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Degradation of Fluorotelomer-Based Polymers Contributes to the Global Article pubs.acs.org/est Degradation of Fluorotelomer-Based Polymers Contributes to the Global Occurrence of Fluorotelomer Alcohol and Perfluoroalkyl Carboxylates: A Combined Dynamic Substance Flow and Environmental Fate Modeling Analysis † ‡ † † ‡ Li Li,*, , Jianguo Liu,*, Jianxin Hu, and Frank Wania † College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, 5 Yiheyuan Road, Beijing 100871, PR China ‡ Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1095 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada *S Supporting Information ABSTRACT: Using coupled dynamic substance flow and environ- mental fate models, CiP-CAFE and BETR-Global, we investigated whether the degradation of side-chain fluorotelomer-based polymers (FTPs), mostly in waste stocks (i.e., landfills and dumps), serves as a long-term source of fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs) and perfluor- oalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs) to the global environment. The modeling results indicate that, in the wake of the worldwide transition from long- chain to short-chain products, in-use stocks of C8 FTPs will peak and decline afterward, while the in-use stocks of C6 FTPs, and the waste stocks of both FTPs will generally grow. FTP degradation in waste stocks is making an increasing contribution to FTOH generation, the bulk of which readily migrates from waste stocks and degrades into PFCAs in the environment; the remaining part of the generated FTOHs degrade in waste stocks, which makes those stocks reservoirs that slowly release PFCAs into the environment over the long run because of the low leaching rate and extreme persistence of PFCAs. Short-chain FTPs have higher relative release rates of PFCAs from waste stocks than long-chain ones. Estimates of in-use and waste stocks of FTPs were more sensitive to the selected lifespan of finished products, while those of the emissions of FTOHs and PFCAs were more sensitive to the degradation half-life of FTPs in waste stocks. Our preliminary calculations highlight the need for environmentally sound management of obsolete FTP-containing products into the foreseeable future. ■ INTRODUCTION arrive at perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs) as ultimate 5−7 Constituting almost 80% of the market of fluorotelomer-based degradation products. During the degradation, both the 1 fl intermediate and terminal degradation products may demon- substances worldwide, side-chain uorotelomer-based poly- ff 8−10 mers (FTPs) have been applied as durable water repellents strate adverse environmental e ects. (DWRs) on a wide range of finished textiles, fabrics, carpets, Despite the consensus that FTP degradation contributes to and garments2,3 and as oil and grease repellents in paper and the occurrence of FTOHs and PFCAs worldwide, the magnitude and temporal evolution of the problem have not packaging industries as well as other miscellaneous applica- 11 3 yet been well-elucidated and are thus still being contested. tions. The FTPs provide continuous water, oil, and stain 11−14 resistances for commercial finished products throughout the Several earlier modeling studies have attempted to product lifespans, during which FTPs might migrate into the evaluate the future worldwide releases of FTOHs and PFCAs from FTP degradation; however, these studies possessed environment because of abrasion and weathering. Afterward, a ff considerable amount of FTPs enters the waste stream and di erent scopes and relied on distinct assumptions and accumulates in waste stocks such as landfills and dumps, where methodologies. First, there is a lack of consistent, holistic consideration of mass flows of FTPs in both (i) in-use stocks aged FTPs undergo degradation on the time scale of decades or fi longer to generate various per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances during product service life and (ii) waste stocks (i.e., land lls (PFASs).4 Recent experimental studies have demonstrated that and dumps) during the waste-disposal phase. For instance, this process comprises a series of sequential step-wise transformations, which first form nonpolymeric fluorotelomer- Received: August 10, 2016 based substances like fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs) Revised: February 24, 2017 followed by a variety of immediate degradation products such Accepted: March 17, 2017 as saturated and unsaturated fluorotelomer carboxylates and Published: March 17, 2017 © 2017 American Chemical Society 4461 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04021 Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 4461−4470 Environmental Science & Technology Article Figure 1. Transformation of FTPs, FTOHs, and PFCAs in the environment and waste stocks [R′ = H or methyl group; R = H or (meth)acrylic group]. Arrows in solid lines denote the substance flows quantified in this work: estimating stocks of FTPs, and annual releases of degFTOHs and deg-degPFCAs, are the main objectives (denoted as blue and red shadings); annual releases of resFTOHs, deg-resPFCAs, and impPFCAs are also calculated for comparison. Arrows in dashed lines represent substance flows not quantified. The box “other PFCA sources” includes all PFCAs sources in Wang et al.18 other than the three considered here. Wang et al.11 assumed an immediate end of FTOH releases given to how and why those variables affect processes once in-use stocks of FTPs are depleted because they throughout the product lifecycle (e.g., in-use and waste stocks) postulated that all obsolete FTP-containing finished products and in the environment (e.g., FTP degradation in waste stocks will be “properly treated (i.e., safely landfilled or incinerated) versus after being released into the environment). In this and no longer available for degradation”.11 This assumption situation, process-oriented models can contribute to a better contrasts with the stated expectation that FTP degradation in mechanistic understanding of the complicated relationship landfills “potentially constitutes a large long-term environ- between key parameters and the estimated release of generated mental load”4 for these compounds. In fact, the potential for FTOHs and PFCAs. Such an approach is also helpful for degradation of FTPs in waste stocks has been confirmed identifying the most influential parameters requiring accurate experimentally,4,15 and considerable releases of FTOHs and quantification in future studies. fl PFCAs via landfill leachates and gases have been observed in a In this contribution, we combine a dynamic substance ow range of field studies.16,17 Coping with this situation analysis model, CiP-CAFE, and an environmental fate model, necessitates a better “understanding of the mass flow of side- BETR-Global, to mechanistically simulate the temporal chain fluorinated polymers during their whole life-cycle, evolution of in-use and waste stocks of FTPs, and the fi ” 11 environmental releases of FTOHs and PFCAs from the including in land lls , as stated by Wang et al. Second, fl there are substantial variability and uncertainty associated with degradation of FTPs. The in uence of variations in LSs and important input parameters. For example, (i) the lifespan of HLs on model predictions is explored with four scenarios. We finished products [hereafter “product lifespan”, (LS)], and (ii) seek to preliminarily characterize the current and future the degradation half-life of FTPs in the environment or waste contributions of FTP degradation, particularly during the stocks [hereafter “degradation half-life”, (HL)], have been waste-disposal phase, to the releases of FTOHs and PFCAs fi worldwide. Findings in this study may provide a long-term identi ed as two key parameters determining the contribution fl of FTP degradation.11 However, the LS adopted in earlier overview of the stocks and mass ows of FTPs throughout the 18 13 lifecycle as well as complement the current understanding of studies ranges from 10 years to 50 years, while the HL sources of FTOHs and PFCAs. derived from different degradation experiments spans 2 orders of magnitude from 10−17 years6 to 1200−1700 years.5 How different LS and HL values influence global annual FTOH ■ METHODS releases from FTP degradation has been studied previously Applications, Substances, and Terminology. Although using empirical emission factors.11 Limited consideration was fluorotelomer-based substances have found use as ingredients 4462 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04021 Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 4461−4470 Environmental Science & Technology Article Figure 2. Schematic of the modeling strategy in this study. Green boxes indicate model outputs, while blue boxes indicate data collected from the literature or calculated from model outputs. Red diamonds indicate a calculation using models. (see the terminology in Text S1) in a multitude of consumer statistics. Because technical PFASs are usually present and products, for simplification, three major applications (APs) can consumed in above applications as mixtures of homologues be roughly categorized on the basis of lifespan character- with different chain-lengths or derivatives with various istics:18,19 FTPs serve as DWRs on finished textiles, fabrics, functional groups, we defined “equivalents” to collectively carpets, and garments (AP1), while nonpolymeric fluoro- describe a series of similar PFASs with the same featured telomer-based derivatives serve as surfactants for treating moiety but without considering their differences in molecular consumer products (representing all uses with continuous weights, physicochemical properties, and degradation kinetics. releases throughout lifespan) (AP2) and additives in aqueous In this study, the following three categories of PFAS equivalents
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