ISSN 1392-0561. INFORMACIJOS MOKSLAI. 2014 69

Athleticism, Politics and Media in

Tessa Doulkeri Department of Journalism and Mass Media, Faculty of Economic and Political Sciences, Aristotle University of , Doctor, Professor E-mail: [email protected]

Theodora Maniou Department of Journalism, Faculty of Social Sciences, Frederick University of Cyprus, Doctor, Lecturer, E-mail: [email protected]

Anastasia Tsiolcha Department of Journalism and Mass Media, Faculty of Economic and Political Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, PhD Student E-mail: [email protected]

This paper analyzes the relationship between athletes and politics and especially the case of athletes with active political life in Greece. The study, although begins from a general theoretical framework, fo- cuses on athletes (well-known and/or for their Olympic Achievements) who have been promoted by the media, are well known and have been involved in the Greek political arena. The study begins from the hypothesis that sports, as a cultural factor and vector, participate in the procedure of constructing the collective and social representations and help in shaping the public opinion. In this context, we will in- vestigate the role of the media for the promotion of sports and sports global events, their contribution in constructing sports idols (sports star system, ‘Semi-Gods’, according to Morin, 1972) and some stereotypi- cal attitudes and behaviors. We will conclude by highlighting the political attention given to the sports via the above processes as a factor of exercising political power. Key words: Sports, Athletes, Idols, Star system, Politics, Greek Media, Advertising.

Introduction Even the have been politi- cized from their beginning in the sense that Sports and Antiquity (Ancient Greece) are two concepts tied to each other. The sports ceasefire was imposed between cities at war spirit, also known as the “ef agonizeste” during the Games. th (fair play) and “aien ypsipetein” (of going During the 20 century, several inci- beyond the ordinary) represents the domi- dents prove that the Olympic Games were nant ideology of Sports in Antiquity. being intensively politicized: in 1936, in Sports have often become a field of po- , Hitler abandoned the stadium, so litical conflict in several cases worldwide. as not to applaud the coloured American

26 athlete, Jesse Owens. In 1968, in Mexico, sive spectators like they are today. In other coloured American athletes that supported words, athleticism is not a social factor the Black Panthers, raised a fist in black indifferent or special in modern society of glove, protesting in this way against racial the 21st century but has its own effects in discrimination. Because of Apartheid, Rho- the Greek society of economic crisis (social, desia and were excluded from economic, ideological effects). the Olympic Games of 1970 and onwards, showing that sports can be used as a means Goals, research questions to force pressure, wherever and whenever and methodology is necessary (Rhodes, 2007). However, the academic research focus- This article examines the relationship be- sing on mass media and sports is considered tween Politics, the Power of Sports and the a “new field of study” since it was around Media by pinpointing this subject in the the 1970s that sociology theorists started Greek society. More specifically, we will ex- publishing systematic research findings in amine the role of the media concerning the the broader thematic (Wenner, 2003, p. 52). projection of the athletes and the impacts / From the 1970s until today various studies consequences of this publicity concerning were published in this field, although few their involvement in politics and the pursuit of them focus on the situation in the South of power. Basic hypothesis of this research East Mediterranean. is that sports as a vector of culture, design Today globalization has ventured into and dissemination of social ideologies and sports the same way it has in the sector of representations through the operation of economy and society in general. The basic Media, can exert dominating influence in characteristics of the Modern Olympic public and even in shaping perceptions. Games have nothing in common to the Specifically, this influence is strengthened Games in ancient times apart from the same and guided through the projection of some name. The eminent athletes have turned to Athletes and Sport Events by the Media. become idols just like the artists in music, Not only the spread and prevalence of social television, cinema, etc. Sponsors dominated values and standards are achieved through the sports events in general. The life style Sport Promoting but selfish interests too. of well-known athletes (as promoted by The popularity athletes gain in the modern the media), is interesting for the public society through media exposure, leads them (Television or Internet). Apart from com- to seek power through politics. mercialization, violence, doping, hooligan- Within this context the research ques- ism, corruption and the interweaving are tions are the following: concepts that took a prominent position in 1. What is the role of the media concerning the most of articles referring to Sports. The the projection of well-known athletes? modern perception of the ‘team fan’ concept 2. What is the role of the media concerning was unknown in Ancient Greece (Filias athletes’ involvement into politics? prologue in Decker, 2004). The fans of the The method employed in this research games in ancient Greece were teammates, is the study of sources (the webpages / trained fighters themselves, rather than pas- posts on the internet) that offer information

27 about life, career, sport achievements and just a consequence but also a special item the involvement of athletes into politics of the media industry. In essence, it is just in particular. However, our aim is to col- a construction (fabrication) as it is called lect information focused only on those by Morin (Morin, 1972, p. 99). The private Athletes who accessed Politics. Moreover, lives of the “Stars” are prefabricated and we will assess the discrimination between strictly regulated by the media system. The the athletes who ‘exploited’ their athletic “Star” is no longer a person but a “consum- popularity to gain a political position in the er’s product”, a piece of the market system, Central or Local Government as well as the a market value. Stars may have been created athletes who silenced their athletic capacity by Hollywood cinema, during the ‘70s, in and carried out policy making. all social structures which are based on the The use of Internet and the World Wide principles of capitalism such as abundance Web is a survey method that is gaining and consumption. The “Stars” nowadays popularity during recent years in the aca- serve art forms that appeal to the general demic sector. Specifically, Mick Cooper and public (music – cinema), to the television Peter Miller believe that despite the recent (presenters – journalists) or to the internet history of the online surveys, they have public. Of course, some “Stars” bounce arts been profoundly affected the academic re- that appeal to more specialized public (i.e., search. The first academic announcements dance, classical music, politics, etc.). Those and studies conducted via the Internet were “Stars” create a “myth” around their names published in 1996. Since then, the aca- and acquire the “immortality” (Thomas, demic research has experienced a veritable 1975) by gaining popularity through the explosion of interest in using Internet in traditional and New Media. general and the Web in particular as a tool The Olympians of antiquity can be said for collecting sample data (Cooper & Miller, that they had the glamour that befits an 2008, pp. 831). Using this method for the athlete, they were “idols – standards” for present research is considered crucial as it younger people. Over the next centuries serves appropriately our search target. Fur- the “Sports” were an activity addressing to thermore, Internet provides us with a large a specialized public. After the development quantity of information which is difficult of the media industry and the privatization to be found otherwise. After all, there are of the Greek television (1989), the number only few references throughout the Greek of the ‘Idols-Stars’ was furthermore ex- and foreign academic research concerning tended. The “Stars” became “products of our research topic. prosperity” and “consumption”. The same happened with the Sports Stars (mostly with The Athletes as “Idols” the football players). Such athletes acquired The terms “Stars” and “Semi-Gods” (Mo- fame, glory and their name was sometimes rin, 1972) have been discussed and intro- associated with familiar names of Greek duced in the academic literature during the actors and singers (see Martha Karagiannis last century. The star system is a specialized (famous Greek actress) – Mimis Stefanakos production of the capitalist mode of orga- (famous football player), Vicky Mosholiou nization of the modern societies. It is not (famous Greek singer) – M. Domazos (fa-

28 mous Greek football player)). Another typi- a field to easily distinct themselves (i.e., as cal example is Nikos Galis1, who became coordinators of team supporters groups), a ‘Star’ with the above mentioned signifi- in contradiction to other levels of social cance and involved into business activities. norms (i.e., professional career, educational Within the context of the power of the platforms etc.). Additionally, in every game, media regarding the creation of modern inside the field co-exist people of different idols and civil myths, it is important to ages, as well as of different financial, social mention the role of news bulletins in this and educational background supporting the process. Actually, news reproduce constant- same or the opponent team. ly the same topics by promoting specific Sports like politics were mainly male oc- people, specific ideas and consumer goods. cupied in the contemporary political history The repeated projection of the same people of several Western states and especially in makes those people popular and favorable Greece. Both sport and politics were fields to the public. This is the procedure within of action exercised mainly by men. In con- which the media accredit readability to trast, the involvement of women in those some people and help them gain political fields was quite limited. Particularly, regard- power by promoting their opinion for pub- ing women interest for sport and their par- lic issues to the public. In communication ticipation in athleticism both were limited to science, the theory of “Opinion Leaders” the amateur level. Moreover, the women’s attempts to specify and analyze this proce- participation in professional sport’s events dure by reinforcing the role of well-known was increased only during the 20th cen- people who eventually affect the public tury. Similarly, the participation of women opinion with their attitude (Katz & Lazars- athletes in sport events of worldwide point feld, 1955). of interest is a phenomenon related to the contemporary history. Athleticism and Gender The revival of the Olympic Games in Sports attract the attention of a great number 1896 in eloquently highlighted the of citizens, irrelevant to their gender, age, distinction between women and men regard- profession or educational background. Via ing their participation in sports. Specifically, sports very often groups of citizens with low women athletes were excluded from the grade of satisfaction for their every day life event and only during the next Olympics, (such as unemployed and/or low income held in in 1900, women athletes were groups), find ways to escape from their eligible for the first time in the history of everyday problems, since sports offer them the Games (ancient and contemporary). a cheap means of entertainment and, also, The Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertin, visionary and organizer of the revival of the 1 Nikolaos Georgalis, commonly known as either Olympic Games in 1896, stated character- Nikos Galis or Nick Galis (born July 23, 1957), is a re- istically for the revival of the institution tired Greek-American professional basketball player. He was named one of FIBA’s 50 Greatest Players in that “the Olympic Games are the highlight 1991, is an inaugural member of the FIBA Hall of Fame of the male sport, framed by art and paid and was named one of the 50 Greatest Euroleague Con- by the female applause”(Lampropoulou, tributors, on February 3, 2008 (http://www.sansimera. gr/biographies/279, accessed on 5/9/2014). 2007, pp. 97–106). However, as already

29 mentioned, the participation of women in Olympic Games in 2004. Indicatively, we the next Olympics was a historical fact mention the following: and Charlotte Cooper was the first female • Chryssopigi Devetzi, Length – Silver Olympic gold medal winner in tennis. Medal The Olympic Games in Athens in 2004 • Anastasia Kelesidou, – were particularly important concerning the Silver Medal representation and participation of women • Mirella Maniani, Javelin – Bronze in them. It is significant that the 41% of Medal the athletes were women. Therefore, the • Ellie Mistakidou, Tae Kwon Do – Silver participation of women in almost all sports Medal was equivalent to that of men. The only • Immortality Tzoumeleka, Walking – exceptions of sport without female repre- Gold Medal sentation were baseball and boxing. Those • Emily and Sophia Tsoulfa Bekatorou, specific sports are considered until now to Sailing – Gold Medal be dominated by men. However, during the • Fani Halkia, 400 m. Hurdles – Gold last few years the participation of women in Medal many forms of boxing events becomes more Regardless the women medalists, the and more intensive. In particular, the Greek organization of the Olympic Games of women’s participation in the Olympic Athens in 2004 was the opportunity for Games of Athens in 2004 was higher than some Greek politicians to distinguish and the overall female participation, as Greek become popular around the world. A great women athletes were covering the 43.3% part of the successful implementation and of the Greek mission and participation in completion of the Games was due to the those Games. During the same Games, the political skills and acumen of three Greek participation of three women in the Olympic women. These were Mrs. Theodora Bakoy- team of Afghanistan was considered as a anni, who was Mayor of Athens at that time conquest for women athletes, as well as the and contributed in shaping the image of the fact that for the very first time in the history city of Athens to a hospitable and prepared of the Games, a woman athlete “holds” the for such an event city; also important was flag of the Games. We notice, therefore, the role of Mrs. Fani Palli Petralia, who was that over the years women have succeeded Deputy Minister of Culture at that time, among other political and social rights that with increased responsibilities concerning conquered, to successfully have claimed the conduct of the Games. Her contribu- their participation in the world of sports. tion was particularly important regarding However, today the situation for women the promotion of the Greek civilization athletes has changed. Indeed, their perfor- worldwide. Finally, the organization of the mance in international athletic events is Olympic Games was a project designed very high and they rightly claim a place at and conquered by a woman, Mrs. Gianna the altar of the immortals, as they manage Angelopoulou- Daskalaki. Mrs. Angelo- to achieve important distinctions in sports. poulou, as the President of the Interna- There were several distinctions achieved tional Olympic Committee “Athens 2004”, by the Greek women athletes during the claimed and finally took the responsibility

30 of organizing the Greek Olympic Games. tively, the research proved that journalists The participation of Mr. Angelopoulou in tended to use the term “girl” and various the International Olympic Committee as the other stereotypical adjectives and diminu- Chairperson, is a particularly conquest of tives, in order to describe women champi- women in respective positions as the same ons and Olympians. In the same context, period only the 10.5% of the members of media tended to degrade the contribution the IOC were women. In absolute terms, of women in politics (Doulkeri, in Psylla, women numbered 12 members in total of 2009, pp. 215–227). 114 members that make up the International In conclusion, media construct the image Olympic Committee. of the Woman – Athlete and Politician like Concerning the role of the media in the constructing an idol and a “star” similar process of promoting women’s participa- to the way they fabricate the image of the tion in sports events of global interest, Men Athlete – Politician. Therefore, female academic research has shown that media athletes are promoted like idols similar to help creating the image of “Sportswoman”. “stars” of the cinema or television and the Accordingly, it is particularly important the world of fashion. role of the media in constructing the image of Greek women politicians. In particular, Athletes in Advertising a research of the Department of Journalism It has been suggested that advertising has in- and Mass Media of Aristotle University- vaded our daily lives by creating standards Thessaloniki, which was conducted in of conduct, imposing values and lifestyles, August 2004, studied the formation of the and exploiting for this purpose the popular- image of Greek women politicians during ity of ‘sports stars’ (Doulkeri, 2003, p. 25). the period before and after the organiza- Moreover, advertising is a crucial factor of tion of the Olympic Games in Athens. The socializing in modern society. The social survey titled “View of Women in the daily values promoted by the media determine press” was conducted by a specific research the behavior of modern people in all west- team taking as sample reports from the ern countries (Doulkeri, 2003, pp. 59–60). daily local and national Press (the sample According to Debreu, television and ad- included two newspapers published in vertising are economic mechanisms, as it Thessaloniki area and two newspapers pub- was television the one medium who first lished in the Athens area with nationwide imported the term “economism” in modern circulation). An interesting finding of the era of societies (Debreu, 1997, p. 429). survey is the fact that media appeared to In this context, athletes were appeared be biased towards Greek women athletes. and raised in the international market in Specifically, as regards to the women cham- order to promote daily products (Constan- pions it was mentioned that despite their topoulou, 1995). Several athletes, both from excellent sports performance, the Press abroad and Greece, starred in advertise- gave more emphasis on their female nature. ments that had great success2. The purpose The articles focused their analysis more on issues concerning their female appearance, 2 There are many examples of athletes who were than on their athletic achievements. Indica- the main characters in advertisements. From the legend-

31 of their appearance was to gain money and are the major shareholders of the television further projection of their name. Through stations Mega Channel and Star Channel the advertising, sports acquired additional first, and Skai the second. These entrepre- commercial – economic value. Of course, neurs are involved in various businesses in there were athletes who participated in several economic sectors, such as shipping, ads aiming at raising public awareness on construction and insurance. It is interesting various social issues (social visibility on that the same people have occasionally medical issues). bestirred themselves in the field of sports. It should be taken under consideration Minoas Kyriakou4 is the President of the that one factor that serves the construction/ Media Group Antenna and also the presi- creation and the promotion of Sports models dent of the athletic association “Hellenic”, is the concentration of the national media which hosts the Tsiklitiria Sports Events5, to few and larger media groups within the while Mr. Vardinogiannis and Mr. Alafou- context of the domestic economy. The zos have participated in the management of concentration of communication reflects various football teams. the general attitude of the economy while meeting the requirements of neoliberalism Politics and Athleticism and globalized economy. Especially in The prevailing interpretation of the creation Greece the concentration of communica- of virtual - reality constructed by the media, tion is multidisciplinary as entrepreneurs is Frame Analysis. According to Goffman and venture capitalists of the Greek Media every human experience is associated with usually extend their activities to other sec- a frame shared by all present people (Goff- tors of the economy (Vryzas, 1997, p. 55, man, 1974). This framework provides guid- 56). Typical examples are those of George ance for public perceptions of reality and Vardinogiannis and John Alafouzos3, who the behaviors that make up the reality. The ary Nikos Galis (Greek basketball Player), who promot- events take on meaning when incorporated ed a milk company, the “magician” Rivaldo (Brazilian into a framework that organizes them and football player) who promoted a mobile telephone com- gives them cohesion by highlighting some pany, Nikos Anastopoulos (Greek football player) who starred in a soap commercial, Giorgos Samaras (Greek football player) who was starring in a shampoo com- 82_%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%BF mercial, to Antonis Nikopolidis (Greek football player) %CF%8D%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%82, accessed on and Fanny Chalkia (Greek athlete of Track) that were 3/9/2014). involved in an aluminum systems advertisement (http:// 4 Minoas Kyriakou is also the owner of the Pan- www.contra.gr/Columns/flash-back/otan-oi-athlhtes- hellenic Gymnastics Association and former President eginan-montela.2222961.html, accessed on 3/9/2014). of the Greek Olympic Committee (2004-2009) (http:// 3 John Alafouzos is the founder and the president www.hoc.gr/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar of the Media group SKAI, which includes the Greek ticle&id=66&catid=35&Itemid=56&lang=el, accessed television station Skai and 3 radio stations, the Skai on 29/8/2014). 100.3, the Melody 99.2 and Red FM 96.3. In May 2012, 5 The Athens Grand Prix Tsiklitiria is an annual he founded together with other participants and fans sport event that takes place in the Olympic Stadium in of football team Panathinaikos and the club Panathe- Athens as part of the IAAF World Challenge Meetings. naic Alliance 2012, which holds a majority stake of the For the first time Tsiklitiria were organized in 1963 at football sports club in football industry. In September the Panathenaic Stadium. The name of the event was in 2012 he became the President of Panathinaikos Foot- honor of Kostas Tsiklitiras, who in 1908 and 1912 won ball Club (http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE four Olympic medals in the long (jump www.tsiklititia. %B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF% org., accessed on 28/9/2014).

32 points of the reality while ignoring others who performed Nazi salute as a sign of joy (Konstantopoulou, 2009, pp. 64–71). This for the victory of his team while trying to finding is particularly important regarding rally in order to gain more fans and support- the sport events highlighted and viewed ers for his team. simultaneously by thousands of people. The context of a sociological approach in Viewers participate in a common frame the sports fields is assessed by theories re- of reference – the sport event - by sharing ferring to social conflicts, although several similar feelings and experiences. Within dimensions of them have been deployed. this context and because of the relative iden- Those of them deriving from the Marxist tity of individuals who compose it, specific theorists, underline that sports are used as ideologies derive from various individuals. a basic means of deteriorating masses from During the period of the the essential problems of everyday life by of Colonels (1967–1974), the rulers tried emphasizing on social conflicts and mecha- to push young people to the stadiums or nisms of controlling them (Young, 2006). athletic fields in order to gain publicity In other cases, the same theorists argue that themselves (i.e., at opening ceremonies sports sometimes function as a means of and greetings) and propagandize the system substituting “essential riots”, as i.e., when itself. The process of propagandizing the the supporters of a team face their identifica- ideas of dictatorship was based on the logic tion as a form of “classification” emotion. of framing the same messages and com- Different schools of theorists tend to see municating them to the viewers and thus to sports as a kind of “arena”, which is used the public (Lamprinos, 2013). The process as a space for allocating ethnic, community of consolidation and adopting specific representations is similar to the procedure or other conflicts in terms of societal iden- of ritual and ceremonial practices used by tity norms. According to Cashmore, sports faith and religion. As faith helps encoding encourage self values, like aggressiveness, meanings and values through​​ specific ritual competitiveness, elitism and sexism. The practices, the sport of football is another bureaucratical administration of sports, he form of religion with similar practices that argues, is identical to the bureaucratical helps in spreading ideas and political ide- administration of the capitalist economical ologies among its members. Moreover, faith system (Cashmore, 1990). is a symbol of identity that creates specific cultural identifications between members ball team of VERIA (local football team of the Greek city “Veria”), the athlete George Katidis managed to that espouse it. For this reason, faith (within reach the goal of a 2–1 victory for his team (AEK) in the general concept) is the literal way of the 84‘. The way he celebrated this event caused huge deepening the ideas of nationalism. Within reactions even across borders, since he addressed a Nazi salute to the team fans. Immediately after the end of the this context, Sports intensify national unity match and within 24 hours, he tried to justify his action when it comes to “national team clubs”, and by claiming that he did not know exactly what his salute help strengthening the nationalist doctrines symbolized and he is in no way racist or pro-Nazi. On among fans. A typical example is the former March 19, 2013, the interruption of his contract with AEK was decided until the end of season 2012/13 and 6 football player of AEK, George Katidis , the review of his case, before the start of the next sea- son. (see www.kathimerini.gr, March 16, 2013, www. 6 On March 16, 2013, in a match against the foot- contra.gr, March 19, 2013).

33 Roland Barthes, Herbert Marcuze and between Ondoura and El Salvador, with the the theorists of the school of Frankfurt, excuse of a football match. The same hap- referring to the subjective manifestation of pened in Ireland, with the conflict between own’ s alienation (loss of identity, feeling Catholics and Protestants often appearing of weakness, sovereignty of the feeling within the football fields, in accordance that everything is meaningless), argued to relevant urban riots. In May 1990, in about entertaining substitutes, underlining – Croachia, urban/national riots that people are called to invest in their sup- occurred in the match between Dynamo pressed expectations (Garnier, 1987). Of Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade, resulting course, those people that experience these in more than 60 people injured. The list situations do not comprehend percieve them with relevant incidents goes on until today as alienation, since these include pleasure (Maniou & Kontou, 2012). and entertainment and they can easily make In May 2012, the German newspaper people forget any financial, political or Bild is referring to the match between other interests hidden behind them (Caillat, and Greece, within the frame of 1997). At the same time, as a member of a semi-finals for the EUROPEAN CHAMPI- group supporting a sports team, these people ONSHIP, under the title “Poor Greeks, the gain a sense of group identity and social next bankruptcy will be a gift from us”7. On recognition, since their actions – within the the other hand, several Greek newspapers, actions of the group – are assessed in ac- at the same time, had in fact upgraded cordance to their faithfulness to the group. the match in terms of a “national matter”, In this way, any atrocities are “forgiven” since – generally talking – the Greek public and “forgotten”. opinion was overwhelmed by the idea that In several cases, the devotion to the team any Greek victory would have the meaning replaces the sense of “nation-belonging” of “compensation” for Germany, regarding (belief, sense of “belonging” in a commu- the economic measures imposed to Greece nity, self-sacrifice, sense of duty), offering by the Eurogroup8. In fact, several Greek the chance to the team’s supporters to newspapers had underlined these titles express the same cultural denominator. All (Kontos, 2012). these virtues are represented by the team’s Adding to all these, the exploitation of players (Ramonet, 1997). In case of victory, sports by governments and regimes in order the title does not only belong to the team but to control the masses and impose certain also to the “society” this team comes from, attitudes was highly deployed: organ- its supporters and fans. The “victories” ised, in 1934, the Second World Football of the team are – for a long time – being Cup, an event that offered it the chance to discussed within the public sphere of its unleash a tremendous propaganda for the supporters and within the public sphere of world wide opinion. As H. Kissinger has football fans, in general. In the history of nations, there are hun- 7 See analysis at Anon. (2012), “Poor Greeks, the dreds of examples, in which sports were next bankruptcy will come from us”. Bild. 19 June 8 deployed in this way (Maniou & Seitanidis, Germany is the largest economy in the EU zone and as such, Greeks perceive it as the most “persuasive” 2008). In 1970, occurred the “football war” one within the Eurogroup.

34 argued, the fascist regime of Mousolini Athletes and Politics believed that football could help in the pro- The exercise of politics in Greece nowa- cess of gathering a large number of people days is an activity that does not require within a restricted area (Kissinger, 1990). In specialized studies, professional experi- this way, pressure could be exercised upon ence or special talents – innate or acquired all these people, in order to preserve the such determination, ability to solve issues, mass ethnic fever! The Homeini regime in discipline, leadership profile, organization, Iran had forbidden football games and later rhetorical flair, perceptions, etc. Conversely, on allowed them to take place, retreating engaging with Politics requires a ‘politically in these way due to the massive demand strong’ family name and several other skills expressed through the public opinion. that are not assessed. However, there is However, the regime did not allow women only one skill that opens the doors of policy within the football fields while there was making (either for the Central or Local pressure exercised upon the players in Government) and this is recognition and order to wear long trousers inside the field. popularity. Taking this as a fact, the politi- Even in 1985 the Australian Minister of cal parties or local officials include to their Sports supported in public that sports in political combinations well-known athletes general have a prevailing role to play in the who have gained the nation or world rec- country’s development as a national state ognition. Citizens tend to honor them with (Brown, 1985; v). their vote while their effectiveness in the As Gramsci argued, the state or another political arena is a controversial topic that administration with power, are not only acquires further research. characterized by violent measures of Athletes like Anna Verouli9 and Sophia pressure but also their relation to society Sakorafa10 and Olympic Champions such is depending on cultural, ideological and 9 Anna Verouli is a former javelin champion and ethical values (Gramsci, 1971). Accord- currently a member of Local Authorities. She was one ing to Gramci’s theory, there are different of the world’s leading gymnasts competed in the javelin species of hegemony; in the first case, at the beginning of the 80s, and was alongside the first postwar recovery example of Greek women’s Sports at hegemony of a class prevails society and a high level of discrimination (http://www.biblionet.gr/ exercises pressure upon the state; in the author/64915/%CE%86%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B 1_%CE%92%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8D% second case, hegemony is social and politi- CE%BB%CE%B7, accessed on 29/8/2014). cal, at the extend that becomes prevailing 10 Sophia Sakorafa is a javelin champion and politi- and includes the state; in this case, there cian. She began dealing with sports at the age of 15, struggling with the colors of the GA Trikala (local team can be no discrimination between the state of the Greek city “Trikala”). On September 26, 1982, and society. Hargreaves placed sports during the international meeting of “Vardinoyiannia” in Chania (Greek city), she achieved a world record per- within this context of Gramsci’s theory formance of 74.20 meters. This performance remained (Hargreaves, 1998); in other words, sports national record until the introduction of the new type of can be exploited in order to preserve power javelin, when all records were reset. Sakorafa remained the world record holder until the 13th June of 1983 and hegemony within a society on behalf when, in Tampere in , Tiina Lillak achieved a of several institutions, unions or/and bodies performance of 74.76 meters. Sakorafa repeatedly suc- ceeded for 17 times a national record (http://sakorafa.gr/ of administration. pages/, accessed on 3/9/2014).

35 Table 1. Prospective MPs of the national elections of 2012 Athlete Sport Political Party Sophia Sakorafa Javelin SY.RIZ.A* Pyrrhus Dimas Weightlifting PA.SO.K.** Anna Verouli Javelin PA.SO.K. Giannis Gounaris Football PA.SO.K Costas Patavoukas Basketball PA.SO.K. Pericles Vassilakis Referee PA.SO.K. Giannis Ioannidis Basketball New Democracy*** Costas Koukodimos New Democracy Kyriakos Gerontopoulos Tennis New Democracy Tasos Mitropoulos Football New Democracy Antonis Antoniadis Football New Democracy George Orfanos Football New Democracy Vasilis Kikilias Basketball New Democracy Vasilis Nikakis Referee KKE*4 Chrysanthos Kiriazis Volleyball KKE Constantine Giovanopoulos Handball Independent Greeks*5 George Anatolakis Football LA.O.S.*6 Peter Karavitis Football LA.O.S. Jotis Tsalouchidis Football Democratic Alliance*7 Daniel Batista Football Democratic Alliance Stavroula Antonakos Cricket Social Agreement*8 Athanasios Barakas Paralympic Jump Social Agreement Stavroula Tsilivarakos Wrestling Social Agreement Source: www.ethnos.gr, Posted on 25/4/2012, last visit to the page on 06/03/2014.

* SYRIZA is a Greek political party. It was founded in 2004 as an electoral alliance of the left Greek parties and organizations. President of SYRIZA is Alexis Tsipras (http://www.syriza.gr/, accessed on 28/8/2014). *2 The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (known as PASOK) is a Greek social democratic political party and one of the two dominant parties after the Greek junta era (1967-1974). The party was established on September 3, 1974 by Andreas Papandreou and the President on the party nowadays is (http://www.pasok.gr/, accessed on the page on 3/9/2014). *3 New Democracy (“Nea Dimokratia” in Greek) is a liberal conservative political party, one of the two dominant parties in the political scene in Greece, after the change of regime in 1974. It was founded in October 4, 1974 by Konstantinos Karamanlis and the President of the party nowadays is Antonis Samaras (http://nd.gr/static/home. html, accessed on 3/9/2014). *4 The Greek Communist Party (KKE) is the Greek Marxist-Leninist party. It was founded in 1918 as the Socialist Labour Party of Greece and it is the oldest political party in Greece (http://www.kke.gr/. Accessed on 3/9/2014). *5 The ‘Independent Greeks’ is a Greek political party. According to the statements of its President (Panos Kamme- nos) the party overcomes the divisions of the political spectrum left and right and it is characterized by patriotism and versatility (http://anexartitoiellines.gr/, accessed on 3/9/2014). *6 LAOS (Laikos Orthodoxos Sinagermos – Popular Orthodox Rally) is a Greek political party that is classified to the Right political side. It was founded by the journalist and former Member of New Democracy, George Kara- tzaferis in September 14, 2000 (http://www.laos.gr/, accessed on 28/9/2014). *7 Democratic Alliance is a Greek liberal political party. Based on the ideological manifesto of the party, the party moves from the liberal Right to the liberal Left and covers both the political center-right and the center-right political side. In May 21, 2012 the party suspended its operation and it was decided the partnership of the party with New Democracy for the national elections. The President of the Party was Theodora Bakoyanni (http:// www.dimsim.gr/, accessed on 2/2/2014). *8 Social Agreement is as center-left political party, which was founded in 14 March 2012 by the independent former Members of Parliament and Haris Kastanidis (http://www.koinonikisymfonia.gr/ accessed on 27/8/2014).

36 Table 2. Elected Members of Greek Parliament, national elections 2012 Athlete Sport Political Party Sophia Sakorafa Javelin SY.RIZ.A Pyrrhus Dimas Weightlifting PA.SO.K. Giannis Ioannidis Basketball New Democracy Costas Koukodimos Long jump New Democracy Kyriakos Gerontopoulos Tennis New Democracy George Orfanos Football New Democracy Vasilis Kikilias Basketball New Democracy Constantine Giovanopoulos Handball Independent Greeks Source: www.ethnos.gr, Posted on 25/4/2012, last visit to the page on 06/03/2014. as Voula Patoulidou11 and Pyrrhus Dimas12, mately 24 names of well-known athletes gained medals for Greece and were present- who engaged with politics throughout the ed and promoted by the Greek media acquir- 20th century. The first athlete – politician ing at the same time equivalent recognition, mentioned in the internet is Costas Kotzias, fame and prices. In other words, athletes in who had been the Mayor of Athens from the late 20th century lead as movie or music 1934 till 1936. The national Elections of industry people on the podium of idols pav- 2012 indicated another interesting clue. ing the way for exercising political power. More and more political parties include Below we mention the athletes who athletes in their candidate lists for the elec- have used their stature in order to develop tions, despite their ideological identities and political activity and those who stood as views. Table 1 shows the athletes who were candidates in the national elections of 2012. candidates for Members of the Parliament These figures derive from a web search in during the elections of 2012 (MP). Table 2 the political parties’ ballots for the elections presents the candidates who got elected as of 2012. Except from the athletes – can- Member of the Parliament (Table 2). didates for the elections of 2012, the web The phenomenon of engagement of research indicated another useful point. By athletes with Politics seems to be directly using the key word “athlete, a politician”, connected to the growing power of the the result of the research came with approxi- Television (70s) and the media in general. It is known that (President 11 was a member of the Olympic of the Greek Republic), who represents an team (in the years 1988, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004). As an athlete she was a member of the teams of Heracles and older generation of politicians, is also a PAOK. In the summer of 1992 she won the Olympic former champion in the , a fact gold medal during the Olympics in the 100m which the majority of Greek voters ignore. hurdles with a 12.64 performance (http://www.hprt- archives.gr/V3/public/main/page-assetview.aspx?tid=0 Another important finding of the analysis of 000004883&tsz=0&autostart=0, accessed on 3/9/2014). the tables is the fact that the “exploitation” 12 Pyrrhus Dimas is the Olympic Champion of of the popularity of sport idols is predomi- weightlifting and a Member of the Parliament with the political party of PASOK after the elections in 2012. He nantly a feature of the two main political was a three times gold medal winner (Barcelona 1992, parties in Greece. Possibly this result is due 1996 and 2000) and once a bronze med- alist during the Athens Olympics in 2004 (http://pyrros- to the fact that both the political and the dimas.gr/, accessed on 28/8/2014). ideological orientation of these two parties

37 are more generalized. Consequently, the On the same day, the 25th of May, Thodoris choice of political candidates coming from Zagorakis – former captain of the national Sports with mass appeal and admiration is football team and president of PAOK FC – mainly a policy exercised by the two main was elected as a Member of the European political parties with the largest electoral Parliament supported by the political party base. Another important finding of the re- of New Democracy. Zagorakis is the only search is the fact that most of the political characteristic example of athlete who be- parties that have chosen well known and came member of the European Parliament. popular athletes to complete their ballots, preserve a conservative ideological perspec- Conclusions tive. Indeed, the findings indicate that the Athletes, as mentioned above, are patterns political parties of New Democracy, LA.OS of life and behavior for the society they be- and Democratic Alliance have chosen as parliamentary candidates, athletes coming long to. They seem to act as ‘cultural institu- from football and basketball – both sports tions’ and channels of social representations are very popular throughout the Greek and consciences. Very often they tend to society. The conservative and ethnocentric create their own social values and cultivate political approaches of these parties seem to the ethos of the crowd for various social is- be combined with the religious philosophy sues. The difference between the past and of football and basketball as well as with the contemporary years is the substance of the conversion of the fans in the respective the content of the values and standards the groups. Athletes represent. Thus, in the 20th and Vagelis Marinakis, president of Olym- 21st century athletes became idols that cult piakos Football Club and entrepreneur, symbols, as the stars of Hollywood cinema. was a candidate for the municipality of For this procedure it is instrumentally es- Piraeus and was elected. Vangelis Mari- sential the overexposure of Athletes by the nakis has been owner of a shipping group media while the expansion of television and and president of the Olympiakos FC since the development of Internet technologies 2010. Marinakis supported the candidate are very popular among the public. The con- of Giannis Moralis for being the Mayor of tribution of advertising – a field with several Piraeus. Giannis Moralis is also the vice popular athletes are protagonists – is equally president of Olympiacos FC and president important to the above procedure. However, of Super League (the Greek league). The in contrast to the movie stars who are, ac- Moralis’ political party won the elections cording to Morin (1972), both marketable for the municipality of Piraeus taking the and gods, idols and consumables, athletes 55.23% of the votes. Particularly, it is im- conquer virtually immortality through their portant to mention that Piraeus area is con- superhuman athletic performance. For this sidered the ‘home city’ of Olympiakos FC. reason, their influence to the public is es- After the announcement of the Moralis’ vic- sentially dominating. tory, the fans of Olympiacos inundated the The power of sports for ideologically streets of the area and turned the elections proselytizing, both the athletic and political result to a victory of the Olympiakos team. supporters, often becomes an instrument of

38 exploitation by the political factors. Apart ideological orientation. Precisely, out of from the popularity for sports personalities the total 12 candidates declared candida- themselves, the practices of mass sports and tes for the parties of “New Democracy”, t Sport Supporting serves in handling selfish “LAOS”, “Independent Greeks” and economic and political ideas and interests. “Democratic Alliance”, nine athletes As mentioned before, like religion, massive were football and basketball players. football fanaticism is a common reference Only “PASOK” had two parliamentary framework for the identification of the candidates for the national elections members. The sport fanaticism therefore, as of 2012, coming from the same sports seen in football and basketball, is another venues. As we explained above, this is form of cult belief. The person alienated primarily due to the ideological nature from the modern lifestyle looking through of those parties. idolatry and sport fanaticism for finding • Sports eventually turn to a symbol of identification, while fanaticism becomes discipline and ability through achieving simultaneously a vehicle of exercising „immortality“. The distinguished athle- policy by various economic and social tes become a model of behavior and are interests. Additionally more and more po- identified as symbols of faith and effort litical candidates come from the world of for something higher and ideal. For this Sports (taking advantage of their popularity) reason, they are also voted by the public. and enlist successfully to pro-conservative • Media help to create popularity for political parties. Sports, politics and media athletes by highlighting their achieve- are intertwined nowadays in a maypole of ments through the repetition. In fact, power. media are the factor that mediates the More specifically, taking under consid- exploits of athletes in order to become eration the research questions mentioned well known to the public and therefore above, this study points out the following: the latter be introduced as ‚idols‘. • The selection of athletes as candidates Concerning further research on this topic, for the national and local elections is it would be interesting to conduct a more mainly a practice of the two major po- thorough research on the electoral lists of litical parties in power in Greece. Out of political parties both for national and local the 23 candidates, the 12 come from both elections. This seems crucial, as there are parties in power. In this way, the parties many candidates and elected MPs and local try to reach their electoral base which is councilors who are involved in Sports but extremely enlarged, and represent the their involvement is not widely known. The largest possible part of the public. next level in this context will be a survey • The selection of political candidates, concerning public opinion and its selection ‘deriving’ from sports, which are po- criteria regarding the policy of the political pular to the general public is mostly a parties to include athletes as candidates in feature of the parties with conservative their ballots.

39 BIBLIOGRAPHY DOULKERI, T. (2007). Sports, Media and Soci- ety: The case of the Olympic Games, Athens 2004 ANON (2012). Poor Greeks, the next bankruptcy (Collective volume) a and b Volume. Athens: Pa- will come from us. Bild. 19 June. 2012. pazisi. ISBN: 960-02-2081-6, 960-02-2076-Χ (in ARIES, P. (1997). Les fils de McDo, la McDon- Greek). aldisation du monde. Paris: L’Harmattan. ISBN : DOULKERI, T. (2009). ‘Depicting women in 273845495X newspapers and political champions during the 2004 AUSTER, Paul (2000). Where did all our chil- Olympic Games (pp. 215–227). In Psilla, M. (Ed.). dren go? Football as the perfect substitute for war. To Vima, 9 January (in Greek) Gender and Public Space. Athens: Typothito-George BALANDIER, G. (1990). Political Anthropol- Dardanos. ISBN 978-960-402-355-4 (in Greek). ogy. Athens: Papazisi. ISBN13: 978-960-02-0018-8 ECO, U. (1972). La structure absente. Paris: (in Greek). Mercure. BAUDRILLARD, J. (1991). The ecstasy of GARNIER, Jean-Pierre (1987). Les nouvelles communication. Athens: Kardamitsas. (in Greek). techniques l’alienation. Economies et Societes, Vol. ISBN13: 9789607262288. 26, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. BROWN, J. (1985). Foreword. In Department of GELLNER, E. (2002). Nationalism, Culture, Sport, Recreation and Tourism and Australian Sports Faith and Power. Athens: Alexandreia Publications. Commission (ed.). Australian sport: A profile. Can- ISBN13: 978-960-221-240-0 (in Greek). berra: Australian Government Publishing Service. GOFFMAN, E. (1974). Frame analysis: an essay CAILLAT, Michel (1997). Athleticism as a on the organization experience. New York: Harper means for manipulating society. Le Monde Diploma- and Row. tique, Octobre, p. 74. HARGREAVES, J. (1998). Sports and Hege- CASHMORE, E. (1990). Making Sense of Sports. mony: Some theoretical problems. UK: University of : Routledge. ISBN: 978–0–415–55220–2 Leicecter press. COOPER, M. P. & MILLER, P. V. (2008). Web KATZ & LAZARSFELD (1955). Personal Influ- survey methods: Introduction. Public Opinion Quar- ence. New York: Free Press. terly, 72 (5), p. 831–835. KAUFFMANN, J. C. (2001). Ego, pour une soci- CONSTANTOPOULOU, C. Topics of post-mod- ologie de l’individu. Paris: Nathan. ern communication. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis. 1995. KISSINGER, Henry (1990). This is the war of ISBN-13 978-960-343-309-5 (in Greek). nations. Paris-Match, 21 June. CONSTANTOPOULOU, C., Ed. (2000). “We” KOVAIOS, K. (1992). Philosophy and cinema. and “Other”, a reference to trends and symbols. Athens: Kardamitsas. ISBN13: 978-960-354-128-8 Athens: Gutenberg. ISBN-13 978-960-8041-02-8 (in (in Greek). Greek). KONTOS, Cristos (2012). Another thing is Poli- CONSTANTOPOULOU, C. (2009). Sociology of tics and another is Football. Kathimerini. 19 June. Everyday Life: introduction to sociology of Everyday Access through Internet http://news.kathimerini. Life. Athens: Papazisi. ISBN 978-960-02-2375-0 (in gr/4dcgi/_w_articles_sport_2_19/06/2012_486073. Greek). [accessed 12 November 2013] (in Greek). DECKER, W. (2004). The Athleticism during LEVEBVRE, H. (1947). Critique de la vie quoti- Greek Anciety. Athens: Papazisi. ISBN: 960-02- dienne. Paris: Editions de l’ Arche. 1734-3 (in Greek). LAMPRINOS, F. (2013). Junta is. It will pass. DOULKERI, T. (1991). Greek Television. Ath- Athens: Kastaniotis. ISBN: 978-960-03-5635-9 (in ens: Papazisi. ISBN: 960-02-1317-8 (in Greek). Greek). DOULKERI, T. (2001). Advertising and Commu- LAMPROPOULOU, V. (2007). Women athletes nication: An empirical public opinion research. Ath- in Ancient Greece. In Doulkeri, T. Sports, Media ens: Papazisi. ISBN13: 9789600215045 (in Greek). and Society: The case of the Olympic Games, Athens DOULKERI, T. (2003). Sociology of Advertising 2004 (Collective volume) a and b Volume. Athens: nd 2 edition. Athens: Papazisi. ISBN:960-02-1393-3 Papazisi. ISBN: 960-02-2081-6, 960-02-2076-Χ (in (in Greek). Greek). DOULKERI, T. (2003). Media and gender equal- MANIOU, T. & KONTOU, M. (2012). The ity. second edition. Athens: Papazisi. ISBN: 960-02- politicisation of football and the role of the media: 0853-0 (in Greek). the case study of Cyprus. International Conference

40 Sports, Environment, Development and the Me- Electronic Sources dia – Part 1, organised by the Aristotle University of -, Archive – Nikos Galis, http://www.sansimera. Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, 13–14 Septem- gr [accessed on 5/9/2014], [also available at http:// ber (in Greek). www.sansimera.gr/biographies/279]. MANIOU, T. & SEITANIDIS, I. (2008). Politics, ANDROULAKIS, M. (2006). When the athletes Press and Sports News: The case of Thessaloniki”. became models. At http://www.contra.gr [accessed International Conference Athleticism, Tourism and on 3/9/2014]. [also available at http://www.contra. Mass Media, Thessaloniki, Greece, 12–13 May. [Ac- gr/Columns/flash-back/otan-oi-athlhtes-eginan- cessed 2.9.2014]. Available electronically at: http:// montela.2222961.html]. pacific.jour.auth.gr/atm/program.pdf (in Greek). -, Giannis Alafouzos. At http://el.wikipedia.org/ MARCUSE, H. (1968). L’homme uni-dimension- wiki [accessed on 3/9/2014]. [also available at http:// nel. Paris: Minuit. el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B9%CE%A McLUHAN, M. (1964). Understanding Media. C%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE% New York: MacGraw-Hill. 91%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%8 MORIN, E. (1958). Le cinema ou l’homme imag- D%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%82] inaire. Paris: Minuit. -, Hellenic Olympic Committee – Minoas MORIN, E. (1962). L’esprit du temps: essai sur Kyriakou. At http://www.hoc.gr/ [accessed on la culture de masse. Paris: Grasset. 29/8/2014]. [also available at http://www.hoc.gr/in- MORIN, E. (1972). Les Stars. Paris: Points. dex.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66 NAVRIDIS, K., & CHRISTAKIS, N. (1997). &catid=35&Itemid=56&lang=el] Identities. Athens: Kastaniotis. ISBN: 960-03-1799- -, Athens Grand Prix Tsiklitira. At http://www. 2 (in Greek). tsiklititia.org [accessed on 28/9/2014] PANAGIOTOPOULOU, P.; RIGOPOULOU, P.; -, (2013), Katidis, AEK FC and the Nazi gesture RIGOS, M. & NOTARAS, S. (1998). The construc- which “he didn’t know what does it mean”. At http:// tion of reality and the media. Athens: Alexandria. www.kathimerini.gr. [accessed on 28/9/2014]. [also ISBN: 960-221-141-5 (in Greek). available at http://www.kathimerini.gr/31577/ar- PAPARIZOS, A. (2001). God, power and reli- ticle/epikairothta/a8lhtismos/o-katidhs-h-aek-ki-o- gious consciousness. Athens: Greek Letters. ISBN: nazistikos-xairetismos-poy-den-h3era-ti-shmainei]. 978-960-02-2583-9 (in Greek). -, Author Anna Verouli. At http://www.biblionet. RAMONET, Ignacio (1997). National passions. gr. [accessed on 29/8/2014]. [also available at http:// Le Monde Diplomatique, October, p. 30-33. www.biblionet.gr/author/64915/%CE%86%CE%B RHODES, Jane (2007). Framing the Black Pan- D%CE%BD%CE%B1_%CE%92%CE%B5%CF% thers: The Spectacular Rise of a Black Power Icon. 81%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B7] New York: The New Press. -, (2010). Biography. At http://sakorafa.gr/pages/. SAGE, G. H. (1998). Power and ideology in [accessed on 3/9/2014]. [also available at http://sa- American sport: A Critical Perspective, Champaign korafa.gr/pages/page.php?pge=19&lng=1]. III: Human Kinetics. -, The Greek Olympians, Voula Patoulidou. At THOMAS, L. V. (1984). Anthropologie des ob- http://www.hprt-archives.gr. [accessed on 3/9/2014]. sessions. Paris: L’Harmattan. [also available at http://www.hprt-archives.gr/V3/ THOMAS, L. V. (1975). Anthropologie de la public/main/page-assetview.aspx?tid=0000004883 mort. Paris: Payot.ISBN: 2-228-88014-0 &tsz=0&autostart=0]. VRYZAS, K. (1997). Global Communication -, Bio, Pyrros Dimas. At http://pyrrosdimas.gr/. and cultural identities. Athens: Gutenberg. ISBN13: [accessed on 28/8/2014]. [also available at http:// 978-960-01-0653-4 (in Greek). pyrrosdimas.gr/bio/]. WENNER, L., ed. (2003). Athleticism and Mass -, Constituent assembly of Syriza. At http://www. Media. Athens: Kastaniotis publications. ISBN-13 syriza.gr/. [accessed on 28/8/2014]. [also available at 978-960-03-3584-2, (in Greek) http://www.syriza.gr/page/tautothta.html]. WILLAIME, P. J. (2004). Sociology of Religions. -, Articles of association of PASOK. At http:// Athens: Kardamitsas. ISBN-13 978-960-354-162-2 www..gr/. [accessed on 3/9/2014]. [also avail- (in Greek). able at http://www.pasok.gr/].

41 -, New Democracy, the Party. At http://nd.gr/stat- 3/9/2014]. [also available at http://anexartitoiellines. ic/home.html. [accessed on 3/9/2014]. [also avail- gr/diak.php]. able at http://www.nd.gr/web/guest/the-party]. -, Social Agreement, the Party. At http://www. -, Principles and Goals. At http://www.kke.gr/. koinonikisymfonia.gr/. [accessed on 27/8/2014]. [accessed on 3/9/2014]. [also available at http:// [also available at http://www.koinonikisymfonia.gr/ %CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B5% www.kke.gr/taytothta/] CF%87%CF%8C%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD% -, Laos the Party. At http://www.laos.gr/ [ac- CE%BF/%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%AF% cessed on 28/9/2014]. [also available at http://www. CE%B4%CE%B1/2/%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%B laos.gr/home] C%CE%BC%CE%B1] -, Democratic Alliance, the Party [accessed on ANTONIOU, Th.; MELIDOU, Th. & NIKO- 2/2/2014]. [also available at http://www.dimsim.gr/] POULOS, Ch. Athletes in Politics [accessed on -, (2012), Constituent assembly of Independent 6/3/2014]. [also available at http://www.ethnos.gr/ar- Greeks. At http://anexartitoiellines.gr/ [accessed on ticle.asp?catid=22733&subid=2&pubid=2634965].

ATLETIKA, POLITIKA IR ŽINIASKLAIDA GRAIKIJOJE Tessa Doulkeri, Theodora Maniou, Anastasia Tsiolcha Santrauka

Straipsnyje analizuojamas santykis tarp atletų ir ir vektorius, dalyvauja konstruojant kolektyvinį ir politikos, o ypatingas dėmesys skiriamas atletams, socialinį reprezentavimą, taip prisidėdamas prie vi- aktyviai dalyvaujantiems Graikijos politiniame suomenės nuomonės formavimo. Šiame kontekste gyvenime. Nors straipsnis prasideda nuo bendrų straipsnio autoriai nagrinėja žiniasklaidos vaidmenį teorinių pagrindų, dėmesys sutelkiamas į atletus reklamuojant sportą ir pasaulinius sporto renginius, (gerai žinomus ir dėl jų olimpinių laimėjimų), ku- kartu ir žiniasklaidos indėlį formuojant sporto sta- rie yra žiniasklaidos reklamuojami ir dalyvauja bus (sporto žvaigždės sistema, „pusdieviai“, anot Graikijos politiniame gyvenime. Tyrimas prasideda Morin (1972) ir kai kuriuos stereotipinius požiūrius nuo hipotezės, kad sportas, kaip kultūros veiksnys bei elgseną.

42