the ‘Sortex’ grid for separating small fish from big fish.

will lead to entanglement. Some fish may also be 32.2 Species selectivity caught by hooking with their skeletal bones such as maxillae or operculae into a netting yarn and by In a quota regime, as introduced nowadays in many similar panic reactions following. So-called entan- fisheries, the situation has not become uncommon gling nets particularly take advantage of this mode that a fishing method must be completely stopped of catching. However, if the relation of fish length for a while or forbidden even though there is and catch frequency is shown in a diagram, the enough fish to catch from the target fish species. resulting selectivity curves of all fixed nets are two- This is because it has proved as impossible to catch sided or bell-shaped and are measures of indirect solely the available species without taking by- selectivity. This signifies that with no other mean, catches of a species where the quota is already the fisherman can target distinct size classes pre- exhausted. Rarely is it possible to nearly completely cisely with fixed static gear. A direct measurement get rid of this restricting by-catch by using a selec- of the portion of available fish caught, however, has tive device. The introduction of a fish–shrimp sepa- only been tried in exceptional cases (Hamley & rator grid in the Pandalus fishery (Figure 32.7) is an Regier 1973). example of the principal feasibility of such an Finally, the size selectivity of longlines is gov- attempt. Often, however, target species and erned predominantly by the bait size (Bjordal & unwanted by-catch share the same fishing ground Løkkeborg 1996). and are of similar size and shape, e.g. mackerel and DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 500

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Saithe 72%, Haddock 90%

Cod 71%

Figure 32.9 Species separation by insertion of a horizontal separator panel.

horse mackerel, or herring and sprat in mid-water; high price by-catch with a very limited quota. As or cod, whiting and haddock on the sea bottom. A target species it is only allowed to be caught by number of fish behaviour observations either by longlines. It occurs, however, as a regular by-catch divers, by towed underwater TV cameras or of in the trawl fisheries for Alaskan pollock and research results have accumulated in the past years Pacific cod.The first could take advantage of behav- which encourage some hope for the solution of ioural differences between the roundfish and these problems, at least partially. the flatfish. If pelagic trawls with large mesh in the The problem seems to be less grave in a mixed forenet are towed with the groundline firmly on the roundfish/flatfish fishery. Typical flatfish trawls tar- bottom, the big flatfish are able to escape whereas geting solely for this type of fish have not partici- the semi-pelagic pollock are caught without loss. pated in the general increase of opening height as With more bottom-oriented roundfish such as observed in roundfish trawls during the past 40 the Alaskan cod and other valuable flatfish where years. This is well in accordance with underwater bottom trawls are indispensable, the situation is still observations of cod and flatfish in trawls (Thomsen unsolved. 1993), which showed that flatfish glide close to the An example of behavioural differences of closely lower panel into the trawl whereas cod rose and related gadoid fishes in the catching process, often swam close to the upper panel until some distance referred to, is the observation of Main & Sangster back in the belly.A purpose-built trawl with a head- (1981) that haddock as well as whiting tend to rise line 7 m behind the fishing line and large mesh before the approaching groundgear of a trawl. in the top of the aft belly demonstrated the Whiting shows this behaviour to a less extreme exploitability of this observation. In comparisons degree than haddock. Contrary to this, cod remains with a standard trawl no reductions of flatfish were close to the bottom and enters the trawl close to the encountered in the catches whereas cod, haddock lower panel. An experimental trawl with three dif- and saithe were reduced by 38%, 90% and 90%, ferent levels over each other separated by horizon- respectively. tal separator panels was constructed and tested in In a recent research project of the EU (project the North Sea and proved the reality of this obser- AIR2-CT93-1015), the principle has even been vation. Cod were almost exclusively caught in the transferred to beamtrawls. By insertion of big lowest level codend, whereas haddock ended up in square-mesh panels in the upper panel, by cutaways the highest. Whiting was caught in all three levels. in the upper panel or by replacement of the upper A similar trawl with a two-level division was tested panel by very large diamond mesh, serious reduc- in Northern Norway (Valdemarsen et al. 1985; tions in roundfish by-catches could be achieved.They Engås & West 1995) (Figure 32.9). Though not so were significant for all three methods for haddock clear as the result in the North Sea, the same and whiting, whereas cod was only removed to a sig- general tendencies were observed. In the lower nificant degree by the last of the three measures men- level codend, 60–70% of the caught cod were tioned. However, smaller catch reductions had also found, whereas the majority of haddock and par- to be accepted with the target species plaice and sole. ticularly saithe ended up in the higher codend. The opposite, i.e. diminishing the by-catch of big As already referred to in the size selectivity valuable flatfish in the trawl fishery, is the aim of section of this chapter, raising the level of the ongoing research effort in Alaskan waters. There fishing line may under favourable conditions save the Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) is a almost all cod and, thus, act as a species selective DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 501

Fishing Effects on Fish Stocks, Other Marine Animals and the Environment 501

Figure 32.10 Bird scaring line to prevent bait stealing by seabirds during setting of a longline.

device. More research effort, however, is needed to luminance of the gillnet against the background establish guidelines for the rigging to take advan- that decides whether the gear evokes an avoidance tage of this favourable effect. reaction or not (Jester 1973). So far, for a variety of reasons, nearly nothing of Since water colour can vary, it is recommended the knowledge collected on species selectivity is to use a carefully matched degree of grey as a more exploited commercially. But with increasing versatile netting colour. Species selection by the numbers of stocks exploited to such a degree that choice of appropriate netting colour is possible due they become protected species, it may become ben- to species differences in vision and has been eficial for commercial fisheries, enabling them to exploited occasionally (Mohr 1964). exploit this knowledge to be able to continue A sound knowledge of habitat preference of the fishing. different species is of particular help for a target Static gear as well as towed gear can be designed species-oriented fishery with static gear. The brack- in a way to minimize or exclude the by-catch of ish Baltic Sea with its freshwater inlets provides unwanted species. In gillnets a given mesh size is many examples where, on fishing grounds close to usually much more species-specific than it is in towed each other, clean catches of either freshwater fish gear. This can be exploited for species selectivity. (perch) or of marine fish (cod) can be achieved with Turbot nets will rarely catch plaice, and vice versa. the same gillnet. In cases where the target species is of a similar Longlining offers a number of other possibilities size as an unwanted species living on the same for species-targeted catches. Besides exploitation of fishing ground, changing certain gear design prop- habitat preferences in longlining particularly, the erties is often able to produce beneficial effects for use of species-specific feeding attractants is of species separation. The hanging ratio at float and prime importance for species separation. The leadline is a prominent tool for target-specific gear author recalls a longlining experiment where after properties. A lower hanging ratio will increase the the bait was changed from herring pieces to shrimp, proportion of catches of such fishes that are mainly the main species caught suddenly shifted from cod caught by entangling. Thus, in a perch/roach fishing to plaice. Sensitivity to amino acids was demon- community gillnets with a high hanging ratio will strated to be species-specific and may have been the catch predominantly roach, because these are reason for an increased halibut catch in an experi- mainly caught by gilling. Perch are mainly caught ment where the competition for food was increased by entangling and need therefore a low hanging by using a bigger distance between the baited hooks ratio (Mohr 1965). Similarly effective can be the (Skud 1978). The high sea tuna catchers are well choice of a suitable netting yarn construction. aware of the temperature preference of their target Twisted multifilament, monofilament and multi- and use satellite or other airborne information for mono have a different degree of softness. It has optimum placement of their lines. Even the hook been shown that the first tends to catch many more shape may have a species-specific effect. Thus, the small fish than monofilament (Stewart 1987). The circle hook was much more effective in catching colour of the yarn is another of its properties also Pacific halibut than the previously used J-hook believed to influence the species composition of (Peeling 1985). catches. Closer examination of the phenomenon, Longlining is sometimes affected by an unwanted however, has shown that it is not the colour but the by-catch of seabirds, which try to steal the bait DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 502

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the fishing fleets, it became the main objective to get the fixed amount of catch with minimum effort. Energy saving became a keyword in sea fishery, especially during the 1970s when fuel prices were rising, and a renaissance of low-energy fishing tech- niques started all over the world. Efforts were made in trawling to reduce the drag of the gear and to decrease the propulsive power necessary to tow the trawl. During the 1990s a new problem became pre- dominant in fishing as well as in other industries, i.e. protection of the environment. Many organizations – private and governmental – concentrated their activities on this aspect and a flood of laws and regulations were made to try to solve the prob- lem. There is no doubt that every human activity will have some influence on the environment – and it is the main objective of scientific research in this field to quantify this influence and to make pro- posals if a negative impact on the environment is Figure 32.11 Guiding tube for a longline preventing bait unacceptable and should be eliminated. theft by seabirds during setting. In sea fishery, trawling was always suspected to be especially destructive for the marine environ- ment. From the beginning of trawling some cen- during the setting operation and get caught. turies ago there was a strong opposition by other Rigging a so-called scaring line with loose vertical fishermen against this fishing technique (Graham ribbons flapping over the longline set has proved an 1956) (see also Chapter 26). New and powerful effective means of preventing bait attacks by birds, methods and equipment in fishery research since as has leading the line through a tube opening the 1970s revealed the negative impact of trawling, under the sea surface, thus eliminating the feeding especially beamtrawling, on the flora and fauna of stimulus for the birds (Løkkeborg 1998) (Figures the sea bottom, and research projects – mainly 32.10 and Figure 32.11). financed by the European Union – were started by In trap fishing for salmon, seals create a rapidly a number of European fishery research institutes to increasing problem by entering the traps and eat- quantify the damage (de Groot & Lindeboom 1994; ing the caught fish. A wire grid in the entrance Lindeboom & de Groot 1998; Paschen et al. 2000). has shown good potential for preventing seals Heavy beamtrawls with tickler chains or chain from entering the bag, while the fish will still do so mats used for sole fishing in the North Sea proved (Westerberg & Stenström 1997). This is on the one to be especially destructive for the marine environ- hand an example of an effective species sorting ment. When towed over the seabed, the heavy device and on the other a transition to the possible chains are digging the soles out of the bottom, effects of fishing on other animals and the environ- chasing them into the net. During this process the ment, which will be dealt with next. upper layer of the sea bottom in the path of the beamtrawl is completely disturbed. 32.3 Environmental impact Figure 32.12 shows a beamtrawl with tickler chains and a beam 12 m long for a trawler of 1600 In former times, when fish stocks were considered kW main engine power. A trawler towing two to be inexhaustible, it was the natural intention of beamtrawls of this type (starboard and port side) at every fisherman to catch as much fish as possible. a speed of 6 kn will destroy almost all benthic life With decreasing stocks and the introduction of on a bottom area of about 259 000 m2 within 1 h. quotas to save the stocks as well as the existence of There might be a short-term benefit from this DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 503

Fishing Effects on Fish Stocks, Other Marine Animals and the Environment 503

effect for the commercial fishery. Fish, searching for food, are attracted by the benthic organisms crushed by the chains, and the same track may be fished several times with good results. But there is no doubt that the long-term effect will be disastrous for the benthic life and finally also for the com- mercial fishery in this area. A similar negative impact on the flora and fauna of the sea bottom is produced by the bobbin ground-rope of trawls. Originally – when fishing on a clean bottom – trawls were used without bobbins but when trawling was extended to rough bottoms it became necessary to keep the netting of the lower panel off the bottom to prevent the trawl from being damaged by big stones lying in the track of the trawl. This could be achieved by using an addi- tional bobbin groundrope fixed underneath the original ground- or footrope (Figure 32.13). The bobbins should roll over the sea bottom without any major negative effect but only the bobbins in the centre of the groundrope with their axis per- pendicular to the towing direction are working in this way. The bobbins in the wings of the lower panel of the trawl have their axis orientated almost parallel to the towing direction and therefore cannot roll freely but are more or less gliding and scratching over the bottom. One of the first attempts to solve the problem was made during the 1940s (Grosskopf 1941), but there are no records of an application of Grosskopf’s proposal in commercial trawling. In 1949 the naval architect Fritz Schleufe of the Seebeck shipyard in Bremerhaven, who was one of the leading German engineers in fishing vessel design, got a patent on a system of bobbins all with their axis perpendicular to the towing direction of the trawl, but his proposal was never realized. The aim of Grosskopf and Schleufe was to reduce the drag of the trawl and the wear and tear of the bobbins, as environmental aspects were not consid- ered in those days. In 1993, the German shrimp fisherman Paul Hermann von Holdt of the island of Hooge pro- posed a system of groundrope rollers for shrimp Figure 32.12 A beamtrawl with tickler chains and a beam 12 m long for a trawler with 1600 kW main engine beamtrawls with all rollers running exactly in the power. direction of towing (Figure 32.14). First tests with this gear showed a considerable reduction of sand and shells in the codend of a shrimp trawl without any negative effect on the catch (Berghahn & Lange 1993). DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 504

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Figure 32.13 A bottom trawl using an additional bobbin groundrope fixed underneath the original ground- or footrope.

Dahm, E., Metin, D. & Hossucu, H. (1995) Zur Wirkung von Quadratmaschen auf Fische mit ungewöhnlicher Körperform. Informationen Fischwirtschaft 42 (4),197– 201. Dahm, E. & Wienbeck, H. (1992) Escapement of fish underneath the groundrope of a standard bottom trawl used for stock assessment purposes in the North Sea. ICES C.M.1992/B:20. Dahm, E. & Wienbeck, H. (1996) New facts on the effi- ciency or total gear selectivity of German survey bottom trawls – possible effects on stock assessment and stock protection. ICES C.M.1996/B:8. Dahm, E. (2001) Selective property identification of codends for the catch of Baltic cod. Proceedings Inter- national Workshop on the Technological Development in Fisheries, 9–23. EGE-University Izmir, Turkey. Figure 32.14 Bobbin groundrope for a shrimp trawl de Groot, S.I. & Lindeboom, H.I. (1994) IMPACT – with the axis of the bobbins perpendicular to the towing environmental impact of bottom gears on benthic direction. fauna in relation to natural resources management and protection of the North Sea. EC Research Project, Con- tract No. MA2–549. Final Report, Netherlands Institute References for Fisheries Research (RIVO-DLO), P.O. Box 59, 1970 AB Ijmuiden, The Netherlands. Berghahn, R. & Lange, K. (1993) Von-Holdt-Rollen für Ellis, R.W. (1963) Experiments to investigate the escape die Krabbenfischerei. Das Fischerblatt 41 (12). of fish through the meshes of different parts of the Beverton, R.J.M. (1963) Escape of fish through different trawl. ICNAF Special Publication 5, 97–101. parts of a codend. ICNAF Special Publication 5, 9–11. Engås, A. & Godø, O.R. (1989): Escape of fish under Bjordal, A & Løkkeborg, S. (1996) Longlining.Fishing the fishing line of a Norwegian sampling trawl and its News Books, Farnham. influence on survey results. Journal du Conseil Interna- Dahm, E. (1991) Doubtful improvement of the selectiv- tional pour l’ Exploration de la Mer 45, 269–276. ity of herring midwater trawls by means of square mesh Engås, A. & West, C.W. (1995) Development of a species- codends and constructional modifications of diamond selective trawl for demersal gadoid fisheries. ICES CM mesh codends. ICES CM 1991/B:2. 1995/B+G+H+J+K:1. DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 505

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Engås, A., Isaksen, B. & Valdemarsen, J.W. (1989) Escape Mohr, H. (1965) Auswirkung der Einstellung von behaviour of fish in codends of trawls. In: Proceedings Kiemennetzen auf die Fängigkeit von Barsch und of the Square Mesh Workshop, St Johns, Newfoundland, Plötze. Archiv für Fischereiwissenschaft 16, 108–115. November 1988,Vol. II, 60–64. Massachussets Division NN (1996) Report of the Study Group on Baltic cod mesh of Marine Fisheries, Boston. selection In: Report of the Working Group on Fishing Ferro, R.S.T. & Robertson, J.H.B. (1988) Long and short, Technology and Fish Behaviour. ICES CM 1996/B:2. narrow and wide codend selection. Scottish Fisheries Paschen, M., Richter, U. & Köpnick,W.(2000) TRAPESE Research Report. – trawl penetration in the seabed. EC Research Project Gabriel, O., Rehme, W. & Richter, U. (2002) Investiga- Contract No. MA 96–006. Final Report. Rostock. tions on the selectivity of trawl codends used for Baltic Peeling, D. (1985) Circle Hook Comparison Study. Project flatfish fishery. Paper ICES WG FTFB Meeting. Kopen- Summary No. 2. Fisheries Division Branch, Fisheries hagen. and Oceans, Halifax, Canada. Graham, M. (1956) Sea Fisheries.Their Investigation in the Pope, J.A., Margetts, A.R., Hamley, J.M. & Akyuz, E.F. United Kingdom. London. (1975) Manual of methods for fish stock assessment Grosskopf (1941) Grundtauroller. Deutsche Fischerei- Part III Selectivity of fishing gear. FAO Fish Technical Rundschau No. 8, 141–145. Paper No. 41, Rev.1. Hamley, J. & Regier, H.A. (1973) Direct estimates of Ridderstad, G. (1915) A new construction of trawl-net gillnet selectivity to walleye (Stizostedium vitreum intended to spare under-sized fish. Svenske Hydrologie- vitreum). Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Biologie Kommisionens Skrifter Vol. 6. Canada 30 (6), 817–830. Schleufe, F.(1949) Grundtaurolle für Schleppnetzfischerei. Isaksen, B., Valdemarsen, J.W., Larsen, R.B. & Karlsen, L. Deutsches Patentamt. Patentschrift No. 816325, 8 (1992) Reduction of fish bycatch in shrimp trawl using July. a rigid separator grid in the aft belly. Fisheries Research Skud, B.E. (1978) Factors affecting longline catch and 13, 335–352. effort. III. Bait loss and competition. International Isaksen, B. (1984) Experiments with vertical panels in Pacific Halibut Commission Science Report 64, 25–50. Norwegian shrimp trawls. ICES CM 1984/B:22. Soldal, A.V., Engås, A. & Isaksen, B. (1993) Survival of Jester, D.B. (1973) Variations in catchability of fishes with gadoids that escape from a demersal trawl. ICES color of gillnets. Transactions of the American Fisheries Marine Science Symposium 196, 62–67. Society 102, 109–115. Stewart, P.A.M. (1987) The selectivity of slackly hung Karlsen, L. (1976) Experiments with selective prawn cod gillnets constructed from three different types trawls in Norway. ICES CM 1976/B:28. of twine. Journal du Conseil International pour l’ Larsen, R.B. & Isaksen, B. (1993) Size selectivity of rigid Exploration de la Mer 43,189–193. sorting grids in bottom trawls for Atlantic cod (Gadus Stewart, P.A.M. & Galbraith, R.D. (1987) Investigating morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). the capture efficiency of survey gears. ICES CM ICES Marine Science Symposium 196, 178–182. 1987/B:7. Larsson, P.O. (1994) Selectivity experiment with cod Stewart, P.A.M.& Galbraith, R.D. (1989) Codend design, trawls in the Baltic. Paper to ICES FTFB WG-Meeting. selectivity and legal definitions. ICES CM 1989/B:11. Lindeboom, H.I. & de Groot, S.I. (1998) IMPACT II – the Suuronen, P., Perez-Comas, J.A., Lehtonen, E. & Tsch- effects of different types of fisheries on the North Sea ernij,V.(1995) Size related mortality of herring (Clupea and Irish Sea benthic ecosystems. EC Research Project harengus) escaping through a rigid sorting grid and EU-AIR 2941664.Final Report. Netherlands Institute trawl codend meshes. ICES Journal of Marine Science for Fisheries Research, Ijmuiden. 53, 691–700. Løkkeborg, S. (1998) Seabird bycatch and bait loss in Thomsen, B. (1993) Selective flatfish trawling. ICES longlining using different setting methods. ICES Marine Science Symposium 196,161–164. Journal of Marine Science 55, 145–149. Valdemarsen, J.W., Engås, A. & Isaksen, B. (1985) Verti- Lowry, N., Knudsen, L.H. & Wileman, D.A. (1995) Selec- cal entrance into a trawl of Barents sea gadoids as tivity in Baltic cod trawls with square mesh windows. studied with a two-level fish trawl. ICES CM 1985/B:46. ICES C.M. 1995/B:5. van Marlen, B., de Haan, D., Revill, A.S. et al. (2001) By- Lowry, N., Sangster, G. & Breen, M. (1996) Codend selec- catch reduction devices in the European Crangon fish- tivity and fishing mortality. Final Report European eries. ICES CM 2001/R:10. Commission Study Contract No. 1994/005. Watson, J.W. & Taylor, C.W. (1986) Research on selective Main, J. & Sangster, G.I. (1981) A study of the fish capture shrimp trawl designs for penaeid shrimp in the United process in a bottom trawl by direct observations from States. A review of selective shrimp trawl research in an underwater vehicle. Scottish Fisheries Research No. the United States since 1973. FAO Expert Consultation 23. on Selective Shrimp Trawl Development, Mazatlan, Moderhak, W. (1997) Determination of selectivity of cod Mexico, 24–28 November 1986, FII:ExCons- codends made of netting turned through 90°. Bulletin STD/G.C.8. of the Sea Fisheries Institute 1 (140), 1–24. Westerberg, H. & Stenström, J. (1997) Towards an effi- Mohr, H. (1964) Netzfarbe und Fängigkeit bei Kiemen- cient seal protection of salmon traps. ICES CM netzen. Archiv für Fischereiwissenschaft 14, 153–161. 1997/Q:13. DFC32 4/23/05 9:24 PM Page 506

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Wienbeck, H. & Dahm, E. (2000) New ways for an Wileman, D.A., Ferro, R.S.T., Fonteyne, R. & Millar, R.B. improvement of the selectivity of trawl codends in the (1996) Manual of methods of measuring the selectivity Baltic cod fishery. Meddelande fran Havsfiskelaborato- of towed fishing gears. ICES Cooperative Research riet, Lysekil, No.329, 80–93. Report No. 215. DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 507

Appendix Classification of catching methods

This book deals with ‘catching methods’ in fisheries. A.1 Principles of classification Most people will consider this to be identical with ‘fishing methods’ or quite simply ‘fishing gear’. A classification of catching methods will vary Strictly speaking this is not quite correct. The markedly according to the purpose for which the ‘fishing gear’ is the tool of the fisherman, sometimes classification is needed. There can be a high con- operated in different ways and combined with dif- centration on a few groups only on the one hand; ferent tactics – that means some gear can be oper- or on the other there can be a grouping down to the ated in several different ‘catching methods’. But as last individual gear with some variations according we have seen in various chapters, there are some to the personal ideas of the individual fisherman. In fishing methods which use no gear in the general this article a classification is given which tries to sense, such as fish poisoning, catching by hand, or include all catching methods of the world in sea and with the help of animals.Therefore, the term ‘catch- freshwater fisheries, in commercial and sports ing method’ has been used as a term for fishing fisheries, and regardless of the ‘importance’ of the activities with and without gear. This must not be methods varying with the different fishing areas. forgotten when dealing with the classification of The basis for the classification is the principle of these methods. how the fish are caught. This manner of capture is It was not until the 18th century that encyclope- not identical with the method by which the fish is dic books were printed dealing with fishes, fisheries removed from the water. Decisive for the catching and fishing gear. Artistic drawings showed the gear method is the fact that the prey is held in a condi- and its operation. Some grouping of the gear was tion in which its chances of escape are negligible done, mostly according to artistic points or in con- (Burdon 1951). In fishing with purse seines, for nection with the objects to be caught. Many of these example, the pursing is decisive and not the brail- illustrations of the early encyclopedists, especially ing with scoop nets or fish pumps. These are acces- in France, have been made in such a nice and sory devices only, just as a landing net is when used correct manner that they have been reprinted in by sports fishermen fishing with flies. modern books (Figures 6.1 and 24.27). At the end With the help of the principle of how the fish is of the 19th century scientists, especially zoologists caught, some main groups of catching methods and physicians of different countries, became inter- have been known in fisheries for a long time. The ested in fishing problems, and in their publications difficulty is that there is not always the same group- descriptions of fishing gear were concentrated into ing according to the viewpoints of the different a few groups. This grouping can be considered authors and the local importance of a fishing gear. as the beginning of a classification of catching As has been mentioned before, the ‘importance’ of methods. a fishing method, from whatever viewpoint, should be ignored. Considered generally, a fishing method of no interest today can, in an improved form, become a successful one tomorrow. Similarly, a

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catching method not of interest for a certain fishing place can become the basis of the prosperity of A.2 Main groups of catching methods another one. Another problem is the fact that very In literature, most classifications of fishing gear are often in literature, and especially in fishery statis- limited to a country, a small area, or to the methods tics, different catching methods are summarized used to catch a special type of fish. All-embracing, under a few headings, e.g. active and passive gear, worldwide classifications are seldom used and are fishing gear made of netting or other materials, mostly made by ethnologists (Leroi-Gourhan 1945; and so on. Especially in statistics, many catching Monod 1973). Nevertheless, there are some main methods are catalogued under ‘Miscellaneous’ or groups mentioned by most of them. These are the simply as ‘Others’! Such meaningless groupings following (order is changed from third edition have no place in this book. Each method is given and yet corresponding with the order of revised the same careful consideration and each subdivi- classification): sion has been created with specific reasons – namely to demonstrate how the basic catching Wounding (piercing, transfixing) gear such as har- method is achieved in practice. This can be done in poons, spears, etc. different ways according to the type of gear; conse- Lines (hooks) such as handlines and longlines quently subdivisions may be based on factors such Traps such as pots, fyke nets, weirs and pound nets as the following: Gillnets, set and drifting Trammelnets (a) Material Many fishing gears have been made Liftnets originally of wood, including branches, bast, etc. Trawls such as bottom and mid-water trawls In contrast to these wooden gears are those Seine nets such as beach seines, boat seines and made of fibres, natural or synthetic, sometimes Danish seines also wire. Moreover, there are some fishing Surrounding nets such as lampara nets, purse seines gears made completely or partially of iron or and ring nets steel, or moulded out of plastic. (b) Construction Any principle of catching can be These generally-accepted main groups will cover realized by different constructions. Construc- most of the catching methods used in the different tional differences include also items like the parts of the world. But some well-known catching size of the gear (e.g. fyke nets and pound nets techniques are missing, such as stow nets, scoop catch fish on the same principle, but they are nets, cast nets, cover pots and also all modern devel- considered as types of different sub-groups for opments for harvesting the living products of the many reasons). water. Moreover, such catching methods as poison- (c) Method of operation For different reasons it ing, stupefying or collecting by hand, etc., are not may be necessary to mention if a gear is set on included. This means that more groups have to the bottom, dragged, pushed, cast, lifted, float- be added to the generally accepted list of fishing ing or drifting. It is of interest if a gear is oper- methods. ated by hand or is mechanized so as to need The groupings given above are mentioned by the special arrangements (e.g. gallows), and/or if a author in a different order than others have done. raft or vessel is needed or not. When studied in detail it can be found that there are not only courses of development but also some This means that sub-groups of the different relationship between the different groups. There is groups of catching methods are based on different no linear development which includes all catching principles. It is not possible to follow a special methods. According to different relationships only scheme for the sub-groups as has been done with a two-dimensional or maybe a three-dimensional the main groups. This may lead to some objections representation would give the right impression because, as for naturalistic classifications, a group- (Kajewski 1957). This is not possible for practical ing in classes, families, species and sub-species and technical reasons. Therefore each arrangement according to constant facts is needed, as in zoology in the classification of catching methods needs and botany (Monod 1973). benevolent acceptance. DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 509

Appendix 509

Such acceptance is also necessary to overcome As mentioned before, the manner of catching is some serious differences which can be found in the criterion for the main groups. How the prey is the classifications when different authors are com- brought, or comes, into relationship with the gear pared. Very often, for example, seine nets and can be dealt with in different ways even with trawls are placed in the same group. Both can be the same gear. Therefore this cannot be an item of towed over the bottom, but there is a strong differ- grouping. The prey can be lured by chemical (bait), ence in their operation. Trawls can fish like dredges optical (light), acoustical (noise) or electrical on an unlimited area; therefore the yield is calcu- means. Therefore ‘light fishing’ is not a valid lated in catch per hour of towing. Seine nets are main group for classification. Some people do not used to fish a fixed area only, and this is limited by mention ‘electrical fishing’ as a special fishing the size of the gear and the method of shooting, so method. But there are some cases where stupefying the yield is calculated in catch per set (Chapter by electricity is an essential part of the method, and 28). There are some methods of seining with some the gear used (a small scoop net) is without worth dragging (fly dragging), but this can be carried out when used without electricity. In this case it is not in a limited manner only. On the other hand, some a fishing gear electrified to increase its efficiency people like to bracket seine nets with purse seines. only, but it is a manner of capture and has to be The English name is very confusing. Both nets included as a catching method. surround the expected prey, but the purse seines A similar situation exists with the drive-in fishery. surround not only from the side but also from Fish can be driven into many different types of below. They are a pelagic fishing gear. Seine nets gear, but there are some types of gear which are can be operated in this manner as surface floating especially made for this purpose and do not work gear or when hauled like a liftnet, but these are otherwise. Therefore this gear also has to be men- exceptions and not in accord with their original tioned in a special group of fishing methods. construction. Most authors make sub-classifications in such a Very often gillnets and entangling nets (one-, manner that simple gear is mentioned before more double- or triple-walled) are classified together complicated ones. This does not mean that a gear because they are operated in the same manner. But with an apparently more complicated construction when the manner of capture is the criterion, they has been developed from simpler ones (Vilkuna are seen to work quite differently. It may happen 1975). that some fish with hard fins and spines are also entangled in gillnets or large fish entangle them- A.3 Revised classification selves in small-meshed gillnets. Nevertheless, the main manner of capture is gilling. On the other For the first Fishing Gear Congress held in hand, single-walled entangling nets can never gill Hamburg in 1957, a classification was submitted sturgeons or crabs.They are entangled.This is espe- which inspired many translations and revised pro- cially true for trammelnets. posals in different languages. As mentioned before, In the classification of Far Eastern countries, such a classification needs benevolent acceptance scoop nets are included in the group of liftnets or and should be, more or less, a framework allowing dipnets. But in contrast to scoop nets, all types of for summarizing and enlargement. liftnets make vertical movements up and down Because of new developments, and the author’s only. Therefore it may be more justified to include own personal experiences, the original classifica- the different types of scoop nets in the same group tion, published first in German in 1952 (Protokolle as gape and stow nets.These stow nets are also com- zur Fischereitechnik,Vol. 2, No. 6) and in English in bined with traps. The manner of capture is nearly 1957 (Modern Fishing Gear of the World:Vol. 1, the same. But stow nets need water current and are London, 1959) and revised in 1964 (Fish Catching limited to catching fish swimming with the current. Methods of the World, London 1964) and again Therefore it may be permitted to separate these in 1972 in the second edition of this book, required framed net bags from the traps, even when they a few alterations (sometimes only by a better have funnels and chambers like traps and often the wording) for the third edition of Fish Catching end is completed by a basket or fyke net. Methods of the World. Also, some enlargement of DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 510

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the classification became necessary. This was can be pushed, thrown or shot. The prey is taken brought about by the inclusion of ‘wrenching gear’ by grappling, squeezing, piercing, transfixing, or in the second group (grappling and wounding gear) wounding. Barbs prevent efforts to escape. Clamps, of this classification (thanks to the help of Profes- tongs and raking devices are types within this group sor Kwan So Ko of the National Fisheries Univer- but so also are spears, harpoons, arrows, and other sity of Busan, Korea); by a new arrangement of the missiles. sub-group of ripping hooks in group 4 (lines); by 2.1. taken without wounding including the pursed cast nets in group 13 (falling gear) (thanks to Professor T. Mengi, University of 2.1.1. wrenching gear (Figures 7.14 and Istanbul, Turkey); by including dragged gillnets in 7.15) group 14 (gillnets) (thanks to Professor V. Ange- 2.1.2. clamps (Figures 7.2–7.4 and 7.10) lescu, Instituto Biologia Marina, Mar del Plata, 2.1.3. raking devices (Figure 7.13) Argentina); and by the new grouping of group 15 2.1.4. tongs (Figures 7.7–7.9) (tangle nets) (with thanks for the help of Professor 2.2. taken by a wounding method, e.g. with sharp Bacalbas¸a-Dobrovici in Galati, Rumania, and Pro- projectiles fessor T. Mengi in Elazik, Turkey).The result was a 2.2.1. spears and lances (pushed or thrown) proposal for a classification of catching methods (Figures 6.4–6.6) used in fisheries in the third edition. Against this 2.2.2. fish plummets (Figures 6.10–6.13) here in the fourth edition a little changed order was 2.2.3. fish combs (Figures 6.14 and 6.15) taken into consideration beginning with group 7. 2.2.4. arrows and similar missiles (shot by This classification order is more or less adapted also bows, crossbows, catapults, rifles, etc.) by the FAO (Nédélec & Prado 1990) and the base (Figures 6.16–6.19) for actual international systematics like the EU 2.2.5. harpoons (pushed or thrown) classification. The numbers of the figures in this (Figures 6.20–6.31, 6.37 and 6.38) book that illustrate the catching methods listed are 2.2.6. blow guns (Figures 6.40–6.42) given in parentheses. 2.2.7. rifles It has to be mentioned that for technical reasons the order of succession in the following classifica- tion is not always in agreement with the descrip- tions of fishing gear and methods given in the 3. Stupefying devices chapters. The manner of capture of this group is to prevent 1. Without gear fish from escaping by stupefying or stunning them. This can be achieved in various ways. Fishes and other prey are collected by hand or with the help of more or less trained animals (dogs, 3.1. mechanical stupefying otters, cormorants and others). Hand-picking can 3.1.1. striking gear (thrown stones, fish be done along the shore, in shallow water by wading clubs, wooden or iron hammers) fishermen, or in deeper water by divers with or 3.1.2. explosives, e.g. dynamite, hand without diving suits. Only small tools are needed; grenades or bombs (Figure 5.1) more important are baskets and bags for the carry- 3.2. chemical stupefying (fish poisoning) ing of the collected material. 3.2.1. ichthyotoxic plants (Figures 5.2 and 5.3) 1.1. grasping by hand (Figure 2.6) 3.2.2. animal poisons 1.2. by diving (Figures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.7) 3.2.3. chemicals (such as burnt lime, copper 1.3. with hunting animals (Figures 4.4 and 4.7) vitriol, etc.) 3.2.4. deoxygenation (by stirring up the 2. Grappling and wounding gear mud in shallow waters) As in hunting, humans have extended the range of 3.3. electrical stupefying (electrical fishing) their arms by using long-handled implements which (Figures 5.4–5.6) DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 511

Appendix 511

4. Lines 5.1.2. eel tubes (Figure 14.6) 5.1.3. octopus pots (Figures 14.7–14.10) In this case the manner of capture is for the fish to 5.2. barriers be offered real or supposed bait which is presented 5.2.1. walls or dams (stone, wood, netting, in such a manner that it is difficult for the fish to let etc.) often in tidal areas (Figures 15.4, it go once it is taken. This is complicated by gorges or hooks. Hooks also allow the capture of fish by 15.5 and 13.2) active ripping when they come within their range. 5.2.2. fences (fish screens, labyrinth traps) Most methods are known in commercial fisheries as (Figures 15.8 and 15.29) well as in sports fishing. 5.2.3. gratings (Figures 15.10–15.16) 5.2.4. watched chambers (closed by fisher- 4.1. without hook (bobbing) (Figures 8.1–8.6) men after entrance of the fish) 4.2. with gorges or hooks (single, double or (Figures 15.19–15.27) triple hooks; also three or more single hooks 5.3. mechanical traps (closed mechanically by a fixed with each other) (Figures 8.7–8.10, mechanism released by the prey) 8.15–8.19) 5.3.1. gravity traps or box traps (Figures 4.2.1. handlines (including pole lines oper- 18.1–18.8) ated in commercial and sport fisheries 5.3.2. bent rod traps (whipping bough as well as vertical longlines) (Figure traps) (Figures 18.9–18.15) 9.1) 5.3.3. torsion traps (Figure 18.17) 4.2.2. set lines (including bottom or near- 5.3.4. snares (Figures 18.18–18.21) bottom longlines) (Figures 9.13–9.17) 5.4. tubular traps (narrow funnel-like or hose- 4.2.3. drift lines (including drifting long- like gear without gorges) lines) (Figure 9.26) 5.4.1. genuine tubular traps (the fish is 4.2.4. troll lines (including spin fishing in pressed in the funnel-shaped gear by sport fisheries) (Figures 9.32, 9.34– the current) (Figures 16.1–16.4) 9.42 and 10.12) 5.4.2. smooth tubular traps (the fish is held 4.3. with rip hooks (foul hooking) on the hose-like gear made of netting 4.3.1. pole hooks (gaffs) (Figure 12.3) by its own fins) (Figure 16.5) 4.3.2. pilks or jigs (Figure 12.7) 5.4.3. thorn lined traps (the fish cannot 4.3.3. squid hooks (Figures 12.21–12.24) escape from the narrow funnel-shaped 4.3.4. set rip lines (e.g. for sturgeon) gear because of thorns) (Figure 16.6) (Figures 12.14, 12.15 and 12.30) 5.5. baskets, mostly small traps, three-dimen- 4.3.5. dragged bottom rip hooks (single sional, with retarding devices hooks, fish harrows or towed long- 5.5.1. pots (made of wood or wire or plastic, lines) (Figures 12.4–12.6) mostly without wings and leaders) (Figure 16.29) 5. Traps 5.5.2. conical and drum-like traps (made of netting with hoops and frames; mostly These are implements in which the fish enters vol- with wings and leaders; sometimes untarily but is hampered from coming out. Usually many fyke nets are combined in a in these traps there are one or more chambers catching system) (Figures 16.50 and which will be closed when the prey enters or which 16.72) have a retarding device such as a gorge or a funnel. 5.5.3. box-like traps (made of strong, mostly Smaller types are completely closed except for the iron, frames) (Figures 16.55–16.58) entrance, i.e. they are three-dimensional. Larger types operate in two dimensions only. 5.6. trapping gear, mostly large traps, two- dimensional, with retarding devices, fixed on 5.1. hiding places sticks or anchors, set or floating, can have 5.1.1. brush traps (Figures 14.1–14.5) wings and/or leaders DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 512

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5.6.1. simple forms made of fences or netting 8.1. entangling gear (different types for corals, (Figures 16.11–16.22) starfish, crabs, etc.) (Figures 20.1–20.3) 5.6.2. weirs, predominately made of wood 8.2. single-walled tangle nets, sometimes with (Figures 16.67 and 16.70) vertical snoods or as frame nets (Figures 5.6.3. pound nets, predominately made of 20.4–20.8 and 20.11–20.13) netting (Figures 16.72–16.77) 8.3. double-walled nets (Figure 20.21) 8.4. trammelnets (triple-walled) (Figures 6. Aerial traps 20.14–20.18). Tangle nets can be combined with gillnets; also different types of gillnets Some fish, shrimps or even squid, when in danger can be incorporated in one gear as well as or opposite an obstacle, jump out of the water. different types of tangle nets (Figures Because they cannot steer their gliding flight they can be caught easily. The manner of capturing 20.22–20.23) jumping fish is based on the possibility of stirring them up so as to catch them in the air by special 9. Drive-in nets devices obstructing their glide. Fish can be caught by driving them into a fishing 6.1. box traps (Figure 17.1) gear of any type. Most of them are caught also 6.2. raft traps (Figure 17.3) without driving, but in smaller quantities. There are 6.3. boat traps (Figures 17.4–17.11) some constructions of stationary gear which catch 6.4. veranda nets (Figures 17.12–17.19) only when the fish are driven into them among 6.5. scoop nets for jumping fish (Figures 17.20 other methods by swimming or diving fishermen, or and 17.21). Here can be included a special by frightening lines. These are mentioned in the trap for fishes migrating over land. following: 6.6. pitfall traps 9.1. dustpan-like stationary gear (Figures 21.6–21.9) 7. Gillnets 9.2. trawl-like gear, more or less stationary (Figures 21.3 and 21.5) These are single-walled nets, with a mesh opening 9.3. gillnets set in a circle around a fish school, of such a size that the wanted fish can gill them- or in a spiral (Figure 21.10) selves in the netting. This is a passive gear, but fish There are some more methods which are often can also be driven into the gillnets. The nets are used in this fishery by driving fishes into blankets, used singly or in large ‘fleets’. in scoop nets (Figure 21.12) and some push nets 7.1. set gillnets (anchored on the bottom, some- (Figures 21.13–21.15) times floating) (Figures 19.4–19.6) 7.2. driftnets (with or without vessel) (Figure 10. Falling gear 19.7) 7.3. dragged gillnets (Figure 19.12) The manner of capture is to cover the fish with a 7.4. encircling gillnets (fishes are driven into the gear. This can be done without difficulty in shallow encircling gillnets mostly by noises, see 9.3.) waters, with some difficulty in deeper waters. 10.1. cover pots 10.1.1. wooden cover pots (Figures 8. Tangle nets 22.1–22.4) and newer variations The manner of capture of the tangle (entangling) (Figures 22.5 and 22.6) nets is that the fish or crabs entangle themselves in 10.1.2. lantern nets (wooden frame with the netting by coming into the single-, double- or netting) (Figures 22.7–22.10) triple-walled (trammel) nets voluntarily or by being 10.1.3. cover nets (Figures 22.11–22.13) driven. 10.2. cast nets, with or without pockets DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 513

Appendix 513

10.2.1. hand-thrown cast nets (Figures 12.1. scoop baskets and nets (small hand- 22.14–22.18) operated gear) 10.2.2. cast nets with gallows (Figure 12.1.1. landing nets (with a more or less 22.21) round frame; mostly an accessory in 10.2.3. cast nets for boats (drive cast nets) sport fishing, but also used for (Figure 22.22) fishing directly) (Figures 24.1– 10.3. cast nets with purse line (Figures 22.19 and 24.12) 22.20) 12.1.2. skimming nets (with two cross- 10.4. jerk nets (a rectangular net under tension ing sticks) (Figures 24.11c and between two sticks is pushed forward) 24.22–24.25) (Figure 22.24) 12.1.3. push nets (with triangular or semi- circular frame) (Figures 24.11d and 24.18) 11. Liftnets 12.1.4. dragged scoop nets (with a rectan- gular frame, identically with The manner of capture with lift or dipnets is to dredges) (Figures 24.27 and 24.28) bring the prey over a flat or more or less bag-like netting. They are then caught by lifting the gear. 12.1.5. brail nets (large scoop nets with Smaller types have special devices to keep the purse line for closing the under netting spread. Larger types need mechanical side) (Figure 24.21) arrangements for lifting; originally by levers, later 12.2. scrape nets (small ones operated by hand, by beams and winches. larger ones mostly mechanically operated; stationary on the shore or on a vessel) 11.1. hand liftnets (portable; including hoop (Figures 24.30 and 24.32) nets) (Figures 23.1–23.7) 12.3. gape nets without wings (large framed gear 11.2. mechanized liftnets (shore or boat with retarding device) installed) 12.3.1. stow nets on stakes (Figures 24.37 11.2.1. lever liftnets (Figures 23.11–23.13) and 24.38) 11.2.2. gallows liftnets (Figures 23.14– 12.3.2. stow nets on anchors (with or 23.17) without vessel) (Figures 24.41– 11.3. blanket nets 24.48) 11.3.1. held by beams from the shore 12.4. gape nets with wings (large gear without (Figures 23.18–23.21) framed opening, with retarding device) 11.3.2. with stationary buildings (Figure 12.4.1. winged stow nets on stakes (Figure 23.22–23.26) 24.49a) 11.3.3. mounted on vessels (Figures 12.4.2. winged stow nets on anchors 23.27–23.29 and 23.31–23.36) (Figure 24.49b) 11.4. fish wheels (Figures 23.37–23.42) 12.4.3. winged stow nets with otter boards (Figure 24.50) 12.5. closable bagnets (Figures 24.51–24.53) 12. Bagnets These are bags of netting (originally also wood) 13. Dragged gear which are kept open vertically by a frame on the opening side and extended horizontally by the This group contains all bagnets or net walls which current. Smaller types, like scoop nets, are moved are towed through the water on or near the bottom through the water for the same reason. The fish or or even pelagically for an unlimited time. The other prey entering, more or less voluntarily, is manner of capture is by filtering the passive prey by caught by filtering. the active moved gear. DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 514

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13.1. sweep nets (towed sheets of netting, single- 14.2.1. beach seines (on sea coast or in or triple-walled; overlapping with 14.3 and fresh waters, also under ice; the 15.4) (Figure 20.18) gear is hauled with or without 13.2. runner nets (two frames shaped like the vessels onto the beach) (Figures runners of a sledge and covered with 28.13–28.16) netting); the frames joined at a narrow 14.2.2. boat seines (the gear is hauled in angle; the gear towed along the bottom by the deep water from a boat) two persons while steered by a third. Once (bottom: Figure 28.17, surface: a fish is felt in the netting, the gear is closed Figure 28.7, and pelagic type: on the fish and brought ashore) Figure 28.10) 13.3. dredges 13.3.1. hand dredges (with handle; scratcher) (Figures 25.1–25.3) 15. Surrounding nets 13.3.2. boat dredges (Figures 25.5–25.10) The manner of capture is to surround the fish not 13.3.3. mechanical dredges (Figures only from the side but also from beneath, thus per- 25.13–25.15) mitting the capture of fish over very deep waters by 13.4. bottom trawls preventing their escape into the depths. 13.4.1. with one boat sailing broadside 15.1. lampara-like nets (without pursing device) (26.1) (Figures 29.1–29.3a, 29.4 and 29.5) 13.4.2. with two boats, pair trawling 15.2. purse seines (with pursing device) (Figure 26.27) 15.2.1. one-boat system (with or without 13.4.3. beamtrawls (Figures 25.17–25.27) auxiliary skiff) (Figures 29.3b and 13.4.4. otter trawls (including semi-pelagic 29.15) trawls with otter boards on the 15.2.2. two-boat system (Figures 29.8, bottom) (Figures 26.3–26.8, 26.10 29.11 and 29.13) and 27.3b and c) 15.3. ring nets (hybrid type between lampara 13.5. mid-water trawls (pelagic trawls including nets and purse seines, with pursing device) surface trawls) (Figure 29.3c) 13.5.1. one-boat otter trawls (Figures 15.4. ‘Chiromila’ purse net (Figure 29.19) 27.3a, 27.10 and 27.11) 13.5.2. two-boat trawls (Figures 27.7, 27.8 and 27.15) 16. Harvesting machines In this group all fishing gear is mentioned which takes the prey out of the water and also transports 14. Seine nets it on board the vessel by various methods. This is a gear with very long wings and towing 16.1. hand-operated Venturi dredges and warps with or without bag or bags.The mode of cap- washout nozzles (Figure 30.6 and 30.7) turing is by surrounding a certain area and towing 16.2. harvesting machines (with conveyor belts) the gear over this area with both ends attached to (Figures 30.8–30.10) a fixed point on the shore or on a vessel. 16.3. fish pumps (for pump fishing) (Figures 14.1. double-stick nets (a more or less small 30.1–30.5) sheet of netting mostly without bag held 16.4. collector for algae with crane and wrench- between two sticks) (Figure 28.5) ing gear (Figures 30.11 and 30.14) 14.2. genuine seine net (without, and with one 16.5. other harvesting and transporting systems or more bags; equi-winged or non-equi- which are in development and which may winged; with towing lines of equal or non- require classification at some point in the equal length) (Figure 28.2) future DFCAP 4/23/05 9:36 PM Page 515

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References du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle,3e série, No. 156 Ecologie général 12. Burdon, T.W. (1951) A consideration of the classification Nédélec, C. (1982) Définition et Classification des Caté- of fishing gear and methods. In: Proceedings of the gories d’engins de Pêche. FAO Document Technical Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, Sect. II/21, Madras. Pêches No. 222. Kajewski, G. (1957) Gedanken zur Systematik der Vilkuna, K. (1975) Unternehmen Lachsfang. Die fischereilichen Fanggeräte. Zeitschrift für Fischerei Geschichte der Lachsfischerei in Kemijoki. Studia VI, 397–403. Fennica. Review of Finnish Linguistics and Ethnology Leroi-Gourhan, A. (1945) Milieu et Techniques. Sciences No. 19. Helsinki. d’Aujourdhui. Paris. Monod, T. (1973) Contribution à l’établissement d’une classification fonctionelle des engins de pêche. Bulletin DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 516

Subject index

(ff. = same term used several times on backing down or backdown method bite indicator (line fishing) 141, 142 same page or on directly following (to avoid catching porpoises) 471 blanket net (liftnet) 329, 336 ff., 343, pages) bagan (Indonesian platform for 345 fishing) 338, 340 bleach (for driving animals out of acoustic lures (stimuli) 157 bagnet (see also scoopnet) 7, 27, 80, hiding places) 17, 48 active fishing gear 5, 151 301, 306 ff., 319 ff., 349 ff., 353, 357, blow gun (pipe) for fish shooting 70 ff. aerial traps 254, 257, 259, 261 359 ff., 364 ff., 369, 371 ff., 376, 382, bluestone (see also copper vitriol) 17 aesthetic fishery 12 386 ff., 392, 401, 431, 433, 435, boat liftnet 341 ff. Agassiz trawl (scientific gear) 390 438 ff., 441 boat seining 441 ff., 456, 459, 464 aggregating devices (FAD) 158, 160, bailing, bailing out 17 boat trap to catch jumping fish 254 ff., 161 bait 257 aimed trawling 418, 419, 422, 490 fishing- 12, 19, 44 ff., 56 ff., 83 ff., 91 bobbin 138, 398, 404, 503 ff. air ff., 101 ff., 105, 107, 110 ff., 118, bobbing, blobbing 83 ff., 96 bubbles, curtain of; bubble barrier 120, 122 ff., 126, 132 ff., 136 ff., 141 boomerang 42 11, 156, 157, 162, 163 ff., 145 ff., 149 ff., 150, 153 ff., 159, bottom fishing in the 252 ff. 162, 164, 167, 175 ff., 215, 218, 222, fishing (sport fishing) 240, 426 almadraba (trap) 209 236, 239 ff., 261 ff., 264, 266 ff., 276, longline 114 ff., 117 ff., 121, 131 amicao (trap) 209 295, 305, 313, 329 ff., 335, 341, 343, set gillnet 278 ff. amphibious vehicles 388 346, 350, 352, 356, 361, 377, 451, trawl 4, 122, 161, 385, 387, 392 ff., anchor seining 209, 443 464, 466, 474, 499, 501 ff., 505 415, 422 ff., 484, 500 angling in the air 261 box 330, 331 bouke ami see stick-held dip net animals for catching or herding fishes cord 93 bow and arrow 61 ff. 31 ff. baiter, baiting machine 131, 133 box trap 253, 264, 266 ff. anise for attracting 153 bamboo rod (sport fishing) 138, 259, brail net, brailer, brailing 354, 359ff Ankerkuile (stownet) 368 308, 326 brake (see also retarder) 63, 68, 72, Anschläger (tubular trap) 218 bar length (mesh) 483 119, 272 arborvitae (fish poisoning) 46 barb, for hooks, spears, harpoons, etc. branch line, snood, dropper line, leader archery 62, 74 55 ff., 76 ff., 84 ff., 106 ff., 165 ff., (line fishing) 98, 105 ff., 114 ff., arrow, for bow and blowpipe 47, 53, 268 120 ff., 129 ff., 147, 169 ff., 176 ff., 55, 61, 62, 64, 70, 72, 87, 88 barrier 8, 16, 44, 173, 182, 198 ff. 191, 247 artisanal (see also small-scale) fishing basket (fish) (see also wooden traps) brush trap, brush wood 191 ff. 163, 164 3, 14 ff., 27, 35 ff., 49, 57, 115, 121, bubu (Malaysian trap) 224, 230 attracting stimuli and methods see 129, 133, 232 ff., 253, 267, 269, 313 bulk fishery 162, 242 aggregating devices ff., 329, 332, 350 ff., 376 ff., 380 ff., bundgarn (Danish pound net) 242, autoclip system 133, 134 404 245, 250 autoline system 131 basnig (Philippine liftnet) 44, 151 bunt 431 ff., 439, 450 ff., 454, 456, automatic line fishing 105, 270 beach seining 277, 432, 439 ff., 444, 459 ff., 461 ff. automation and fishing methods see 446, 441 Butpedden (to find flatfish with the mechanization beamtrawl 4, 51, 137, 355, 376 ff., 392 feet) 18 axe ff., 398 ff., 401 ff., 408 ff., 500, butterfly fish- 41, 165, 166, 199 504 ff. (v-shaped otterboard) 397 ice- 43, 439 bear (fishing animal) 31, 32 L-shaped danleno for trawls 402 belly of a trawl 423, 500 net (Mexican scoop net) 261, 355 baby seine net (small hand-operated bent hook 88 ff., 91, 94 bycatch 283, 303, 409, 488, 490, 499, gear) 434 bilancia (Italian stationary liftnet) 505 baby trawl 392, 434 335 ff. reducing devices 488

516 DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 517

Subject index 517

caddis larva, (‘netmaking’ insect, pest pot (plunge, thrust basket) 186 drive cast net (‘Schleifgarn’) 325 for fishnets) 182 cow hitch for netting 186 drive-in (driving-in) fishery 10, 281, cableless transmission 489 cows in fisheries 47, 305 299, 301, 305 ff., 357 cane rod (sport fishing) 137 crane and fishing gear 284, 286, 406, drop net see liftnet 332 carbide 48 408, 464, 474, 479 ff. dropper line see branch line carbon rod (sport fishing) 147 crayfish ring (lift net) 330 ff. drum (reel) fishing 129, 131, 133, 140, cast net creel (trap) 234 ff., 248 175, 249, 284, 406, 413, 427, 445 ff., with purse line 324 croakwood (Quakholz) 155 ff. 467 ff., 471 ff., 477, 497 casting gear 320 ff. crocodile hook 87 ducks for fish driving 34, 36, 38, 41 castor oil (chemical lure) 153 cross-bow 47, 61 ff. dummy bait 100 cat (fishing animal) 31 crossbow-shaped trap 270 dynamiting (mechanical stupefying) catapult 26, 53, 60, 64, 141 crow’s eyes (fish poisoning) 45 40, 43 ff. catch indicator see bite indicator cyclamen (fish poisoning) 46 catcher vessel 162, 483 echo sounder (see also netsounder) 10, cattle in fisheries 3, 4, 13, 31, 48, 162 Dalyan (large Turkish trap net or 161, 225, 248, 426 chalut à panneaux 396 liftnet) 209 ff., 223 eel chemical lures (stimuli) 153 ff. Danish seining (see also anchor bob 85 ff. chemicals for fishing 45, 47 ff., 162 seining) 441 ff. comb (rake) 58 ff. cherry bombs for frightening 44 danleno (see also butterfly) 394, 398, fork see eel comb chicken wire 224, 229, 233 402, 404 tube 192 ff., 222 Chinese knot 186 daphne, common (fish poisoning) electrical fishing 5, 48 ff., 51 ff., 189, Chinese liftnet 333 ff., 342 46 ff. 412, 478 chiromila (chilimila, vertical purse dead-bait spinning tackle (sport electricity for frightening 51, 161 seine) 462 fishing) 145 electrified fishing gear 189 chisel 17 deadfall see gravity trap encircling chumming 110 Deckbäre (cover net) 317, 319 gillnet 276, 310 ff. civet (for attracting fish) 153 deep sea dredges 376 ff. net see surrounding gear clam digger 81 ff., 479 deoxygenation (suffocation) 48 ff. entangling clam rake 81, 376 depressor (downward shearing board) (tangle) net 7, 275, 282, 291 ff., 449, clamp 53, 57 ff., 76 ff., 79, 83, 114, 115, 415 ff. 498 ff. 283 Derris, (fish poisoning) 45 ff. nets with snoods 296 clap net see skimming net 355 digging out (fish or shellfish) 17, 19, Eskimo fisheries 83, 138, 77 classification of catching (fishing) 28, 379, 381 Explosive 43 methods 2, 10, 366, Appendix dipnet (see also liftnet) 33, 44, 154, clip (cramp) for knotless netting 187 329 ff., 345 falling gear 7, 314 clips for longlining 77, 96, 98, 100, diver see swimming fishermen feathering (sport fishing) 145 114 ff., 120, 131, 133, 148, 188, 377 diver (downward shearing board) 100 feeler (feeling line) 6, 299, 357, 365 ff., closeable stow net 371 diver see swimming fishermen 373 closing hoop net (liftnet) 333 diving equipment 19, 22 ff. feet, fishing by 14 club (thrown), clubbing 42 ff., 48, 53, diving fisherman, diver 19, 21 ff., 39, 42 fibreglass rod (sport fishing) 137 ff. 157, 199, 259, 272 ff., 48, 58 ff., 64, 80, 151, 161, 192 fighting chair (sport fishing) 148 codend 246 ff., 388, 399, 401, 409, ff., 278, 307, 323, 486 ff., 491, 500 fire basket 35 ff., 57, 152 426 ff., 493 ff. dogs in fisheries 31, 32 ff., 126, 348 fish codend selectivity 497 ff. double knot for netting 187, 276 aggregation 483, 489 ff. collecting by hand see handpicking double, or two-walled, entangling net behaviour 3, 5 ff., 10, 101, 136, 150, collective fishing 7 ff., 34, 48, 322 299 ff. 153, 261, 396, 405, 418, 420, 424, combined entangling and gilling nets double-rig system (see also twin 491, 500, 505 302 ff. trawling) 402 ff., 408 fences 182 ff., 189, 202 ff. compound (composite) fishing hook double-stick net (pole seine net) 434 harrow see harrow 88 ff. dragged iron 55, 76 computerized fishing system (see also gear, dragging 7, 19, 282, 305, 376 ff., lot see fish plummet integrated fishing system) 381, 433, 441 park 190, 259 428 ff. gillnets 28 1ff plummet 58 ff., 78, 165 concentrating (aggregating) methods skimming nets 360 pot (see also trap) 183, 229, 236, 283 150 ff., 190, 197, 199, 246, 248, 431, drawing out (see also bailing out) 17 pumping (see also pumps) 51, 151, 454, 461 dredge, dredging 5, 19, 28, 80 ff., 167, 427 ff., 454, 470 ff., 474 ff. conveyor belt (escalator) for 185, 187 ff., 355, 376 ff., 392 ff., 403, seed (fish poisoning) 45 harvesting machines 477, 479 414, 476 ff. stock 10, 17, 46, 50, 137, 162, 166, copper vitriol, sulphate 48 drift 282, 426, 437, 483, 493 ff., 495, 497, coral net 292 line, floating longline (line fishing) 502, 505 cormorant (fishing bird) 31, 33 ff., 41 117, 118 ff., 120, 130, 150, 175 wheel 329, 346 ff. Cornish pilchard seine 449 net (gillnet) 4, 9, 121, 150, 275 ff., fishing cover 279 ff., 288, 293, 295, 299, 301, 414, and hunting 2 net 6, 314 ff. 463 by foot 14 ff., 17 DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 518

518 Subject index

fishing cont. gun 43, 47, 61, 63 ff., 67 ff., 72, 138 kite systems 473 ff., 480 ff. habitat, fish 162, 197 ff., 254, 501 ff. (flying in the air) 98, 100 ff., 103, technology 10 ff., 150, 222, 376, 430, hand 117 ff., 149 ff., 272 ff., 369 481, 491 grenade 43 ff. (shearing board, lifting device) 315, vessels 9 ff., 65, 75, 82, 251, 402, 404, liftnet 330 ff. 399 ff., 401, 404, 411 ff., 417 426, 482, 487 line 9, 22, 105 ff., 107 ff., 110, 112 ff., Kjökken möddinger (prehistoric with tangle nets 293 ff., 296 ff. 114, 116, 118, 126 ff., 128, 134, kitchen-stuff) 15 with the hand see handpicking 138 ff., 150, 154, 158, 164 ff., Klusgarn (pelagic seine net) 436 ff. float fishing (sport fishing) 141 ff. 167 ff., 173, 175 ff., 177, 268 knapsack (Hawaiian gasoline torch) floating gillnets (anchored) 275, 278 ff. picking 14 152 floating trawl see midwater trawl hanging ratio 456 ff., 501 ff. knife 26 ff., 42 fluke bar or ‘murderer’ 166 ff. harpoon, harpooning 2 ff., 4 ff., 26 ff., knotless netting 184 ff., 187 ff., 471 ff. flume tank 406, 423, 483 ff. 51 ff., 53 ff., 76, 92, 136 ff., 166 knotted netting 185 ff., 187 ff., 350, fly harpooning swordfish 68 ff. 495 ff. dragging 443 ff. harrow 164, 166 ff., 173 kokkel-seeds, (fish poisoning) 45 ff. fishing (sport fishing) 116, 137 ff., harvesting machines 7, 10, 16, 28, kolli-net (Indian surrounding net) 451, 146 ff. 82 ff., 162, 189 ff., 381, 473 ff. 453 flying gaff 166 headline transducer see net-sounder Kon-Tiki (raft for setting longlines) foot fishing 106 henbane, common (fish poisoning) 117 fork 17, 28, 32 ff., 49, 53, 59 ff., 76, 46 Koppel (handline with ripping hooks) 78 ff., 272 ff., 291, 438 Heringshaue (handline with ripping 168 foul-hooking 164 hooks) 168 Krandaubel (boat liftnet) 335 ff. framed nets 297 heron’s oil (for fish attraction) 153 Kufennetz 376 freshwater trawling 424 ff. herring bottom trawl 399 Kurrennet (dragged trammel net) 299 frightening 10, 33, 40, 44, 49, 51, 150 ff., hexagonal or pentagonal plaited Kwan-Hyon-Mang (Korean seine net) 157, 257, 305 ff., 313, 322, 357, 387, material for traps 182 ff., 188 ff., 444 ff. 390, 393, 398 ff., 422, 431, 437 ff., 224 ff., 227, 232, 471 ff. 441 ff., 474 ff. hiding places (shelters) 14, 17, 26, 32, L50 493 ff. funnel, funnel-shaped entrance 7, 86, 39, 48, 83, 105, 157 ff., 169, 173, labour, division of 7 ff., 9 215 ff. 190 ff., 195 ff., 197 ff., 264, 268 ff., labyrinth fishery 182, 213 ff. fyke net 219 ff., 229 ff., 231 ff., 235 ff., 291, 409 lake dweller knot 186 242 ff., 244, 313, 350, 365 hoe 17, 19, 28, 291, 360 lamp for light fishing 24, 40, 57 ff., Hogeln (setting a longline) 107 152 ff., 174, 178, 257, 309, 310, 329, gaff, gaffing 17, 105, 108, 132, 164 ff., Hölger (eel-comb) 59 ff. 333, 341 ff., 346, 354 ff., 356 ff., 474 202, 226, 359 Hong Kong diverter (floating lampara, lampara-like net 159, 251, gallic acid (fish poisoning) 47 otterboard) 447 450 ff., 454, 461 ff., 472, 475 gape net see stow net hook and line fishing 4 ff., 39, 59, 80, lance 1, 53 ff., 62, 64, 66, 105 ghost 137, 139, 148, 394 landing net 166, 332, 350. 359 net (gillnet) 239, 282 ff. hook, fish-, (bent) see bent hook lantern net 299, 317 ff. trap 237 ff. hooking see line fishery large scale (industrial) fishery 294 gillnet gillnetting 5, 7, 9 ff., 40, 127, hoopnet see liftnet Larsen midwater trawl 419 ff., 429 129 ff., 175 ff., 163 ff., 184 ff., horses in fisheries 14, 31 ff., 48, 161, lead line 435 190 ff., 197 ff., 239, 257, 261, 275 ff., 305, 360 ff., 403, 437 ledgering (sport fishing) 137 293 ff., 296 ff., 302 ff., 306 ff., hydraulic clam rake/digger 81 lifting device 399 ff., 484 310 ff., 313. 323, 375, 406, 411, 424, hyssop (for fish frightening) 160 ff. liftnet 7, 105, 151 ff., 154, 158, 185, 209, 437 ff., 449, 456, 463, 498 ff., 501 ff., 299, 313 ff., 320 ff., 324, 329 ff., 338, 505 ice fishing 113, 138, 168, 278, 438 340 ff., 343 ff., 345 ff., 349, 362, 369 giornelli or girarelli (fish wheel) 347 ichthyotoxic plants 44 ff. light detection and ranging (LIDAR) glass bottles as traps for bait fish 236, inland water bottom trawls 410 ff. 488 239 integrated fishing system (trawling) light fishery 40, 153, 162, 179. 472, glib 311 ff. 381, 428 ff., 473, 480 475 ff., 481 ff. goosander (fishing bird) 36 lime fishery (quicklime) 47 gorge for line fishing 86 ff., 93 Japanese bottom driftnet (‘genshiki’) line grasping instruments 15 ff., 76 ff., 79, 295 ff. fishery, lining (hook-and-line) 84, 94 314 jig, jigger see pilk ff., 109, 128, 134, 156, 164, 168, 273, grating to filter fish 204 ff., 206 ff. jigger, (for the transportation of lines 394, 451 gravity trap 265 ff., 269 under ice) 279, 438 ff. hauler 131 ff., 285 grebe (fishing bird) 36 juniper (fish poisoning) 46 lineless line fishing 95 ff., grenade harpoon 67 live-bait fishery see pole-and-line grid 495, 497 ff., 502, 505 Kankava (Turkish beamtrawl with two fishery groundfishing (sport fishing) 137, or three wheels) 385 ff. longline 141 ff. kannizzati fishery (Malta) 159 fishery, longlining 88, 96, 98, 103, groundrope 310, 503 kelong (platform for seafishing in 118 ff., 120 ff., 126 ff., 130 ff., 141, rollers see bobbins Malaysia) 338 ff., 369 162, 283 ff., 290, 473, 501 ff., 504 ff. DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 519

Subject index 519

system, (method, technique) 333 octopus, as fishing animal 31, 39 power block 9 ff., 284, 286, 406, 408, looking-glass, (look box, water glass) Oertz-board 397 ff. 427, 444, 455, 463 ff., 465 ff., 468 ff., 58 optical lures 151 ff. 470 ff., 472 loon (fishing bird) 36 otter pulse stick 155, 161, 306 loop line fishery 273 trawl 390, 395 ff., 402 ff., 409 ff., pumps for fishing: pump-fishing 30, 51, loop see snare 411 ff., 429, 491 151, 474 ff., 476 ff., 482 ff. low light level camera 405, 486 board (trawl door) 98 ff., 100, 123, pumps for unloading fishing gear: lower panel 500 ff., 503 ff. 147 ff., 362, 371 ff., 393 ff., 395 ff., fish-pumping 247, 381, 427 ff., 454, lure, artificial 110, 121, 143 ff., 144, 145, 397 ff., 399, 401 ff., 408, 410 ff., 412, 471 ff., 473 151 ff., 154, 167 ff. 416, 419, 420 ff., 422, 426 ff., 447 ff., purse lure-line 85 ff. 484, 486 ff., 489 ff. hoopnet (closeable liftnet) 333 board model 486 ff. line 314 ff., 323 ff., 359 ff., 454 ff., Madrague (trap) 209 ff., 211 board stow net 371 ff. 459 ff., 461, 471 magnetic field 162 fish- (fishing mammal) 31, 33 ff., 41, seine 44, 48, 112, 126, 151 ff., 158, Magnus rotor 4487 ff. 137 220, 314, 358 ff., 392 ff., 406 ff., 424, Mallet 42 ox tongue (fish poisoning) 46 ff. 429 ff., 433 ff., 450 ff., 454 ff., manga (Japanese dredge) 378 456 ff., 459 ff., 461 ff., 463 ff., Maori fisheries 13, 16, 19, 32, 155, pair trawling 8, 32, 393 ff., 403, 410, 468 ff., 471 ff., 483 ff., 490 ff., 165 ff., 202 ff., 226, 233, 240, 448 413, 424, 426, 429, 441 ff., 444, 448 498 ff. marine environment 197, 486, 502 Palamito a vela (sailing raft for setting push net 311 ff., 359 ff., 377 material testing 483 longlines) 116 ff. mats, floating 255 Parachute 119 ff., 178 ff., 403 qoofa (Arabian boat dredge) 377 mechanical narcosis see stupefying paravane (sport fishing) 100 ff. quakholz 155 ff. mechanical model 483 pareja fishery (Spain) 394 quicklime (fish poisoning) 47 ff. mechanization of operation: generally party boat (sport fishing) 136 134 passive fishing gear 5 ff., 150, 175, 201, raft (sailing) for setting longlines merganser (fishing bird) 36 ff. 276, 281, 305 116 ff., 141 midwater seine net see Kwan-Hyon- paternoster tackle, (line fishing) 142 raft as fishing device 10, 12, 27, 36, Mang pêche à la tente, (for jumping fish) 39 ff., 127, 152, 158 ff., 159 ff., midwater trawl see trawl 256 ff. 169 ff., 173, 226, 254 ff., 259, 322, model test 411, 413, 423, 483 ff., 486 ff. pêche à pied (fishing on foot) 20 ff., 334, 338, 341, 343, 364, 394, 437 monofilament 6, 9 ff., 89, 95 ff., 115 ff., 104 ff., 198, 349, 360, 374 rake 14 ff., 17, 26, 58 ff., 76, 78 ff., 123, 177, 243, 257, 271, 273, 277 ff., pelagic trawl see trawl, midwater 80 ff., 166 ff., 204 ff., 376 ff., 382, 282 ff., 299, 203, 341, 357, 501 Peruvian knot for netting 186 445, 477 ff., 479 mop fishing, mopping 291 ff. Pieptauschiff (for setting longline) 116 ranggong, Malayan handline mud-sled, (sledge) 32 pilk, pilking 167 ff., 169 ff., 176 construction 105 ff. multi-net-sounder 418 pilkestikke 169 Raschel technique for knotless netting mullein (fish poisoning) 46 ff. pitfall trap 262 ff. 187 ff. multi-mono 184, 501 plastic trap 236 ff. rattle see acoustic lures murderer see fluke bar plug 122 ff., 124, 144 rectangular cast net (Polynesian type) musk (fish attracting) 153 plumb line see plummet 326, 327 plummet 22, 58 ff., 78, 165 reef, artificial 136, 162 ff., 190, 197 ff. Nakabiki ami (Japanese drive-in net) plunge basket see cover pot reefknot 186 ff. 308 poisoning, fish- 7, 43 ff., 46 ff., 51 reel net poker 17 ff. (artisanal fishing) 9, 106, 108 ff., hauler (gillnet) 284 ff., 285, 288, 463 pole scratcher 376 118 ff., 127 ff., 129 ff., 133 ff., making machine 187 pole-and-line fishery (poling) 89, 103, 137 ff., 138 ff., 176, 284, 406, 443 ff., mounting machine 283 134 ff., 291 468, 474 needle 187 pole-driver 246 (sport fishing) 139 ff., 140 ff., 142, shaking machine (net shaker) 288 ff. pole-hook 164 ff. 143 ff., 146 ff., 168, 169, 173, 175, netsonde 418 ff. polyvalent boards 397, 421 177 net sounder (Netzsonde) 418 ff., 427 ff. pony-board 394, 398 ff., 402, 404 remora for fishing see suckerfish net-making 3 ff., 9, 181 ff., 184 ff., porpoises as helping animals 40 ff., reptiles (fishing animals) 1, 31 186 ff., 188 ff., 350 462 ff. retarder 63, 66, 68, 72, 119 ff., 272 ff. netting, used horizontally 293 pot, fish- or basket (trap) 4, 6, 7, 17, 22, retarding devices see non-return noise for frightening 161 31, 32, 45, 98, 162, 183 ff., 193 ff., device non-return device 7, 215 ff., 218 ff., 195, 220 ff., 223 ff., 225 ff., 227. 229, retrieving line 60 ff., 62 ff., 64, 67, 70, 220 ff., 241 ff. 231 ff., 233 ff., 235 ff., 238 ff., 119, 138, 310 noose see snare 247 ff., 268 ff., 283, 295, 305, 314 ff., rifle 43, 47, 63, 65, 72 ff. nuikiri-ami (Japanese lampara-like 316, 319 ff., 352, 427, 436, 498, ring net 452 gear) 451 ff. 502 rip, ripper, ripping hook 5, 93, 164 ff., pound net (large trap made of netting) 166 ff., 168 ff., 170 ff., 172 ff., O-board 397 6 ff., 22, 209, 240, 242 ff., 245 ff., 174 ff., 176 ff., 178 octopus pot 193, 195 ff., 264, 267 ff. 248, 337, 484 rock striking 43 DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 520

520 Subject index

rod (for angling) 78 ff., 85, 95, 108 ff., set line 5, 84, 112 ff., 117 ff., 135, 138, spotter aircraft 471 110 ff., 112, 125 ff., 128 ff., 136 ff., 169 spreading stick (rod, stick, stretcher) 138 ff., 141 ff., 147 ff., 164, 166 ff., set net (stationary gillnet) 33, 157, 210, 229, 233 ff., 235, 371, 398 ff. 173 276, 278 ff., 282, 412, 484 spring roempon see lure-line sexual lure (fish attraction) 154 ff., 336 gorge 87 ff. rolling line, trolling see roundhauler shark trap see whippy bough trap roll-line 138 rattles 155, 272 -shutter trap 267 rope trawl 399 ff., 400, 402 ff., 423 ff., repellent, chaser 161 spurge (fish poisoning) 46 ff. 424, 429 ff. shearing devices 98, 100 ff., 147, 396, squid hook 164 ff., 174, 176 rope-coiling machine 442 420 stabilizer 102 ff., 124 ff. rotenon (fish poisoning) 45 ff., 52 shellfish stationary liftnet 151, 154, 333 ff., roundhauler (endless fishing line) dredge 187 ff., 377, 379 335 ff., 342 126 ff. harvester 476, 478 Steinar Persson’s six-wing net 421 rubber catapult 26 shelter, fish- 22, 36 ff., 98, 158 ff., 162, stengenot, Norwegian fish barrier 449 runner for skimming net 360 169, 190 ff., 215, 222, 236, 239, 259, stern trawler 9, 397, 399, 403 ff., 405 ff., runner net 376 335 424 ff., 426 ff., 459 shock absorber for line fishing 124 ff. stick-held liftnet (Japanese boat liftnet) sagena (seine net) 431 shooting 2, 25, 43, 47, 53 ff., 72 ff., 81 345 sailing raft (for setting longlines) shooting (gear) 115, 130, 133, 287, 394, STIPS (TV-system) 387 ff. 116 ff. 399, 406, 420, 423, 428 ff., 432, stock assessment 3, 490, 493, 497, 504 sailkite see kite 437 ff., 444, 456, 459, 461 ff. Sakowischte, sacovistea (scrape net) shovel 17, 53 stuker (cover net) 319, 328 162, 364 ff., 374 shrimp oil (for fish attraction) 153 stone walls 182 ff., 200 ff., 207 Salmenwaage, (closeable stownet) 372, shrimp trawling 408 ff., 412 stow 373 sickle 26, 478 net 16 ff., 51, 81, 98, 182, 199, 372 ff., salt for fishing 17 side-trawler 405 ff. 384, 386, 389, 415, 431 Samalow hook 170 signal device in linefishing see net with otterboards 372 sapyaw (Philippine encircling net) 450 bite/catch indicator nets with wings 371 satellites and fish catching 428 ff., 472, similarity criteria 484 streamer (sport fishing) 147 ff., 149 488 simulation 483 ff. strengthening rope 494 scaphander 23 single walled tangle (entangling) net stupefying 7, 42 ff., 409, 495 scare lines, 258, 306 ff., 313 293 ff. sturgeon line 93, 170 ff. scaring (see also frightening) 32, 149, size selectivity 494 ff., 497, 499 ff., 505 Süberkrüb-board 395, 397 ff., 427 160, 256, 306, 501 ff. skimming net 158, 299, 352 ff., 358 ff., submarine Schleifgarn, drift cast net (boat cast 362 ff. for harvesting water products 28 ff. net) 325 ff. ski-stick-like lobster ring 331 sail (see also underwater sail) 380 ff. scoop sliced hook 92 subsistence fishery 3 basket 350 ff., 355 small-scale (traditional) fishing 232 suckerfish for fishing 39 ff. net (see also bagnet) 17, 19, 27, snare 26, 101, 119, 190, 264 ff., 271 ff. suction pump see pumps 49 ff., 79, 83, 106, 153 ff., 189, snood see branch line surrounding gear 7, 40, 456, 462, 464 ff. 191 ff., 199, 209, 226, 242, 253, 259, snurrevaad see boat seining sweep net (dragged gear) 440, 448 261 ff., 311 ff., 329, 334, 336 ff., 341, solid pressure chamber 486 swimming fishermen 19, 21 ff., 39, 346 ff., 350 ff., 352 ff., 355 ff., sono-buoy for poundnet 7, 245 42 ff., 48 ff., 58 ff., 64 ff., 80, 151, 359 ff., 362, 376 ff., 449, 459 ff., sonar 405, 418, 428, 487 ff. 161, 192 ff., 278, 307 ff., 323, 486 ff., 469 ff., 474, 477 spear 491, 500 Scottish seining (fly dragging) 443 ff. thrower 60 ff. swing net (stow net) 367 ff. scrape net 333, 362 ff. fishing-, (spearing) 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, 17, Synkesnurpenot (Norwegian scratcher 17, 376 ff., 381 26, 38, 46 ff., 53, 76 ff., 78, 92, 136, surrounding net) 461 scuba diving 21, 24 ff. 138, 169 ff. synthetic fibres, (for twines and ropes) scythe 59 ff., 80, 479 species selectivity 181 ff., 191 ff., 209, 127 ff., 183 ff., 276 ff., 282 ff., 405, sea trials 483 226, 259, 272, 307, 314, 320, 494, 463, 471 Seehund (freshwater otterboard) 99 ff. 497, 499, 501 seine net, seining 51, 98, 137, 158, 220, Specchio per seppie (artificial lure for Taiwanese three-wheel beamtrawl 385 253, 259, 269, 299 ff., 306, 308, cuttlefish) 84 tandem hook 94 ff., 107 326 ff., 338, 406, 414, 431 ff., 451 ff., Speedoline system for mechanized tangle net see entangling net 456, 462 ff. longlining 133 television (underwater) 277, 486, selectivity 51, 70, 188, 282, 294, 303, Spiegelnetz (trammel net) 298 491 ff. 411 ff., 429, 433, 437, 447, 493 ff. spin fishing (sport fishing) 137 ff., thorn apple (fish poisoning) 46 ff. curve 494, 499 143 ff., 147, 167, 173 thorn hook 88 ff. factor 493 spinner (hook and line fishing) 98, tickler (sweep) chain 389 ff., 502 ff. range 493 122 ff., 143 ff. tidal weir 200 ff., 204, 214 of gillnets 282 ff., 294, 303 sport fishing 4 ff., 12, 24, 31, 54, 62, 83, Tiliner, Tison longline fishing system separator for shrimp trawl 409 102, 110, 136 ff., 141, 146 ff., 151, 132 ff. separator panel 500 ff. 162 ff., 169, 291 tobacco (fish poisoning) 46 DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 521

Subject index 521

tong 76 ff. pelagic 416 ff., 419, 484, 489, 498 sail (kite) 369 tonnaire (French large trap for tuna) rope see rope-trawl unmanned sailing devices for setting 209 semi-pelagic 414, 416 ff. longlines 116 ff. tonnara (Italian large trap for tuna) surface 414 ff., 418 upper panel 495, 500 ff. 209 with outriggers 392 ff., 408 tools for gathering 1 ff., 12, 17, 26 ff., trawling 8 ff., 126 ff., 338, 362, 392 ff. valve see non-return device 80, 165 trepang (fish poisoning) 21, 25, 47 venturi dredge 28 torches for fish attracting or trezzola (Italian fish harrow) 167 verandah net 258 ff., 260 ff. frightening 35, 57 ff., 152 ff., 255, trial net see trynet vertical longline 106 ff., 114, 117 ff., 261, 306, 475 trident 55 ff., 63, 74 119, 174 torch-net, Chinese 308 ff. triplex 427, 468 ff. V-shaped otterboard, V-door, butterfly torsion-shutter trap 271 trolling (sport fishing) 137, 143 ff., board 397 towing resistance 403, 410, 426, 447, 147 ff., 151 484 trolling, troll-line, trawl line 39, 89 ff., walls see stone walls for fishing gear towing warp 425 ff., 428, 432, 484 99 ff., 102 ff., 121 ff., 151, 154, 167, washout nozzle 28 tractor for towing fishing gear 444 173, 281 watched fishing gear 6 trammelnet 137, 259, 297 ff., 301 ff., trynet 379, 408 water glass, water searcher see looking- 306, 311, 317 ff. tuba see Derris glass trandadaia (Rumanian small towed tube weaver knot for netting 186 ff. trammelnet) 299 ff. as hiding place 190, 192 ff., 215 ff., weir, fish-, large trap made of wood trap 2, 4 ff., 32 ff., 36 ff., 98, 113, 136, 221, 225, 236, 264 ff., 270 22, 202, 206, 213 ff., 240, 242 ff., 153 ff., 183 ff., 190 ff., 197, 199 ff., for net transportation 288 244, 245 ff. 204 ff., 209, 213 ff., 215 ff., 253 ff., tubular trap 215 ff., 365 whaling 4, 16, 47 ff., 63, 65 ff. 257 ff., 259, 261 ff., 263 ff., 275, 278, tuna trap 8, 183, 209, 214, 243 wheels for beamtrawls 385 282, 289, 305, 313, 319, 332 ff., Turbler (spin fishing) = turbine spinner whippy bough trap 268 ff. 338 ff., 345, 350, 358, 365, 369, 411, 143 white board catch boat 252 502 ff., 505 Turntable 66, 464 white stone fishing 305 ff., 311 ff., trapnet 366 tweezer 17, 26 357 trapping 2 ff., 7 ff., 163, 165, 214, 215, twin-trawling 387 winch 9 ff., 24, 67 ff., 70, 117 ff., 129 ff., 264, 278 two-walled, double-walled, entangling 176, 247 ff., 326, 335 ff., 338, 359, trapping systems 241 net 299 ff. 371, 377, 380 ff., 402 ff., 406 ff., 417, trawl 419, 426 ff., 432, 436 ff., 438, 440, (generally) 4 ff., 51, 81, 98 ff., 157, umbrella hook (squid hook) 168, 443 ff., 468, 470 ff. 161 ff., 178, 220, 281, 310, 360 ff., 174 ff. wind tunnel 486 ff. 371 ff., 381, 385, 392 ff. underwater wire for traps 227, 229, 235 bottom see bottom trawl lamp (for fish attraction) 25, 57, wobbler (see also spin fishing) 144 high-opening, bottom 398, 405, 416 152 ff., 310 ff., 454 wooden pots (traps, baskets) 221 ff. inland water 410 ff. listening (fish searching) 24, 454 wounding gear 47, 59 midwater 4, 396, 398, 406, 413 ff., observation 405, 412 ff., 486 ff., wrenching gear 76 ff., 479 ff. 422 ff., 426, 444, 504 500 midwater, in fresh water 424 ff. sail (for towing fishing gear) 370, yew, common, (fish poisoning) multi-net, multi-rig 387, 403 382, 403, 405 46 ff. DFCIndex 4/23/05 9:37 PM Page 522

Species and product index

(ff. = same term used several times on conger 15, 79 flying fish 16, 87, 93, 149, 252 ff., 261 ff., same page or on directly following coral 1, 12, 15, 21 ff., 28 ff., 66 ff., 182, 357, 451 ff. pages) 292 ff., 305 ff. flying squid 253 coregonid fish 253, 279 frigate mackerel 110 abalone 15 ff., 18, 23 ff., 30, 165 crab 2, 13 ff., 32, 61, 76, 83 ff., 104, 107, frog 1, 13, 31, 61 ff., 95, 144, 155 ff., albacore 110, 124, 128, 134 113, 118 ff., 165, 191 ff., 195, 225, 229, 261, 314 ff., 353 algae 1, 13 ff., 80 ff. 234, 237 ff., 240 ff., 247, 268 ff., 275, alligator 13 282, 293 ff., 304, 331 ff., 350, 423 garfish 14, 86 ff., 101 ff., 116, 272 ff. ambergris 15 crawfish 17, 25, 76 gastropod 84 anchovetta, anchovy 464, 471 crayfish 13, 15, 26 ff., 83 ff., 103, 136, giant clam 21 australian salmon 444 155, 193 ff., 195, 197, 223, 227, 229, goby 313 ayu-fish 36, 154, 205 270 ff., 305 ff., 312, 314 ff., 332 ff., golden-thread 51, 118, 134 349 grouper 108, 118, 155 bait worms 18 crevettes 360 grunion 16, 20 ff. baltic herring 251 crocodile 1, 13, 31, 39, 72, 87 ff., 119, barnacle 14 271 haddock 96, 118, 126, 146, 497, 499, barracuda 121, 161 cucumber see sea cucumber 500 ff., 505 benthic organism 503 cuttlefish 55, 84 ff., 122, 136, 154 ff., hake 118, 130, 168, 402, 412, 419 black cod 130 164, 173 ff., 191 ff., 298 halibut 58, 88 ff., 108 ff., 117, 134, 177, bleak 36 303, 500, 501 blue cod 234 dab 122 herring 4 ff., 9, 13, 40 ff., 94, 149, 152, bluefin tuna 128 Decapterus 154, 356 157, 167 ff., 191 ff., 210 ff., 212 ff., bluefish 168 ff. dogfish 16, 130 242 ff., 246 ff., 248, 251, 276, 278 ff., blue whiting 423 ff., 427 ff. dolphin (see also porpoise) 16, 40 ff., 280 ff., 284 ff., 429 ff., 440, 444, bonito 89 ff., 101 ff., 110 ff., 149, 156 ff., 72 ff., 95, 101, 156, 159, 161, 451 ff., 449 ff., 456 ff., 463 ff., 468, 490, 494, 456 ff. 462 ff., 472 497, 499, 501, 504 ff. bream 272, 319 ff., 436 dugong see sea cow hilsa 373 ff. Buccinum see whelk Hippoglossus stenolepis 500 bullfrog 62, 95 eagle ray 253 horse mackerel 252, 313, 499 burbot 42, 168, 191 ff. eel 13, 17 ff., 48 ff., 53 ff., 55, 57 ff., huchen, huso 61, 165, 266 ff., 274, 300 74 ff., 79 ff., 83 ff., 95 ff., 103, 106, capelin 16 ff., 449, 456 ff., 464 114, 118 ff., 137 ff., 143, 153, 165 ff., jack mackerel 161 carp 21, 36, 38, 47, 61 ff., 87, 142 ff., 191 ff., 200, 202 ff., 205 ff., 221 ff., jellyfish 80 ff., 497 252, 258 ff., 272, 297, 299, 319 225 ff., 228, 230, 232, 236 ff., 240, 245, john dory 53 catfish 19 ff., 48, 95, 154 ff., 193, 215, 249 ff., 251 ff., 262 ff., 264, 272 ff., 297 299, 306, 312, 356 ff., 361 ff., 365, 367, kelp (seaweed) 13, 479, 482 char 99 ff. 372, 374, 448 kilka 475, 482 chinese mitten crab 237 Eichhornia 314, 479 killer whale 40 ff., 462 clam 14, 19 ff., 21 ff., 28 ff., 81 ff., 174, Elodea 291, 479 king crab 234, 238, 240, 247, 293 ff., 304 376, 477 ff., 482 krill 424, 427 ff., 429 ff., 450, 474 ff., coalfish 126, 143, 146, 449 fan mussel 76 482 cockle 376 ff., 476 ff., 482 fish roe (eggs) 13 cod 4 ff., 16 ff., 96, 106, 114, 117 ff., flatfish 118, 166, 298 ff., 303, 382 ff., laminaria (seaweed) 80, 479 ff. 126 ff., 130 ff., 143, 146, 154, 167 ff., 384 ff., 387 ff., 391, 398, 404, 496, lamprey 191, 226 ff., 233, 251 175 ff., 243, 278, 283, 288 ff., 298, 419, 500 ff., 505 lampuka see dolphin 424, 449, 456, 494 ff., 498 ff., 504 ff. flounder 57 ff., 75, 137, 143, 149 langouste 159

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lantern fish 273 ff., 293, 427 rock lobster 22, 185, 225, 234 ff., 248, snakehead 38, 272, 314 layer (seaweed) 479 331 snapper 32 ff., 108 ff., 119, 134, 251 ling 130 snow trout 273 lobster 21 ff., 78, 83 ff., 185, 187, 219 ff., salmon 15 ff., 43, 46 ff., 52 ff., 57, 61, sole 51 ff., 303, 388 ff., 500, 502 ff. 225 ff., 229 ff., 238 ff., 248, 250 ff., 75, 92, 94, 99 ff., 102, 104, 113, 119 ff., spanish mackerel 121, 123 ff., 283, 273, 289, 293 ff., 331 122 ff., 128, 147 ff., 154 ff., 157, 293 ff., 303 lungfish 19 165 ff., 180, 199, 205, 218, 228, 243 ff., spiny lobster 21, 230, 232, 293 ff. 246, 253, 263, 266 ff., 268, 272, 274, sponge 1, 19 ff., 21 ff., 54 ff., 76, 166 ff., mackerel and mackerel-like fish 40, 279, 281 ff., 289, 293 ff., 299, 303 ff., 376, 385 ff., 392 99 ff., 100 ff., 110, 121 ff., 126 ff., 134, 306, 335 ff., 346, 357 ff., 372 ff., 375, sprat 313, 342, 414, 456, 499 149 ff., 151, 156, 161, 168 ff., 255, 276, 394, 429, 440, 448 ff., 456, 464, 468 ff., squid 16 ff., 20 ff., 44, 86 ff., 102 ff., 283, 293, 303, 356, 391, 424, 449, 451 502, 505 108 ff., 122, 151, 157, 163 ff., 174 ff., ff., 456 ff., 464, 499 ff. sand worm 85 ff., 165 180, 253 ff., 295, 356, 359 ff., 374 ff., marlin 69, 71, 122 ff., 148 sardine, sardine-like fishes 40 ff., 122, 449 ff., 454, 472, 474 ff., 482 ff. menhaden 214, 455 ff., 464, 471 ff. 152 ff., 154, 162 ff., 208, 210, 212, 214, star-fish 292 ff., 497 milkfish 158 ff., 282, 360 243, 251, 279, 308 ff., 313 ff., 345, 434, sturgeon 21, 88 ff., 91, 93, 107, 137, molluscs 1 ff., 14, 21, 25, 76, 83, 392 449 ff., 454, 464, 472 ff., 474 ff. 164 ff., 169 ff., 172, 180 mullet (grey) 40 ff., 72, 84, 117, 356 saury 346 stranded prey 16 ff. moray 225, 272 sailfish 148 ff. sucker-fish see remora mussel 1, 11, 13 ff., 21, 26, 41, 46, 76 ff., saithe 16, 126, 176, 424, 500 ff. sunfish 16, 57 ff., 68 ff., 137 78 ff., 80 ff., 92, 167, 246, 292, 350, scallop 23, 30, 379 ff., 388 ff., 390 surubi 281 ff. 353 sea bass 287 ff. swordfish 39, 53, 65, 68 ff., 72, 74 ff., mussel shells 353, 475 sea bird 157, 276, 493, 501 ff., 505 118 ff., 121 ff., 130, 148 sea bream 106 ff., 118, 143, 154, 451 octopus 26, 39 ff., 48, 54, 76, 84, 136, sea cow 267 tilapia 19, 354 173 ff., 179, 193, 195 ff., 197 ff., 251, sea cucumber (trepang) 21 ff., 54, trepang see sea cucumber 263 ff., 267 58 ff., 76, 165, 376, 382 trout 15, 33, 83 ff., 94 ff., 98 ff., 121, oilfish 88, 108 seal 296 136, 148 ff., 165, 205, 232, 252, 298, otter (fishing animal) 31 ff., 33 ff., 41, sea mammal 1, 61, 65, 161, 164, 296, 353, 429 137 493 tuna 8, 25, 39 ff., 48, 53, 55, 65 ff., 68 ff., oyster 21, 23, 26, 79 sea perch 117 72 ff., 90 ff., 92, 100, 103 ff., 108, sea star see star-fish 110 ff., 118 ff., 122 ff., 124 ff., 126 ff., pacific halibut 500 ff., 505 sea trout 99, 124, 157, 271 ff. 134 ff., 148 ff., 156 ff., 159 ff., 181, pacific saury 346 sea turtle 16, 495 183, 208 ff., 243 ff., 288, 293, 303, 313, palolo worm 355 sea urchin 14, 21, 26, 28, 76 ff., 80, 292 337, 449, 454, 456 ff., 462 ff., 471 ff., pandalus 499 seaweed 195, 227, 235, 355, 389, 473, 501 pearl mussels (freshwater) 76 ff. 479 turbot 143, 154, 449, 501 pearl oyster 21 ff., 26 serpent see snakehead turtle 13, 14, 16, 21, 31, 39 ff., 62 ff., 89, perch 36, 39, 99, 117, 167, 293, 299, 320, shark 14 ff., 25 ff., 39 ff., 44 ff., 53, 62, 139 501 ff. 65, 69, 71 ff., 95, 106, 113 ff., 115 ff., tusk 130 pike 42, 45, 61, 98 ff., 118 ff., 121, 117 ff., 130, 141, 143, 148 ff., 154 ff., twaite 347 266 ff., 271 ff., 299 160 ff., 271 ff., 287 ff., 293 ff., 304 pilchard 449, 464 ff., 466 sheatfish 155 ff., 270 Undaria (seaweed) 479 piranhas 46 ff. shellfish 15, 17 ff., 26, 29, 30, 76, 78 ff., plaice 18, 500 ff. 81 ff., 142, 187 ff., 250, 376 ff., 378 ff., venus shell 380 plankton 168, 182, 416, 474 382 ff., 392, 476 ff., 482 ff. pollock (black cod) 118, 143, 146, 424, shell grit 16 walrus 64 ff., 296 500 shrimp 32, 51, 142, 153 ff., 192 ff., 220, water snake see snake pomfret 57 ff., 158 226, 230, 233, 235, 251, 253 ff., 255 ff., wedge shell 377 porpoise (see also dolphin) 32, 40 ff., 259, 261, 295 ff., 329, 350, 359 ff., 362, whale 4, 16 ff., 40 ff., 47 ff., 56, 61 ff., 65, 72 ff., 296 ff., 449, 462 ff., 365, 369, 371, 374, 377 ff., 382, 384 ff., 65 ff., 161, 296 ff., 462 471 ff. 402 ff., 408, 411 ff., 474, 476 ff., 482, whelk 84, 225, 232, 388 ff. prawn 1, 42, 256 ff., 270, 273 ff., 356, 496 ff., 501, 503 ff. whitefish see coregonid fish 360 ff., 392 silver hake 130 whiting 143, 146, 423, 499 ff. skate 116 wolf (fishing animal) 32 ray 45, 48, 62, 116, 143, 253, 293 skipjack 89 ff., 110, 123, 128, 134, 159, wolffish 16 razor shell 17 163 redfish 16, 419, 424, 484 smelt 222, 411, 429 yellowfin 89, 128, 159, 462 ff., 472 remora 39 ff. snail 13 ff., 16, 76 ff., 84, 155, 195 ff., yellowtail 156 restrelliger 106 333 ff., 376, 382 roach 36, 501 ff. snake, water- 1, 31 zanthe 353