The Florentine Camerata and Their Influence on the Beginnings of Opera :Ds

Home , Giulio Caccini, Jacopo Corsi, Jacopo Peri, Monody

Music HISTORY

Wilde dropping the charges levied against the .ad labored to present - Artist, Enlightened Other, The Florentine Camerata and their Influence on the Beginnings of Opera :ds. At his own insistence, he was a creature Amanda Fawcett-Lothson crees. Thus by extension, he had no need of its Abstract ensberry's agents was presented to the Crown, Today, "there is still much room for debate over the extent to which the Florentine Camerata and ecency with numerous young men. The first other such groups believed they were reviving ancient Greek drama."1 What we can say with more , in which Wilde was ultimately found guilty. certainty is that their discussions revolved mainly around Greek traditions and how they could be sentence, Wilde would die penniless several years implemented into the music of the day. The Florentine Camerata's principal concern was to made all the more dramatic because his piteous reform the ornamental excesses and bring about a more beautiful and expressive style of singing, but in so doing, they laid foundations for later operatic composers such as Monteverdi who would make significant contributions to the emerging operatic genre.

The Florentine Camerata was a loosely structured body of intellectuals residing in Florence in the latter part of the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth centuries. The Camerata was neither formally documented nor organized and therefore, "no specific date can be assigned to its origin. mosexuality, and the Fall of Oscar Wilde." Already in the 1560s, Count Giovanni Bardi was sponsoring the individual studies of Vincenzo July 2005): 213-48. Galilei,"2 and Bardi "stimulated many noblemen to the study of music;" [by) inviting them to meet at his home to discuss the principals of music and current styles and techniques. 3 ty in Britain, 1861-1913. Hampshire: Palgrave Bardi came of an old Guelph family of bankers and businessmen to which Simone de' Bardi, husband of Dante's Beatrice, viance, Morality and Late-Victorian Society. New had also belonged. He was an erudite philologist and mathematician ... steeped in Platonic philosophy and affected by the linguistic purity associated with enthusiastic love for Dante. 4 'scar Wilde. New York: Unversity Books, 1956 Giovanni Bardi's son, "Pietro de' Bardi, named only two musician's as frequenting his father's •ve and Scandal in Wilde Times. Ithaca: Cornell circle: Vincenzo Galilei and Giulio Caccini, although he also named Jacopo Peri, Ottavio Rinuccini, and Jacopo Corsi elsewhere in connection with later developments in Florentine music."5 "The first to refer to the group as 'the Camerata' was Giulio Caccini."6 The Camerata was Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1997. comprised of ty: Normal and Abnormal Sexuality in the amateur musicians, artists, astrologers, philosophers, and scientists, nporary History 17:2 (Apr 1982): 35-49. who met informally under the aegis of Bardi and Jacopo Corsi. Their principal aim was to reform the polyphonic music of the day and they believed that the best way to do so was to renovate the ancient Greek

1 Collective Problem Solving, 371. 2 Palisca, Claude V. The Florentine Camerata: Documentary Studies and Translations. Yale :e this paper for Dr. Zwicker's T390 University Press, 1989, 5. Hereafter referred to as The Florentine Camerata. ;rets class. 3 The Florentine Camerata, 3. 4 Pirrotta, Nino, and Nigel Fortune. "Temperaments and Tendencies in The Florentine Camerata" The Musical Quarterly, XIJ2, 1954, 169-189. Hereafter referred to as Temperaments and Tendencies. 5 The Florentine Camerata, 7. 6 The Florentine Camerata, 3.

29 Music H1sTORY

practice of setting words to music with 'the power to move the passion[ s] Count Ugolino and the Lamentations of Jeremiah' of the mind. ' 7 therefore, that Galilei's interest in vocal monody I part-song compositions for solo voice and lute. 16 Therefore, the Camerata's attempts to infuse polyphonic compositions with ancient Greek dramatic elements were never intended to establish a new genre of music: opera; rather to make better Another contributor to the body of ideas formulat1 polyphonic music of the day. The Camerata thought of themselves not as innovators but as without a knowledge of Greek, Galilei turned to C revivers of an earlier and better tradition, 8 and it was not solely the Camerata' s work that brought learning both in the Greek language and in ancien about the creation of early opera. By analogy "the Camerata, and other informal groups of many years; and they exchanged ideas about the i: intellectuals at the time, were like midwives to a sixteenth-century full of the peculiar conjunction tunings of instruments and the meanings of ancie1 of social, ideological, cultural ideas and practices from which opera emerged."9 The Camerata's Camerata meetings, he was "a serious scholar of< 18 discussions of societal issues, philosophy and the arts led them to contemplate their origins in influenced Gali lei 's theories,." ancient Greek society and culture. Mei aimed from the start to convince hi "In the Poetics, Aristotle discussed [tragedy] as divisible into six parts:" 10 plot, character, diction, of two things: that the music of the Gre1 thought, spectacle, and song. Aristotle's model was adapted by Giovanni de Bardi and further monodic and that only by virtue of this 19 developed in a treatise called "A Discourse on How Tragedy Should be Performed," and a clear of so many marvelous effects. indication that the Camerata based their theories of performance on Ancient Greek philosophies. In his Discourse, Bardi also discusses staging and how performers should be presented to an audience, Part of Mei's reasoning that "all music was mono including the proper number of performers required and how they were to enter and exit. melody could have aroused the affections in the n that called forth particular cognitive qualities and Ancient Greek performance practices were not the only topics discussed by the Camerata. Their could be evoked based upon the vocal tessitura, I< discussions also revolved around "three basic musical concerns: the solo singer, the search for or were accompanied by another, the effect woul< 'natural declamation,' and the use of melody to interpret feeling rather than depicting it with graphic detail. " 11 In a letter written to Galilei dated May 8, 1572, :rv accomplish music's true purpose, which was not The Camerata believed that the music employed in ancient Greek theater was purely monophonic affections. This letter initiated a correspondence in nature. In Vincenzo Galilei's Dialogo delta musica antica e delta moderna (A Dialogue on discussions. 22 Mei's theories of the affections ev1 Ancient and Modem Music) he discusses "a return to the simplicity of ancient monody." 12 Galilei, only express one particular affection at a time an< and by extension, the Camerata, believed that such simplicity would lead the way to a rediscovery overlapped in any way; each should be complete! and rebirth of ancient Greek dramatic elements. In fact, "the existence of monody as a style of be recognized. performance preceded Galilei's theoretical speculations." 13 As seen in his Dialogo, Gali lei "referred to Latin translations of Plutarch, Ptolemy, Aristoxenus, and others,'' 14 and after learning In the forward to Le Nuove Musiche of 1602 Giul much about possible Ancient Greek performance practices, experimented with practical elements and this new style of composition. Caccini's stat such as "settings for a solo tenor accompanied by a consort of viols, [using] Dante's Lament of part, an effort to stop performers from adding exc practice of the era. The surviving manuscript SOL 7 Katz, Ruth. "Collective 'problem solving' in the History of Music: The Case of The Camerata" Bibliotheque du Conservatoire Royal de Musiqrn 23 Journal of the History ofldeas, XLV/3, 1984, 361-377. Hereafter referred to as Centrale, Magi. XIX 66 "appear to confirm Caci Collective Problem Solving. 8 Collective Problem Solving, 362. 9 Collective Problem Solving, 363. 15 Temperaments and Tendencies, 173. 10 The Florentine Camerata, 141 . (from Discourse on how Tragedy should be Performed by 16 Collective Problem Solving, 371. Giovanni Bardi). 17 Mentor, 3. 11 Collective Problem Solving, 367. 18 Collective Problem Solving, 370. 12 Temperaments and Tendencies, 172. 19 Mentor, 4. 20 13 Palisca, Claude V. "Galilei and Links Between 'Pseudo-Monody' and Monody," The Musical Mentor, 10. Quarterly, XL VI/3, 1960, 344-360. Hereafter referred to as Links. 21 Collective Problem Solving, 371. 14 Palisca, Claude V. "Girolamo Mei: Mentor to the Florentine Camerata," The Musical Quarterly. 22 The Florentine Camerata, 45. XL/I, 1954, 1-20. Hereafter referred to as Mentor. 23 Le Nuove Musiche, 209.

30 Music HISTORY

15 1 'the power to move the passion[s] Count Ugolino and the Lamentations of Jeremiah" as inspiration for his text. It is apparent, therefore, that Gali lei's interest in vocal monody predates his arrangements of madrigals and other part-song compositions for solo voice and lute.16 yphonic compositions with ancient Greek dramatic genre of music: opera; rather to make better Another contributor to the body of icleas formulated by the Camerata was Girolamo Mei. "Helpless ught of themselves not as innovators but as without a knowledge of Greek, Gali lei turned to Girolamo Mei , who had a reputation for great 17 twas not solely the Camerata's work that brought learning both in the Greek language and in ancient music." Mei corresponded with Galilei for he Camerata, and other informal groups of many years; and they exchanged ideas about the possible existence of polyphony in ancient music, . sixteenth-century full of the peculiar conjunction tunings of instruments and the meanings of ancient writings. Although Mei did not regularly attend s from which opera emerged."9 The Camerata's Camerata meetings, he was "a serious scholar of Greek music, and is believed to have greatly 18 e arts led them to contemplate their origins in influenced Gali lei ' s theories,."

Mei aimed from the start to convince his correspondent mainly divisible into six parts:" 10 plot, character, diction, of two things: that the music of the Greeks had been always was adapted by Giovanni de Bardi and further monodic and that only by virtue of this had it been capable 19 low Tragedy Should be Performed," and a clear of so many marvelous effects. of performance on Ancient Greek philosophies. In 10w performers should be presented to an audience, Part of Mei's reasoning that "all music was monodic" stems from his theory that "only a single 20 red and how they were to enter and exit. melody could have aroused the affections in the manner described in the ancient accounts, those that called forth particular cognitive qualities and emotions21 and, therefore, specific affections ne only topics discussed by the Camerata. Their could be evoked based upon the vocal tessitura, low, intermediate, or high and, if voices overlapped Jsical concerns: the solo singer, the search for or were accompanied by another, the effect would be lost. .nterpret feeling rather than depicting it with In a letter written to Galilei dated May 8, 1572, Mei advances the thesis that only monody could accomplish music's true purpose, which was not merely to give pleasure but to move the listener's in ancient Greek theater was purely monophonic affections. This letter initiated a correspondence that became central to the Camerata's 22 iusica antica e della moderna (A Dialogue on discussions. Mei's theories of the affections eventually conclude that every vocal tessitura can 12 Im to the simplicity of ancient monody." Galilei, only express one particular affection at a time and these affections should not be mixed or ch simplicity would lead the way to a rediscovery overlapped in any way; each should be completely distinct from the others so that its true effect can In fact, "the existence of monody as a style of be recognized. !lations."13 As seen in his Dialogo, Gali lei ny, Aristoxenus, and others," 14 and after learning In the forward to Le Nuove Musiche of 1602 Giulio Caccini mentions both the Florentine Camerata : practices, experimented with practical elements and this new style of composition. Caccini's stated purpose for writing Le Nuove Musiche was, in ya consort of viols, [using] Dante' s Lament of part, an effort to stop performers from adding excessive ornamentation, as was the common practice of the era. The surviving manuscript sources of this work, found in the Brussels e History of Music: The Case of The Camerata" Bibliotheque du Conservatoire Royal de Musique, Codex 704, and Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale 23 ., 1984, 361-377. Hereafter referred to as Centrale, Magi. XIX66 "appear to confirm Caccini's complaint that singers were embellishing his

15 Temperaments and Tendencies, 173. 16 ·e on how Tragedy should be Performed by Collective Problem Solving, 3 71. 17 Mentor, 3. 18 Collective Problem Solving, 370. 19 Mentor, 4. 20 i 'Pseudo-Monody' and Monody," The Musical Mentor, 10. 21 :reafter referred to as Links. Collective Problem Solving, 371. 22 the Florentine Camerata," Th e Musical Quarterly. The Florentine Camerata, 45. 23 >as Mentor. Le Nuove Musiche, 209.

31 MUSIC HISTORY songs by adding excessive ornamentation. "24 For example, a section of "Perfidissimo vol to "in Today, "there is still much room for debate ove Brussels Codex 704, and in the later Le Nuove Musiche by Caccini, it can be seen that, in the latter other such groups believed they were reviving 2 version, he simplified the melodic line by eliminating the excessive ornamentation of multiple more certainty is that their discussions revolved sixteenth notes with dotted eigth-sixteenth note patterns. be implemented into the music of the day. The reform the ornamental excesses and bring abm

De.I Giulio C.

1•1 make significant contributions to the emerging ~ !~~· ~-~·'§:;5:::~ · ~-~· ~~U~f.£~·1 ~'~-~- ~ i ·.:: __ ( Lu d•" lrf ••" - m,.n

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ENCYCLOPEDIAS/DICTIONARIES

"Bardi, Giovanni de' (5 Feb. 1534, Florence-S( Dictionary ofMusic, 64.

"Peri, Jacopo [Zazzerino] (20 Aug. 1561, Rom1 Biographical Dictionary ofMusic, SS

,'- ~ --~-=a~t~?~· :4,~ ,---:~_:-_·=1 .. ~ - ·=-===--~ BOOKS

7 ~:~ ' ---~ ~~~-t~ - - --=--~,--f- ~~--ff--·~-=--= - --- Palisca, Claude V. The Florentine Camera/a: 1 - ~~- · ... University Press. New Haven, CT, E

PERIODICALS Much like Caccini, one of the Camerata's principal objectives came to be the elimination of such excessive ornamentation and a return to a more simplistic style of vocal composition. As seen in Bradshaw, Murray C. "Cavalieri and Early Mo the example, Caccini's songs in this style are vastly different than those composed in Rome and 253. Ferrara during this period and are among the first examples of true, accompanied monody. 25 Caccini Giulio; Carter, Tim "On the Compositi It is noteworthy that the discussions and stated objectives of the Florentine Camerata only musiche' (1602)," Early Music, XIII'. indirectly fueled the rise of opera because, throughout their existence, they seemed mainly determined to reform polyphony and replace its excesses with expressive music of a kind that could Carlton, Richard A. "Florentine Humanism anc 26 express the feelings implicit in the text. In fact, the Camerata's theories of proper text setting and 'Conventions'," International RevieJ; ornamentation became topics of discussion for other such impromptu academies of intellectuals. 2000, 67-78. Later theories concerning the relationship between music and text and use of the term "aria" became more frequent because of the Florentine Camerata's influence and manifest in a Carter, Tim. "Jacopo Peri (1561-1633): Aspect 27 progressive "emphasis on expression and a commitment to 'beautiful' singing," a key element to Musical Association, CV, 1978-197S the formation of the emerging operatic genre. Katz, Ruth. "Collective 'Problem-Solving' int Journal ofthe History ofIdeas, XLv 24 Le Nuove Musiche, 211. 25 Temperaments and Tendencies, 181. 26 Collective Problem Solving, 371. 27 Collective Problem Solving, 371. 28 Collective Problem Solving, 371.

32 Music HISTORY r example, a section of "Perfidissimo vol to "in Today, "there is still much room for debate over the extent to which the Florentine Camerata and fusiche by Caccini, it can be seen that, in the latter other such groups believed they were reviving ancient Greek drama. "28 What we can say with 1ating the excessive ornamentation of multiple more certainty is that their discussions revolved mainly around Greek traditions and how they could patterns. be implemented into the music of the day. The Florentine Camerata's principal concern was to reform the ornamental excesses a·nd bring about a more beautiful and expressive style of singing, e nuove musiche (1602~ p.8 but in so doing, they laid foundations for later operatic composers such as Monteverdi who would make significant contributions to the emerging operatic genre. ~~~ ~ - --=:. ~~l1 -- ,,, ------51;"-===== ------~-:.------BIBLIOGRAPHY

'tr,,•.;,. ~~ --=-==---

ENCYCLOPEDIAS/DICTIONARIES ------"

"Bardi, Giovanni de' (5 Feb. 1534, Florence-Sept. 1612, Rome)," The Harvard Biographical s::::_~ ··---- Dictionary ofMusic, 64. ~ _ Ji.: ..... - :':~~~-:::==:::=J :.ha "Peri, Jacopo [Zazzerino] (20 Aug. 1561, Rome- 12 Aug. 1633, Florence)," The Harvard ~--;;:: ~~~-:~---++-·---~- -~:::-=~~_T_ ~-~ Biographical Dictionary of Music, 89. SH •

------BOOKS

~ ;-- ---~R; _-::::-::__- Palisca, Claude V. The Florentine Camera ta: Documentary Studies and Translations. Yale t i•' University Press. New Haven, CT, 1989.

PERIODICALS Jal objectives came to be the elimination of such .implistic style of vocal composition. As seen in Bradshaw, Murray C. "Cavalieri and Early Monody," The Journal ofMusicology, IX/2, 1991, 238- :tly different than those composed in Rome and 253. t examples of true, accompanied monody. 25 Caccini Giulio; Carter, Tim "On the Composition and Performance ofCaccini's 'Le nuove >bjectives of the Florentine Camerata only musiche' ( 1602)," Early Music, XII/2, 1984, 208-217. 1ghout their existence, they seemed mainly excesses with expressive music of a kind that could Carlton, Richard A. "Florentine Humanism and the Birth of Opera: The Roots of Operatic , the Camerata's theories of proper text setting and 'Conventions'," international Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology ofMusic, XXU 1, >ther such impromptu academies of intellectuals. 2000, 67-78. !en music and text and use of the term "aria" : Camerata's influence and manifest in a Carter, Tim. "Jacopo Peri (1561-1633): Aspects of His Life and Works," Proceedings ofthe Royal 27 mitment to 'beautiful' singing," a key element to Musical Association, CV, 1978-1979, 50-62.

Katz, Ruth. "Collective 'Problem-Solving' in the History of Music: The Case of the Camerata," Journal of the History ofideas, XLV/3, 1984, 361-377.

28 Collective Problem Solving, 371.

33 Music HISTORY

Lack of Health lnsura Palisca, Claude V. "Girolamo Mei : Mentor to the Florentine Camerata," The Musical Quarterly, Brandon Alt, Marthe Karasira, XLl/l, 1954, 1-20. Abs Palisca, Claude V. "Vincenzo Galilei and Some Links between ' Pseudo-Monody' and Monody," The Musical Quarterly, XLVl/3, 1960, 344-360. The focus of our research was to identify the specifically those citizens within census track 15 Pirrotta, Nino and Nigel Fortune. "Temperaments and Tendencies in the Florentine Camerata," The the community health nurse is faced with the uni• Musical Quarterly, XIJ2, 1954, 169-189. individuals that avoid seeking medical treatme untreatable level. Based on our research findings Strainchamps, Edmond. "New Light on the Academia degli Elevati of Florence," The Musical crisis within the community can be overcome. C Quarterly, LXII/4, 1976, 507-535. and education are the foundation to a healthy cc but preventing it altogether. Tirabassi, Antonio and Cecile Hindman. "The Oldest Opera: Belli's 'Orfeo Dolente' ," Th e Musical Quarterly, XXV/ l, 1939, 26-33. Introduction

Walter Hill, John. "Oratory Music in Florence, I: 'Recitar Cantando', 1583-1655," Acta The costs associated with healthcare continue to 1 Musicologica, Liil, 1979, 108-136. According to a recent study, health care expendit which is nearly double the rate of inflation (Poisa costs, many people across the United States are u from local/state/government programs, employer insurance providers. Many of these programs ha\ not available to everyone. Even individuals with may not be able to afford their premiums, co-pay Amanda is a senior and a violin performance major. Her paper was written for are not seeking treatment for their illnesses or are M404 Music History Class. very serious. This leads to a greater incidence of disease, a rise in morbidity/mortality, and a strair

The problem outlined above is a national concerr communities throughout the nation. Census Traci paper we will begin by describing Census Tract 1 poses a health risk to the people living in this are addresses this problem, and discuss literature fim move on to address the problem in terms of prim Lastly, we will propose a community program th living and working in Census Tract 15.

Aggregate at Risk

The aggregate at risk that we chose to focus on ii Tract 15. The U.S. Census Bureau divides the co compiles a vast amount of information about der characteristics. This information is made availab Tract 15 is located in South Bend, IN, the bound: