ISLAMIZATION OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE: SHIFTING THE PARADIGM OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Mustapha BenBen----HamoucheHamouche Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, College of Engineering, University of Bahrain, Bahrain e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Islamic architecture is often thought as a history course and thus finds its material limited to the cataloguing and studying of legacies of successive empires or various geographic regions of the Islamic world. In practice, adherent professionals tend to reproduce high styles such as Umayyad, Abassid, Fatimid, Ottoman, etc., or recycle well known elements such as the minarets, courtyards, and mashrabiyyahs . This approach, endorsed by the present comprehensive Islamic revival, is believed to be the way to defend and revitalize the identity of Muslim societies that was initially affected by colonization and now is being offended by globalization. However, this approach often clashes with the contemporary trends in architecture that do not necessarily oppose the essence of Islamic architecture. Furthermore, it sometimes lead to an erroneous belief that consists of relating a priori forms to Islam and that clashes with the timeless and universal character of the Islamic religion. The key question to be asked then is, beyond this historicist view, what would be an “Islamic architec ture” of nowadays that originates from the essence of Islam and that responds to contemporary conditions, needs, aspirations of present Muslim societies and individuals. To what extends can Islamic architecture bene fits from modern progress and contemporary thought in resurrecting itself without loosing its essence. The hypothesis of the study is that, just as early Muslim architecture started from the adoption, use and reuse of early preIslamic architectures before reaching originality, this process, called Islamization, could also take place nowadays with the contemporary thought that is mostly developed in Western and nonIslamic environ ments. Mechanisms in Islam that allowed the “absorption” of preexisting civilizations should thus structure the islamization approach and serve the scholars and professionals to reach the new Islamic architecture. The objectives of the paper consist of countercriticizing orientalists’ views that overwhelm our libraries and references systems, and that consider the first stage of Islamic civilization, within which architecture is part, as a mere cutandpaste process and, at best, a synthesis of these preIslamic heritages, and overcoming the prevailing historicist approach, and open new scopes for future generations to instate a new era of islamization that permits digesting the contemporary Western thoughts in a conscious, critical, and constructive way.

Keywords : Maqassid, khilafa, islamization of knowledge, Islamic Architecture, ijtihad , Contemporary Architecture

Abstrak Arsitektur Islam seringkali hanya dipandang dari sudut pandang kesejarahan, sehingga materi keilmuannya terbatas pada upaya mengatalogkan warisan sejarah dari berbagai kerajaan atau wilayah geografis di dunia Islam. Pada prakteknya, para praktisi cenderung mereproduksi gaya Umayyah, Abassiyah, Fatimiyah, dan sejenisnya, atau mengulang penggunaan elemenelemen terkenal seperti menara, maidan , atau mashrabiyyah . Pendekatan semacam ini diyakini dapat mempertahankan dan merevitalisasi identitas masyarakat Muslim yang dulu dipengaruhi penjajahan, dan saat ini dikuasai globalisasi. Bagaimanapun, pendekatan ini sering tak sejalan dengan tren kontemporer dalam arsitektur yang ternyata tak selalu bertentangan dengan esensi arsitektur Islam. Pendekatan ini juga terkadang mengarah pada kekeliruan dalam menghubungkan bentukbentuk tertentu dengan Islam, dan karenanya bertentangan dengan karakter Islam yang abadi dan universal. Pertanyaan kuncinya adalah, di luar jangkauan pandangan historis, akan bagaimanakah arsitektur Islam masa kini yang berakar dari esensi Islam dan yang merespon kondisi, kebutuhan, dan aspirasi kontemporer masyarakat dan individu Muslim saat ini. Seluas apakah manfaat kemajuan modern dan pemikiran kontemporer bagi arsitektur Islam dalam membangkitkan dirinya sendiri tanpa kehilangan esensinya. Hipotesis penelitian ini adalah, sama seperti arsitektur Muslim awal yang memulai dengan adaptasi arsitektur praIslam sebelum mencapai orisinalitasnya, proses islamisasi ini bisa juga berlangsung saat ini dengan pemikiran kontemporer yang sebagian besar dikembangkan di Barat. Mekanisme dalam ajaran Islam yang memungkinkan “penyerapan” dari peradaban sebelumnya dapat menstrukturisasi pendekatan islamisasi dan membantu para ilmuwan dan profesional untuk mencapai arsitektur Islam yang baru. Makalah ini berisi kritik terhadap pandangan orientalis yang membanjiri referensi, yang menganggap tahap awal dari peradaban Islam, dimana arsitektur merupakan bagiannya, sebagai proses penjiplakan dari warisan praIslam. Makalah ini juga berisi kritik terhadap pendekatan historis, serta berupaya membuka ruang lingkup baru bagi generasi mendatang untuk menghadapi era baru islamisasi untuk dapat mencerna pemikiran kontemporer Barat secara sadar, kritis dan konstruktif.

Kata kunci : Maqassid , khilafah, islamisasi pengetahuan, ijtihad , Arsitektur Islam, Arsitektur Kontemporer

707070 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 Introduction: The Theory of Islamization ponse to their beliefs and Islamic teachings, would Islamization of knowledge is a recent term that serve in this perspective as an historical image, and was developed by contemporary Muslim scholars in a precedent in the process of islamization that took order to bridge the gap between Islam and the place in early times of Islam (Figure 2). various fields of modern thought (Figure 1) 1. Modern disciplines must be critically examined and their Traditional Islamic Knowledge philosophical foundations be recast into the Islamic Symbiosis vision, while the Islamic thought should benefit from Modern Islamic Cultural the recent progress in methodologies, approaches, Knowledge 2 instrumentations, and progress in new sciences .

Reshaped Contemporary Contemporary Knowledge Knowledge

Figure 2. The scheme of islamization of knowledge

Islamization of (Architectural) Knowledge The previous approach applies to a large extend

to the domain of architecture nowadays both in its

theoretical and practical sides. Islam brought a set of values and beliefs, and a way of conduct that shaped the life of communities and individuals in all Figure 1. Great Mosque in Damaskus, influenced by the aspects. However, it didn’t provide a predefined Roman architecture model(s) of architecture that reflects its teachings. This vision is best stated by alAttas as follows: Many buildings, elements, and typologies have been “We do affirm that religion is in harmony with science initially adopted from preIslamic legacies during but this does not mean that religion is in harmony with conquests periods and early settling of Muslim modern scientific methodology and philosophy of communities in different regions. It was only later science. Since there is no science that is free of on that new architectures emerged in a symbiosis value , we must intelligently investigate and study the between these principles, the preIslamic legacies values and judgments that are inherent in, or aligned to, the presuppositions and interpretations of modern and the necessity for progress and evolution. science. We must not indifferently and uncritically Consequently, the revival of Islamic architec accept each new scientific or philosophical theory ture nowadays must not be contented with the without first understanding its implication and testing return to the “Golden age” nor with the renewal of the validity of values that go along with the theory. Islam possesses within itself the source of its claim to the old architecture but through the process of Is truth, and does not need scientific or philosophical lamization; i.e. the wise adoption and use of existing theories to justify such a claim. Moreover, it is not the architectures that is modeled by the Islamic set of concern of Islam to fear scientific discoveries that concepts. This process has a double role; it enables could contradict the validity of its truth.” 3 Muslim societies to bridge the intellectual gap with Modern science has reduced the study of the the West, and to apply the Islamic mechanisms to phenomenal world to an end in itself that brought contemporary legacy in view of reaching a new stage material benefits, but was, however accompanied by of creativity originality. an uncontrollable and insatiable propensity to The hypothesis is better expressed by Bianca, destroy nature itself. Islamic metaphysics is a unified as follows 5: system that discloses the ultimate nature of Reality “It is only by making use of these inner forces that a 4 in positive terms and would thus correct this trend . society will be able to respond to outside challenges, Architecture had always been a field of know to absorb, adapt, and transform the achievements of ledge in which many disciplines such as history, foreign civilizations without loosing its own identity”. economy, sociology, technology and arts, meet, On elaborating on the approach he considers: cross, and interact. Developing “Islamic or Muslim “Establishing a new cultural synthesis through Architecture” in the contemporary context would selective and meaningful use of the “raw material” of thus require a conscious amalgamation of Islamic today’s modern civilisation is indeed the major knowledge with the contemporary thoughts and challenge Islamic societies face today. In importance, this challenge is comparable to the situation during practices. Old Muslim architecture, as an output of the early days of Islam, when the community was con- Muslim societies and individuals practices in res fronted with the wealth of Greco-Roman civilisation

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and had to forge an unmistakably Islamic culture under Early Islamization Process and Muslim its own spiritual premises.” Architecture

Initial buildings in Islam were very simple Is there a Need for Islamizing Architecture? construction of no architectural interest. Ka’ba for instance was a small roofless enclosure, oblong in The necessity for the return to Islam and thus shape, formed by four walls a little lighter than a the need for Islamic architecture could be justified man, built of rough stone laid dry 9,10 . The prophet’s by the cultural crisis that Muslim societies are mosque and his house, erected in 622 AD, were an undergoing. Initially, the degeneration of Islamic enclosure of mud brick that have together about 100 values took place due to the long period of coloni cubits square, surrounded with walls of seven cubits zation. Later on, the Western culture invaded most height and covered with a roof that could be aspects of life in the Muslim societies through touched with hand 11. technology, mode of living, economic and political This primitive architecture seems to be very systems, as well as knowledge, a fact that led to the rooted in the Arab preIslamic culture. The few Arab erosion of the latent Islamic values. dwellers who lived in Mecca and Medina in houses of The quest for Islamic architecture should mud bricks were called ahl-al-madar , while Bedouins therefore be regarded as one side of this multi who lived in the tents made of camel’shair cloth faceted cultural crisis that imposes itself not only to were called ahl-al-wabar 12. Similar state seems how societies, but also to intellectuals, scientists, and ever to have continued during the early period of professionals. One way to revive the Islamic values Islamic civilization. Early towns such as Kufa, Basra, in architecture and grasping the contemporary prog and Fustat witnessed during their foundation stage ress is thus through the process of Islamization. the continuity of this primitive architecture. Despite For architects and professionals, the necessity the planning process and space demarcation of for Islamizing architecture stems from both theore public facilities buildings that were described by tical and practical considerations. In practice, an historians, most of the buildings were initially tents acute needs for “an Islamic physical environment” of reeds that were easily mounted and demounted imposes itself through the demand of individuals and according to circumstances. That was only after de societies for an Islamic environment in the same way cades that they were replaced by stone buildings 13. as Islamic banking, political parties, teaching, and Beyond the chronologic interpretation of this dressing are emerging 6. This quest is however, naive primitivism, philosophic reasons seem to lay behind ly expressed in architecture by individuals and com the tendency of the new religion to simplicity. The munities either through the nostalgic return to old prophet’s daily practices and teachings were, forms and decorations, or through an alteration of according to Creswell, in counter action with any modern outputs 7. architectural ambition that was often used by rulers In academia, Islamization of architecture comes and leaders as a symbol of political power 14 . Promo from the nature of the discipline itself that reflects ting one’s spirit, and adopting Jihad values necessi culture, sociology and moral values of its users 8. tates renunciation of human desires for wealth, Islam, as a comprehensive religion has deep, inclu enjoyment, and comfort, and thus decreases the sive, and lasting effects on daily life of societies and individual’s eagerness to architecture 15. individuals. It dictates their mode of use and shapes Despite its comprehensive character that their environment in all aspects of architecture. covers all aspects of human life, Islam didn’t dictate In education, many curricula on architecture, in or prescribe any physical models to its followers. Muslim as well as Western countries, include courses Buildings such as houses, markets and mosques were on Islamic architecture in response to the anthropo rather developed along with the Islamic civilization logic and cultural studies, the market pressure, and under the pressure of daily needs of users. Many of commercial purposes of the flourishing demand. The these buildings were inherited and adapted from the teaching approach that often relies on historicism, preIslamic societies that became part of the Islamic and the design methodology that ends up with exhi territory after the conquests 16. bitionist forms often stand short of the profound Conquering other countries namely Egypt, Iraq, multidimensions of Islam. In addition, such an Yemen, Persia, Shaam, and India that were the nests educational process continuously faces a serious of early civilizations, was then a critical moment challenge from the everemerging Western schools of where the confrontation between the Islamic ethics thought as well as the alien built environment. and the materiality of those nations took place, and Islamization seems therefore to be the way to thus was the birth date of Muslim architecture 17. A overcome historicism and exhibitionism. Moreover, process of absorption, adaptation, ingestion, and Islamization could also bridge the gap between internalization of the existing architecture took Islamic ethics and contemporary thoughts. place 18. After decades and centuries original forms

emerged as a momentum effect of the process.

727272 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 Damascus, presents an illustrative example of called iwans found their way to the Muslim such a process. Its urban fabric dominated by the architecture repertory 20 . HellenisticRoman architecture had deeply influen The minaret presents a striking example of such ced the Umayyad architecture. The Great Mosque of an adoption process during the early time of Muslim Damascus for instance witnessed a reuse of the architecture. Creswell for instance, found that this building materials, the adoption of the axial organi element has chronologically developed from early zation as well as the ornaments that were found on towers found in Damascus. It was then spread first to site 19 (Figure 3). According to historians, Christian Egypt and then to the other countries that became masons and craftsmen took part in the edification under The Umayyad governance 21 . Its square base process of this mosque that became a reference that is used nowadays reflects this chronology and model for a generation of mosques to come, such as confirms this theory. A similar process with regard to AlQairaouan and Cordoba. the other types of minarets; namely the cylindrical, octagonal, and the helicoidal forms, took place in Central Asia under the dominance of other dynasties. Regardless of its original function, its preexisting form was found to fit best the function of Azan and thus was used as minaret 22. Many other elements

such as the mihrab , the minbar , the maqsura , the

dome, and the arch that responded to functional, technical, and religious requirements had chronolo gically their origins back in the preIslamic legacies. Inward looking house could also serve as another example for the process of Islamization 23. Its spatial organization that preexisted around the Figure 3. Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul, influenced by the Byzantine architecture Mediterranean sea, presented an ideal solution to privacy requirement, domestic life and sociocultural Constantinople, the capital of Byzantine em structure of Muslim communities, in addition to its pire, is another example of such a process. Baths, climatic performance. aqueducts, and public buildings such as AghiaSofia, Opposite to some orientalist interpretations as well as private houses that were integrally that often stemmed from ideological standpoints inherited by Muslims, had deep impact on the consider these historical facts as a proof of a plagia development of the Ottoman architecture during the rism from earlier civilizations. Rather, this process three centuries of the empire. The huge central should be considered as a reflection of the flexibi dome standing on the large span columns presented lity of the Islamic doctrine and its responsiveness to an ideal concept that liberates the prayer room and human diversity and universal plurality. Existing thus turned into a historical prototype that spread styles, building technologies, spatial organizations all over the Ottoman territory (Figure 4). and historical precedents have been amalgamated through the process of Islamisation and gave to Muslim architecture its variety, and to Islamic architecture its essence 24.

The Matrix of Islamization

The theory considers that the present body of contemporary knowledge was mostly developed by the Western scholars and institution. It is deeply affected by the Western secular approach and philosophy and consequently, clashes with the Figure 4. The public building Aghia-Sofia as well as Islamic ethics and beliefs. This clash manifests itself private house that were integrally inherited by Muslims most in the summit of the knowledge pyramid in which humanities, social sciences, and philosophy Persia and Iraq, provided another substance to are ranked, but shows less evidence in other the Islamization process. The typology of Sassanid experimental disciplines, such as biology and architecture, has deeply marked the Muslim archi engineering. Filtering and recasting this knowledge tecture of the region. Major elements such as in accordance to the Islamic vision is therefore covered markets bazaars , castles, used later on by necessary prior to any development project for the Abbasids, as well as small elements such as niches Islamic revival and search for progress.

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Islamization of contemporary knowledge is have done so explicitly. Surely no instruction have believed to have a double effect. On one side it will been given as to the size of rooms or height of doors. have a salvation effect on the contemporary know Stewardship of the earth is the starting point ledge with regards to its materialist and fragmental for the search for a definition of the Muslim tendency that would have destructive effects on approach to the environment based upon God’s humanity and the universe. On the other side, it will intended role for men and women 26. The exercise of inject approaches, instruments, and findings of the stewardship involves two premises. First, the natural new sciences in the body of the traditional Islamic resources of this world must be developed so that knowledge for the sake of its updating and renewal. society may benefit from the rewards of this Below are the major paradigms that form the development (neither minimalist nor exploitationist Islamization matrix (Table 1). approaches are valid). Second, a society capable of working this earth must be organized in a just, Tabel 1. Evaluating: A-Accepting, B-Re-conducting, C- mutually supportive and balanced manner. Conditioning, D-Rejecting There is an order in the cosmos and in this 27 Vicege- Islamic Legal Cus- Inno- world that must be respected . This lead to the Type of rency Citi- Frame- toms vation need for environmental protection, including respect architec- Khila- zenry work Urf Ijti- for living creatures of all types. ture fa Umma Shari- had aa Regarding muamalat or interpersonal relations,

Regionalism the organization of the society would have the A vernacular following broad features: freedom, the search for knowledge and truth, action and effort, justice, the Sustainabi lity, Green A public interest, and the concern for the poor and the

Movement weak 28. Contemplative meditation is looked upon as Modernism a means of self renewal in order to undertake better & Neo Modernism tasks in the future not as an end to itself. Individual behaviour is based on moderation Decon and humility 29. These attributes seem to be in sharp struction, C contrast to much of the ostentatious consumption and selfglorification that are reflected in some of Minimalism the buildings constructed by those exulted in the

newfound wealth. High Tech A Quran describes the mission of human on earth as vicegerency to Allah. This mission reflects the Modernism C belief in the Unity of Creator (tawheed ) and the sub mission to His order. In practice, it consists of ma Folklor, king culture and civilization on earth through its co Popular, 30,31 A lonizing according to the divine commandments . Participa tive Opposite to the metaphysics that derive from other religions, the unity of the Creator in Islam Post Modern, implies a comprehensive vision to the cosmos and an B Historic action framework on earth. This vision could be Revival summed up in the three aspects as follows: (Source: Result of analysis) a. The unity of universe, a global image on the cosmos comes out of the puzzling elements such The principle of Vicegerency (al-Khilafah) as men, animals, plantations, and other physical In his article “Faith, Development and the Built entities, and apparently unrelated phenomena Environment”, Serageldin considers that an alterna such as water and fire, solids and liquids, small tive to the rejectionist mode of thinking is grounded and large bodies, good and evils. This unity is in the original sources of Islamic doctrine25. There is also reflected in the cosmic order that consists 32 a subtle danger in initiating the search for a Muslim of the laws of nature . Without this theoretical identity solely in terms of sources. It may lead to a framework, the universe looks fragmented and bending of sources texts, ignoring the context, to mysterious, and man feels that he is surrounded provide literal guidelines for contemporary action with loss and chaos, an image that draws itself 33 that fit a particular viewpoint. If God desired to give from the present secularism . people specific instructions on how to build struc b. The unity of humanity, in its history, presence, tures in the twentieth centuries, he could certainly and destiny. The Khilafa concept connotes the .

747474 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 mission of all mankind on earth, and doesn’t con Neighborhoods, social aids, humbleness and indivi cern Muslims only 34. In Islamic metaphysics, the dual freedoms are principles that constitutes the human life on earth is bound within the two body of the paradigm of the Umma . major events; the starting of the creation from a Nowadays, the sociocultural role of architec same offspring and origin; and the unknown ture reflects to a large extent the Western ideology. future that will endup with the inevitable End. It channels class divergence, competitiveness, mate The cosmos is thus shared by all nations and riality, profitmaking, exotics, desires, and absolute societies regardless of their gender, race, ethni freedom. In the Islamic context it represents to a city and religion 35 . Muslim architect a Godgiven talent that is outlined c. The unity of knowledge, that implies the conver by the Islamic ethics, and to the user a wealth to be gence and interaction of all fields and branches consumed reasonably, and to be regulated by the of sciences and disciplines, despite their multipli sociocultural considerations such as cohesion, city, to one central truth. This truth is the humbleness, and reasonable use. Both its artistic and essence of existence that reflects the summit of functional sides are thus ruled by the moral, the pyramidlike form of human knowledge and cultural, social, and environmental exigencies of the that transcends its branches. According to Nasr 36 Islamic citizenry. and alAttas 37 ; the multiple forms of nature are reflections of the Unity which is both the origin and the end of the order of multiplicity 38. The Shariaa and its Supreme Ends Achievements in different fields of sciences are (al-Maqassid ) thus considered as an uncovering process of Al-Shariaa theory is based on a matrix of Ends natural laws, sunan , and are therefore a common and priorities that summarizes the essence of the wealth of mankind. In engineering for instance, Islamic doctrine. It presents to jurists and scholars a the laws that rule design of any kind are the laws framework that structures the Islamic thought and of nature that all boil down to the fundamental reasoning process though which human actions are principle of unity that pervades all creation 39. evaluated and judged. Religion in its broader term covers all aspects of human life and aims to protect One of the recent interpretation of this concept its essence. is that of Hussain Nasr 40 . Khalifa concept is The supreme Ends that constitute the body of fundamentally compatible with ideals of the ecology Shariaa that were established by early scholars are and peace movements that aims at protecting five; the Religion, the Human Life, the Reason, the environment from unwise use. In its Quranic sense it Procreation, and the Wealth and Property. Recent connotes rational use of resources and energy, studies concluded that some Ends that are at present prevention of harm, and protection of human spe of crucial importance were not considered in this cies. A unity amongst the faiths by concentrating on matrix although they were clearly stated in the their common respect for life i.e. the Earth's bio Islamic doctrine. For instance, Freedom and Earth in sphere, though a “global ethic” is therefore needed. their different senses and hierarchic meanings, are Precedents in the built environment 41 , building Ends that should be added to the previous matrix 45 . experiments 42 and architectural thoughts 43 could in Besides its legal utility that mostly responds to its rough form be considered as a form of ‘ Imarat jurists and scholars reasoning, this matrix also serves al-ardh ’, and a human experience that instantly to detect, establish, and rank the human needs such aspires to a better environment and wellbeing. as housing, education, food, and dressing. In the

case of a housing shortage for instance, the provision The Concept of Islamic Citizenry ( Umma ) of shelter should pass before any other considera tions of harmony and aesthetics that often charac Islam unifies Muslim societies under one cover terize present housing policies. that is the Islamic community, Umma . This concept An architectural project for a night club and/or represents a social order that regulates the conduct a bar in the Muslim community, even if it is inspired of social groups as well as individuals within the from local architecture, approved by a Muslim ruler large entity and with regards the other nonMuslim and used by Muslim individuals, is thus considered nations. Regardless of its political dimension, it illegal as it clashes with the supreme Ends, mainly prescribes a wellorganized social life that reflects the moral values that are parts of both the Religion the collective conduct of Muslim individuals and and the Procreation Ends. It is not, as is considered groups in pair with Islamic commandments 44 . At a in the West, part of the sphere of individuals’ smaller scale, the concept of Umma on recognizing freedom. equality among the ethnic groups that constitutes it, Similar classifying is also made within each and the individuals, provides rules and norms that End. Three levels could be identified in accordance regulate their social conduct and interrelationships. of importance; the Utility, the Necessity, and the

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Luxury and Pleasure. This matrix could also be of could open new perspectives on the origin of use for professionals in assessing actions in the built elements such as the minaret, the courtyard, and environment and establishing urban policies. In a the different types of windows, as well as the typo mosque for instance, the construction of a minaret is morphology development of urban fabrics and cities considered as a luxurious elements compared with in the Muslim territories. Current practices in the prayer space. Also, public authorities would have housing and space use socially adopted by contem the right of acting on private properties through poraneous Muslim communities from other cultures, compulsory purchase for broadening a narrow road or developed out of the clash with modernity, could for circulation purposes, but could not do so for also be a fertile subject to these studies 50 . leisure purposes such as landscape and entertain According to Rapoport 51 , a cumulative process ment spaces. of habits and traditions would have taken place over successive civilizations that turned over time into precedents. All people have taken from their Urf Principle precedents in all environments, in all cultures and in The term in its literature meaning could be all periods. translated to: the set of traditions, customs, habits and practices established in a given society. Jurists of Sharia’ considered it as one of the pillars of Ijtihad Principle Islamic law and a major source of legislation in the It is a legal term that connotes the reasoning 46 absence of direct texts . Its origin goes back to that achieves a juridical opinion or legal decision in 47 many Quranic verses and prophets’ practices . A the absence of direct and clear fundamental texts. condition however for urf to be considered as a It also means the exercising of one’s mental effort source of rightful actions is that it should not clash “Juhd ” with regards an unprecedented event or with the principles, teachings, and guidelines of issue to achieve the optimum opinion that matches Islamic doctrine. Otherwise, it is considered as an with the Islamic principles. Only knowledgeable unlawful custom; Urf Fassid . In practice, urf persons and scholars are thus permitted to exercise consists of accepting all existing customs, traditions, ijtihad . and prevailing habits in a given area as far as they While innovation, bida’a , in the religious sense don’t clash with the essence of religion. such as in prayer, fasting, and hajj is strictly 48 AlShatibi defining it as habits ; awai’d , prohibited, it is widely accepted and recommended classified it into two types, (a) the universal habits in the other domains of life, such as political that apply to all times, locations, and cases, and (b) systems, education, and daily practices. Inventions, the local ones that differ in accordance to regions, innovations, and adoption of alternatives in archi times and cases. Precedents in transactions, wording tecture and in other fields of knowledge and prac in contracts, dressing, dwelling, conducts in a tices could thus be considered as a form of ijtihad community are of the latter type. that aspires to improve the conditions of life. Urf principle could be regarded as a legal One of the most obvious fields of ijtihad in framework that allowed local cultures and identities; Islamic civilization in relation to arts and architec in all their aspects such dressing, crafts, languages ture was geometry that was viewed as an important and conducts in different Muslim communities to field of knowledge and that thus, was placed at the survive, develop and cohabit with each other and same level as mathematics, medicine and astrono consequently, form the mosaiclike pattern of my. Important developments in the fields of geome Islamic civilization. In geopolitical terms, it played try resulted from the works of Umar alKhayam, al a double role; maintaining the unity at a small scale; Buzajani, alKhawarismi and Ibn alHatham in res i.e. within the social groups within which nonMuslim ponse to land surveying, astronomy, subdivision law communities, and creating diversity with other i.e. mawarith , and contemplation that goes beyond entities at the largest scale. Its broad and timeless the material world. Manuals were written to explain character provides an important margin of flexibility basic geometric principles and their applications in over time, to Muslim individuals and groups in deve these fields 52 . loping, importing and/or adopting new customs that Islamic decorative designs were interpreted as reflect emerging practices and lifestyles. In other a visual manifestation of the Islamic philosophy. A terms, it is the magic mechanism through which circle for instance is considered as a symbol of Islamic religion reaches balance between universa tawheed , unity of God. Others considered arabesque lity and regionalism, a balance that is still under and Islamic pattern as a “special state of mind”. 49 search in the modern ideologies and theories . Such interpretations were criticized as lacking Its implications on building practices, architec methodological rigour and any contextual evidence. ture and city making is a fresh field of study that .....

767676 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 Application to Contemporary Architecture universality in the Islamic thought. Opposite to the Sections below will focus on the analysis of the “extreme” regionalism, a global set of values and most prevailing thought in contemporary architec basic needs for instance could come up in this ture in the light of the principles stated above. regards. In history, many styles and architectural Although most of these thoughts are tightly linked to elements, have been spread over the vast territory the historical evolution of Western societies and thus of Islam during the great dynasties such as Umayyad, derive their essence from the dynamics of Western Abbassid, and Ottoman due to the cultural inter knowledge, it is believed that their confrontation actions between diverse regions. However, the with the Islamic reasoning could be of interest. hegemony of a Supreme Culture as it is happening Points of conflict and concord would ease the pro now under globalization may led to similar conse cess of Islamization of these thoughts as described quences as modernism. earlier. Contemporary movements in architecture are presented in a historical sequence and then discussed in the light of the Islamic principles 53 . Post-Modern Movement: Return to Urf and Semiotics As a rule in the emergence of architectural Modern Architecture: Universality and trends in the West, each movement seeks to Rupture with the Past overcome the mistakes of the other traditions and 54 Modern Architecture is considered as a starting schools . Postmodernism is an overall concept point in the history of contemporary architecture. covering several approaches to architecture which 55 Pioneers of this movement have established a have evolved in reaction to modernism . In reaction movement that marked the built environment of our to the mechanization of architecture, it introduced present cities over the world as well as the teaching the science of meaning of forms, considering that and profession of architecture to nowadays. architecture is a language perceived through codes. One of the basics of modern architecture is its Historicism, symbolism, and user participation were claiming of universality. The forced unification and thus reintroduced in the design process as the only standardization of human needs, the reliance on the way to regenerate meanings, sense of place, and 56 industry and technology in responding to these needs identity . and the uprooted discourse made of its thought an In the light of Islamic thought, postmodernism easy target to critics that overwhelmed its partial could be considered as a repositioning of the ex success in the construction technology, building pro treme novelty and the reconsidering of the social cess, and the mechanical innovative solutions. and cultural reality, that are part of the theory of Modernism also expressed the blind belief in Urf . The return to the forces of traditions and the Man as the master of his destiny. Human beings customs in architecture is in fact widely adopted by can control his life and the cosmos through his mind, architects in the Muslim world. However, such an the source of sciences and technology. God has approach under the pressure of the strong nostalgia dead. The zealous belief in the architects’ talent has that characterizes Muslim communities, under the proven its limitation through its effects on the effect of the glorious past, postmodernism often physical environment, society, and individuals. leads to mimetic. In the Gulf for instance, wind Modernization has also been rejected for neg catchers are often added to buildings in the pre lecting selfworth, identity, and animistic life on sence of powerful airconditioning giving the flavour promoting massproduction, consumerism, and de of a local architecture regardless of the real contextualisation. On the community level, the meaning of those elements. belief in social engineering was found to be a mere An anthropologic approach and deep under utopia. standing of the essence of traditional elements, Such critics could be of importance to the spatial organizations and typologies could thus coun modern Islamic culture that shares the universal teract the formalist tendency in postmodernism. scene in most of the large scale experiences such as Other Islamic principles could serve for questioning housing, economy, education, etc. Universality for the utility for the reuse of legacies. instance is also claimed in the Islamic thought. Most values such as privacy and neighbourhood and beliefs are believed in Islam to be timeless and worldwide. Neo-Classicism: The Way to Reconsidering However, their consideration in traditional architec History ture has been adapted to diversity as requested by This movement that rose in reaction to moder local conditions, a fact that created a balance bet nism highlights the return to the past practices, ween universality and regionalism. A review of this urban history and architectural precedents as a concept in the light of the modern experience might source of inspiration. Neoclassicism stresses the therefore help Muslim scholars assess the scope of virtues of harmony, purity, calm, reason and wisdom

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 ||| 777777 that characterized the old preindustrial societies57. then replace the artificial order and art often According to Sir John Summerson value is in deriving provided by the architect to the user. theory from history chronologically as the history of In Islamic philosophy, as it is also in Christia ideas 58. According to the classicist thought, early nity, minimalism could be interpreted through the architectural order that was developed in old time is analysis of the two concepts; Zuhud (asceticism, timeless. It reflects the laws of nature. A reliance on renunciation) and taammul (contemplation, medita historical determinism to show the relevance of the tion), that both found their practice through Sufism. so called lessons of history is thus necessary 59. In The first concept requires a withdrawal from the other words, the value of the history is what it material world and a minimum existence in the sake teaches us about the future 60 . of spiritual transcendence 67. It is believed that the Initially, Neoclassicism was limited to the high physical environment, the surrounding, and the style of GrecoRoman legacy that was judged as an routine of the daily life often screen the mind from invaluable heritage that modernism neglected. It reaching higher level of abstraction. Architecture as then enlarged its scope to vernacular and pre part of the material world, should have thus mini industrial legacies. mum consideration in the Muslim mind and concerns. Inference from history and precedent facts as a Maximizing comfort, consumption, and joy goes in source of knowledge that would serve the present opposite direction to this thought 68. and guide to a better conduct could be easily proved Minimalism in Muslim thought might also be in Islamic thought 61 . Backthinking tadabbur and reflected in the house of the Prophet (pbuh), his deduction i’tibar are often stated in the Quran as a mosque in Medina as well as the form of Ka’ba 69, a source of wisdom. Generalization could be made fact that was considered by Creswell as a “des from precedent experiences 62 . interest” in architecture. On designing a mosque for Architecture in this sense is the trace of instance, it is recommended that its interior should previous nations on earth that should be considered be left without decorations and aesthetics, as this as a raw material for this “recurring thought” and latter would have an adverse effect on contem inference. Beyond the series of events that consti plation and reverence, khushuu’ , that is the essence tutes the body of history, a hidden cycle that is of prayer 70 . Fully decorated mosques were con formed of rules of nature, geographic conditions and sidered as a sign of degradation of faith and attach social practices governs these events 63 . ment to futilities. As a design approach, major imperial styles This simplicity and minimalism spirit seems also such as Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, or Ottoman to have been the essence of the nomadic life during could for instance serve as a body of historical data the early time of Islamic civilization. The tent was that precede an architectural project, in view of the minimum shelter that preceded most early cities applying Neoclassicism to Islamic architecture. such as Kufa, Basra, and Fustat 71 . It was then However, such an approach, and similarly to post followed in most of houses in old cities such as in modernism, often leads to the recycling of old form Ghardaia, Sudus, and desert settlements. Building regardless of their essence, usefulness, and thus materials and construction elements are generally turns into a mere fashion. the only aspects of decoration. Rooms are multi purpose spaces that have little and very light furniture. This was the tradition in most houses in Minimalism: A way to Renunciation and the Islamic world before the advent of modernity Contemplation? and industrialization that brought heavy and fixed This movement stems from the reaction of furniture. modern architects to the school of Beaux Arts in Openness on the sky would also be considered which buildings were overcharged with materials, in this regards as a form of minimalism that induce details, and decorations. It seeks to achieve a contemplation. All buildings, such as houses and balance between architecture and nature through mosques were designed with courtyards at the simplicity of form, surface, and detail 64 . In a step centre to provide users with a portion of sky. Most beyond simplicity, Tadao Ando for instance focuses often, these courtyards served as a piece of on nature itself that is very troubled today. landscape that gathers natural elements such as Abstraction is an aesthetic based on clarity of logic light, water, plantations and soil. Such a typology and transparency of concept, while representation is and spatial organization would obviously stimulate concerned with all historical, cultural, climatic, contemplation more than high rise building that topographical, urban, and living conditions 65. Archi offer a horizontal view on street and neighbours. tecture in other words should become the simple However, minimalism as practiced under secu black screen that forces people to look elsewhere lar thought, would lead to a “naked” architecture and give chance to contemplation 66. Light, water, that disregards privacy and domestic life, and spoils earth, vegetation, landscape, and cosmos should energy. Farnsworth house, designed by Mies Van der

787878 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 Rohe is for instance clearly in contrast with doctrine as well as the new scientific achievements community values of human being let alone the and discoveries. moral values of Islam. Glass boxes often exhibits In urban analysis, deconstruction also provides high technological performance that often disregards a recurrent approach to the sediments of architec the heavy running costs of energy consumption and tural forms and urban fabrics that cumulated over costly maintenance. history. Only by delayering, that is deconstructing, the urban forms that their generation process could be understood. Computer systems, chaos and fractal Deconstruction Movement: The Controversial theory could help to a large extent in the decon Approach struction of the complex forms and geometries of old Deconstruction is in a sense a continuity of urban fabrics. rupture with the past that the modern philosophy Approaching architecture through deconstruc promoted. However, in contrast to the over tion theory may also mean allowing complexity in simplicity of modernism, deconstruction movement the process of design that stems from contradictory promotes complexity, that too often connotes interests and attitudes of users needs, wishes irrationality and destruction 72 . aspirations as well as the conditions of sites and Regardless of the simplistic game of fragmen technical requirements. Opposite to the pure game ted forms and irrational geometry, deconstruction of ideal forms and abstract order of the stillstanding movement in literature has however, the merit of modern approach, deconstruction changes the design promoting, or at least exploiting, the new sciences paradigm to complexity that reflects the real world of complexity 73 . The recent theory of chaos and as it is, not as it is thought. Deconstruction theory fractals that puts an end to the scientific deter may for instance provide means to understand the minism, causal linearity, order, Cartesian geometry, apparent contradiction between the pure geometry and mathematical rationality, shifted the Western of patterns and the straight path philosophy 79 , and spirit to the humbleness of incertitude 74 . irregularity that is often considered as chaos and Atheism that often refuted metaphysics and disorder and that characterize the old urban fabrics divinity and that had intrinsically accompanied of Islamic cities. The straight line and the perfect modern knowledge had thus been deeply shaken. Islamic patterns are the output of the pure thought According to Prigogine, “It would have been better and the abstract forms of geometry, whereas the to remain attached to the belief in (God) rather than irregular geometry of urban fabrics represents the being slaves to the fate of physics,”75 . clash of these pure geometry with the constraints of In social sciences and politics, deconstruction the site, topography, and preferred directions with philosophy explores freedom and anomalies to regards to winds, sunlight, and Qibla direction. undermine and throw into doubt those systems of Complexity in Muslim architecture and cities would power, authority and knowledge privileged by rea thus be better understood as a metamorphosis of the son, science, and tradition 76. pure with impure forms, Cartesian with fractal geo In Islamic thought, human knowledge is always metry, abstraction and reality 80 . considered as partial and relative in comparison to the absolute reality that only God possesses it. On observing the laws of nature, the Quran challenges High-Tech: Innovation and Search for Highest the human mind through many verses 77,78 . However, Performance throwing confusion in the values, texts, and exis Hightech reflects the aspiration of the human tence might be rejected due to its destroying effect mind for perfection though technology and conti on culture, beliefs, dogmas, most of which are nuous innovation. Hightech pioneers believe that in considered revelation and beyond the scope of mind; pushing the technology to its extends problems Ghaib . facing humanbeing will find their solutions within Destroying logocentrism promoted by semio the continuous problemsolving process. Technology tics, the essence of postmodernism, could be a is in other words, the paradigm of our present departure point to a brainstorming approach on knowledge and its End, and is thus the only way to reviewing traditions and customs. Shaking settled remedy the human malaises and improve the quality beliefs, theories, and traditions as far as these are of the built environment and life. Life cycle might not revealed constants would affect their be represented in the light of this theory as a permanence and thus may lead to innovation, creati continuous jump in the unknown future that will vity, and dynamics. A multiple interpretation of a depend on the innovation and discoveries that same text for instance may generate new ideas and human mind achieve under the pressure of crises and unprecedented explanations. Verses of the Quran aspirations. could in this case be subjected to continuous fresh Despite the unprecedented progress in techno interpretations within the framework of the Islamic logy and its promising potential to solve problems in

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 ||| 797979 various fields, it cannot embrace all aspects of Regionalism and Neo-vernacular: The Sense humanity and complexity of life. Achievements since of Place the industrial revolution have shown that techno Regionalism considers societal specificities, logy, although its aspiration for performance and climate, geography, and morphological features, as a rationality, and it recent claims of smartness, is source of inspiration. Culture and social practices often harmful to ecosystem. Reliance on hightech give a “sense of place” to particular locations and a should thus not be absolute. A place should be made “character” to an environment 86 . to other considerations such as social wisdom, Initially, regionalism played an important role religion, and nature. in facing westernization that was imposed by In Islamic thought, hightech might be colonialism first and then by secular ideologies that considered as a branch of ijtihad that aspires to were imposed by most governments. Bridging the achieve maximization of human reasoning within the gap of underdevelopment was thought to happen 81 framework of Islamic doctrine . Biomorphism, bio only through the destroying of the identity of local technology, megastructure, and metabolism, reflect societies. Only through this theory that the return to a level of maturity of the human mind, a stage of past and local forms was believed to bring remedy to progress, an interaction between laws of nature and the cultural rupture imposed by colonization, man, and a better understanding of laws of nature. modernization, and universalism in most of the 82 On describing this process, Warren states that in colonized countries 87 . both the natural and manmade worlds, we Reviving the local architecture, although it is occasionally encounter wonderful forms, mecha sometimes nostalgic, might be part of the cultural nisms, and assembly techniques that we quickly policy that aims at healing the “deformed” identity recognize as essential or quintessential solutions. of local societies and in describing remedy to the Human designers invented some of these great little stillexisting and heavy colonial legacy. ideas, but most have evolved through natural Regionalism reflects also the bottomup 83 process, particularly biology . approach that contests the exogenous models of In architecture, hightech despite its uprooted development. Deep cultural structures, indigenous character, could help in freeing the architect’s mind materials and local knowhow and technology, from his attachment to past forms and precedent present together an alternative in most domains of construction systems that are sometimes against the development and constitutes a smooth passage forces of change and innovation. Creating large towards progress for lessdeveloped societies 88. spaces and freeing built space from columns, could Striking experiences in this regards are that of be considered as an ideal requirement that could Hassan Fathy in Egypt, Charles Correa in India, and not be achieved in the past due to gravity forces and Geoffry Bawa in SriLanka 89. limits of technology. In mosques for instance, the Suha Ozkan 90 considers that “vernacularism” is columns are, according to Prophet’s recommen different from “modern regionalism”. The first dations, undesired elements that hinder full use of refers to architecture that evolved over time in any 84 prayer space . Rows are inevitably cutoff, and region and that is therefore limited to existing preaches of Friday prayer and daily speeches are building types and scales, whereas modern regiona disturbed as many attendees could not see the lism refers to a contemporary interpretation of local speaker. Istanbul mosques, designed by Sinan, give architectures that is not limited by scale, building in this regards, a best example of its time regarding types or technology 82 . Thus regionalism is not against response to this criterion. The technique of the large modernism but is rather against internationalism. domes was adapted and developed from the existing Neoregionalism, and critical regionalism thus Byzantine architecture. The use of loudspeakers in bridges the gap between new technology and local calling for prayer also questions the necessity of the culture 91 . minarets beyond their symbolic role. Hightech could Regionalism in Islamic thought could be, to a help envisaging new ways to respond to this large extent, assimilated to the concept of urf pre functional requirement. Flexibility in the furniture viously described. The recognition of societal specifi that increase space use could also be achieved by cities is enshrined in the work of Muslim jurists. Al hightech for the design of mobile Mihrab, furniture Shafei for instance was known to have ruled diffe for shoes, rational use of water in ablution, etc. The rently when in Iraq and when he resided in Egypt 92 . use of modern material and developed construction Besim H also elaborated in his research on the techniques is a case in point. Nothing in Muslim influence of urf on architecture, and its deep impact theory precludes the use of the latest construction on the built environment 93 . methods and modern design in the building of However regionalism might turn into an autarky 85 mosques and other buildings . The computerbased that limits social and cultural forces of local socie covering of courtyard in the Prophet’s mosque in ties in facing the everspreading effects of globali Medina could be an example in this sense. zation. A symbiosis between universality of and

808080 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 regionalism in the light of Islamic thought, would of taskheer for instance reflects the raison of all thus present a way of materializing the famous anti creatures for the sake of Man, and thus justifies its globalization slogan; “thinking globally and acting utilitarian use. locally”. Current recommendations for sustainable archi tecture goes therefore perfectly in pair with the recommendations of Islamic architecture. Old prac Sustainability, Green Movement and Ihsan tices in Muslim architecture reflect these recommen Thought dations over history and through the wide territory Ecological, green and sustainable architecture of Islam. Most buildings and spaces in old Muslim are all terms that name the environmental sensibi cities responded to climatic conditions such as the lity that had been growing since the last three use of courtyards, windcatchers, massive adobe decades. Starting from the simple quest for energy walls for its timelag effect against heat, and saving, the movement developed into more perva reflected social values such as neighborhood sense, sive concerns such as social breakdown, economic humbleness, rational use of space and energy. deficiency, resources depletion and environmental degradation. In philosophical terms, sustainability could be Folklore, Popular, Participative Approach and considered as a major critique to the modern Freedom Theory civilization that was promoted and tailored by the One of the major deficiencies of modernity is Western thought, through its major paradigms; its failure in what was believed as social engineering humanism, industrialization, and modernism. On and bureaucracy that accompanied industrial deve considering nature as a challenging entity and lopment 97 . The emergence of squatter settlements searching for maximization of benefits and comfort, and informal sector despite the strong commitment many aspects of the ecological system and social of governments and professionals, and huge financial order were affected. Despites its merits, technology resources allocated to face the massive needs for is becoming more and more the backbone of our housing used in these policies, opened large debate being, but is paradoxically destroying the entire on the capabilities of the technology and the prog human civilization and its recipient that is Earth. ressive ideology to solve problems of humanity 98. The optimistic definition of the United Nations to On the ground, the share of the built environ sustainability as being: “those paths of social, eco ment controlled from professionals and governments nomic and political progress that meet the needs of has never been more than 5% on the face of earth. the present without compromising the ability of fu So it has never been consciously designed 99. A similar ture generations to meet their own needs,” 94 clearly failure could also be seen in the quality of the living reflects this concern and announces its universality. environments 100 . The undeniable success in commu In the present Islamic literature, sustainability nity spirit and popular initiative in the squatter is at its infant stage due to the technological settlements, the creative talents of layman in backwardness, despite the everincreasing and building and organizing his home and achieving self undesirable effects of industrialization that embra satisfaction away from authorities and professionals ced all countries. However, fundamental sources of presented a new alternative in coping with human the Islamic doctrine abound with glimpses on the needs 101. environmental issues. Preserving water during ablu Many concepts such as selfhelp, popular, tion, refraining from urinating and discharging in participative, democratic, anarchist, and neoverna shaded areas where people take rest, refraining cular that Jenks named selftraditionalists, have thus from squatting land from public realm, renouncing emerged together as a set of alternatives to the from cutting trees even in case of war, are examples technocratic dominating philosophy 102 . The backbone of such recommendations 95 . idea of this trend is that the environment, people Colonizing earth, ‘ Imarat al-Ardh , in the Is and nature, always act as selfregulating systems, lamic sense, reflects the practical side of the khilafa with endogenous rules governing them. concept, and thus insures harmony with the laws of Even within the industrial context, selftradi nature. Nasr considers in this regard, that ecological tion approach has the advantage of personalizing movement goes perfectly in pair with the Islamic massproduced items, such as houses. Incorporating concept of khilafa 96 . Misuse of natural resources is changes often throws up diverse and rich juxta considered as a major contravention to Islamic positions that was denied by the formal design. At ethics. the management level, participation in the industrial However, intensive use of environmental re context permits the combination of freedom needed sources for the sake of development, is also recom by users and control exercised by authorities. mended in Islam and is thus contrary to the anti In Muslim cities and in all preindustrial and development theories of sustainability. The concept prebureaucratic societies, people’s participation

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 ||| 818181 and their freedom in building and organizing their 2 A. AbuSulayman. 1989. “Orientation Guidelines environment has always been the tradition. In for the International Conference on Islami Islamic thought this tradition reflects the concept of zation of Knowledge” in Towards Islamization freedom and autonomy that Shariaa defended under of Disciplines Series N 6. Herndon Virginia: The the principle of private legal power, wilaya khas- International Institute of Islamic Thought. p.13 L. Stenberg. 1996. The Islamization of Science: sa 103 . Four Muslim Positions Developing an Islamic A critical balance between the authority, the Modernity . Lund: Lund Studies in History of professionals, and the community should therefore Religions be set and roles should be redefined for the built 3 Syed M. Naquib AlAttas. 1995. Prolegomena to environment to bring back its harmony and balance. the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of Islam. Kuala Lumpur: The International Conclusion Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization Islamization of knowledge is a concept that (ISTAC). p.38 4 Syed M. Naquib AlAttas. 1978. Islam and bridges the gap between the Islamic thought that is Secularism , 2nd edition. Kuala Lumpur: The too often confined in its traditional form and the International Institute of Islamic Thought and contemporary Western knowledge. Despite the me Civilization (ISTAC). rits and benefits of this latter, it is believed that it is 5 Stefano Bianca. 1981. “Islam and Urban mostly based on secular principles and has disastrous Development”, in The International Institute of effects that should be corrected and redirected Islamic Thought (IIIT) Towards Islamization of through the Islamic knowledge. Disciplines p. 497504, Herndon, USA: Architecture is one of the major domains of this International Islamic Publishing House knowledge where most of values and sciences meet 6 Islam at present, is the fastest growing and thus reflects such a clash. The need for its monotheistic religion and consequently more institutions and premises such as mosques and Islamization emerges on one side from the compre schools are being established by/for the hensiveness of the Islamic religion and, on the other, followers than are in any other faith. Many from the growing quest for identity from Muslim stores, old churches and houses in western societies and individuals. countries such as in France and U.K. were In history, a similar process of Islamization took purchased by Muslim associations and place during the early time of Islam where pre transformed into Qur’anic schools, prayer halls Islamic civilizations were absorbed and gave birth to and Islamic centres. the presently known Muslim architecture(s). It was 7 M. Frishman. 1994. “Islam and the Form of the only after decades and centuries of adoption, use Mosque”, in M. Frishman & Hasan Uddin Khan and reuse of preexisting architectures that original (ed.). The Mosque; history, architectural development and regional diversity. London: output took place. Hudson & Thames. p.1742 Despite the high degree of diversity that 8 Amos Rapoport. 1969. House, Form and characterizes these outputs, due to the difference in Culture . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: preIslamic legacies, the evolution processes and the PrenticeHall geographic conditions, common principles that de Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in rive from the Islamic doctrine stand behind these Environmental Design . NY & London: Plenum outputs and thus constitutes their common platform. Press Islamization of architecture is founded on 9 Despite the permanent link of Arabs with the mechanisms that stem from the essence of the great civilizations in Yemen and Shaam, these Islamic thought and that apply to many other discip most sacred buildings were kept simple in a way to stress the new raising values that lines. Contemporary architecture(s) provide a wealth overpass materiality. of human knowledge that should also be subjected 10 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early to Islamization, a critical process of filtering and Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American retheorizing that relies on these mechanisms. Many University in Cairo Press. p. 3 movements such as sustainable and participative 11 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early trends could for instance be fully adopted while Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American others such as deconstruction and minimalism could University in Cairo Press. p. 45 be remodeled according to the Islamic ethics. M. Frishman. 1994. “Islam and the Form of the Mosque”, in M. Frishman & Hasan Uddin Khan (ed.). The Mosque; history, architectural Notes and References develop-ment and regional diversity. London: Hudson & Thames. p.1742. 1 It was initially used by AlAttas (1978, “Islam 12 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early and Secularism”) and AlFaruqi (1982, “The Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American Malaise of the Ummah ”). University in Cairo Press. p. 3

828282 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 13 M. BenHamouche. 2004. “From Kufa to Blida Arabic, Imara and/or handassa mi’mariyya , Modelling Muslim New Towns Experience”. derives. However, the meaning of term Journal of King Saud University Vol. 17, Arch. nowadays has been deeply altered due to its & Planning , p. 2542, Riyadh: KSU (mis)use for connoting colonialism, isti’imar . 14 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early 31 International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American 1995. Islamization of Knowledge, General University in Cairo Press. p. 4 Principles and Work Plan . Herndon Virginia. p. 15 Ibn Saad records that the prophet said: “The 43 most unprofitable thing that eaten up the 32 International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). wealth of a Believer is building.” Tabakat Ibn 1995. Islamization of Knowledge, General Saad I2, p. 181, II. 78, also VIII p. 120 II 78. Principles and Work Plan . Herndon Virginia. p. Quoted by Creswell KAC. 1989. p.4. 36 16 This phenomenon was misinterpreted by many 33 A. alNajjar. 1997. “AlEyman wa alUmran”, in orientalists for being a sort of plagiarism. Islamiyyat al-Maarifah 8-(2) . p.3984 17 Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for N. Salingaros. 2004. Anti-Architecture and Islamic Societies Today James Steel ed. London . Deconstruction. Solingen: UMBAUVerlag. p. 94 London: Academy Editions. p. 15 34 “Behold, your Lord said to the angels, “I will 18 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early create a vicegerent on Earth” (Quran 01:31). Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American “O’ people, We have created you (all) of a University in Cairo Press. p. 67 single pair, a male and female, and We have C. Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for Islamic constituted you into tribes and nations that you Societies Today James Steel ed. London . may know one another. Nobler among you in London: Academy Editions. p. 15 the estimate of Allah is the more virtuous.” 19 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early (Quran 49:13) Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American 35 International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). University in Cairo Press. p. 8 1995. Islamization of Knowledge, General 20 For instance, the mihrab of the mosque that Principles and Work Plan . Herndon Virginia. p. was during the prophet a simple indication on 4651 the wall turned into a niche that reflects the 36 Sayyed Hossein Nasr. 1996. Religion and the form of the iwan (Creswell: 15). Order of Nature. Oxford: Oxford University 21 KAC. Creswell. 1989. A Short Account of Early Press. p. 6 Muslim Architecture. Cairo: The American 37 Syed M. Naquib AlAttas. 1995. Prolegomena to University in Cairo Press. p. 4651 the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the 22 JM. Bloom. 1991. “Creswell and the Origins of Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of the Minaret”, in Muqarnas III an Annual on Islam. Kuala Lumpur: The International Islamic Art and Architecture . Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization RJH. Gotthiel. 1910. “The Origin and History of (ISTAC). the Minaret”, in Journal of the American 38 AlAttas stated it differently: “the multiplicity Oriental Society, Vol. 30, No. 2, Mar. 1910 , p. of existents does not impair the unity of 132154 existence, for each existent is a mode of 23 AK. Lake. 1937. “The Origin of the Roman existence and does not have a separate House”, in American Journal of Archeology Vol. ontological status .” (AlAttas, 1995) 41, No. 4, Oct.-Dec ., p. 598601 39 KW. Warren. 2000. Design Paradigms: a 24 In this paper, Muslim architecture is considered sourcebook for creative visualisation. New as the physical output that reflects practices of York: John & Wiley. p. 4 Muslim societies and individuals in response to 40 Sayyed Hossein Nasr. 1996. Religion and the the teachings and principles of Islam. While Order of Nature. Oxford: Oxford University Islamic architecture is the set of principles that Press. derive from Islamic doctrine and that shape the 41 Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in conduct of Muslims and thus dictate Muslim Environmental Design. NY & London: Plenum architecture(s). Press. 25 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development 42 KW. Warren. 2000. Design Paradigms: a and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p. 465 sourcebook for creative visualisation. New 26 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development York: John & Wiley and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p. 466 43 CA. Doxiadis. 1969. Existics: An introduction to 27 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development the science of settlements. London: Hutchinson and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p. 467 44 Hasan Langgulung. 1995. Research in Psycho- 28 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development logy: Toward An Ummatic Paradigm in Roward and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p. 467 Islamization of Disciplines. Virginia: IIIT 29 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development Herndon. p. 115127 and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p.469 45 Such Ends are also classified in a priority order 30 This action is also known in Islamic term as that allows compromising in case of clashes. In ‘Imara , Isti’imar from which interestingly for this sense, the material Property End comes at architects, the discipline of Architecture in the bottom of the rank, while the religion

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comes first. In the case of an acute need for University Press. p. xi housing for instance and the availability of Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in private land and unoccupied shelters, the ruler Environmental Design. NY & London: Plenum could oblige the owners to provide the shelters Press. p. 58 based on the juridical priority of human lives 61 Abdullah Yusuf Ali. 1983. The Holy Qur’an: over private properties. Translation and Commentary. Surah 20:99, 7: 46 Jurists consider that the previous set of Ends 101, 22:46, 12:3. Maryland: Amana Corporation together with Urf enable Shariaa to embrace 62 Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in all aspects of human life that the apparently Environmental Design. NY & London: Plenum limited number of fundamental texts (verses of Press. p. 94 Quran and sayings of the prophets) couldn’t 63 Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N.J. Dawood cover (AlShatibi D. 790 A.H). (ed). 1967. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction 47 In Verse 7:199: “ Take things at their face value to History . New Jersey: Princeton University and bid to what is customary, i.e. accepted by Press. local tradition , …” 64 James Steele. 1997. Architecture Today . New 48 AlShatibi. 2002. Al Muwafaqat fi Usul al- York: Phaidon. p. 110 Shariaa Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi (d. 790 AH). 65 James Steele. 1997. Architecture Today . New Beirut. p. 382 York: Phaidon. p. 110 49 Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for 66 James Steele. 1997. Architecture Today . New Islamic Societies Today James Steel ed. York: Phaidon. p. 113 London . London: Academy Editions 67 In a verse of Quran, Muslims are warned from Kenneth Frampton. 1986. “Place, Form and preferring “houses they own” than God and His Cultural Identity” in Domus #673, June 1986 , prophet. AlQarafi AlFuruq Vol 4, p162163 pp 1924 considers that zuhd doesn’t necessarily mean Kenneth Frampton. 1983. “Towards a Critical poverty. A pious man can be zahid although he Regionalism: Six points for an Architecture of is reach as all his richness doesn’t overwhelm Resistance” in The Anti-Aesthetic , ed. Hal his reason and love to God. Foster, Washington: Bay Press 68 A complete Surah in the Quran is in fact named 50 Besim S. Hakim. 1994. “The ‘Urf’ and Its Role in AzZukhruf (adornments). [And were it not that Diversifying the Architecture of Traditional (all) men might become one (evil) way of life, Islamic Cities”, in Journal of Architectural & We would provide, for everyone that Planning Research 11:2, Summer 1994 , p. 108 blasphemes against (Allah) Most Gracious, silver 127 roofs for their houses, and (silver) stairways on 51 Amos Rapoport. 1990. History and Precedent in which to go up. (33) And (silver) doors to their Environmental Design. NY & London: Plenum houses, and thrones (of silver) on which they Press. p. 17 could recline (34) And also adornments of gold. 52 M. AlAsad. “Application of Geometry” in But all this were nothing but conveniences of Frishman, p. 5570 the present life: the Hereafter, in the sight of 53 This approach was developed in consequence to thy Lord, is for the Righteous. (35) (Quran Az the teaching load I had at the University of Zukhruf 43: 3335). Sophisticated living and Bahrain during the four last semesters. decoration in Islamic thought often stand in Confrontations were often made between the contrast with zuhd (asceticism) and is often Islamic thought and the Western knowledge regarded as opposing to the spirit of Islam. while I was teaching Islamic Architecture and 69 Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair. 1997. Islamic Contemporary Architecture simultaneously. Art . London: Phaidon Press. p. 23 54 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and 70 Jonathan Bloom & Sheila Blair. 1997. Islamic Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New Art . London: Phaidon Press. p. 15 York: WileyAcademy. p. 3 M. Frishman. 1994. “Islam and the Form of the 55 Charles Jencks. 1993. Architecture Today . Mosque”, in M. Frishman & Hasan Uddin Khan London Academy Editions. p. 111 (ed.). The Mosque; history, architectural 56 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and develop-ment and regional diversity. London: Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New Hudson & Thames. p.32 York: WileyAcademy. p. 6667 71 Ironically, tensile structure that was inspired 57 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and from the Bedouin tent, is now considered as Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New one form of minimalism in architecture that York: WileyAcademy. p. 66 provide maximum space with minimum 58 PaulAlan Johnson. 1994. The Theory of material. Architecture Concepts, Themes & Practices. 72 Nikos Salingaros. 2004. Anti-Architecture and New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 21 Deconstruction. Solingen: UMBAUVerlag. p. 95 59 PaulAlan Johnson. 1994. The Theory of 73 According to Salingaros (2004) the deconstruct Architecture Concepts, Themes & Practices. tivist philosophy upon which those architects New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 21 depend is totally unscientific and that has 60 John Brinckerhoff Jackson. 1984. Discovering nothing to do with the new science of the vernacular landscape . New Haven: Yale complexity.

848484 ||| Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 1 Issue 2 December 2010 74 Ilya Prigogine. 1996. The End of Certainty; Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development Time, chaos and the new laws of nature. New and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p. 72 York: The Free Press. p. 156 87 Hasan Uddin Khan. “An overview of the AB. Cambęl. 1993. Applied Chaos Theory: A contemporary mosques”, in M. Frishman & paradigm for complexity . Boston: Academic Hasan Uddin Khan (ed.) . The Mosque; history, Press. architectural development and regional diver- 75 Ilya Prigogine. 1996. The End of Certainty; sity. London: Hudson & Thames. p. 248 Time, chaos and the new laws of nature. New 88 EF. Schumacher. 1973. Small is Beautiful: York: The Free Press. p. 10 Economics as if People Mattered. New York: 76 PaulAlan Johnson. 1994. The Theory of Harper Perennial Architecture Concepts, Themes & Practices. Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 20 Islamic Societies Today James Steel ed. London . AB. Cambęl. 1993. Applied Chaos Theory: A London: Academy Editions. p. 14 paradigm for complexity . Boston: Academic 89 James Steele. 1997. Architecture Today . New Press. p. 31 York: Phaidon 77 Abdullah Yusuf Ali. 1983. The Holy Qur’an: 90 Süha Özkan. 1985 . “Introduction Regionalism Translation and Commentary. Surah 67: 34. within Modernism”, in Robert Powell (ed.). Maryland: Amana Corporation Regionalism in Architecture . Singapore: 78 The Sovereignty, Control 67:4 “Again turn thy Concept Media/The Aga Khan Award for vision a second time: (thy) vision will come Architecture. back to thee dull and discomfited, in a state 91 Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for worn out”. Islamic Societies Today James Steel ed. London . 79 In fact in many verses of the Qur’an especially London: Academy Editions. p. 14 the first one that is recited at least 5 times a Kenneth Frampton. 1986. “Place, Form and day, believers ask God to Guide us to the Cultural Identity” in Domus #673, June 1986 , straight path! In a prophet saying: he took a pp 1924 stick designed one straight line and many Kenneth Frampton. 1983. “Towards a Critical others deriving from it and then said, the Regionalism: Six points for an Architecture of straight one is the path of God and the others Resistance” in The Anti-Aesthetic , ed. Hal are astray that you shouldn’t follow. However Foster, Washington: Bay Press most streets in Muslim cities are irregular, 92 Ismail Serageldin. 1996. “Faith, Development which were an outcome of the constraints of and the Built Environment”, in Almanac . p.72 the site, the earth, to be considered! 93 Besim S. Hakim. 1994. “The “Urf” and Its role 80 M. BenHamouche. 2007. Urban Fabric In in diversifying the architecture of traditional Traditional Muslim Cities: Importing the Old Islamic cities”, in Journal of Architectural & Wisdom to our New Settlements . 2nd Planning Research 11:2. Summer, 1994 . p. 108 Symposium on Arab Muslim Cities. Damascus: 127. 2224 October 2007 94 United Nations. 1987. Report of the World 81 Many legal opinions have been issued by Commission on Environment and Development contemporaneous Muslim scholars regarding General Assembly. biotechnology, medicine etc. 95 M. BenHamouche. 2004 . “From Kufa to Blida 82 Warren K. Wake. 2000. Design Paradigms: a Modelling Muslim New Towns Experience”, in sourcebook for Creative Visualisation. New Journal of King Saud University Vol. 17, Arch. York: John & Wiley. p. 2 & Planning . Riyadh: KSU. pp. 2542 83 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and 96 Sayyed Hossein Nasr. 1997. Man and Nature: Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New The Spiritual Crisis in the Modern Man. York: WileyAcademy. p. 73 Reviewed ed. Chicago: Kazi Publications Warren K. Wake. 2000. Design Paradigms: a 97 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and sourcebook for Creative Visualisation. New Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New York: John & Wiley. p. 4 York: WileyAcademy. p. 72 84 This is opposite to some erroneous meta 98 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and physical explanations that consider multiplicity Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New of columns in the prayer hall as a sign of York: WileyAcademy. p. 77 infinity admired by Muslims. 99 Constantinos Doxiadis. 1969. Ekistics: An 85 Oleg Grabar. “The mosque in Islamic society introduction to the science of settlements. today”, in M. Frishman & Hasan Uddin Khan London: Hutchinson. p. 718 (ed.) . The Mosque; history, architectural Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and development and regional diversity. London: Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New Hudson & Thames. p. 245 York: WileyAcademy. p. 51 86 Charles Correa. 1994. Vistas Architecture for 100 Constantinos Doxiadis. 1969. Ekistics: An Islamic Societies Today James Steel ed. London . introduction to the science of settlements. London: Academy Editions. p. 13 London: Hutchinson. p. 12

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JFC. Turner. 1972. Housing As a Verb; freedom 102 Charles Jencks. 2000. Architecture 2000 and to build . JFC Turner and Fischter R. (ed.) New Beyond: Success in the art of prediction . New York: MacMillan. p. 148175 York: WileyAcademy. p. 51 101 Nabeel Hamdi. 1991. Housing Without Houses: 103 M. BenHamouche. 2003. “Decision–Making Participation, Flexibility, Enablement. New System and Urban Geometry in Traditional York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Muslim Cities: The Case of Algiers”. In Journal Constantinos Doxiadis. 1969. Ekistics: An of Architectural and Planning Research . Vol. introduction to the science of settlements. 20, No 4, Winter 2003, p. 307322. Chicago USA London: Hutchinson. p. 318326

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