LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE -2491 -2491 ’S HISTORICAL RESEARCH SINCE THE NEW CENTURY 316

ISSN: 2386

Niu Guanjie Renmin University of China

RESUMEN

Desde el inicio del Proceso de Reforma y Apertura en China, se han producido grandes cambios y en la eco- nomía. Estos cambios también han afectado a la investigación histórica. Este artículo se centrará en los nue- vos cambios de la investigación histórica de China desde el inicio del siglo XXI. En el este artículo se hace analizan las diferentes corrientes de pensamiento en los estudios históricos en China en la nueva era y los vínculos inherentes entre ellos, y resalta la pluralidad historiográfica que se vive hoy en día en China. Donde el materialismo histórico está en declive el artículo analiza sus desventajas teóricas y apuesta por la necesidad de que el materialismo histórico marxista se convierta en un materia sistemática y basada en la práctica. A continuación, se realiza una exploración analítica de los contenidos básicos de la nueva perspectiva histórica marxista. Finalmente el documento aborda los diferentes enfoques de la historia y su relación con la naturale- za de los estudios históricos ABSTRACT

Since the beginning of reform and opening in China, there have been major changes in the economy. These changes have also affected historical research. This article will focus on the new changes of historical research in China since the beginning of the century. In this article it is analyzed the different currents of thought in historical studies in China in the new era and the inherent links between them, and highlights the historio- graphical plurality that exists today in China. Now, the historical materialism in China is in decline. This arti- cle analyzes its theoretical disadvantages and it supports by the need for the Marxist historical materialism becomes a systematic and practice-based material. Then an analytical examination of the basic contents of the new Marxist historical perspective is done. Finally, the paper discusses the different approaches of history and its relation to the nature of historical studies.

PALABRAS CLAVE : Historiografía china; Historia de China; Liang Qichao; Marxismo KEYWORDS : Chinese Historiography; China history; Liang Qichao; Marxisms

316 This article was initially written to be read as a lecture at the "II Conference: China. Economy, Power and the Future: A Strategic View". Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, 6 -7 March, 2014. Directed by Raul Ramirez Ruiz.

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LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE

Since 21th century, China’s historical re- Qichao’s New Historiography , the beginning of search had entered a new stage, which could Chinese modern historiography; the intro- be characterized to inherit and examine the duction of Marxism history theories; and the historical researches of the past century(Liang new development nowadays. Three new his- Qichao’s New Historiography in 1902 was re- torical climaxes all were based on western garded as the beginning of Chinese modern historical ideas, though their targets against historiography), and usher its direction and the traditional historiography were changing. tendency in the future. Of course, this stage However, as to the historical methodology, which connect the past and the future itself new historiography had never wholly was a part of the history of China’s historical changed the pattern of positivism historiog- development, full of multiple transitivities raphy, and for the most historians, the west- and indeterminacies which implied the new ern new historical methods was only the breakthrough and open innovation. complement of traditional history research. 317

Based on a review of the studies of Chinese ancient history in the 20 th century, Xie 1.- INHERITING THE HISTORICAL Weiyang argued that the researches on some HERITAGE OF TWENTIETH overall and significant fields have not been CENTURY gotten a convincing precisely completed con- clusion. For example, in the past century,

many famous Chinese historians focused on When standing at the outset of new century, whether the Xia Dynasty have been existed the primary task of Chinese historians was or not, one of the core problems of Chinese sorting out the historical heritage of 20 th ancient history, from the mode of twice evi- century. In 2003, a series of essays, were dences of Wang Guowei, to Guo Moruo’s published in the journal of Historical Research , contribution with the Marxism historical a top respected journal in Chinese historical methods, and to the new testimony of the circle, whose name was China’s historical ancient history after 1970s. He insisted the research in the new century-challenging and key way to make the breakthrough of Chi- rethinking. nese ancient history research in the new cen- tury was, that historians need profoundly Historians discussed the transformation pro- introspect the basic concepts of historical cess of modern Chinese historiography from materials, the documentary texts in early the traditional. Shang Chuan argued there ancient Chinese which were continually dis- was no absolute dividing line between tradi- covered. In other words, the only way to tional historiography and modern historiog- break the traditional ideas of historical mate- raphy, and they were relative: any historical rials in early Chinese ancient history, was to research or narrative method could be seen rebuild a overall concept system of historical as a new historiography when it was created; materials by analyzing and examining the new when it occupies the mainstream status, it excavated documents. Xie proposed the solu- would become the traditional historiography. tions were, firstly to reinforce the knowledge The difference between the western modern of Chinese ancient philology, as for the limi- historiography and Chinese traditional histo- tation of the knowledge of traditional histori- riography was an interdisciplinary research cal identification, secondly to improve the field, transcending the stage of a single his- standard of the working of explanation, torical demonstration and narrative. He ana- thirdly to adapt to the requirement of inter- lyzed three climaxes of historical research development in the 20 th century: Liang 317 Shang Chuan, Historical Traditions and Late Ming Studies, Historical Research , , 2003.

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LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE disciplinary research. Historians should em- historical ideas, the development of historical phasize not only the working of descriptive- thoughts, and the innovation of historical ness, but also the standard of the working of theories. Historian was the product of the explanation, in order to set up a system of history, and his subject consciousness had conception and relative terms, including con- social significance, which determined his crete subjects and their meanings. He also research level, regardless of his personal sig- fully agreed to the integration of history and nificance. How to strengthen the subject archaeology. 318 consciousness? One way was to master and apply comprehensively, systematically the The scholars from Hong Kong and Taiwan basic principles of Marxism, and the other also outlined their achievements of history was full of strong innovative desire of new 319 studies field in the past fifty years. The theories. The purpose of theoretical creation New Asia College in Hong Kong, founded was not studying the history out of object by Qianmu in 1949, marked the epoch- context, but the history by the historians’ making transformation of the growing of cognition more closely related to the feature Hong Kong’s Chinese historical research of history. All of these should be studied on from nothing. In 1960s, Hong Kong’s histo- the basis of right theory premises and real rians inherited the research methods of Chi- textual evidences. 321 nese ancient civilization from mainland in 1930s, the historical tradition of Chinese Besides the theory inheritance, Chinese histo- textology and semantics, and local ideas of rians also retrospected the important academ- cultural nationalism, which became the basis ic communities and famous scholars in histo- of Hong Kong history research development. ry field in the 20 th century. Among various Compared with the history research in main- organizations of scholars, local and national, land and Taiwan, the best features of Hong Chinese History Association is the most im- Kong’s history research were loose political portant until today, which had been restruc- environment and free academic atmos- tured three times in the first half of the 20 th phere. 320 century. At the first time, two Chinese Histo- ry Associations were separately set up in In the last century, history researchers in Beijing and Nanjing in 1920s. The association China always emphasized on the relationship in Beijing was set up on January 13 th 1929, between the historical subject consciousness Zhu Xizu as the chairman. At the same time, and historical idealism, and neglect of the the other association also was set up by histo- subject consciousness of the subject in epis- ry professor in Centre University in Nanjing, temology of history and its creativity. With- current capital, and published the Journal of out the reinforce of the subject conscious- History Studies . This situation of chaos was ness of the subject in epistemology of histo- caused by the striving for the culture center ry, it was hardly carrying out the progress of between these two cities, with the political center moving from Beijing to Nanjing. The 318 Xie Weiyang, Some Important Issues of second Chinese History Association was Chinese Ancient History Research in 21th established on March 24 th 1943, Gu Jiegang Century, Historical Research , Beijing, 2003. 319 Guo Shaotang, The Cultural Impact and as the chairman, in the period of Anti- Transcendence: Contemporary History Research Japanese War. Soon after, the civil war broke in Hong Kong, Historical Research , Beijing, 2003; out, political unrest and economic collapse, Wang Qingjia, History Research in Taiwan since Fifty and historians were too busy surviving to Years: Lineage, Methods, and Tendency , Maitian Publishing Company, Taipei: 2002. 320 Guo Shaotang, The Cultural Impact and 321 Yu Pei, Historical Cognition: the Creativity of Transcendence: Contemporary History Research Subject and its Consciousness, Historical Research , in Hong Kong. Beijing, 2003.

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LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE carry out their academic activities. The third micro, the former devote themselves to social Chinese History Association was founded in change, epoch-making incidents and the Beijing on July 28 th 1951. Guo Moruo pro- replacements of social patterns; the latter posed the new task of historians since the thought the knowledge of a ancient word had establishment of People's Republic of China: its value as same as the discovery of a star in from historical idealism to historical material- astronomy, and they always fascinate the ism; from personal research to collective history details. Fourthly, the former empha- research; from for personal fame to for the sized on the historiography; the latter empha- people; from emphasis on ancient history sized on textology. From 1920s to 1930s, the studies to modern history studies; from the historians skilled in history materials was in a history of the Han nationality to the history major position. After 1949, the historians of micro ethnic groups; from the history in skilled in historical materialism ideas domi- Europe and America to the history of Asia nated Chinese history research. There was and other regions. In 1954, the first council also the third academic group, which looked of Chinese history Association was selected, ideas as same as materials. 323 Guo Moruo as the chairman, Wu Yuzhang, the revolutionary of the Revolution of 1911, Some historians challenged Wang’s argu- and Fan Wenlan as the vice chairmans. 322 ment. They thought the historians marked the academic group of historical ideas was Wang Xuedian divided the historians of P. R. unfair, and not real, who did not neglect the C. into two academic groups: scholars skilled importance of historical materials. In fact, in in history materials and scholars skilled in Wang’s article, the historians skilled in histor- historical materialism ideas. He argued that, ical materials referred to non-Marxist histori- the history can not be displayed by itself, and ans in 1950s, and they had no an unified should be narrated by historians. The activi- point of view. 324 ties of the two academic groups reflected the change of Chinese history research in recent 2. - HISTORICAL RESEARCH fifty years. Their difference was the following FOCUSED ON SOCIAL HISTORY four points. Firstly, for the relationship be- tween the historiography and the age, histori- ans skilled in historical materialism ideas Entering the new century, the studies on advocated history research close to politics, social history and culture history are hot breaking with the connection between aca- spots of history research. On the one side, demics and age, history and reality; historians these two research fields have a solid founda- skilled in history materials insisted the idea of tions for the development in the last century. finding the truth for the truth. Secondly, On the other side, China is experiencing a about the historical theory and historical great social reform and reorganization, such materials, the former emphasized the priority studies full of all kinds of desires for the of theory, and even claimed that historical nation and the people. materials meaned nothing without the guid- In recent years, Chinese historians began to ance of theory; the latter were full of enthusi- asm about the evidence, and even insisted focus on social relief in history. Wang Rigen that they did not write a word without mate- discussed the system of social relief in Hunan rials. Thirdly, on the relation of macro and 323 Wang Xuedian, Chinese History Research in Recent Fifty Years, Historical Research , Beijing, 322 Sangbing, Chinese History Association in the 2004. First Half of 20 th Century, Historical Research , 324 Liu Zonghan, Some Opinions to the Article of Beijing, 2004. Chinese History Research in Recent Fifty Years, Historical Research , Beijing, 2004.

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LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE province in . Chinese tradition- Dynasty and Republic China. In the early al charities were the coalitions under the Qing times, local elites in Jiading, Zhejiang advocacy and funding by the local govern- province, seldom took part in the manage- ments, and its response of local elites and the ment of administration. They always regained public. The custom of infanticide was popu- their public responsibility for their local rural lar in Hunan province in Qing Dynasty. This communities, by various philanthropic activi- caused the stings of local gentries and intel- ties. In the 18 th century, there was incapability lectuals’ conscience. As the undertaker of to set up the system of porridge factories in social responsibilities, local officers and elites many rural towns, in other words, the por- also had been beset. The strong social re- ridge factories which had to depend on the sponsibility was the social psychological mo- supports of county government and market, tivation of the establishment of the foundling was always for the temporary relief. Howev- hospitals. Frequent disasters resulted in the er, the system of porridge factories began to pauperization, and the relief for the poor and become a regular social institution after 1795, the disabled became the urgent task of local the last year of the reign of Qianlong emper- government. At the same time, local elites or. At the same time, the number of porridge zealously responded to the call of govern- factories also became more and more static. ment, and took an active part in disaster relief Henceforth, the directors of the porridge donation actives. Furthermore, the aged clan factories not only carried out the social relief, leaders also dedicated themselves to social but also full local administration. This situa- assistance. By all kinds of political rewarding tion reflected the facts of the weakening pro- measures, the government encouraged local cess of administrative efficiency in late Qing powers involved in the activities of charity period, and the transfer process of the con- and relief, and administrated by local social trolling power of local society, from the gov- mobilization. From the perspective of social ernment to the local elites themselves. The mechanism, the popular charities, many par- scope of the porridge factory system maybe enting institutions by local gentry, was the overlapped with the market system, partly or products of value orientation of the tradi- wholly, because the place of the porridge tional morality, instead of solving the anxiety factory often gradually develop a new market of their properties themselves or the social town, or even a new market town needed mismatches for the reason of the properties. identify its local legitimacy by setting up a The local gentries were aware of the respon- porridge factory. At this time, the porridge sibility for defending and promoting the so- factory always became a community unit cial welfare of their hometown, and elevated whose core was a market town, and its func- their fames and reputations by the charity, in tion was not only in the disaster activity, but order to accumulate the intangible symbol a real local administrative division by joining capital, which could help them attain the the activities of regular local administrative status of local elites, by strengthening their affairs. 326 importance of local affairs, and expanding their regional influences. 325 Characterized by the integrated discipline of social history and culture history, many took The system of porridge factories was com- them as all-inclusive. It seemed that, if from mon local institution of social relief in the social perspective, everything in history could lower Yangtze region in the period of Qing

326 Wutao, The Transformation of the Tradition 325 Wang Rigen, the Cooperation between Local of the Porridge Factory in Baoshan County in Officers and Civilian in the Social Relief Qing Dynasty and Republic China, from Social Institution in Hunan Province in Qing Dynasty, Relief to County Autonomy, Qing History Research , Qing History Research , Beijing, 2004. Beijing, vol.2, 2004.

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LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE be categorized into social history, including CENTURY : MULTIDISCIPLINARY political, economics and even culture. Espe- INTEGRATION cially for the fields hardly categorized by other topic history, just as daily lives, cus- toms, lower class, and so on, they could be fit The integration between history research and into social history. scholars named social other social science marked the significant history as generalized, narrow, macro, micro, change of Chinese history studies in the new grassroots, and secret, all kinds of societies. century. The multiple research methods and On the other hand, it seemed that everything explanatory instruments brought unprece- in history, if from cultural perspective, could dented vitality and vigor for the development be categorized into culture history, both ma- of history research. The cooperations be- terial culture and spiritual culture, even in- tween economic history and economics, so- cluding watermelon culture, scorpion culture, cial history and sociology, local history and and so on. Some scholars named culture anthropology became more closer than ever. history as generalized culture, narrow culture, However, with more and more multidiscipli- macro culture, subculture, secular culture, nary studies deepening, the boundary be- and so on. Hence, it seemed that the subjec- tween history and other disciplines became tivities of social history and culture history more fuzzy. How to hold up the subjectivity were lost, which became the all- of history? Historians have to face this prob- encompassing research fields, or complemen- lem in the new century. The following is the tary points which could be superposed or arguments of the relationship between histo- replaced by other historical studies. ry and archaeology.

Sociology was from Europe in 1830s, when For historians, how to deal with the relation- many great changes took place in European ship between history and archaeology, society, old feudalism displaced by new capi- whether make it closer, or return to the histo- talism. While Chinese social history became ry text and set up its own theory system, has the research hot spot in the end of 20 th cen- to be solved. Two archaeologist, Yu Weichao tury, and at that time, China also in the peri- and Zhang Zhongpei emphasized on factors od of social transition, reforming and open- of culture in the archaeology research, and ing. Both had similar history background. the relationship between factors of culture Only realizing this history background and and types before 1980s. After 1980s, these the research purpose of social history, we two archaeologists broke through traditional could construct the theoretical framework, patterns, and proposed to make use of mod- particular perspectives and methods of social ern science technology to study different history research, and consciously contribute environments and settlements. Yu Weichao to the studies, academically, theoretically, and insisted archaeology should collaborate with practically. As for the importance of social history and anthropology in more broadly history research, and its profound connota- and comprehensive ways. Zhang Zhongpei, tions and broad extension, which revealed however, maintained archaeology should set the developmental rules of Chinese society, up its own theory system through returning more and more researchers devoted them- to archaeological materials. Their disagree- selves to this research field. ments reflected the fact that archaeology was a separate subject or a sub-subject of history.

Li Ji’s interpretation mode of the archaeolog- 3. - TENDENCY OF CHINESE ical materials, from cultural anthropology perspective had been far reaching, but his HISTORY RESEARCH OF THE NEW views had not been fully recognized by main-

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LA ALBOLAFIA : REVISTA DE HUMANIDADES Y CULTURA NIU GUANJIE land archaeology. Archaeological digs and meaned science, or the subsidiary of history unearthed data were always the mainstream or not. According to the chronological order, of Chinese archaeology in 20 th century. Ar- archaeology could be divided into three parts, chaeologists in mainland tried to set up a prehistoric archaeology, protohistoric ar- series of culture sequences based on the un- chaeology, and historical archaeology. From earthed objects in the forty years after 1949. Shang to , historical archaeology At the same time, archaeologists in Taiwan and history together comprised two wings of tried to link up archaeology with other sub- historical age research. Scholar paid more jects, mainly history. Xia Nai proposed that attention to the relationship between Chinese archaeology had double traditions, protohistoric archaeology and narrow sense history and anthropology, but he still stressed history, especially foreign scholars suspected the independence of archaeology itself. In the whether Xia did exist in history. Zhu ap- new century, more and more scholars from proved that archaeology could not be sepa- cross-straits invariably pay attention to the rated by history, and could be found an ap- subject identity of archaeology and its rela- propriate conjunction between them. The tionship with ethos. They are increasingly relationship between them could be, that aware that archaeology become more and narrow sense history testified by archaeology, more open, whether its period of time, or its and protohistory and historical archaeology spatial range. 327 based on historical documentation. Chinese protohistory and historical archaeology re- Zhu Fenghan discussed the relationship be- search seemed not to be shaped to the 328 tween history and archaeology . He argued knowledge beyond abundant historical doc- that, historical research could be interpreted umentary, in order to chase their ‘purity’ and in the broad and the narrow senses: the for- independent status. Recently the efforts of mer studied on the history of human society; close collaboration between history and ar- the latter mainly relied on documentation. chaeology in China, will become the most Zhu focused on the complicated relationship important development of Chinese historical between archaeology and narrow sense histo- research in the new century. ry. Archaeology was part of history research in Europe, while belonged to anthropology Furthermore, China had a historiography research in America. Chinese scholars tradition, which meaned the effective and seemed to deem modern archaeology beyond legitimate government officially compiled the history research in research scope, methods, history of the closest former regime in the and technological means, which should be flourishing period. That was the origin of attributed to humanities, or board sense his- Chinese Twenty-Four Histories . In 2002, Chi- tory. Recently, Chinese archaeologists, even nese government began to carry out the Qing international arachnological field, discussed History Project, which will cost one hundred the relationship between Chinese archaeology millions Euro and more than ten years. This and narrow sense history, which was pro- project now well under way. moted by Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Pro- ject, focused on whether Chinese archaeology

327 Zha Xiaoying, the Controversy of Chinese Archaeology Trend in the end of 20 th Century:focused on Yu Weichao and Zhang Zhongpei, Journal of Sichuan University, Chengdu, 2003. 328 Zhu Fenghan, the Relationship between History and Archaeology, Historical Research , Beijing, 2004.

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