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A Cascade of Failures: the U.S. Army and the Japanese-American Internment Decision in World War Ii

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A Cascade of Failures: the U.S. Army and the Japanese-American Internment Decision in World War Ii A CASCADE OF FAILURES: THE U.S. ARMY AND THE JAPANESE-AMERICAN INTERNMENT DECISION IN WORLD WAR II by PAUL A. THOMSEN B.A., Brooklyn College, 1995 M.A., Brooklyn College, 1996 AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2013 Abstract The Second World War internment of the West Coast Issei and Nisei remains a tragic moment in American history. It has long been viewed by historians as a singular act of mass social and political pressure to remove a racially constructed social group from the area, but it was carried out by the United States Army under the direction of the War Department. This dissertation studies the formation of the military policy that led to the Second World War internment of Japanese-Americans and the transformation of a reluctant American Army into an agent of a xenophobic West Coast civilian populace through external pressure, poor planning, and false assumptions. This study focuses on several aspects of civil-military relations associated with the Second World War internment of the Issei and Nisei. This includes the history of militancy and mob rule in the West Coast urban landscape and the borders of civil-military relations on the West Coast as they applied to the region‟s xenophobic legislative government. Likewise, the relationship between the military and the militia, urban race relations, and the role of intelligence analysis play a central role in determining the distortion of facts, which shaped the American military‟s internment policy. Finally, the disconnects between the East and West Coast arms of the federal government and the Justice and War Departments play an equally pivotal role steering the military‟s response to the devolving state of affairs on the West Coast in the months following Pearl Harbor, resulting in the internment of over 110,000 Issei and Nisei in the following months. A CASCADE OF FAILURES: THE U.S. ARMY AND THE JAPANESE-AMERICAN INTERNMENT DECISION IN WORLD WAR II by PAUL A. THOMSEN B.A., Brooklyn College, 1995 M.A., Brooklyn College, 1996 A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2013 Approved by: Major Professor Mark P. Parillo Copyright PAUL A. THOMSEN 2013 Abstract The Second World War internment of the West Coast Issei and Nisei remains a tragic moment in American history. It has long been viewed by historians as a singular act of mass social and political pressure to remove a racially constructed social group from the area, but it was carried out by the United States Army under the direction of the War Department. This dissertation studies the formation of the military policy that led to the Second World War internment of Japanese-Americans and the transformation of a reluctant American Army into an agent of a xenophobic West Coast civilian populace through external pressure, poor planning, and false assumptions. This study focuses on several aspects of civil-military relations associated with the Second World War internment of the Issei and Nisei. This includes the history of militancy and mob rule in the West Coast urban landscape and the borders of civil-military relations on the West Coast as they applied to the region‟s xenophobic legislative government. Likewise, the relationship between the military and the militia, urban race relations, and the role of intelligence analysis play a central role in determining the distortion of facts, which shaped the American military‟s internment policy. Finally, the disconnects between the East and West Coast arms of the federal government and the Justice and War Departments play an equally pivotal role steering the military‟s response to the devolving state of affairs on the West Coast in the months following Pearl Harbor, resulting in the internment of over 110,000 Issei and Nisei in the following months. Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... xii Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: Influences of Militarization on the Barbary Coast .................................................. 9 Chapter Two: Army Preparations for War on the West Coast .................................................... 23 Chapter Three: Fear and Insecurity at the Dawn of the Second World War ............................... 47 Chapter Four: “Enemies” ............................................................................................................. 77 Chapter Five: Signals, Noise, and the Fog of War .................................................................... 106 Chapter Six: An Army of Phantoms and Fears .......................................................................... 149 Chapter Seven: The Straitjacket ................................................................................................. 207 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 228 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 240 Appendix A: Map of Defense Command System of the United States ...................................... 257 Appendix B: Operation of GHQ – Relation of GHQ to War Department, etc. .......................... 258 Appendix C: Relation of Western Defense Command (WDC) to War Department .................. 259 vi Acknowledgements Some have said the world is the best classroom. In this, I have been most fortunate to have support and advice from some of the best of teachers in the three great tent poles of the discipline of History, instruction, research/writing, and archival work. During my years in the professional world and return to the academy, I have encountered many situations for which I have been grateful for my formal education at Brooklyn College. In particular, the History Department‟s faculty and staff were kind with their time, fastidious with their rubrics, caring in their administrative duties, and generous with the sharing of both their knowledge and the analytical tools they used in their pursuit of daily scholarship. I am particularly grateful for the personal and professional light shed by Hans Trefousse, James Johnson, David Berger, Leonard Gordon, Teo Ruiz, Donald Gerardi, and Renata Bridenthal. In my time thereafter, I found a home in both the City of New York‟s Parks Dept and the professional world of publishing, witnessing first hand the crafting of public policy through several transformative events (the 9/11 attacks on both the Twin Towers and the Pentagon, the Great Northeast Blackout, and assorted blizzards and hurricanes) beside Jonathan Kuhn, Scott Sendrow, Joe Ferlazzo, Fred Wilken, Charlie Gilli, Myra Sylman, Phil Abramson, Dorothy Siminski, Arne Israel, Nancy Melissas, Eddie Vargas, Dyanne Norris, Michael Dockett, Henry Stern, Adrian Benepe, and Julius Speigel, and learning the tools of the craft to preserve and share those and other moments with the support of Brian Thomsen, Bill and Jodi Fawcett, Ed Greenwood, Jeff Grubb, Tom Dougherty, Eric Blair, John “Doc” Broom, James Ehrman, and the great literary agent (who has long waited for my return from “The Wilderness” with the care of a brother), Frank Weimann. A great debt of solidarity and camaraderie is also owed to the K-State Libraries, ITAC‟s Betsy “The Angel” Edwards, Interlibrary Loan, and, in particular, the vii Department of Special Collections. Tony Crawford, David Allen, Cliff Hight, Jane Schillie, Roger Adams, Pat Patton, Cindy Von Elling, Cynthia Harris, and Ashley Stark have been invaluable in providing a stable, nurturing, and professionally reassuring work environment (akin to my days working for the City of New York) amidst the literal and metaphoric storms, which have passed overhead since coming into their employ. Likewise, Associate Dean and Director of Student Life Heather Reed and her staff have been of great help, seeing me through death and disasters of all kinds. Their contributions to my professional development can only be considered invaluable. Considerable support has also been generously provided in physical assistance for this work as well as the past two iterations of the dissertation. While certain events necessitated a change from my original and follow-up prospecti, the preservationists who granted access to the documents, which led down this path, deserve mentioning. They are Marianne Labotto of the Brooklyn College Archives (the analysis of those revelatory documents will see the light of day soon, I promise). Thanks and much appreciation should is also shared for the staff and archivists at the Harry S. Truman and Franklin D. Roosevelt presidential libraries and archives for their personal guidance, professional candor, and financial support, including Mary T McFarland, Bob Clark, Virginia Lewick, Randy Sowell, and Liz Safley. The staff at the College Park and Washington Offices of the National Archives and Records Administration
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