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Insérer La Page De Garde De L'école Doctorale À La Place De Cette Page Hybrid Emergy - Life Cycle Assessment: methodological developments and application to potable water production - Insérer la page de garde de l’école doctorale à la place de cette page- 1 Remerciements Le travail développé lors d’une thèse est en grande partie personnel, et autonome. Cependant il n’aurait pas été possible sans le soutien de nombreuses personnes, que je tiens à remercier chaleureusement. Je remercie en particulier mes deux superviseurs, Pr Ligia Tiruta-Barna et Dr Enrico Benetto, pour m’avoir proposé l’opportunité de réaliser un tel projet, et pour leur aide et leur disponibilité permanente durant ces trois années passées à leurs côtés. J’espère avoir été un bon élève. Je veux aussi remercier Dr Benedetto Rugani, pour son étroite collaboration et ses nombreux conseils, ainsi que pour les discussions passionnantes que nous avons pu avoir. Je te souhaite une carrière riche et épanouissante. Merci également à l’ensemble de l’équipe du CRTE et son directeur, Dr Paul Schosseler, pour leur accueil, leur convivialité et leur implication dans cette thèse. Je garderai d’excellents souvenirs de l’équipe Environmental Evaluation and Management et des moments passés ensemble. Un merci tout particulier à Daryna Pansiuk pour m’avoir hébergé et pour son amitié, son soutien, si précieux lors des moments difficiles. J’espère que ta thèse sera aussi enrichissante que la mienne. Je souhaite aussi remercier les membres permanents, doctorants et stagiaires du Hall GPE de l’INSA de Toulouse, pour leur accueil, leurs conseils et leurs nombreux coups de mains sur les taches administratives. Merci à mes parents, ma famille, mes amis, qui ont toujours su me soutenir en m’apportant la motivation nécessaire pour mener ce projet à bien. Enfin, je souhaite exprimer ma plus grande gratitude envers H.T. Odum et à l’ensemble de la communauté des émergistes, pour m’avoir apporté une vision éclairante et positive de ce qu’on appelle développement durable. 3 Summary Environmental assessment is a scientific discipline essential for the construction of a sustainable society. The most commonly used tool is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), in which the impact related to resource depletion is often assessed considering global available stocks, extraction rates and relative value of the resource for the user. However, this approach cannot be applied as such to renewable resources such as freshwater and ecosystem services, which are not, by definition, stocks. In contrast, Emergy evaluation (EME) determines the value of a resource (renewable or not) from the description of the natural mechanisms that produce it. Therefore, LCA and EME present an interesting hybridation potential, the former providing a detailed representation of a product's lifecycle, while the latter allows accounting for the value of both renewable and non- renewable resources with the same rationale. In this PhD, a recently-developed hybrid framework is applied to four potable water production sites, in order to analyze the added value and current limitations of using detailed LCA databases in EME. Suggested improvements include the adaptation of emergy indicators to the hybrid framework, and freshwater resource characterization using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Elaborated computational tools such as GIS and dynamic modeling could provide great benefits to current environmental assessment methods. The feasibility of using them is demonstrated in this study by validating the conceptual approach. Résumé L’évaluation environnementale est une discipline scientifique indispensable à la construction d’une société durable. L’outil le plus communément utilisé est l’Analyse du Cycle de Vie, dans lequel l’impact lié à l’épuisement des ressources y est fréquemment évalué à partir des stocks mondiaux disponibles, les taux d’extraction et leur valeur relative pour l’utilisateur. Cette approche n’est cependant pas applicable aux ressources renouvelables, comme l’eau douce et les services écosystémiques, qui, par définition, ne sont pas des stocks. L’évaluation émergétique (EME), en revanche, détermine la valeur d’une ressource (renouvelables ou non) à partir de la description des mécanismes naturels qui la génèrent. L’ACV et l’EME présentent donc un intéressant potentiel d’hybridation, la première fournissant une représentation détaillée des étapes du cycle de vie d’un produit, tandis que la seconde permet de comptabiliser la valeur des ressources renouvelables et fossiles avec une unité de mesure commune. Dans cette thèse, une méthodologie hybride récemment développée est appliquée à quatre usines de production d’eau potable, afin d’analyser la valeur ajoutée et les limites actuelles du modèle hybride. Les améliorations proposées incluent l’adaptation des indicateurs émergétiques au modèle hybride et la caractérisation des ressources d’eau douce grâce à l’emploi de Systèmes d’Information Géographique (SIG). Les outils informatiques élaborés, tels que la SIG et la modélisation dynamique, permettraient d’enrichir sensiblement les méthodes actuelles d’évaluation environnementale. La faisabilité de cette opportunité est démontrée dans cette étude par la validation de l’approche conceptuelle. 5 Résumé long (français) L’humanité a franchi les limites physiques de la planète (Rockström et al. 2009). Il est désormais reconnu que la Terre ne pourrait pas supporter une population de 7 milliards d’êtres humains avec les conditions de vie actuelle des pays occidentaux, ce qui nous met face à de nouveaux challenges historiques. On pourrait se reprocher de « détruire » la planète, et se soucier des conséquences potentielles d’une rupture de nos systèmes socio-économiques. Mais nous pouvons aussi considérer cette situation comme une source de motivation supplémentaire pour réfléchir à des systèmes de gouvernance et une gestion de notre planète plus durables (Folke et al. 2011; Steffen et al. 2011). Un développement sociétal environnementalement et économiquement durable implique de préserver l’intégrité des systèmes naturels, uniques supports in fine des sociétés humaines, tout en assurant un développement économique uniquement à partir de ressources renouvelables (Moldan et al. 2012). Les deux problèmes sont fortement liés l’un à l’autre, car les écosystèmes fournissent à la fois les ressources renouvelables et des conditions de vie convenables à l’Homme, sous la forme de ce que l’on appelle communément les Services Ecosystémiques (Costanza et al. 1997; de Groot et al. 2002; MEA 2005; TEEB 2010). Ils constituent le capital naturel, dont la valeur est habituellement estimée à partir d’outils économiques tels que l’évaluation de marché, qui attribuent un prix à la Nature en fonction de son utilité pour l’Humanité. Cependant, une approche complémentaire est nécessaire, basée sur les lois de la nature et l’observation des mécanismes environnementaux à toutes les échelles d’espace et de temps, afin de mieux appréhender la contribution des Services Ecosystémiques et des ressources naturelles pour le développement humain et analyser les conséquences des changements environnementaux d’origine anthropique (Rees and Wackernagel 1996; Costanza et al. 1997; Odum and Odum 2000; Markandya and Pedroso-Galinato 2007). Une comptabilité environnementale formelle permettrait de compléter l’information économique qui ne prend pas en compte ces « externalités », ce qui est une des origines possibles des crises économiques actuelles. Dans cette étude, deux visions de la comptabilité environnementale sont étudiées. Elles offrent des points de vue complémentaires, en particulier concernant la manière dont les systèmes humains sont décrits et comment les ressources naturelles sont caractérisées. D’une part, l’Analyse du Cycle de Vie (ACV) permet d’évaluer les impacts environnementaux d’un produit ou d’un service, à partir d’une description détaillée du réseau de procédés technologiques intervenant dans son cycle de vie, et des mécanismes environnementaux générant les impacts. D’autre part, l’Evaluation Emergétique (EEM) considère que les activités humaines sont dépendantes de leur environnement naturel global, et estime la contribution des processus naturels (en emJoules équivalent solaire, ou seJ, défini comme la quantité totale d’éxergie [solaire] directement et indirectement utilisée par les mécanismes qui participent à la formation d’une ressource) nécessaires à une activité pour son fonctionnement. ACV et EEM partagent le même objectif de fournir des outils opérationnels de comptabilité environnementale, mais reposent sur des raisonnements différents : l’ACV permet d’estimer les impacts générés par les activités humaines sur trois Domaines de Protection (écosystèmes, ressources, santé humaine), tandis que l’EEM cherche à étudier dans quelle mesure une activité humaine est dépendante du système Terre et des biens et services qu’il lui fournit. Une telle différence entre ces deux outils induit une spécificité des objectifs, périmètres d’étude, méthodes de quantification, règles de calcul, données d’inventaires et interprétations pour la prise de décision, résumées dans le Tableau 1. 6 Tableau 1: Complémentarités entre ACV et EEM. ACV EEM Les activités humaines génèrent un impact Le système Terre est un support pour les Raisonnement sur des Domaines de Protection activités humaines Analyser les impacts lies à l’utilisation de Estimer le travail des processus naturels Objectifs et périmètre matériaux et d’énergie dans la technosphère pour la formation des ressources utilisées Orienté “donneur” (toutes les ressources Orienté
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