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Home , Bogota Declaration, Outer Space Treaty, Politics of outer space, Space Foundation

SKYMUN VIII Chair Report

Committee:​ Commission Issue:​ Measures to Prevent an Arms Race in Space Student Officer:​ Sarah Ju, Assistant President

1. Introduction

Outer space has always been something for humans to look up at and fantasize about. As a new technological era in the 20th century dawned, tangibly learning about the vast expanse of nothingness we live in became a more plausible idea. With sufficient effort and research, scientists were able to send machines and animals to , and soon, even people followed in these footsteps and were launched into space, accomplishing a goal of mankind by venturing through unknown areas (Logsdon). However, despite the fact that the exploration of space may result in various benefits such as acquiring unknown scientific information, helping to figure out unanswered questions about the universe, and encouraging international cooperation, it is incredibly difficult to do so peacefully as nations and private corporations will often attempt to engage in an outer space arms race, a competitive race of developing resources for the purpose of achieving superiority over the opposing party. As a humankind that should favor peace alongside scientific advancements, it is of utmost urgency to best assess how to navigate using outer space in a solely peaceful manner. The continuous exploration of space has brought to light the necessity of maintaining peaceful relations internationally as long as more strides toward expanding innovation are made and people continue to adventure through space.

Humanity is endeavoring in exploring space for numerous reasons, and while all of them are valid rationales for journeying through space and should have relatively positive effects on the world, often becomes harmful when the acquisition of such power in outer space by a specific nation or corporation leads to the exploitation of space for military potential. Thus, preventing an arms race in space is a necessary subject to contemplate in order to ensure international stability and diplomatic relations between countries and private sectors. The question of utilizing outer space becomes a major issue when the threat of violence is introduced, such as the militarization and weaponization of space, which are different yet still facilitate non-peaceful relations between bodies (Vasani). Currently, space is not weaponized, as there are no weapons deployed there to destroy space objects such as . However, it is militarized, meaning it aids with military purposes such as surveilling battlefields and mapping military assets, which is an easy way for space to become a means by which a country is able to perform acts of violence (Saperstein). Because of this, it is important to keep in mind the possibility of an arms race, which would cause international turmoil. Because of the potential violence that the use of space may entail, the agenda of promoting peaceful uses of outer space proves itself to be an incredibly imperative one: peace must be maintained in order for real progress to be made.

Outer space was not always a place for breeding hostility between nations, but it easily became a playing ground for international conflict as the took place in the mid-1900s. A began between the capitalist and the communist in order to prove superiority in terms of technology, military power, and political systems. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first ever , into space. This was a victory on the Soviet end; however, the U.S. quickly established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in order to conduct research and make progress toward advanced space exploration. The United States shortly followed the launching of Sputnik the subsequent year on January 31, 1958 when it launched Explorer 1. Russian and American Alan Shepherd became the first people to orbit as the Cold War continued on. The United States launched , a mission to the , in 1969, and in July of that year, the first moon landing took place as took “one giant leap for mankind” (A Brief History of Space Exploration). Following the historic moment, the two nations shifted focus from an outer space race to researching in order to consider the militarization of outer space. Many military and spy satellites were launched into orbit and still exist in space today, resulting in an increase of hostility between different parties. Later, in the 1980s, the United States began the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a program created to shoot down nuclear missiles in outer space. This initiative placed pressure on the Soviet Union to take up a similar system; however, the Soviet economy was nearing catastrophe, and eventually the SDI became a factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Cold War thus ended in the late ‘90s. The history of space exploration continues to the present and extends to private corporations as the privatization of space travel comes into play in the current day. All of these events together accumulate to create the potential for a massive arms race in space, which is why it is so significant to consider these implications in the status quo.

2. Definition of Key Terms

Outer Space

Outer space is defined as the “relatively empty regions of the universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies” (Outer Space). In the last century, humanity began to discover more areas of outer space and invested in ways to expand its knowledge about the universe. However, with the vast amounts of scientific advancements that came alongside the development of space exploration came various negative impacts, such as spurred competitiveness between different nations and the militarization of outer space.

Militarization of Outer Space The militarization of outer space entails that space is used in a way that activities and technologies that operate in outer space aid in military purposes. It has been a common consensus that outer space should be used for the positive interest of humankind. However, nations such as the United States want to militarize space in order to be dominant in yet another military arena and prove their capabilities as a country (Shah). This would only result in more violence taking place through the usage of outer space or even actual wars in outer space, which is why the agenda focuses on solely utilizing the benefits of space for peaceful purposes favorable to all of humankind.

Weaponization of Outer Space Differing from the militarization of outer space, the weaponization of outer space signifies the actual installation of weapons in space. Like the previous term, the weaponization of space would only generate a greater amount of hostility between nations on bad terms and possibly result in violence, which would not assist in maintaining peace between international bodies.

Arms Race An arms race is a “pattern of competitive acquisition of military capability between two or more countries” (Perlo-Freeman). Simply put, it is a race between nations to develop military potential in order to gain superiority over the opposing party. Negative impacts of arms races include heightened hostility between nations and a wasteful allocation of government resources and funds, a high contributor to national debt. The Soviet Union and the United States of America partook in an outer space arms race, which resulted in antipathy between the two countries and left lasting economic impacts on both participating parties.

Space Race The Space Race was the race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War to determine which nation would be able to achieve first. Its origins were rooted in the nuclear arms race between the two countries following World War II. Successfully beating the opposing state would indicate that the nation had a superior political system and more advanced scientific developments. The Space Race is mainly what sparked the non-peaceful uses of outer space, the reason why governments today must be mindful of both the positive and negative implications of space travel.

Military Satellite A is an artificial satellite used for military purposes such as “communication, navigation, geodesy, nuclear test detection, surveillance, and research and technology” (military satellite). This is an example of the militarization of outer space, which is a way to engage in non-peaceful relations with other parties.

Space Technology , defined as the “application of science and engineering to the exploration and utilization of outer space,” (Space-technology). is constantly developing. Despite all of the negative aspects of space travel, space technology can be used for good, such as learning more about the unknown and making life down on Earth more efficient. The committee’s agenda not only promotes peace in space, but also the exploration of space itself. Therefore, through the creation of new space technologies, peaceful space exploration should be a desirable field to pursue.

Outer Space The is the most widely regarded treaty for detailing international . It outlines that the use of outer space should be a beneficial interest for all countries, it should be free for exploration, it cannot fall under claim of any nation, nuclear weapons are not permitted in space, etc ( Office for Outer Space Affairs). However, the treaty still contains some loopholes, such as only limiting the weaponization of outer space if it has to do with nuclear weapons, or only prohibiting nations from laying claims to space rather than any organization.

3. Timeline of Key Events

1947-26 December 1991 - The Cold War The Cold War was a political rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United States of America that persisted throughout most of the latter half of the 1900s. Its causes were western hostility to the notion of communist ideas, which the Soviet Union encapsulated through their governmental system, and the lingering tensions left behind by World War II (The Cold War Erupts). During the Cold War, the “space race” took place, which was a race to prove political and scientific superiority over the other nation by travelling to space. This made gaining access to space a competitive event which created the destructive atmosphere, birthing the idea of using space for non-peaceful purposes.

4 October 1957 - Sputnik Launched Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite, was launched in 1957 by the Soviet Union. At the time, this raised tensions between the US and the Soviet Union, as the United States was fearful of what could be done with the Soviet satellite, which was far more developed than the satellite that it was planning to launch on its end. The United States’s efforts to catch up with what the Soviet Union had accomplished is what eventually sparked the space race (Sputnik Launched). On the grander scheme of things though, the first artificial satellite brought many benefits as it allowed for mankind to explore farther through space. It would pave the path for many more artificial satellites to come, which is how scientists today research and gather information about outer space.

1958 - Establishment of the Committee on (COSPAR) COSPAR was founded in 1958 in order to effectively execute and compile research about outer space and to provide an open forum for scientists to discuss any potential problems that may affect research. The committee organizes assemblies to present new research, does public outreach on research topics, advises the UN and other organizations on space research, etc (COSPAR Committee on Space Research). The foundation of this committee is significant because it allows nations to cooperate and promotes the exploration and research of space for the good of humankind.

13 December 1958 - Establishment of UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) UNOOSA was first created in 1958 to service the ad hoc COPUOS, but then moved to work under the Office for Outer Space Affairs (History). Because the United Nations is a collaboration between most of the nations in the world, having a central office to promote the peaceful exploration of space and using space technology for the economic and social development is extremely valuable for the improvement of international cooperation.

1959 - Establishment of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) First created as an ad hoc committee in 1958 and then permanently established as a committee under the United Nations in 1959, COPUOS held positive impacts as a singular committee where all concerns about the peacefulness of outer space and its uses was formed. The committee encourages space research programs and studies legalities regarding the exploration of space (Wickramatunga).

20 December 1961 - Creation of General Assembly Resolution 1721 The General Assembly gathered in 1961 and drafted this resolution, which focused on ways to keep the uses of outer space peaceful. It highlighted the fact that international law on Earth also applied to the activities that took place in outer space and called for COPUOS to keep track of legal issues and stay in close contact with governmental and non-governmental bodies engaged with adventuring to outer space (Gouyon). The resolution was highly impactful because it outlined several ways to keep the uses of space peaceful and detailed specifics that were not readily available prior to the creation of the document.

10 - The International Space Law Drafted International Space Law is what people see today as the rules and regulations by which every body, no matter a nation or corporation, has to abide by in terms of their use of outer space. These laws regarding space are laid out in five international with five sets of principles. It details guidelines such as the fact that space activities should benefit all nations and that no one body can “own” an area of outer space (International Space Law).

16 July 1969-20 July 1969 - Apollo 11 Mission The Apollo 11 Mission was a mission to the Moon, in which American set foot on the Moon’s surface for the first time in human history. It was in this mission in which Neil Armstrong famously took "one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind (Loff). The moon landing was a part of the race to space between the Soviet Union and the United States of America, and it further carried hostile sentiments from one nation to the other as each country strived to prove their prestige. However, on a global scale, it was a monumental moment and proved what enough scientific research and planning can help humanity achieve.

15 July 1975 Apollo- Test Project (ASTP) The previous accomplishments of both the Soviet Union and the United States during the space race had spurred negative sentiments during the Cold War; however, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which took place in 1975, was clear proof of attempts to mend the relationship between the two countries. ASTP was the first international space mission, orchestrated by the Soviet Union and the United States, in which a US Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft docked together in outer space. This was an extremely meaningful mission, as two nations that had once been spaceflight rivals came together and paved the path for future international partnerships to come (Loff).

6 May 2002 - Establishment of SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (or SpaceX), a private company founded by Elon Musk, was established in 2002 and assisted in bringing about the era of commercialization of space travel. This is significant as it portrays a major turning point in the privatization of space exploration and how space is now being utilized for a wider variety of uses. Now, the company is a key player when discussing modern space technology and exploration, as well as the possibility of an outer space arms race as space becomes more accessible to non government-affiliated corporations (Eldridge).

13 January 2011 - Publishing of General Assembly Resolution A/RES/65/68 The resolution called for heightened transparency and trust in any and all outer space activities. It encouraged member nations to continue to strive to ensure peace in outer space and prevent an arms race. Additionally, it was the first to adopt a GGEUnited Nations Group of Governmental Experts on outer space.

4. Stance of Key Member Nations and Other Bodies on the Issue

United States of America The United States of America has been an active participant in marking milestones of space exploration. Its participation in the Cold War marked the beginning of the quick development of space exploration. For instance, its successful Apollo 11 mission has made it the only nation to accomplish sending humans to another celestial body. It is also one of the core members of the International Space Station (ISS) and is a leading country when it comes to the commercialization of space. The US is also home to different well-known governmental and non-governmental space agencies.

Russian Federation was a participant in the Cold War as the Soviet Union in the 1900s and also made great strides in pushing the advancement of space exploration. The USSR launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik, indicating progress made in space technologies from an early age. The country also does its part today to endeavor in the uses of outer space. For instance, it is in the process of developing a surveillance satellite to monitor , which will ultimately lead to safer space exploration (Sheldon). With its space agency State Corporation for Space Activities (Roscosmos), Russia uses satellites to monitor climate change, emergencies, natural resources, and more (Howell).

China is very rapidly evolving into a space superpower. It was the third country to launch a human into outer space in 2003, and the country’s space programs have continually been developing ever since (Malik). China independently completed the launching of the final member in its Beidou satellite constellation as a part of the Beidou Navigation Satellite System in 2020, operating as a navigation system (Howell). It also recently launched Tianwen-1 on its Mars mission, China’s first attempt at landing on Mars (Mallapaty). The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is also taking measures to participate in space exploration by supporting the use of satellites for tele-communications, tele-education, tele-medicine, and disaster management (Vision and Mission Statements). Not only that, the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) system is the largest satellite constellation in use by civilians across the world today, and it provides useful information to the government regarding the environment, natural resources, and natural disasters. Furthermore, India’s Earth Observation (EO) satellites are extremely advanced and capture high-quality images that allow for new data to be obtained (Misra).

International Space Station (ISS) The ISS unifies multiple international flight crews and stimulates international cooperation, being the largest space station ever constructed. The station serves as a research laboratory for technology in outer space conditions and is run by an international partnership of space agencies, the principals being the agencies of the United States, Russia, , , and (Garcia).

NASA NASA has been a well-known space agency ever since the United States established it in 1958. Conducting research and developing numerous missions focusing on different aspects of space exploration, the organization gathers a lot of data and takes charge of science and technology regarding outer space or flight in air (Dunbar). NASA has devised a program, Applied Remote Sensing Training (ARSET), that teaches politicians, NGOs, and other applied science professionals skills to use NASA’s remote sensing data for decision support through webinars and in-person workshops (Uz).

5. Suggested Solutions

Solutions to the question of promoting peaceful uses of outer space revolve around three main factors: further international cooperation for world peace, constructing more solid legal frameworks, and ensuring the potential of space exploration in advancing the scientific innovation of humankind. Firstly, international cooperation regarding the issue of the uses of outer space can be facilitated by creating conferences in which delegates may discuss the most pressing issues about the exploration of outer space. Nations would then come up with reports to track the developments in space exploration and also whether any mishaps had occurred in terms of using outer space for improper purposes. Not only that, international bodies must come to a consensus about the level of public awareness and education needed for this issue to be most efficiently tackled. This is a crucial initial step to promoting the peaceful uses of space because awareness encourages more people to participate in making a change (Awareness Raising). With the current status of the issue of maintaining peace in outer space being very unstable, having all hands on deck would prove extremely beneficial to addressing the problem on the largest scale possible.

Secondly, legalities regarding the issue should be managed effectively. For instance, there are many loopholes that governments and corporations can work around, such as the lack of clarity on the usage of weapons of mass destruction in space or the claiming of space territories. For example, in the of 1976, eight countries declared to have legal claim over particular areas in space that lied within the space above their land, stating that the area was still technically within their own country’s (The Bogotá Declaration and the Curious Case of ). While the previously established Outer Space Treaty has been successfully implemented thus far, it is a question whether it will continue to survive throughout the coming years. The issue with the treaty is that though it is binding to all nations that sign it, there is no practical way to enforce what the treaty stands for (Stuart). Therefore, delegates must find ways to eliminate the textual ambiguities and room left for misinterpretation set in place by various treaties of the past and practically enforce means by which to maintain complete peace in the uses of outer space, specifically regarding the use of weaponry in space. This may include the creation of legal sanctions, for example, in order to tangibly punish nations that do not abide by what international law wishes them to follow. The sanctions would be placed on nations that indiscreetly use space forces and have malicious intent in their uses of space. Fines could be created, varying on the number of offenses a nation has made and the severity of the offense. The funds collected would be best allocated as monetary support for further endeavors in space exploration. The sanctions could extend to the limitation of resources and number of space forces that a nation would be able to bear. Furthermore, as the privatization of space travel continues to expand, delegates must keep in mind the necessity of incorporating and integrating private corporations into space exploration while still ensuring that outer space is utilized for the peaceful purposes of scientific discovery and human betterment. With the introduction of major firms such as SpaceX, space travel has become a more competitive scene, but having corporations such as these does prove beneficial in some cases, as the government has needs that the private sector would be able to fulfill, and vice versa (Frost). Thus, delegates must think of methods to better integrate private space exploration with public space exploration for the advancement of science and prevention of violence through using outer space.

With all of these elements of the agenda in mind, the question of promoting peaceful uses of outer space across international bodies requires delegates to come up with creative solutions considering efforts made in the past and cooperate in order to reach the best possible conclusion. Ultimately, it is up to delegates to ponder for themselves the most fitting solutions for the status quo we encompass today. 6. 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