BIRTH OF A NOTION: A Filmmaker's Perspective on the Development of Interactive Narrative

Home Authors: Jim Bizzocchi New Media and Justine Bizzocchi Learning Copyright 1995 Dada Processing Jim Bizzocchi

This paper is excerpted from a longer document co-authored by Jim Bizzocchi, Justine Bizzocchi, and Mike Quinlan for presentation at the WRITE 95 Conference (Writers' Retreat on Interactive Technology & Equipment) sponsored by the University of British Columbia, Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design, and the Centre for Image and Sound Research in June of 1995. In the full paper an appendix includes documentation of a series of explorations into existing interactive multimedia product undertaken by the authors in conjunction with Vancouver filmmakers early in 1995.

Abstract Introduction Background: Film and Linearity New Narrative Forms

New interactive media are in the early stages of development, particularly as Abstract regards the invention of narrative forms and devices. The wealth of cinematic experience with narrative in a linear format can inform explorations of narrative in a non-linear, branched environment. Embedded within the film narrative tradition is a wealth of examples of filmmakers who consciously incorporated non-linearity, and even branching, into their narrative structures. The paper first outlines a number of these examples from film history. In the second section, the paper posits the key issues and questions that writers must address as they seek to develop compelling and immersive experiences in new media. Topics covered include suspension of disbelief, interface design, models of branched narrative, layering of information, system "learning", and transitions. Our goal in this endeavor is not to translate existing film esthetics into the new medium. Both evolution and revolution are essential in the growth of a new medium's esthetic. In developing their analysis, the writers drew upon the contributions of a number of Vancouver filmmakers who took part in a series of discussions about narrative in interactive media. A summary of these discussions is included as an appendix to the paper. Back to top of page Introduction Film is by far the predominant form of narrative entertainment in twentieth century North America (including in this definition of film is its related forms of production and distribution: television and video). Older narrative forms, books and theatre, have by no means disappeared, but they do not approach the pervasiveness of the new medium. Now, on the brink of the 21st century, a new form is emerging that may succeed in overtaking film and television. Interactive multimedia in the form of computer games is already challenging the economic returns enjoyed by film's box office take. This is happening despite the relatively small number of households that have systems that can run the games. Whether this success will continue to grow depends in part on whether the creators of new media product can diversify the content to include a range of narrative or story-based experiences. To do so, authors must find unique methods to provide a rewarding emotional and immersive experience, at least equal in impact with film and television.

This project grew out of a few assumptions. The first is that the new interactive medium is in the early stages of development. In particular it is a medium that has not yet found its own set of narrative forms and devices. Second, film is one of the key "parents" to this new medium, and has a particularly rich narrative arsenal. In addition to the mainstream theatrical film tradition, film has a wide variety of alternative and collateral streams within which concepts of narrative form have been explored. Experimental film, video art, documentary film, commercials, and even rock videos are but a few examples of the panorama of cinematic variations, each with their own sets of narrative styles and explorations of narrative devices.

A conclusion that we drew from this is that the wealth of cinematic experience with narrative in a linear format could inform some interesting explorations of narrative in a non-linear, branched environment. Since the Vancouver film community is a particularly vital and eclectic group of cinematic artists, we decided to engage them in this process.

The observations of the Vancouver filmmakers are distilled in the appendix to this paper. The paper itself is in two parts. First, the authors review existing film narrative form for some clues to possibilities in an interactive branched multimedia environment. Second, we turn our attention directly to the emerging interactive environment itself to outline some of the issues of narrative form and esthetics that the authors feel will become critical.

Our goal in this endeavor is not to translate existing film esthetics into the new medium. That would be a dry and ultimately pointless exercise. Any new medium has to find its own esthetics on its own terms. Certainly part of that process is adapting esthetics from older media in new contexts, but part of it is also breaking free from the limitations of the older esthetics. Film, for example, borrowed much of its sense of narrative form from live theatre. Many pre-cinematic narrative concepts remain vital in today's cinema. However, film narrative form could not reach its full potential until it broke free of the restrictions of the theatre. This combination of evolution and revolution of esthetic is a necessary part of the growth of any new art form. In this process we have tried to strike a balance between respecting the lessons of the existing medium and perceiving the emerging possibilities inherent in the new one. Back to top of page

Background: Film is, on the face of it, a completely linear platform. A film is designed to be started at the beginning and rolled through to the end. A film viewer is not Film and expected to violate this concept by stopping and starting the projector. Linearity Neither is he or she expected to reorder the sequencing in ways that might be more interesting or more satisfying. Even the migration of cinema material to video platforms, where the nature of the hardware and the software is more amenable to temporal manipulation, has not significantly challenged this assumption of linearity. Traditional cinematic storytelling is founded on the rock of continuity construction, with its assumptions about "real" (i.e. linear) time. Concomitant with this is a set of assumptions about the passivity of the film audience and the surrender of their rights to participation, volition and even cognition to the will of the cinematic artist.

Closer examination of film esthetics and film history can reveal a different perspective. Embedded within the film narrative tradition is a wealth of examples of filmmakers who consciously incorporated non-linearity, and even branching, into their narrative structures. Filmmakers have shown themselves to be ready to adapt and to push narrative form in the service of telling the story they wish to tell. Linearity has never been a sacred boundary to a film artist with something to say.

Basic Film Tools

On one level, some of the basic narrative tools that all filmmakers take for granted are in fact non-linear ones. Flashback is the most obvious example. Filmmakers feel perfectly free to introduce a backwards (or even forward) jump in time into an otherwise completely linear film or sequence. Cross cutting is another example of non-linearity. Filmmakers since D.W. Griffith's time have felt free to tell two different stories once, cutting back and forth as the narrative impels them to do so. It is interesting to note that the precise purpose of this device is to allow the audience to actively compare two different stories while creating some kind of internal synthesis.

On an even more fundamental level, it can be argued that any montage construction is by definition a non-linear cinematic form. Accumulation of image is substituted for temporal linearity. The place where the images are accumulated is within the mind (or the heart) of the audience, where an active synthesis of image leads to an emotional or cognitive narrative synergy. Eisenstein recognized the active role of the audience in this process when he referred to montage as a "collision" of images within the viewers perception.

Multiple Visual Tracks

Some narratives have moved filmmakers to explicitly tell two or more visual stories not by cutting back and forth between them, but by breaking the screen into two or more subframes and showing different plotlines (or different views of the same plot) within each frame. This practice is seen as early as Abel Gance's Napoleon, and continues today.

More recent theatrical film examples include Thomas Crown Affair, The Longest Yard, More American Graffiti, and Woodstock. This purely visual device places great emphasis on the audience's ability to quickly assimilate different narrative threads, actively choose which of the subframes to pay closest attention to, simultaneously track the others, and constantly synthesize the different information tracks into a single coherent narrative stream. It is difficult to reconcile this with a description of the film viewer as a non-interactive and passive recipient of a purely linear storyline.

Narrative devices

Some films use a parallel psychological pluralism to develop different interpretations of the same event. The classic example of this variation on narrative form is Rashomon (redone as the western film The Outrage).

Other films have made use of both intensive flashback and intensive flashforward as a narrative device. A familiar example of this is A Christmas Carol, which borrows its narrative structure from the Dickens novel. Reservoir Dogs and Pulp Fiction also place reliance on these techniques. Perhaps one of the most intensive examples is the film version of Slaughterhouse Five, where an explicit temporal non-linearity is intrinsic to the film's narrative structure (as it is in the novel upon which it is based).

An amalgam of psychological pluralism and temporal manipulation is the prismatic narrative structure of Citizen Kane. This film is well recognized as a (perhaps the) compelling cinematic masterpiece by the community of filmmakers. One of its many attractions is its sophisticated narrative structure. The point of view shifts through a half dozen different perspectives (never, surprisingly enough, giving us one that is explicitly the protagonist's). We see Kane's story from the overlapping points of view of the media, his guardian, his accountant, his best friend, his ex-wife, and his butler. Not one of them shows us their view of his entire life (except for the shallow account in the opening newsreel), yet various significant events are seen from two or even three perspectives. Finally, there are films that, like a rich novel, attempt to give us multiple and intersected layers of plots and stories. D.W. Griffith, seminal in so many areas of film history, gave us an early version of this narrative approach in Birth of a Nation. Despite its troubling content, this intertwined tale of two American families is still a sophisticated exercise in story form. His epic Intolerance has some of the same attributes on a large scale, although with less narrative unity and elegance.

The contemporary film master, Robert Altman, has staked similar ground with many of his works. The Player is but one example of variou Altman films that rely on a sizable ensemble of characters interacting within a complex and dynamic storyline. Even more sophisticated in narrative form is Nashville - a cornucopia of stories united by common location, overlapping characters, carefully casual intersecting storylines, and a climax which joins the narrative threads together. Short Cuts is a slightly looser version of the same narrative approach.

It can be argued that the above list is tiny and non-representative of film narrative. It is certainly true that it is a limited and fragmentary one. It is primarily drawn from the mainstream of film history, the classic Hollywood theatrical tradition. Within that tradition it is a small fraction of exceptional cinematic works. However, there are many other examples of branched and non-linear narratives that could also have been included. The films listed are certainly exceptional in execution, but by no means unique in conception.

Further, the list excludes any of a number of national "New Wave" movements. It doesn't even pretend to touch the other worlds of experimental film, avant-garde cinema, or video art. Finally, it doesn't include the sub-genres of commercials and rock videos. Any examination of these (and other) classes of film would show even more varied and vigorous explorations of narrative forms and devices.

In any event the films listed above (and the multitudes of unlisted examples) show the readiness of film artists to transcend boundaries of linearity. A filmmaker's need to tell a story often requires more sophisticated narrative devices. The concept of branching is implicit in all these works. Narrative can be fragmented both spatially and temporally. The audience is asked to follow various narrative branches within the same work.

Just as interesting is the corollary: the viewer's intellect (or the viewer's heart, or the viewer's soul) is expected to interact with the cinematic work. The fragmented storyline must be actively synthesized. It must be made coherent and understandable by the viewer. In these (and other films) dramatic integration and unity are not achieved through a passive reception of storyline. Rather they grow out of a dynamic interaction between the viewer and the film's narrative threads.

The emerging interactive multimedia forms will require the development of new narrative structures and devices. They must accommodate much more explicit attention to interaction and branching. It will be interesting (and useful) to observe how much (and in which ways) the narrative richness of cinematic art will adapt to the new platform.

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New Suspension of Disbelief

Narrative Suspension of disbelief is a fundamental narrative issue in any medium. The Forms: participant must believe in the artificial world that is being experienced. The viewer or participant must forget the reality of the physical world, and become immersed in the narrative world. The radio speaker, the movie Issues & theatre, the words on paper, the computer's interface devices must all disappear from active attention. The setting and the characters must have Explorations perceptual (and emotional) weight similar to real places and real people.

On the face of it, this may be a difficult problem for interactive media. Interactive media usually require an overt physical response in order for the narrative to proceed. Does this fact of interaction interfere with immersion into the material by forcing the participant outside the story? Or more positively, are there unique qualities of interactive form which will help build an immersive experience?

With most current interactive products the key to immersion is the game model. Winning the game may depend on reflexes and reaction time (right through from Pong to Fighter Command). In other products "winning" is a result of cerebral reactions, typically solving a puzzle (Myst, Killing Moon, etc.). In either case an overt challenge is one way of enabling immersion. It will be interesting to see if future interactive products include more subtle variations on games and puzzles as narrative engines.

The filmmakers we talked to stressed underdeveloped writing as the single most important barrier to suspension of disbelief. The products they reviewed were seen as lacking well constructed characters and storylines. They felt that even within the prevailing game model, solid craftsmanship in these areas was necessary. If the medium moves beyond the game model into other, more narrative metaphors, then it will be even more important to build characters that people care about and to craft plots that are both interesting and compelling. It is necessary to note that the branching imperative of interactive media places even more stress on the ability of writers to build tight scripts. Providing the audience with the ability to make choices, or determine in some way how a story develops, is seen as one of the benefits of interactive media. At the same time, the methods used to introduce these choices often stop the story in mid-track. A more seamless approach might be possible, however. If the story engine simply continues to unfold no matter which, or even if, choices are made, the viewer has an opportunity to get drawn in. Much creativity will be required to develop the interface elements which identify for the viewer how and when to make a choice. Sound and colour cues, text or graphic highlights, embedded dramatic moments, might all be used. Authors must decide whether they are designing for the experienced computer game addict or a novice comuter user. The former will likely not hesitate to explore by moving the mouse and clicking or experimenting with various key combinations, but the latter may require some initial guidance. Anything which makes the interaction quicker and easier will assist immersion. Anything that calls undue attention to the process of interaction will retard immersion. Interfaces should be made as intuitive as possible. Over time as audiences develop more familiarity with the interface devices that are introduced, the task becomes simpler. As the technologies mature, virtual reality constructs may set the standard for interfaces that are the most intuitive and the best suited to enable suspension of disbelief, by placing the viewer inside the story.

Speed of system response is another significant variable with respect to participant immersion and suspension of disbelief. Current products and delivery platforms have a fair bit of delay while new information is being loaded for display. This delay shatters the illusion of story. Attempts to buffer this break with music are only partially successful. To succeed under current technical constraints, producers should explore the nature of limits with respect to delay and immersion. What length of delay will a participant tolerate before the illusion is in fact broken? What is the effect of prolonged play on the tolerance of delay? What are the effects of constructs (such as music, or the presentation of a challenge) on the delay/immersion phenomena?

Branched Narrative Paths

Interactive media have the option of including branched narrative options. There are many ways for interactive writers to utilize this capability. The oldest paradigm is the multiple choice scenario, where the audience makes some choices about plot decisions which determine the rest of the story. Other branched forms are listed in the review of film narrative above. Telling the same story several times from the points of view of several characters is one (Rashomon). A variation on that theme is a more subtle shifting of point of view during the narrative (Citizen Kane). Versions of both are possible in interactive media, giving the audience control over the order and the timing of the perspective shift. Live theatre has included a variation well suited to interactive media. Plays have been mounted in houses, with various actors simultaneously playing out their roles in several rooms at once. The audience is also scattered throughout the house watching the actors of their choice. Some of the actors will leave one room for another, giving the live audience the possibility (and dilemma) of following whichever actor seems most interesting at the moment. Interactive media certainly lends itself to this format of simultaneous narrative actions. Viewers can follow any (and utlimately all) of the narrative tracks in the order they choose.

The main difficulty for a writer in constructing branch narrative options is maintaining in all the various alternative paths a meaningful storyline as well as insuring that the dramatic plot points are still timed for impact. Some programmers have been working on system engines which will evaluate the choices that a viewer is making and then adjust the resulting menu of choices accordingly, specifically to ensure that elements such as dramatic pacing are kept under the author's control.

Information in Depth

Layering of information is another key characteristic of the new media. The ability to branch and link gives artists new tools for constructing a world that is rich in collateral information. This information can be parallel narrative branches as described above. However, the interactive producer also has the opportunity to include additional layers of information underneath the central narrative or the various narrative branches. These layers can colour or inform the narrative. This characteristic, while not as immediately obvious or impressive as the ability to construct alternative narrative branches, is potentially just as powerful in its esthetic implications.

Such collateral information could take many forms, in many media. Possibilities include diaries, calendars, family photo albums, answering machine messages, home movies, etc. Examination of this material can provide much more narrative detail for the viewer. This detail will be used to develop both character and plot, providing alternative explanations for characters' actions and revealing new facets of the storyline. As characters are one of the mechanisms which authors use to keep an audienced involved, the potential to offer an audience the ability to dig deeper and deeper into those characters to whom they are attracted is an important tool.

It seems clear that this is one of the main differentiators between film and interactive media. The ability to include narrative detail and sub-detail will be more akin to the capabilities of the novel than the film. This is a powerful narrative tool, especially when combined with the ability to choose between various media forms (print, graphics, photography, audio, moving image). Producers of new media will increasingly learn to explore the implications and the esthetics of this characteristic. The sidebar will be an artform, and subtext will become a narrative imperative.

Narrative and Flexibility

It can be problematic for some film artists to contemplate giving the viewer a measure of overt control over narrative branching, ordering, and pacing. Filmmakers are accustomed to absolute control over the physical arrangement of these variables (although we have noted that many cinematic works assume the viewer shares psychological control of these variables with the filmmaker). It will take new creative sensibilities to accommodate this phenomena, and even more development to use this phenomena to its maximum effect.

The first order of creative development may be to learn to build flexible narrative modules that can be replayed in various combinations and orders. There will be a direct relationship between the viewer's freedom to navigate the narrative work, and the ability of narrative sub-units to work in various combinations with each other. The creative challenge will be to incorporate narrative modules that have a certain flexibility, yet still retain an overall narrative that has sustained energy, flow, and impact.

New technological abilities will open up even more dramatic narrative possibilities. Already interactive works have the ability to learn from previous viewer decisions. Narrative options at a given moment can be defined and channeled by the history of choices already made. Work is also being done on defining characters that can also "learn" and change as a result of this history. The ability to use intelligent narrative devices, characters, and subroutines will certainly grow dramatically. Narrative design will include the ability to define and develop the ability of the work to respond actively to the viewer's interventions.

Narrative design will certainly become more sophisticated, and the tools for developing and dynamically integrating a variety of narrative components will become more powerful. An effect of this will perhaps be specialization of narrative construction. It is possible to conceive of interactive media artists who specialize in the development of intelligent interactive characters, that have the ability to function in a variety of plots and settings. Other artists may well choose to specialize in storyline or in environment. The concept of "character banks" seems to be a possibility, as particularly compelling character constructs are designed to be used in various settings and storylines. It is not much of jump from there to the concept of "environment banks". Can "storyline banks" be far behind? If this is the case, then the concept of authorship is once again due for a significant rethinking. Transitional devices

Sequencing and juxtaposition are two powerful tools used by filmmakers. Decisions concerning shot composition, lighting, length of shots, and transitions (dissolves, fades) are consciously made by the film artist to invoke within the audience an emotional and intellectual response to the film story. How then does one create transitions for a multiplexity of interlinking modular story elements? Simply devising multiple routes through an array of elements may not be sufficient in itself to create a satisfying narrative experience. The transitional devices will require careful attention in their own right. Framing the precise moment of transition (perhaps different for different links), and developing the best method of transition for different paths will become key narrative necessities. As in film, use of sound is critical. Similarly the appropriate manipulation of graphic and moving picture elements will be used to heighten the desired emotional impact of particular choices.

Simultaneous Interactivity

A variant on the interactive experience is the simultaneous involvement of various participants in the same narrative environment. Films in the past have utilized (as novelty and marketing devices) processes where the audience jointly chooses the ending to a particular work. Current prototypes of more up to date wired theatres are being carried out, where live audiences actively (and noisily) make electronically pooled narrative choices at various predetermined plot branch points. It isn't clear whether this form of tribalized narrative determinism will become a new frontier or a recycled novelty act.

A more widely distributed form of shared narrative is taking place on the Internet. In various MUDS and MOOS, participants take on characterizations in various narrative environments. The storyline is then played out as a function of the narrative instincts of the players. The immediate antecedents of this artform are more likely to be found in improvisational theatre, theatre sports, and dungeons and dragons groups.

The emerging esthetics in this area will include a variety of parameters: the producers' abilities to design the virtual environment, the producers' abilities to construct a narrative framework and logic, as well as the participants' abilities to work creatively within this artificial world. It will be interesting to observe in these arenas the effects of the intelligent narrative devices, intelligent artificial characters, and capabilities for virtual reality noted above. New Media Back to top of page