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Volume 2. Second Period – Ante-Nicene , A.D. 100 - 311 Chapter 13: Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age; Biographical Sketches of the

History of the Christian Church

CH213 Volume 2. Second Period, Ante-Nicene Christianity, AD 100 - 311 Chapter 13: Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age; Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers

Table of Contents

Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the Ante-Nicene Age; Biographical Sketches of the Church Fathers ...... 3 2.159. Literature ...... 3 2.160. A General Estimate of the Fathers ...... 5 2.161. The ...... 9 2.162. Clement of Rome ...... 11 2.163. The Pseudo-Clementine Works ...... 15 2.164. ...... 16 2.165. The Ignatian Controversy ...... 20 2.166. of ...... 23 2.167. ...... 25 2.168. Hermas ...... 28 2.169. Papias ...... 35 2.170. The to Diognetus ...... 37 2.171. Sixtus of Rome ...... 39 2.172. The Apologists. Quadratus and Aristides ...... 40 2.173. Justin the Philosopher and Martyr ...... 41 2.174. The Other Greek Apologists. Tatian ...... 48 2.175. Athenagoras ...... 50 2.176. ...... 51 2.177. ...... 53 2.178. Apolinarius of . Miltiades ...... 54 2.179. Hermias ...... 55 2.180. ...... 55 2.181. ...... 56 2.182. Irenæus ...... 57 2.183. Hippolytus ...... 61 2.184. of Rome ...... 70 2.185. The Alexandrian School of ...... 71 2.186. ...... 72 2.187. Origen ...... 74 2.188. The Works of Origen ...... 78 2.189. Gregory Thaumaturgus ...... 80 2.190. Dionysius the Great ...... 81 2.191. Julius Africanus ...... 82 2.192. Minor Divines of the Greek Church ...... 84

2.193. Opponents of Origen. Methodius...... 85 2.194. Lucian of Antioch ...... 86 2.195. The Antiochian School ...... 88 2.196. and the African School ...... 88 2.197. The Writings of Tertullian ...... 93 2.198. Minucius Felix ...... 96 2.199. ...... 99 2.200. ...... 103 2.201. Commodian ...... 105 2.202. ...... 106 2.203. Victorinus of Petau ...... 108 2.204. , , Hosius ...... 109

Chapter 13. Ecclesiastical Literature of the and other good editions, with Prolegomena, Ante-Nicene Age; Biographical Sketches of Vitae, Dissertations, Supplements, etc. Some of the plates were consumed by fire in 1868. but the Church Fathers have been replaced. To be used with great 2.159. Literature caution. ABBÉ HOROY: Bibliotheca Patristica ab anno I. GENERAL PATRISTIC COLLECTIONS. MCCXVI. usque ad Concilii Tridentini Tempora. The Benedictine editions, repeatedly published , 1879 sqq. A continuation of Migne. in Paris, , etc., are the best as far as they Belongs to mediæval history. go, but do not satisfy the present state of A new and critical edition of the Fathers criticism. Jesuits (Petavius, Sirmond, Harduin), has been undertaken by the Imperial Academy and Dominicans (Combefis, Le Quien) have also of Vienna in 1866, under the title: Corpus published several fathers. These and more scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum. The first recent editions are mentioned in the respective volume contains the works of Sulpicius Severus, sections. Of patristic collections the principal ed. by C. HALM, 1866; the second Minucius Felix ones are: and Jul. Firmicus Maternus, by the same, 1867; MAXIMA BIBLIOTHECA veteru Patrum, etc. Lugd. Cyprian by HARTEL, 1876; Arnobius by 1677, 27 tom. fol. Contains the less voluminous REIFFERSCHEID; Commodianus by DOMBART; writers, and only in the Latin translation. Salvianus by PAULY; Cassianus by PETSCHEIG; Priscillian by SCHEPSS, etc. So far 18 vols. from A. GALLANDI (Andreas Gallandius, Oratorian, d. 1779): Bibliotheca Graeco-Latina veterum 1866 to 1889. Patrum, etc. Ven. 1765–88, 14 tom. fol. Contains A new and critical edition of the Greek fathers is in all 380 ecclesiastical writers (180 more than still more needed. the Bibl Max.) in Greek and Latin, with valuable Handy editions of the older fathers by OBERTHUR, dissertations and notes. RICHTER, GERSDORF, etc. ABBÉ MIGNE (Jacques Paul, b. 1800, founder of Special collections of patristic fragments by the Ultramontane L’Univers religeux and the GRABE (Spicilegium Patrum), ROUTH (Reliquiae Cath. printing establishment at Montrouge, Sacrae), ANGELO MAI (Scriptorum vet. nova consumed by fire 1868): Patrologiae cursus Collectio, Rom. 1825–’38, 10 t.; Spicilegium completus sive Bibliotheca universalis, integra, roman. 1839–’44, 10 t.; Nova Patrum uniformis, commoda, oeconomica, omnium SS. Bibliotheca, 1852 sqq. 7 t.); Card. PITRA Patrum, Doctorum, Scriptorumque (Spicilegium Solesmense, 1852 sqq. 5 t.), LIVERANI ecelesiasticorum. Petit Montrouge (near Paris), (Spiciles Liberianum, 1865), and others. 1844–1866 (Garnier Frères). The cheapest and most complete patristic library, but carelessly II. SEPARATE COLLECTIONS OF THE ANTE- edited, and often inaccurate, reaching down to NICENE FATHERS. the thirteenth century, the Latin in 222, the PATRES APOSTOLICI, best critical editions, one Greek in 167 vols., reprinted from the Bened. Protestant by OSCAR VON GEBHARDT, HARNACK,

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and ZAHN (ed. II. Lips. 1876–’78, in 3 parts); 1741–’45. This work is arranged in the centurial another by HILGENFELD (ed. II. Lips. 1876 sqq. in style (saeculum Apostolicum, s. Gnosticuni, s. several parts); one by Bp. LIGHTFOOT (Lond. Novatianum, s. Arianum, s. Nestorianum, s. 1869 sqq.); and one, R. Catholic, by Bp. HEFELE, Eutychianum, s. Monotheleticum, etc.) W. CAVE: fifth ed. by Prof FUNK, Tuebingen (1878 and’81, Lives of the most eminent fathers of the church 2 vols.). See 2.161. that flourished in the first four centuries. Best ed. Corpus Apologetarum Christianorum Seculi II., revised by HENRY CARY. Oxf. 1840, 3 vols. Ed. OTTO. Jenae, 1847–’50; Ed. III. 1876 sqq. A CHAS. OUDIN (first a monk, then a Protestant, new critical ed. by O. V. GEBHARDT and E. librarian to the University at Leyden, died SCHWARTZ. Lips. 1888 sqq. 1717): Commentarius de scriptoribus ecclesiae ROBERTS and DONALDSON: Ante-Nicene Christian antiquis illorumque scriptis, a Bellarmino, Library. Edinburgh 1857–1872. 24 vols. Possevino, Caveo, Dupin et aliis omissis, ad ann. Authorized reprint, N. York, 1885–’86, 8 vol. 1460. Lips. 1722. 3 vols. fol. JOHN ALB. FABRICIUS (“the most learned, the most III. BIOGRAPHICAL, CRITICAL, DOCTRINAL. voluminous and the most useful of PATRISTICS AND PATROLOGY. bibliographers.” born at Leipsic 1668. Prof. of ST. (d.419): De Viris illustrious. Eloquence at Hamburg, died 1736): Bibliotheca Comprises, in 135 numbers, brief notices of the Graeca, sive notilia Scriptorum veterum biblical and ecclesiastical authors, down to Graecorum; ed. III. Hamb. 1718–’28, 14 vols.; ed. A.D.393. Continuations by GENNADIUS (490), IV. by G. CHR. HARLESS, with additions. Hamb. ISIDOR (636), ILDEFONS (667), and others. 1790–1811, in 12 vols. (incomplete). This great PHOTIUS (d. 890): Μυριοβίβλιον, ἤ βιβλιοθήκη, work of forty years’ labor embraces all the ed.J. Becker, Berol. 1824, 2 t. fol., and in Migne, Greek writers to the beginning of the eighteenth Phot. Opera, t. III. and IV. Extracts of 280 Greek century, but is inconveniently arranged. (A authors, heathen and Christian, whose works valuable supplement to it is S. F. G. HOFFMANN: are partly lost. See a full account in Bibliographisches Lexicon der gesammten Hergenroether’s, Photius, III. 13–31. Literatur der Griechen, Leipz. 3 vols.), 2 ed. 1844–’45. J. A. FABRICIUS published also a BELLERMIN (R.C.): Liber de scriptoribus Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae aetatis, ecclesiasticis (from the O.T. to A.D.1500). Rom. Hamb. 173’46, in 6 vols. (enlarged by Mansi, 1613 and often. Padua, 1754, 3 tom.), and a Bibliotheca TILLEMONT (R.C.): Memoirs pour servir à l’histoire ecclesiastical Hamb. 1718, in 1 vol. fol., which ecclés. Par. 1693 sqq. 16 vols. The first six contains the catalogues of ecclesiastical authors centuries. by Jerome, Gennadius, Isidore, Ildefondus, L. E. DUPIN (R.C. d.1719): Nouvelle Bibliothèque Trithemius (d. 1515) and others. des auteurs ecclesiastiques, contenant l’histoire C. T. G. SCHOENEMANN: Bibliotheca historico- de leur vie, etc. Par. 1688–1715, 47 vols. 8°, with literaria patrum Latinorum a Tertulliano usque continuations by Coujet, Petit-Didier to the ad Gregorina M. et Isidorum Hispalensem. Lips. 18century, and Critiques of R. Simon, 61 vols., 9 1792, 2 vols. A continuation of Fabricius’ ed. Par. 1698 sqq.; another edition, but Biblioth. Lat incomplete, Amstel. 1690–1713, 20 vols. 4°. G. LUMPER (R.C.): Historia theologico-critica de REMI CEILLTER (R.C. d. 1761): Histoire générale vita, scriptis et doctrina SS. Patrum trium des auteurs sacrés et ecclesiastiques. Par. 1729– primorum saeculorum. Aug. Vind. 1783–’99, 13 t. ’63, 23 vols. 4°; new ed. with additions, Par. 8°. 1858–1865 in 14 vols. More complete and exact, A … MÖHLER (R.C. d. 1838): Patrologie, oder but less liberal than Dupin; extends to the christliche Literaergeschichte. Edited by middle of the thirteenth century. REITHMAYER. Regensb. 1840, vol. I. Covers only WILL. CAVE (Anglican, d. 1713): Scriptorum the first three centuries. ecelesiasticorum Historia a Christo nato usque ad J. FESSLER (R.C.): Institutiones patrologicae. saecul. XIV. Lond. 1688–98, 2 vols.; , Oenip. 1850–’52, 2vols. 1720; Colon. 1722; best edition superintended by WATERLAND, Oxf. 1740–43, reprinted at Basle

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J. C. F. BAHR: Geschichte der roemischen Literatur. JOH. HUBER (d. 1879 as an Old Catholic): Die Karlsruhe, 1836, 4 ed. 1868. Philosophie der Kirchenvaeter. Muenchen, 1859. FR. BOHRINGER (d, 1879): Die Kirche Christi u. ihre A. STOECKL (R.C.): Geschichte der Philosophie der Zeugen, oder die K. G. in Biographien. Zuer. 1842 patristischen Zeit. Wuerz b. 1858, 2 vols.; and (2d ed. 1861 sqq. and 1873 sqq.), 2 vols. in 7 Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters. parts (to the sixteenth century). Mainz, 1864–1866. 3 vols. JOH. ALZOG (R.C., Prof. in Freiburg, d. 1878): FRIEDR. UEBERWEG. History of Philosophy (Engl. Grundriss der Patrologie oder der aelteren transl. by Morris & Porter). N. Y. 1876 (first christl. Literaergeschichte. Frieburg, 1866; vol.). second ed. 1869; third ed. 1876; fourth ed. 1888. VI. PATRISTIC DICTIONARIES. JAMES DONALDSON: A Critical History of Christian J. C. SUICER (d. in Zurich, 1660): Thesaurus Literature and Doctrine from the death of the ecclesiasticus e Patribus Graecis. Amstel., 1682, Apostles to the Nicene Council. , 1864– second ed., much improved, 1728. 2 vols. for. ’66. 3 vols. Very valuable, but unfinished. (with a new title page. Utr. 1746). U ANGE JOS. SCHWANE (R.C.): Dogmengeschichte der D C (Car. Dufresne a Benedictine, d. 1688): patristischen Zeit. Muenster, 1866. Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis. Lugd. 1688. 2 vols. By the same: ADOLF EBERT: Geschichte der christlich- Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae lateinischen Literatur von ihren Anfaengen bis Latinitatis. Par. 1681, again 1733, 6 vols. fol., re- zum Zeitalter Karls des Grossen Leipzig, 1872 edited by Carpenter 1766, 4 vols., and by (624 pages). The first vol. of a larger work on Henschel, Par. 1840–’50, 7 vols. A revised the general history of mediæval literature. The English edition of Du Cange by E. A. Dayman second vol. (1880) contains the literature from was announced for publication by John Murray Charlemagne to Charles the Bald. (London), but has not yet appeared, in 1889. JOS. NIRSCHL (R.C.): Lehrbuch der Patrologie und E. A. SOPHOCLES: A glossary of Latin and Patristik. Mainz. Vol. I. 1881 (VI. and 384). Byzantine Greek. Boston, 1860, enlarged ed. GEORGE A. JACKSON: Early Christian Literature 1870. A new ed. by Jos. H. Thayer, 1888. Primers. N. York, 1879–1883 in 4 little vols., G. KOFFMANE: Geschichte des Kirchlateins. containing extracts from the fathers. Breslau, 1879 sqq. FR. W. FARRAR: Lives of the Fathers. Sketches of WM. SMITH and HENRY WACE (Anglicans): A Church History in Biographies. Lond. and N. Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, York, 1889, 2 vols. Sects and Doctrines London, Vol. I. 18771887, 4 IV. ON THE AUTHORITY AND USE OF THE vols. By far the best patristic biographical FATHERS. Dictionary in the English or any other language. A noble monument of the learning of the Church DALLAEUS (Daillé, Calvinist): De usu Patrum in of England. decidendis controversiis. Genev. 1656 (and often). Against the superstitious and slavish R. E. C. RICHARDSON (Hartford, Conn.): Catholic overvaluation of the fathers. Bibliographical Synapsis of the Ante-Nicene Fathers. An appendix to the Am. Ed. of the Ante- J. W. EBERL (R.C.): Leitfaden zum Studium der Nicene Fathers, N. York, 1887. Very complete. Patrologie. Augsb. 1854. J. J. BLUNT (Anglican): The Right Use of the Early 2.160. A General Estimate of the Fathers Fathers. Lond. 1857, 3 ed. 1859. Confined to the As Christianity is primarily a religion of first three centuries, and largely polemical divine facts, and a new moral creation, the against the depreciation of the fathers, by Daillé, literary and scientific element in its history Barbeyrat, and Gibbon. held, at first, a secondary and subordinate V. ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE FATHERS. place. Of the apostles, Paul alone received a H. RITTER: Geschichte der christl Philosophie. learned education, and even he made his Hamb. 1841 sqq. 2 vols. rabbinical culture and great natural talents

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 6 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course subservient to the higher spiritual knowledge of form, but far surpasses it in the sterling imparted to him by revelation. But for the quality of its matter. It wears the servant very reason that it is a new life, Christianity form of its master, during the days of his must produce also a new science and flesh, not the splendid, princely garb of this literature; partly from the inherent impulse of world. Confidence in the power of the faith towards deeper and clearer knowledge Christian truth made men less careful of the of its object for its own satisfaction; partly form in which they presented it. Besides, from the demands of self-preservation many of the oldest Christian writers lacked against assaults from without; partly from the early education, and had a certain aversion to practical want of instruction and direction for art, from its manifold perversion in those the people. The church also gradually days to the service of idolatry and immorality. appropriated the classical culture, and made But some of them, even in the second and it tributary to her theology. Throughout the third centuries, particularly Clement and middle ages she was almost the sole vehicle Origen, stood at the head of their age in and guardian of literature and art, and she is learning and philosophical culture; and in the the mother of the best elements of the fourth and fifth centuries, the literary modern European and American civilization. productions of an Athanasius, a Gregory, a We have already treated of the mighty Chrysostom, an Augustin, and a Jerome, intellectual labor of our period on the field of excelled the contemporaneous heathen apologetic, polemic, and dogmatic theology. literature in every respect. Many fathers, like In this section we have to do with patrology, the two Clements, , Athenagoras, or the biographical and bibliographical Theophilus, Tertullian, Cyprian, and among matter of the ancient theology and literature. the later ones, even Jerome and Augustin, The ecclesiastical learning of the first six embraced Christianity after attaining adult centuries was cast almost entirely in the years; and it is interesting to notice with what mould of the Graeco-Roman culture. The enthusiasm, energy, and thankfulness they earliest church fathers, even Clement of laid hold upon it. Rome, Hermas, and Hippolytus, who lived and The term “church-father” originated in the labored in and about Rome, used the Greek primitive custom of transferring the idea of language, after the example of the apostles, father to spiritual relationships, especially to with such modifications as the Christian ideas those of teacher, priest, and bishop. In the required. Not till the end of the second case before us the idea necessarily includes century, and then not in , but in North that of antiquity, involving a certain degree of Africa, did the Latin language also become, general authority for all subsequent periods through Tertullian, a medium of Christian and single branches of the church. Hence this science and literature. The , title of honor is justly limited to the more however, continued for a long time distinguished teachers of the first five or six dependent on the learning of the Greek. The centuries, excepting, of course, the apostles, Greek church was more excitable, speculative, who stand far above them all as the inspired and dialectic; the Latin more steady, practical, organs of Christ. It applies, therefore, to the and devoted to outward organization; though period of the œcumenical formation of we have on both sides striking exceptions to doctrines, before the separation of Eastern this rule, in the Greek Chrysostom, who was and Western Christendom. The line of the the greatest pulpit orator, and the Latin Latin fathers is generally closed with Augustin, who was the profoundest Gregory I (d. 604), the line of the Greek with speculative theologian among the fathers. (d. about 754). The patristic literature in general falls Besides antiquity, or direct connection with considerably below the classical in elegance the formative age of the whole church,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 7 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course learning, holiness, , and the the necessary stages of progress in the approbation of the church, or general development of Christian doctrine in the, recognition, are the qualifications for a church. church father. These qualifications, however, On the other hand the theology of the fathers are only relative. At least we cannot apply the still less accords with the Protestant standard scale of fully developed orthodoxy, whether of orthodoxy. We seek in vain among them for Greek, Roman, or Evangelical, to the ante- the evangelical doctrines of the exclusive Nicene fathers. Their dogmatic conceptions authority of the Scriptures, justification by were often very indefinite and uncertain. In faith alone, the universal priesthood of the fact the Roman church excludes a Tertullian laity; and we find instead as early as the for his Montanism, an Origen for his Platonic second century a high estimate of and idealistic views, an Eusebius for his semi- ecclesiastical traditions, meritorious and even Arianism, also Clement of Alexandria, over-meritorious works, and strong Lactantius, Theodoret, and other sacerdotal, sacramentarian, ritualistic, and distinguished divines, from the list of ascetic tendencies, which gradually matured “fathers” (Patres), and designates them in the Greek and Roman types of catholicity. merely “ecclesiastical writers” (Scriptores The always had more Ecclastici). sympathy with the fathers than the Lutheran In strictness, not a single one of the ante- and Calvinistic Churches, and professes to be Nicene fathers fairly agrees with the Roman in full harmony with the creed, the episcopal standard of doctrine in all points. Even polity, and liturgical worship of antiquity Irenæus and Cyprian differed from the before the separation of the east and the Roman bishop, the former in reference to west; but the difference is only one of degree; Chiliasm and Montanism, the latter on the the Thirty-Nine Articles are as thoroughly validity of heretical baptism. Jerome is a evangelical as the Augsburg Confession or the strong witness against the canonical value of Westminster standards; and even the modern the Apocrypha. Augustin, the greatest Anglo-Catholic school, the most churchly and authority of among the churchy of all, ignores many tenets and fathers, is yet decidedly evangelical in his usages which were considered of vital views on and grace, which were importance in the first centuries, and holds enthusiastically revived by Luther and Calvin, others which were unknown before the and virtually condemned by the Council of sixteenth century. The reformers were as Trent. Pope Gregory the Great repudiated the great and good men as the fathers, but both title “ecumenical bishop” as an antichristian must bow before the apostles. There is a assumption, and yet it is comparatively steady progress of Christianity, an ever- harmless as compared with the official titles deepening understanding and an ever- of his successors, who claim to be the Vicars widening application of its principles and of Christ, the viceregents of Almighty on powers, and there are yet many hidden earth, and the infallible organs of the Holy treasures in the which will be brought Ghost in all matters of faith and discipline. to light in future ages. None of the ancient fathers and doctors knew In general the excellences of the church anything of the modern Roman dogmas of the fathers are very various. Polycarp is (1854) and papal distinguished, not for genius or learning, but infallibility (1870). The “unanimous consent for patriarchal simplicity and dignity; of the fathers” is a mere illusion, except on the Clement of Rome, for the gift of most fundamental articles of general administration; Ignatius, for impetuous Christianity. We must resort here to a liberal devotion to episcopacy, church unity, and conception of orthodoxy, and duly consider Christian martyrdom; Justin, for apologetic

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 8 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course zeal and extensive reading; Irenæus, for Acts, and , under the names of sound doctrine and moderation; Clement of apostles and of later celebrities; also Jewish Alexandria, for stimulating fertility of and heathen prophecies of Christianity, such thought; Origen, for brilliant learning and as the Testaments of the Twelve , bold speculation; Tertullian, for freshness and the Books of Hydaspes, Of Hermas vigor of intellect, and sturdiness of character; Trismegistos, and of the Sibyls. The frequent Cyprian, for energetic churchliness; Eusebius, use made of such fabrications of an idle for literary industry in compilation; imagination even by eminent church Lactantius, for elegance of style. Each had also teachers, particularly by the apologists, his weakness. Not one compares for a evinces not only great credulity and total moment in depth and spiritual fulness with a want of literary criticism, but also a very St. Paul or St. John; and the whole patristic imperfect development of the sense of truth, literature, with all its incalculable value, must which had not yet learned utterly to discard ever remain very far below the New the pia fraus as immoral falsehood. Testament. The single epistle to the Romans NOTES. or the of John is worth more than all The Roman church extends the line of the commentaries, doctrinal, polemic, and ascetic Patres, among whom she further treatises of the Greek and Latin fathers, distinguishes a small number of Doctores schoolmen, and reformers. ecclesiae emphatically so-called, down late The ante-Nicene fathers may be divided into into the middle ages, and reckons in it five or six classes: Anselm, , Thomas (1.) The apostolic fathers, or personal Aquinas, Bonaventura, and the divines of the disciples of the apostles. Of these, Council of Trent, resting on her claim to Polycarp, Clement, and Ignatius are the exclusive catholicity, which is recognized most eminent. neither by the Greek nor the Evangelical (2.) The apologists for Christianity against church. Judaism and heathenism: Justin Martyr The marks of a Doctor Ecclesiae are: 1) and his successors to the end of the eminens eruditio; 2) doctrina orthodoxa; 3) second century. sanctitas vitae; 4) expressa ecclesiae (3.) The controversialists against heresies declaratio. The Roman Church recognizes as within the church: Irenæus, and Doctores Ecclesiae the following Greek Hippolytus, at the close of the second fathers: Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory century and beginning of the third. of Nazianzen, Chrysostom, , (4.) The Alexandrian school of philosophical and John of Damascus, and the following theology: Clement and Origen, in the first Latin fathers: , Jerome, Augustin, half of the third century. Hilarius of Poitiers, Leo I. and Gregory I, (5.) The contemporary but more practical together with the mediæval divines Anselm, North African school of Tertullian and , Bonaventura and Bernard Cyprian. of Clairvaux. The distinction between (6.) Then there were also the germs of the doctores ecclesiae and patres eccelesiae was Antiochian school, and some less formally recognized by Pope Boniface VIII. in prominent writers, who can be assigned a decree of 1298, in which Ambrose, to no particular class. Augustin, Jerome, and Gregory the Great are Together with the genuine writings of the designated as magni doctores ecclesiae, who church fathers there appeared in the first deserve a higher degree of veneration. centuries, in behalf both of heresy and of Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and St. orthodoxy, a multitude of apocryphal , Bernard were added to the list by papal

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 9 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course decree in 1830, Hilary in 1852, Alfonso Maria in old English flavor); by CHS. H. HOOLE, Lond. da Liguori in 1871. Anselm of and 1870 and 1872; best by Lightfoot (Clement R. in a few others are called doctores in the Appendix, 1877). An excellent German liturgical service, without special decree. The translation by H. SCHOLZ, Guetersloh, 1865 (in long line of has only furnished two the style of Luther’s Bible version). fathers, Leo I. and Gregory I The Council of WORKS Trent first speaks of the “unanimis consensus The Prolegomena to the editions just named, patrum,” which is used in the same sense as particularly those of the first four. “doctrina ecclesia.” A. SCHWEGLER: Das nachapostolische Zeitalter, 2.161. The Apostolic Fathers Tueb. 1846. 2 vols. A very able but hypercritical reconstruction from the Tuebingen school, full SOURCES of untenable hypotheses, assigning the Gospels, Acts, the Catholic and later Pauline to PATRUM APOSTOLICORUM OPERA. Best editions by the post-apostolic age, and measuring every O. VON GEBHARDT, A. HARNACK, TH. ZAHN, Lips. 1876–’8. 3 vols. (being the third ed. of Dressel writer by his supposed Petrine or Pauline tendency, and his relation to Ebionism and much improved); by FR. XAV. FUNK (R.C.), Tueb. 1878 and 1881, 2 vols. (being the 5 and Gnosticism. enlarged edition of Hefele); by A. HILGENFELD A. HILGENFELD: Die apostolischen Vater. Halle, (Tuebingen school): Novum Testamentum extra 1853. canonem receptum, Lips. 1866, superseded by J. H. B. LUBKERT:Die Theologie der apostolischen the revised ed. appearing in parts (Clemens R., Vaeter, in the “Zeitschrift fuer Hist. Theol.” 1876; Barnabas, 1877; Hermas, 1881); and by Leipz. 1854. Bishop LIGHTFOOT, Lond. and Cambr. 1869, 1877, ABBÉ FREPPEL (Prof. at the Sorbonne): Les Pères and 1885 (including Clement of Rome, Ignatius Apostoliques et leur epoque, second ed. Paris, and Polycarp, with a full critical apparatus, 1859. Strongly Roman Catholic. English translations and valuable notes; upon the whole the best edition as far as it goes.) LECHLER: Das Apost. u. nachapost. Zeitalter. Stuttgart, 1857, p. 476–495; 3d ed., thoroughly Older editions by B. COTELERIUS (COTELIER, R.C.), revised (Leipz., 1885), p. 526–608. Par. 1672, 2 vols. fol., including the spurious JAMES DONALDSON (LL. D.): A Critical History of works; republ. and ed. by J. CLERICUS (LE CLERC), Christian Literature, etc. Vol. I. The Apost. Antw. 1698, 2 ed. Amst. 1724, 2 vols.; TH. ITTIG, Fathers. Edinburgh, 1864. The same, separately 1699; FREY, Basel, 1742; R. RUSSEL, Lond. 1746, 2 publ. under the title: The Apostolic Fathers: A vols. (the genuine works); HORNEMANN, Havniae, critical account of their genuine writings and of 1828; GUIL.JACOBSON, Oxon. 1838, ed. IV. 1866, 2 vols. (very elegant and accurate, with valuable their doctrines. London, 1874 (412 pages). notes, but containing only Clemens, Ignatius, Ignatius is omitted. A work of honest and sober Polycarp, and the Martyria of Ign. and Polyc.); C. Protestant learning. J. HEFELE (R.C.), Tueb. 1839, ed. IV. 1855, 1 vol. GEORGE A. JACKSON: The Apostolic Fathers and the (very handy, with learned and judicious Apologists of the Second Century. New York prolegomena and notes); A. R. M. DRESSEL. Lips. 1879. Popular, with extracts (pages 203). 1857, second ed. 1863 (more complete, and J. M. COTTERILL: Peregrinus Proteus. Edinburgh, based on new MSS. Hefele’s and Dressel’s edd. 1879. A curious book, by a Scotch Episcopalian, are superseded by the first two above who tries to prove that the two Epistles of mentioned. Clement, the Epistle to Diognetus, and other English translations of the Apost. Fathers by ancient writings, were literary frauds Archbishop W. WAKE (d. 1737), Lond. 1693, 4 perpetrated by Henry Stephens and others in ed. 1737, and often republished (in admirable the time of the revival of letters in the sixteenth style, though with many inaccuracies); by ALEX. century. ROBERTS and JAMES DONALDSON, in the first vol. of JOSEF SPRINZL, (R.C.): Die Theologie der apost. Clark’s “Ante-Nicene Christian Library.” Edinb. Vater. Wien, 1880. Tries to prove the entire 1867 (superior to Wake in accuracy, but inferior

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agreement of the Ap. Fathers with the modern , and the Pastor of Vatican theology. Hermas) are of doubtful genuineness; but The “apostolic,” or rather post-apostolic they belong at all events to that, obscure and “fathers” were the first church teachers after mysterious transition period between the end the apostles, who had enjoyed in part of the first century and the middle of the personal intercourse with them, and thus second. They all originated, not in scientific form the connecting link between them and study, but in practical religious feeling, and the apologists of the second century. This contain not analyses of doctrine so much as class consists of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, simple direct assertions of faith and Ignatius, Polycarp, and, in a broader sense, exhortations to holy life; all, excepting Hermas, Papias, and the unknown authors of Hermas and the , in the form of the Epistle to Diognetus, and of the Didache epistles after the model of Paul’s. Yet they Of the outward life of these men, their show the germs of the apologetic, polemic, extraction, education, and occupation before dogmatic, and ethic theology, as well as the conversion, hardly anything is known. The outlines of the organization and the cultus of distressed condition of that age was very the ancient . Critical research unfavorable to authorship; and more than has to assign to them their due place in the this, the spirit of the primitive church external and internal development of the regarded the new life in Christ as the only church; in doing this it needs very great true life, the only one worthy of being caution to avoid arbitrary construction. recorded. Even of the lives of the apostles If we compare these documents with the themselves before their call we have only a canonical Scriptures of the , it few hints. But the pious story of the is evident at once that they fall far below in martyrdom of several of these fathers, as original force, depth, and fulness of spirit, and their into perfect life, has been afford in this a strong indirect proof of the copiously written. They were good men inspiration of the apostles. Yet they still shine rather than great men, and excelled more in with the evening red of the apostolic day, and zeal and devotion to Christ than in literary breathe an enthusiasm of simple faith and attainments. They were faithful practical fervent love and fidelity to the Lord, which workers, and hence of more use to the church proved its power in suffering and martyrdom. in those days than profound thinkers or great They move in the element of living tradition, scholars could have been. “While the works of and make reference oftener to the oral Tacitus, Sueton, Juvenal, Martial, and other preaching of the apostles than to their contemporary heathen authors are filled with writings; for these were not yet so generally the sickening details of human folly, vice, and circulated but they bear a testimony none the crime, these humble Christian pastors are less valuable to the genuineness of the ever burning with the love of God and men, apostolic writings, by occasional citations or exhort to a life of purity and holiness in allusions, and by the coincidence of their imitation of the example of Christ, and find reminiscences with the facts of the gospel abundant strength and comfort amid trial and history and the fundamental doctrines of the persecution in their faith, and the hope of a New Testament. The epistles of Barnabas, glorious immortality in .” Clement, and Polycarp, and the Shepherd of The extant works of the apostolic fathers are Hernias, were in many churches read in of small compass, a handful of letters on holy public worship. Some were even incorporated living and dying, making in all a volume of in important manuscripts of the Bible. This about twice the size of the New Testament. shows that the sense of the church, as to the Half of these (several Epistles of Ignatius, the extent of the canon, had not yet become everywhere clear. Their authority, however,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 11 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course was always but sectional and subordinate to (II.) R. A. LIPSIUS: De Clementis Rom. Epistola ad that of the Gospels and the apostolic Epistles. Corinth. priore disquisitio. Lips. 1856 (188 It was a sound instinct of the church, that the pages). Comp. his review of recent editions in writings of the disciples of the apostles, the “Jenaer Literaturzeitung.” Jan. 13, 1877. excepting those of Mark and Luke, who were B. H. COWPER: What the First Bishop of Rome peculiarly associated with Peter and Paul, taught. The Ep. of Clement of R. to the Cor., with were kept out of the canon of the New an Introduction and Notes. London, 1867. Testament. For by the wise ordering of the JOS. MULLOOLY: St. Clement Pope and Martyr, and Ruler of history, there is an impassable gulf his Basilica in Rome. Rome, second ed. 1873. The between the inspiration of the apostles and same in Italian. Discusses the supposed house and basilica of Clement, but not his works. the illumination of the succeeding age, between the standard authority of holy JACOBI: Die beiden Briefe des Clemens v. Rom., in the “Studien und Kritiken” for 1876, p. 707 sqq. Scripture and the derived validity of the teaching of the church. “The Bible”—to adopt FUNK: Ein theologischer Fund, in the Tueb. an illustration of a distinguished writer—“is “Theol. Quartalschrift,” 1876, p. 286 sqq. not like a city of modern Europe, which DONALDSON: The New MS. of Clement of Rome. In subsides through suburban gardens and the “Theolog. Review.” 1877, p. 35 sqq. groves and mansions into the open country WIESELER: Der Brief des roem. Clemens an die around, but like an Eastern city in the desert, Kor., in the “Jahrbuecher füer deutsche Theol.” from which the traveler passes by a single 1877. No. III. step into a barren waste.” The very poverty of RENAN: Les évangiles. Paris 1877. Ch. xv. 311– these post-apostolic writings renders homage 338. to the inexhaustible richness of the apostolic C. J. H. ROPES: The New MS. of Clement of Rome, in books which, like the person of Christ, are the “Presb. Quarterly and Princeton Review.” N. divine as well as human in their origin, York 1877, P. 325–343. Contains a scholarly examination of the new readings, and a character, and effect. comparison of the concluding prayer with the 2.162. Clement of Rome ancient liturgies. (I.) The Epistle of CLEMENS Rom. to the The relevant sections in HILGENFELD (Apost. Corinthians. Only the first is genuine, the second Vaeter, 85–92), DONALDSON (Ap. Fath., 113–190), so-called Ep. of Cl. is a homily of later date. Best SPRINZL (Theol. d. Apost. Vater, 21 sqq., 57 sqq.), editions by PHILOTHEOS BRYENNIOS (Τοῦ ἐν ἁγίοις SALMON in Smith and Wace, I. 554 sqq., and πατρὸς ἠμῶν Κλήμεντος ἐπισκόπου Ῥώμης αἱ UHLHORN in Herzog, sub Clemens Rom. III. 248– δύο πρὸς Καρινθίους ἐπιστολαί etc. Ἐν 257. Κωνσταντινοπόλει, 1875. With prolegomena, Comp. full lists of editions, translations, and commentary and facsimiles at the end, 188 pp. discussions on Clement, before and after 1875, text, and ρξθʹ or 169 prolegomena); HILGENFELD in the Prolegomena of von Gebhardt & Harnack, (second ed. Leipz. 1876, with prolegomena, XVIII.–XXIV.; Funk, XXXII.–XXXVI.; Lightfoot, p. textual notes and conjectures); VON GEBHARDT& 28 sqq., 223 sqq., and 393 sqq., and Richardson, HARNACK (sec. ed. 1876, with proleg., notes, and Synopsis, I sqq. Latin version); FUNK (1878, with Latin version The first rank among the works of the post- and notes); and LIGHTFOOT (with notes, Lond. Apostolic age belongs to the “Teaching of the 1869, and Appendix containing the newly- Apostles,” discovered in 1883. Next follow the discovered portions, and an English Version, letters of Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. 1877). I. CLEMENT, a name of great celebrity in All the older editions from the Alexandrian MS. antiquity, was a of Paul and Peter, to first published by Junius, 1633, are partly whom he refers as the chief examples for superseded by the discovery of the new and complete MS. in , which marks an imitation. He may have been the same person epoch in this chapter of church history. who is mentioned by Paul as one of his

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 12 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course faithful fellow-workers in Philippi (Phil. 4:3); obedience and submission to an independent or probably a Roman who was in some way and distracted church, whose vision reached connected with the distinguished Flavian even to unknown lands beyond the Western family, and through it with the imperial sea, should inaugurate, at the threshold of the household, where Christianity found an early second century, that long line of pontiffs who lodgment. His Epistle betrays a man of have outlasted every dynasty in Europe, and classical culture, executive wisdom, and now claim an infallible authority over the thorough familiarity with the Septuagint consciences of two hundred millions of Bible. The last seems to indicate that he was Christians. of Jewish parentage. What we know with II. From this Clement we have a Greek epistle certainty is only this, that he stood at the head to the Corinthians. It is often cited by the of the Roman congregation at the close of the church fathers, then disappeared, but was first century. Yet tradition is divided against found again, together with the fragments of itself as to the time of his administration; now the second epistle, in the Alexandrian codex making him the first successor of Peter, now, of the Bible (now in the British Museum), and with more probability, the third. According to published by Patricius Junius (Patrick Young) Eusebius he was bishop from the twelfth year at Oxford in 1633. A second, less ancient, but of Domitian to the third of Trajan (A. D. 92 to more perfect manuscript from the eleventh 101). Considering that the official distinction century, containing the missing chapters of between bishops and presbyters was not yet the first (with the oldest written prayer) and clearly defined in his time, he may have been the whole of the second Epistle (together co-presbyter with Linus and Anacletus, who with other valuable documents), was are represented by some as his predecessors, discovered by Philotheos Bryennios, in the by others as his successors. convent library of the of Later legends have decked out his life in in Constantinople, and published in 1875. romance, both in the interest of the Catholic Soon afterwards a Syriac translation was church and in that of heresy. They picture found in the library of Jules Mohl, of Paris (d. him as a noble and highly educated Roman 1876). We have thus three independent texts who, dissatisfied with the, wisdom and art of (A, C, S), derived, it would seem, from a heathenism, journeyed to Palestine, became common parent of the second century. The acquainted there with the apostle Peter, and newly discovered portions shed new light on was converted by him; accompanied him on the history of papal authority and liturgical his missionary tours; composed many books worship, as we have pointed out in previous in his name; was appointed by him his chapters. successor as bishop of Rome, with a sort of This first (and in fact the only) Epistle to the supervision over the whole church; and at Corinthians was sent by the Church of God in last, being banished under Trajan to the Rome, at its own impulse, and unasked, to the Taurian Chersonesus, died the glorious death Church of God in Corinth, through three aged of a martyr in the waves of the sea. But the and faithful Christians: Claudius Ephebus, oldest witnesses, down to Eusebius and Valerius Biton, and Fortunatus. It does not Jerome, know nothing of his martyrdom. The bear the name of Clement, and is written in Acta Martyrii Clementis (by Simon the name of the Roman congregation, but was Metaphrastes) make their appearance first in universally regarded as his production. It the ninth century. They are purely fictitious, stood in the highest esteem in ancient times, and ascribe incredible miracles to their hero. and continued in public use in the Corinthian It is very remarkable that a person of such church and in several other churches down to vast influence in truth and fiction, whose the beginning of the fourth century. This words were law, who preached the duty of accounts for its incorporation in the

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Alexandrian Bible Codex, but it is properly Christ, and the Holy Spirit, who are the faith put after the and separated from and the hope of the elect”), of the Divine the apostolic epistles. dignity and glory of Christ, salvation only by And this indicates its value. It is not his blood, the necessity of repentance and apostolical, not inspired—far from it—but the living faith, justification by grace, oldest and best among the sub-apostolic sanctification by the Holy Spirit, the unity of writings both in form and contents. It was the church, and the Christian graces of occasioned by party differences and quarrels humility, charity, forbearance, patience, and in the church of Corinth, where the sectarian perseverance. In striking contrast with the spirit, so earnestly rebuked by Paul in his first bloody cruelties practiced by Domitian, he Epistle, had broken out afresh and succeeded exhorts to prayer for the civil rulers, that God in deposing the regular officers (the “may give them health, peace, concord, and presbyter-bishops). The writer exhorts the stability for the administration of the readers to harmony and love, humility, and government be has given them.” We have holiness, after the pattern of Christ and his here the echo of Paul’s exhortation to the apostles, especially Peter and Paul, who had Romans (Rom. 13) under the tyrant . but recently sealed their testimony with their Altogether the Epistle of Clement is worthy of blood. He speaks in the highest terms of Paul a disciple of the apostles, although falling far who, “after instructing the whole [Roman] short of their writings in original simplicity, world in righteousness, and after having terseness, and force. reached the end of the West, and borne III. In regard to its theology, this epistle witness before the rulers, departed into the belongs plainly to the school of Paul and holy place, leaving the greatest example of strongly resembles the Epistle to the patient endurance.” He evinces the calm Hebrews, while at the same time it betrays dignity and executive wisdom of the Roman the influence of Peter also; both these church in her original simplicity, without apostles having, in fact, personally labored in hierarchical arrogance; and it is remarkable the church of Rome, in whose name the letter how soon that church recovered after the is written, and having left the stamp of their terrible ordeal of the Neronian persecution, mind upon it. There is no trace in it of an which must have been almost an annihilation. antagonism between Paulinism and He appeals to the word of God as the final Petrinism. Clement is the only one of the authority, but quotes as freely from the apostolic fathers, except perhaps Polycarp, Apocrypha as from the canonical Scriptures who shows some conception of the Pauline (the Septuagint). He abounds in free doctrine of justification by faith. “All (the reminiscences of the teaching of Christ and of the Old Testament),” says he, the Apostles. He refers to Paul’s (First) Epistle “became great and glorious, not through to the Corinthians, and shows great themselves, nor by their works, nor by their familiarity with his letters, with James, First righteousness, but by the will of God. Thus we Peter, and especially the Epistle to the also, who are called by the will of God in Hebrews, from which he borrows several Christ Jesus, are righteous not of ourselves, expressions. Hence he is mentioned—with neither through our wisdom, nor through our Paul, Barnabas, and Luke—as one of the understanding, nor through our piety, nor supposed authors of that anonymous epistle. through our works, which we have wrought Origen conjectured that Clement or Luke in purity of heart, but by faith, by which the composed the Hebrews under the inspiration almighty God justified all these from the or dictation of Paul. beginning; to whom be glory to all eternity.” Clement bears clear testimony to the And then Clement, precisely like Paul in doctrines of the (“God, the Lord Jesus Romans 6, derives sanctification from

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 14 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course justification, and continues: “What, then, counterpart of St. James, showing that the should we do, beloved brethren? Should we conflict between the Pauline and Petrine be slothful in good works and neglect love? views was substantially settled at the end of By no means! But with zeal and courage we the first century in the Roman church, and will hasten to fulfil every good work. For the also in that of Corinth. Creator and Lord of all things himself rejoices Clement knows nothing of an episcopate in his works.” Among the good works he above the presbyterate; and his epistle itself especially extols love, and describes it in a is written, not in his own name, but in that of strain which reminds one of Paul’s 1 the church at Rome. But he represents the Corinthians 13: “He who has love in Christ Levitical priesthood as a type of the Christian obeys the commands of Christ. Who can teaching office, and insists with the greatest declare the bond of the love of God, and tell decision on outward unity, fixed order, and the greatness of its beauty? The height to obedience to church rulers. He speaks in a which it leads is unspeakable. Love unites us tone of authority to a sister church of with God; covers a multitude of ; beareth apostolic foundation, and thus reveals the all things, endureth all things. There is easy and as yet innocent beginning of the nothing mean in love, nothing haughty. It papacy. A hundred years after his death his knows no division; it is not refractory; it does successors ventured, in their own name, not everything in harmony. In love have all the only to exhort, but to excommunicate whole elect of God become perfect. Without love churches for trifling differences. nothing is pleasing to God. In love has the The interval between Clement and Paul, and Lord received us; for the love which he the transition from the apostolic to the cherished towards us, Jesus Christ our Lord apocryphal, from faith to superstition, gave his blood for us according to the will of appears in the indiscriminate use of the God, and his flesh for our flesh, and his soul Jewish Apocrypha, and in the difference for our soul.” Hence all his zeal for the unity between Paul’s treatment of scepticism in of the church. “Wherefore are dispute, anger, regard to the resurrection, and his disciple’s discord, division, and war among you? Or treatment of the same subject. Clement points have we not one God and one Christ and one not only to the types in nature, the changes of Spirit, who is poured out upon us, and one the seasons and of day and night, but also in calling in Christ? Wherefore do we tear and full earnest to the heathen myth of the sunder the members of Christ, and bring the miraculous bird, the phoenix in Arabia, which body into tumult against itself, and go so far regenerates itself every five hundred years. in delusion, that we forget that we are When the phoenix—so runs the fable— members one of another?” approaches death, it makes itself a nest of Very beautifully also he draws from the frankincense, myrrh, and other spices; from harmony of the universe an incitement to its decaying flesh a winged worm arises, concord, and incidentally expresses here the which, when it becomes strong, carries the remarkable sentiment, perhaps suggested by reproductive nest from Arabia to Heliopolis in the old legends of the Atlantis, the orbis alter, Egypt, and there flying down by day, in the the ultima Thule, etc., that there are other sight of all, it lays it, with the bones of its worlds beyond the impenetrable ocean, predecessors, upon the altar of the sun. And which are ruled by the same laws of the Lord. this takes place, according to the reckoning of But notwithstanding its prevailing Pauline the priests, every five hundred years. After character, this epistle lowers somewhat the Clement other fathers also used the phoenix free evangelical tone of the Gentile apostle’s as a symbol of the resurrection. theology, softens its anti-Judaistic sternness, and blends it with the Jewish-Christian

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IV. As to the time of its composition, this exhortation to active Christianity and to epistle falls certainly after the death of Peter fidelity in persecution, meantime contending and Paul, for it celebrates their martyrdom; with the Gnostic denial of the resurrection. It and probably after the death of John (about is orthodox in sentiment, calls Christ “God 98); for one would suppose, that if he had and the Judge of the living and the dead,” and been living, Clement would have alluded to speaks of the great moral revolution wrought him, in deference to superior authority, and by him in these words (2 Cor. 1): “We were that the Corinthian Christians would have deficient in understanding, worshipping applied to an apostle for counsel, rather than stocks and stones, gold and silver and brass, to a disciple of the apostles in distant Rome. the works of men; and our whole life was The persecution alluded to in the beginning of nothing else but death.… Through Jesus Christ the epistle refers to the Domitian as well as we have received sight, putting off by his will the Neronian; for he speaks of “sudden and the cloud wherein we were wrapped. He repeated calamities and reverses which have mercifully saved us.… He called us when we befallen us.” He prudently abstains from were not, and willed that out of nothing we naming the imperial persecutors, and should attain a real existence.” intercedes at the close for the civil rulers. 2. Two ENCYCLICAL LETTERS ON VIRGINITY. They Moreover, he calls the church at Corinth at were first discovered by J. J. Wetstein in the that time “firmly established and ancient.” library of the Remonstrants at Amsterdam, in With this date the report of Eusebius agrees, a Syriac Version written A.D. 1470, and that Clement did not take the bishop’s chair in published as an appendix to his famous Greek Rome till 92 or 93. Testament, 1752. They commend the 2.163. The Pseudo-Clementine Works unmarried life, and contain exhortations and rules to ascetics of both sexes. They show the The most complete collection of the genuine and early development of an asceticism which is spurious works of Clement in Migne’s Patrol. Graeca, Tom. I. and II. foreign to the apostolic teaching and practice. While some Roman Catholic divines still The name of Clement has been forged upon defend the Clementine origin, others with several later writings, both orthodox and stronger arguments assign it to the middle or heretical, to give them the more currency by close of the second century. the weight of his name and position. These pseudo-Clementine works supplanted in the 3. The APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS and CANONS. church of Rome the one genuine work of The so-called LITURGIA S. CLEMENTIS is a part Clement, which passed into oblivion with the of the eighth book of the Constitutions. knowledge of the . They are as 4. The PSEUDO-CLEMENTINA, or twenty follows: Ebionitic homilies and their Catholic 1. A SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS, falsely reproduction, the RECOGNITIONS. so called, formerly known only in part (12 5. FIVE DECRETAL LETTERS, which pseudo- chapters), since 1875 in full (20 chapters). It Isidore has placed at the head of his is greatly inferior to the First Epistle in collection. Two of them are addressed to contents and style, and of a later date, James, the Lord’s Brother, are older than the between 120 and 140, probably written in pseudo-Isidore, and date from the second or Corinth; hence its connection with it in MSS. It third century; the three others were is no epistle at all, but a homily addressed to fabricated by him. They form the basis for the “brothers and sisters.” It is the oldest known most gigantic and audacious literary forgery specimen of a post-apostolic sermon, and of the middle ages—the Isidorian Decretals— herein alone lies its importance and value. It which subserved the purposes of the papal is an earnest, though somewhat feeble hierarchy. The first Epistle to James gives an

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 16 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course account of the appointment of Clement by English translations of all the Epistles of Peter as his successor in the see of Rome, Ignatius (Syriac, and Greek in both recensions) with directions concerning the functions of by ROBERTS, DONALDSON, and CROMBIE, in Clark’s the church-officers and the general “Ante-Nicene Library, (1867), and by LIGHTFOOT administration of the church. The second (1885). Epistle to James refers to the administration Earlier Engl. translations by WHISTON (1711) of the eucharist, church furniture, and other and CLEMENTSON (1827). ritualistic matters. They are attached to the German translations by M. I. WOCHER (1829) and pseudo-Clementine Homilies and JOS. NIRSCHL (Die Briefe des heil. Ign. und sein Recognitions. But it is remarkable that in the Martyrium, 1870). Homilies James of Jerusalem appears as the ACTA MARTYRII S. IGNATII (Μαρτύρριον τοῡ ἁγίου superior of Peter of Rome, who must give an ἱερομάρτυρος Ἰγνατίου τοῡ θεοφόρου), ed. by Ussher (from two Latin copies, 1647), Cotelier account of his doings, and entrust to him his (Greek, 1672), Ruinart (1689), Grabe, Ittig, sermons for safe keeping. Smith, Gallandi, Jacobson, Hefele, Dressel, 2.164. Ignatius of Antioch Cureton, Moesinger, Petermann, Zahn (pp. 301 sqq.), (Funk (I. 254–265; II. 218–275), and SOURCES: Lightfoot (II. 473–536). A Syriac version was W. CURETON: The Ancient Syriac Version of the edited by Cureton (Corpus Ignat. 222–225, 252– Epistles of S. Ignatius to S. Polycarp, the 255), and more fully by Moesinger Ephesians, and the Romans. With transl. and (Supplementum Corporis Ignat., 1872). An notes. Lond. and Berl., 1845. Also in LIGHTFOOT Armenian Martyr. was edited by Petermann, II. 659–676. 1849. The Martyrium Colbertinum (from the codex Colbertinus in Paris) has seven chapters. C. C. J. BUNSEN: Die 3 aechten u. die 4 unaechten There are several later and discordant Briefe des Ignatius von Ant. Hergestellter u. recensions, with many interpolations. The Acts verqleichender Text mit Anmerkk. Hamb., 1847. of Ignatius profess to be written by two of his W. CURETON: Corpus Ignatianum: a complete and travelling companions; but they collection of the Ignatian Epistles, genuine, were unknown to Eusebius, they contradict the interpolated, and spurious; together with Epistles, they abound in unhistorical numerous extracts from them as quoted by statements, and the various versions conflict Eccles. writers down to the tenth century; in with each other. Hence recent Protestant critics Syriac, Greek, and Latin, an Engl. transl. of the reject them; and even the latest Roman Catholic Syriac text, copious notes, and introd. Lond. and editor admits that they must have been written Berl., 1849. after the second century. Probably not before J. H. PETERMANN: S. Ignatii quae feruntur the fifth. Comp. the investigation of Zahn, Ign. v. Epistolae, una cum ejusdem martyrio, collatis Ant., p. 1–74; Funk, Proleg. p. lxxix. sqq., and edd. Graecis, versionibusque Syriaca, Armeniaca, Lightfoot, II. 363–536. Latinis. Lips., 1849. The patristic statements concerning Ignatius are THEOD. ZAHN: Ignatii et Polycarpi Epistulae, collected by Cureton, Bunsen, Petermann, Zahn, Martyria, Fragmenta. Lips. 1876 (the second p. 326–381, and Lightfoot, I. 127–221. part of Patrum Apostolorum Opera, ed. CRITICAL DISCUSSIONS. Gebhardt, Harnack and Zahn). This is the best JOH. DALLAEUS (Daillé): De scriptis quae sub critical ed. of the shorter Greek text. Funk Dionysii Areopagitae et Ignatii nominibus admits its superiority (“non hesitans dico, circumferuntur, libri duo. Genev., 1666. Against textum quem exhibuit Zahn, prioribus longe the genuineness. praestare.” Prol., p. lxxv.). *J. PEARSON: Vindiciae Ignatianae. Cambr., 1672. FR. XAV. FUNK: Opera Patrum Apost., vol. I. Tub., Also in Cleric. ed. of the Patres Apost. II. 250– 1878. 440, and in Migne’s Patrol. Gr., Tom. V. J. B. LIGHTFOOT: The Apost. Fathers. P. II. vol. I. Republished with annotations by E. Churton, in and II. Lond. 1885. the Anglo-Cath. Library, Oxf., 1852, 2 vols.

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*R. ROTHE: Anfaenge der christl. Kirche. Wittenb., favor of the short Greek recension. See his S. 1837. I., p. 715 sqq. For the shorter Greek Ignatius and S. Polycarp, London, 1885, Vol. I., recension. 315–414. He repeats and reinforces Zahn’s BARON VON BUNSEN (at that time Prussian arguments. ambassador in England): Ignatius von Ant. u. CANON R. TRAVERS SMITH: St. Ignatius in Smith and seine Zeit. 7 Sendschreiben an Dr. Neander. Wace III. (1882), 209–223. For the short Greek Hamb., 1847. For the Syriac version. recensiona. BAUR: Die Ignatianischen Briefe u. ihr neuster On the chronology: Kritiker. Tueb., 1848. Against Bunsen and JOS. NIRSCHL: Das Todesjahr des Ignatius v. A. und against the genuineness of all recensions. die drei oriental. Feldzuege des Kaisers Trajan DENZINGER. (R.C.): Ueber die Aechtheit des (1869); ADOLF HARNACK: Die Zeit des Ignatius und bisherigen Textes der Ignatian. Briefe. Wuerzb., die Chronologie der Antiochenischen Bischoefe 1849. bis Tyrannus (Leipzig, 1878); and WIESSLER: Die *G. UHLHORN: Das Verhaeltniss der syrischen Christenverfolgungen der Caesaren (Guetersloh, Recension der Ignatian. Br. zu der kuerzeren 1878), p. 125 sqq. griechischen. Leipz., 1851 (in the “Zeitschr. fuer On the theology of Ignatius, comp. the relevant Hist. Theol.”); and his article “Ignatius” in sections in MÖHLER, HILGENFELD, ZAHN (422– Herzog’s Theol. Encykl., vol. vi. (1856), p. 623 494), NIRSCHL, and SPRINZL. sqq., and in the second ed., vol. vi. 688–694. For I. LIFE OF IGNATIUS. the shorter Greek recension. IGNATIUS, surnamed Theophorus, stood at the THIERSCH: Kirche im Apost. Zeitalter. Frankf. u. head of the Church of Antioch at the close of Erl., 1852, p. 320 sqq. the first century and the beginning of the LIPSIUS: Ueber die Aechtheit der syr. Recens. der second, and was thus contemporaneous with Ignat. Br. Leipz., 1856 (in Niedner’s “Zeitschr. fuer Hist. Theol.”). For the Syriac version. But he Clement of Rome and of Jerusalem. afterwards changed his view in Hilgenfeld’s The church of Antioch was the mother-church “Zeitschrift f. wiss. Theol.” 1874, p. 211. of Gentile Christianity; and the city was the VAUCHER: Recherches critiques sur les lettres second city of the Roman empire. Great d’gnace d’Antioche. Genève, 1856. numbers of Christians and a host of heretical tendencies were collected there, and pushed MERX: Meletemata Ignatiana. Hal. 1861. the development of doctrine and organization *THEOD. ZAHN: Ignatius von Antiochien. Gotha, with great rapidity. 1873. (631 pages.) For the short Greek recension. The best vindication. Comp. the As in the case of Rome, tradition differs Proleg. to his ed., 1876. concerning the first episcopal succession of RENAN: Les Évangiles (1877), ch. XXII. 485–498, Antioch, making Ignatius either the second or and the introduction, p. X sqq. Comp. also his the first bishop of this church after Peter, and notice of Zahn in the “Journal des Savants” for calling him now a disciple of Peter, now of 1874. Against the genuineness of all Ep. except Paul, now of John. The Apostolic Constitutions Romans. See in reply Zahn, Proleg. p. x. intimate that Evodius and Ignatius presided F. X. FUNK: Die Echtheit der Ignatianischen Briefe. contemporaneously over that church, the first Tuebingen 1883. being ordained by Peter, the second by Paul. LIGHTFOOT: St. Paul’s Ep. to the Philippians (Lond. Baronius and others suppose the one to have 1873), Excurs. on the Chr. Ministry, p. 208–911, been the bishop of the Jewish, the other of the and 232–236. “The short Greek of the Ignatian Gentile converts. Thiersch endeavors to letters is probably corrupt or spurious: but from reconcile the conflicting statements by the internal evidence this recension can hardly have hypothesis, that Peter appointed Evodius been made later than the middle of the second presbyter, Paul Ignatius, and John century.” (p. 210). On p. 232, note, he expressed his preference with Lipsius for the short Syriac subsequently ordained Ignatius bishop. But text. But since then he has changed his mind in Ignatius himself and Eusebius say nothing of

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 18 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course his apostolic discipleship; while the on his Parthian expedition till the year 114 or testimony of Jerome and the Martyrium 115. We must therefore either place the Colbertinum that he and Polycarp were martyrdom later, or suppose, what is much fellow-disciples of St. John, is contradicted by more probable, that Ignatius did not appear the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, according before the emperor himself at all, but before to which he did not know Polycarp till he his governor. Eusebius, Chrysostom, and came to Smyrna on his way to Rome. other ancient witnesses say nothing of an According to later story, Ignatius was the first imperial judgment, and the Epistle to the patron of sacred music, and introduced the Romans rather implies that Ignatius was not antiphony in Antioch. condemned by the emperor at all; for But his peculiar glory, in the eyes of the otherwise it would have been useless for him ancient church, was his martyrdom. The to forbid them to intercede in his behalf. An minute account of it, in the various versions appeal was possible from a lower tribunal, of the Martyrium S. Ignatii, contains many but not from the emperor’s. embellishments of pious fraud and fancy; but II. His Letters. the fact itself is confirmed by general On his journey to Rome, Bishop Ignatius, as a tradition. Ignatius himself says, in his Epistle prisoner of Jesus Christ, wrote seven epistles to the Romans, according to the Syriac to various churches, mostly in Asia Minor. version: “From Syria to Rome I fight with wild Eusebius and Jerome put them in the beasts, on water and on land, by day and by following order: (1) To the Ephesians; (2) to night, chained to ten leopards [soldiers], the Magnesians; (3) to the Trallians; (4) to the made worse by signs of kindness. Yet their Romans; (5) to the Philadelphians; (6) to the wickednesses do me good as a disciple; but Smyrneans; (7) to Polycarp, bishop of not on this account am I justified. Would that Smyrna. The first four were composed in I might be glad of the beasts made ready for Smyrna; the other three later in Troas. These me. And I pray that they may be found ready seven epistles, in connection with a number for me. Nay, I will fawn upon them, that they of other decidedly spurious epistles of may devour me quickly, and not, as they have Ignatius, have come down to us in two Greek done with some, refuse to touch me from fear. versions, a longer and a shorter. The shorter Yea, and if they will not voluntarily do it, I will is unquestionably to be preferred to the bring them to it by force.” longer, which abounds with later The Acts of his martyrdom relate more interpolations. Besides these, to increase the minutely, that Ignatius was brought before confusion of controversy, a Syriac translation the Emperor Trajan at Antioch in the ninth has been made known in 1845, which year of his reign (107–108), was condemned contains only three of the former epistles— to death as a Christian, was transported in those to Polycarp, to the Ephesians, and to the chains to Rome, was there thrown to lions in Romans—and these in a much shorter form. the Coliseum for the amusement of the This version is regarded by some as an exact people, and that his remains were carried transfer of the original; by others, with back to Antioch as an invaluable treasure. The greater probability, as a mere extract from it transportation may be accounted for as for practical and ascetic purposes. designed to cool the zeal of the bishop, to The question therefore lies between the terrify other Christians on the way, and to shorter Greek copy and the Syriac version. prevent an outbreak of fanaticism in the The preponderance of testimony is for the church of Antioch. But the chronological part former, in which the letters are no loose of the statement makes difficulty. So far as we patch-work, but were produced each under know, from coins and other ancient its own impulse, were known to Eusebius documents, Trajan did not come to Antioch

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(probably even to Polycarp), and agree also partaker of God. I am a grain of the wheat of with the Armenian version of the fifth God, and I would be ground by the teeth of century, as compared by Petermann. The wild beasts, that I may be found pure bread of three Syriac epistles, however, though they God. Rather fawn upon the beasts, that they lack some of the strongest passages on may be to me a grave, and leave nothing of episcopacy and on the of Christ, my body, that, when I sleep, I may not be contain the outlines of the same life-picture, burdensome to any one. Then will I truly be a and especially the same fervid enthusiasm for disciple of Christ, when the world can no martyrdom, as the seven Greek epistles. longer even see my body. Pray the Lord for III. His Character and Position in history. me, that through these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God.” And further on: Ignatius stands out in history as the ideal of a “Fire, and cross, and exposure to beasts, catholic martyr, and as the earliest advocate scattering of the bones, hewing of the limbs, of the hierarchical principle in both its good crushing of the whole body, wicked torments and its evil points. As a writer, he is of the devil, may come upon me, if they only remarkable for originality, freshness and make me partaker of Jesus Christ.… My love is force of ideas, and for terse, sparkling and crucified, and there is no fire in me, which sententious style; but in apostolic simplicity loves earthly stuff.… I rejoice not in the food and soundness, he is inferior to Clement and of perishableness, nor in the pleasures of this Polycarp, and presents a stronger contrast to life. The bread of God would I have, which is the epistles of the New Testament. Clement the flesh of Christ; and for drink I wish his shows the calmness, dignity and blood, which is imperishable love.” governmental wisdom of the Roman character. Ignatius glows with the fire and From these and similar passages, however, impetuosity of the Greek and Syrian temper we perceive also that his martyr-spirit which carries him beyond the bounds of exceeds the limits of the genuine apostolic sobriety. He was a very uncommon man, and soberness and resignation, which is equally made a powerful impression upon his age. He willing to depart or to remain according to is the incarnation, as it were, of the three the Lord’s good pleasure. It degenerates into closely connected ideas: the glory of boisterous impatience and morbid fanaticism. martyrdom, the omnipotence of episcopacy, It resembles the lurid torch rather than the and the hatred of heresy and schism. clear calm light. There mingles also in all his Hierarchical pride and humility, Christian extravagant professions of humility and charity and churchly exclusiveness are entire unworthiness a refined spiritual pride typically represented in Ignatius. and self-commendation. And, finally, there is something offensive in the tone of his epistle As he appears personally in his epistles, his to Polycarp, in which he addresses that most beautiful and venerable trait is his venerable bishop and apostolic disciple, who glowing love for Christ as God incarnate, and at that time must have already entered upon his enthusiasm for martyrdom. If great the years of ripe manhood, not as a colleague patriots thought it sweet to die for their and brother, but rather as a pupil, with country, he thought it sweeter and more exhortations and warnings, such as: “Strive honorable to die for Christ, and by his blood after more knowledge than thou hast.” “Be to fertilize the soil for the growth of His wise as the serpents.” “Be more zealous than Church. “I would rather die for Christ,” says thou art.” “Flee the arts of the devil.” This last he, “than rule the whole earth.” “It is glorious injunction goes even beyond that of Paul to to go down in the world, in order to go up Timothy: “Flee youthful lusts,” and can hardly into God.” He beseeches the Romans: “Leave be justified by it. Thus, not only in force and me to the beasts, that I may by them be made depth of teaching, but also in life and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 20 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course suffering, there is a significant difference arises partly from the importance of their between an apostolic and a post-apostolic contents to the episcopal question, partly martyr. from the existence of so many different The doctrinal and churchly views of the versions. The latter fact seems to argue as Ignatian epistles are framed on a peculiar strongly for the hypothesis of a genuine basis combination and somewhat materialistic for all, as against the supposition of the full apprehension of John’s doctrine of the integrity of any one of the extant texts. Renan incarnation, and Paul’s idea of the church as describes the Ignatian problem as the most the body of Jesus Christ. In the “catholic difficult in early Christian literature, next to church”—an expression introduced by him— that of the (Les Évang. p. x). that is, the episcopal orthodox organization of The Ignatian controversy has passed through his day, the author sees, as it were, the three periods, the first from the publication of continuation of the mystery of the the spurious Ignatius to the publication of the incarnation, on the reality of which he laid shorter Greek recension (A. D. 1495 to 1644); great emphasis against the Docetists; and in the second from the discovery and every bishop, a visible representative of publication of the shorter Greek recension to Christ, and a personal centre of ecclesiastical the discovery and publication of the Syrian unity, which he presses home upon his version (A. D. 1644 to 1845), which resulted readers with the greatest solicitude and in the rejection of the larger Greek recension; almost passionate zeal. He thus applies those the third from the discovery of the Syrian ideas of the apostles directly to the outward extract to the present time (1845–1883), organization, and makes them subservient to which is favorable to the shorter Greek the principle and institution of the growing recension. hierarchy. Here lies the chief importance of 1. The LARGER GREEK RECENSION OF SEVEN these epistles; and the cause of their high EPISTLES with eight additional ones. Four of repute with catholics and prelatists, and their them were published in Latin at Paris, 1495, unpopularity with anti-episcopalians, and as an appendix to another book; eleven more modern critics of the more radical school. by Faber Stapulensis, also in Latin, at Paris, It is remarkable that the idea of the episcopal 1498; then all fifteen in Greek by Valentine hierarchy which we have developed in Hartung (called Paceus or Irenæus) at another chapter, should be first clearly and Dillingen, 1557; and twelve by Andreas boldly brought out, not by the contemporary Gesner at Zurich, 1560. The Catholics at first Roman bishop Clement, but by a bishop of the accepted them all as genuine works of Eastern church; though it was transplanted Ignatius; and Hartung, Baronius, Bellarmin by him to the soil of Rome, and there sealed defended at least twelve; but Calvin and the with his martyr blood. Equally noticeable is Magdeburg Centuriators rejected them all, the circumstance, that these oldest and later Catholics surrendered at least eight documents of the hierarchy soon became so as utterly untenable. These are two Latin interpolated, curtailed, and mutilated by letters of Ignatius to St. John and one to the pious fraud, that it is today almost impossible Mary with an answer of the Virgin; and to discover with certainty the genuine five Greek letters of Ignatius to Maria Ignatius of history under the hyper- and Castabolita, with an answer, to the Tarsenses, pseudo-Ignatius of tradition. to the Antiochians, to Hero, a of Antioch, and to the Philippians. These letters 2.165. The Ignatian Controversy swarm with offences against history and Of all the writings of the apostolic fathers chronology. They were entirely unknown to none have been so much discussed, especially Eusebius and Jerome. They are worthless in modern times, as the Ignatian Epistles. This forgeries, clothed with the name and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 21 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course authority of Ignatius. It is a humiliating fact Zahn (1873, Ign. v. Ant. 495–541). The same that the spurious Ignatius and his letters to St. view is adopted by Wieseler (1878), Funk (in John and the Virgin Mary should in a Patr. Apost. 1878, Prol LX. sqq., and his wretched Latin version have so long monograph, 1883), Canon Travers Smith, (in transplanted and obscured the historical Smith and Wace, 1882), and Lightfoot (1885). Ignatius down to the sixteenth century. No (b) The friends of the three Syriac epistles wonder that Calvin spoke of this fabrication (see below under No. 3) let only so many of with such contempt. But in like manner the the seven epistles stand as agree with those. Mary of history gave way to a Mary of fiction, Also Lardner (1743), Mosheim (1755), the real Peter to a pseudo-Peter, and the real Neander (1826), Thiersch (1852), Lechler Clement to a pseudo-Clement. Here, if (1857), Robertson and Donaldson (1867), are anywhere, we see the necessity and use of inclined to suppose at least interpolation. historical criticism for the defense of truth (c) The shorter recension, though older than and honesty. the longer, is likewise spurious. The letters 2. The SHORTER GREEK RECENSION of the seven were forged in the later half of the second Epistles known to Eusebius was discovered in century for the purpose of promoting a Latin version and edited by Archbishop episcopacy and the worship of martyrs. This Ussher at Oxford, 1644 (Polycarpi et Ignatii view is ably advocated by two very different Epistolae), and in Greek by Vossius, classes of divines: first by Calvinists in the from a Medicean Codex in 1646, again by Th. interest of Presbyterianism or anti-prelacy, Ruinart from the Codex Colbertinus (together Claudius Salmasius (1645), Blondel with the Martyrium) in 1689. We have also (1646), Dallaeus (1666), Basnage, and fragments of a Syrian version (in Cureton), by Dr. Killen of Belfast (1859 and 1883); next and of an Armenian version apparently from by the Tuebingen school of critics in a purely the Syrian (printed in Constantinople in 1783, historical interest, Dr. Baur (1835, then and compared by Petermann). Henceforth the against Rothe, 1838, and against Bunsen, longer Greek recension found very few 1848 and 1853), Schwegler (1846), and more defenders (the eccentric Whiston, 1711, and thoroughly by Hilgenfeld (1853). The more recently Fr. C. Meier, 1836), and their Tuebingen critics reject the whole Ignatian arguments were conclusively refuted by R. literature as unhistorical tendency writings, Rothe in his Anfaenge, 1837, and by K. Fr. L. partly because the entire historical situation Arndt in the “Studien und Kritiken,” 1839). It implied in it and the circuitous journey to is generally given up even by Roman Catholic Rome are in themselves improbable, partly scholars (as Petavius, Cotelier, Dupin, Hefele, because it advocates a form of church Funk). But as regards the genuineness of the government and combats Gnostic heresies, shorter Greek text there are three views which could not have existed in the age of among which scholars are divided. Ignatius. This extreme scepticism is closely (a) Its genuineness and integrity are connected with the whole view of the advocated by Pearson (Vindiciae Ignatianae, Tuebingen school in regard to the history of 1672, against the doubts of the acute primitive Christianity, and offers no Dallaeus), latterly by Gieseler, Moehler (R.C.), explanation of the stubborn fact that Ignatius Rothe (1837), Huther (1841), Duesterdieck was a historical character of a strongly (1843), Dorner (1845), and (since the marked individuality and wrote a number of publication of the shorter Syriac version) by letters widely known and appreciated in the Jacobson, Hefele (R.C., 1847 and 1855), early church. Renan admits the genuineness Denzinger (R.C., 1849), Petermann (1849), of the Ep. to the Romans, but rejects the six Wordsworth, Churton (1852), and most others as fabrications of a zealous partizan of thoroughly by Ulhhorn, (1851 and’56), and orthodoxy and episcopacy about A.D.170. He

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 22 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course misses in them le génie, le caractère 3. The SYRIAC VERSION contains only three individuel, but speaks highly of the Ep. to the epistles (to Polycarp, to the Ephesians, and to Romans, in which the enthusiasm of the the Romans), and even these in a much martyr has found “son expressio la plus reduced form, less than half of the exaltée” (p. 489). corresponding Greek Epistles. It has the (d) We grant that the integrity of these subscription: “Here end the three epistles of epistles, even in the shorter copy, is not the bishop and martyr Ignatius,” on which, beyond all reasonable doubt. As the however, Bunsen lays too great stress; for, manuscripts of them contain, at the same even if it comes from the translator himself, time, decidedly spurious epistles (even the and not from a mere transcriber, it does not Armenian translation has thirteen epistles), necessarily exclude the existence of other the suspicion arises, that the seven genuine epistles (comp. Petermann, l.c. p. xxi.). It was also have not wholly escaped the hand of the discovered in 1839 and ’43 by the Rev. Henry forger. Yet there are, in any case, very strong Tattam in a monastery of the Libyan desert, arguments for their genuineness and together with 365 other Syriac manuscripts, substantial integrity; viz. (1) The testimony of now in the British Museum; published first by the fathers, especially of Eusebius. Even Cureton in 1845, and again in 1849, with the Polycarp alludes to epistles of Ignatius. (2) help of a third MS. discovered in 1847; and The raciness and freshness of their contents, advocated as genuine by him, as also by Lee which a forger could not well imitate. (3) The (1846), Bunsen (1847), Ritschl (1851 and small number of citations from the New 1857), Weiss (1852), and most fully by Testament, indicating the period of the Lipsius (1856), also by E. de Pressené (1862), immediate disciples of the apostles. (4) Their Boehringer (1873), and at first by Lightfoot. way of combating the Judaists and Docetists Now, it is true, that all the considerations we (probably Judaizing Gnostics of the school of have adduced in favor of the shorter Greek Cerinthus), showing us Gnosticism as yet in text, except the first, are equally good, and the first stage of its development. (5) Their some of them even better, for the dogmatical indefiniteness, particularly in genuineness of the Syrian Ignatius, which has regard to the Trinity and , the additional advantage of lacking many of notwithstanding very strong expressions in the most offensive passages (though not in favor of the divinity of Christ. (6) Their urgent the epistle to Polycarp). recommendation of episcopacy as an But against the Syriac text is, in the first place, institution still new and fresh, and as a centre the external testimony of antiquity, especially of congregational unity in distinction from the that of Eusebius, who confessedly knew of diocesan episcopacy of Irenæus and and used seven epistles, whereas the oldest of Tertullian. (7) Their entire silence respecting the three manuscripts of this version, a Roman primacy, even in the epistle to the according to Cureton, belongs at the earliest Romans, where we should most expect it. The to the sixth century, a period, when the longer Roman church is highly recommended copy also had become circulated through all indeed, but the Roman bishop is not even the East, and that too in a Syriac translation, mentioned. In any case these epistles must as the fragments given by Cureton show. have been written before the middle of the Secondly, the internal testimony of the fact, second century, and reflect the spirit of their that the Syriac text, on close examination, by age in its strong current towards a the want of a proper sequence of thoughts hierarchical organization and churchly and sentences betrays the character of a orthodoxy on the basis of the glory of fragmentary extract from the Greek; as Baur martyrdom. (1848), Hilgenfeld (1853), and especially Uhlhorn (1851), and Zahn (1873, p. 167–

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 23 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course

241), by an accurate comparison of the two, (between 130 and 140), presided as have proved in a manner hitherto unrefuted presbyter-bishop over the church of Smyrna and irrefutable. The short Syriac Ignatius has in Asia Minor in the first half of the second vanished like a dream. Even Lipsius and century; made a journey to Rome about the Lightfoot have given up or modified their year 154, to adjust the Easter dispute; and former view. The great work of Lightfoot on died at the stake in the persecution under Ignatius and Polycarp (1885) which goes into Antoninus Pius A.D.155, at a great age, having all the details and gives all the documents, served the Lord six and eighty years. He was may be regarded as a full and final settlement not so original and intellectually active as of the Ignatian problem in favor of the shorter Clement or Ignatius, but a man of truly Greek recension. venerable character, and simple, patriarchal The only genuine Ignatius, as the question piety. His disciple Irenæus of Lyons (who now stands, is the Ignatius of the shorter wrote under Eleutherus, 177–190), in a letter seven Greek epistles. to his fellow-pupil Florinus, who had fallen into the error of Gnosticism) has given us 2.166. Polycarp of Smyrna most valuable reminiscences of this “blessed S. POLYCARPI, Smyrnaeorum episcopi et and apostolic presbyter,” which show how hieromartyris, ad Philippenses Epistola, first faithfully he held fast the apostolic tradition, published in Latin by Faber Stapulensis (Paris and how he deprecated all departure from it. 1498), then with the Greek original by Petrus He remembered vividly his mode of life and Halloisius (Halloix), Duaei, 1633; and Jac. personal appearance, his discourses to the Usserius (Ussher), Lond. 1647: also in all the people, and his communications respecting editions of the Apost. Fath., especially those of Jacobson (who compared several manuscripts), the teaching and miracles of the Lord, as he Zahn (1876), Funk (1878), and Lightfoot 1885). had received them from the mouth of John and other eye-witnesses, in agreement with MARTYRIUM S. POLYCARPI (Epistola circularis ecclesix Smyrnensis), first completed ed. in Gr. & the Holy Scriptures. In another place, Irenæus Lat. by Archbp. Ussher, Lond. 1647, then in all says of Polycarp, that he had all the time the ed. of the Patr. Apost., especially that of taught what he had learned from the apostles, Jacobson (who here also made use of three new and what the church handed down; and codices), of Zahn, and Funk. relates, that he once called the Gnostic L. DUCHESNE: Vita Sancti Polycarpi Smyrnaeorum Marcion in Rome, “the first-born of Satan.” episcopi auctore Pionio Primum graece edita. This is by no means incredible in a disciple of Paris 1881. The same also in the second vol. of John, who, with all his mildness, forbids his Funk’s Patr. Apost. (1881) pp. LIV.–LVIII. 315– people to salute the deniers of the true 347. It is, according to Funk, from the fourth or divinity and humanity of the Lord; and it is fifth century, and shows not what Polycarp confirmed by a passage in the epistle of really was, but how he appeared to the Polycarp to the Philippians, where he says: Christians of a later age. “Whoever doth not confess, that Jesus Christ ZAHN: Ign. v. Ant. p. 495–511; and Proleg. to his is come in the flesh, is antichrist, and whoever ed. of Ign. and Pol. (1876), p. XLII–LV. doth not confess the mystery of the cross, is DONALDSON: Ap. Fath. 191–247. of the devil; and he, who wrests the words of RENAN L’église chrétienne (1879), ch. ix. and x. p. the Lord according to his own pleasure, and 437–466. saith, there is no resurrection and judgment, LIGHTFOOT: S. Ign. and S. Polycarp, (1885), vol. I. is the first-born of Satan. Therefore would we 417–704. forsake the empty babbling of this crowd and POLYCARP, born about A.D.69 or earlier, a their false teachings, and turn to the word disciple of the apostle John, a younger friend which hath been given us from the beginning, of Ignatius, and the teacher of Irenæus watching in prayer, continuing in fasting, and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 24 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course most humbly praying God, that he lead us not of us all, hope following after, and love to God into temptation, as the Lord hath said:’The and to Christ, and to neighbors leading spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.’ “ further. For when any one is full of these This epistle to the Philippians consists of virtues, he fulfills the command of fourteen short chapters, and has been righteousness; for he, who has love, is far published in full since 1633. It is the only, from all sin.” This does not agree altogether document that remains to us from this last with the system of St. Paul. But it should be witness of the Johannean age, who wrote remembered that Polycarp, in the very first several letters to neighboring congregations. chapter, represents faith and the whole It is mentioned first by his pupil Irenæus; it salvation as the gift of free grace. was still in public use in the churches of Asia The epistle is interwoven with many Minor in the time of Jerome as he reports; and reminiscences of the Synoptical Gospels and its contents correspond with the known life the epistles of Paul, John and First Peter, and character of Polycarp; its genuineness which give to it considerable importance in there is no just reason to doubt. It has little the history of the canon. merit as a literary production, but is simple The Martyrium S. Polycarpi (22 chs.), in the and earnest, and breathes a noble Christian form of a circular letter of the church of spirit, It was written after the death of Smyrna to the church of Philomelium in Ignatius (whose epistles are mentioned, c. 13) Phrygia, and all “parishes of the Catholic in the name of Polycarp and his presbyters; church,” appears, from ch. 18, to have been commends the Philippians for the love they composed before the first annual celebration showed Ignatius in bonds and his of his martyrdom. Eusebius has incorporated companions, and for their adherence to the in his church history the greater part of this ancient faith; and proceeds with simple, beautiful memorial, and Ussher first earnest exhortation to love, harmony, published it complete in the Greek original, contentment, patience, and perseverance, to 1647. It contains an edifying description of prayer even for enemies and persecutors; the trial and martyrdom of Polycarp, though also giving special directions for deacons, embellished with some marvellous additions presbyters, youths, wives, widows, and of legendary poesy. When, for example, the virgins; with strokes against Gnostic Docetic pile was kindled, the flames surrounded the errors. Of Christ it speaks in high terms, as body of Polycarp, like the full sail of a ship, the Lord, who sits at the right hand of God to without touching it; on the contrary it shone, whom everything in heaven and earth is unhurt, with a gorgeous color, like white subject; whom every living being serves; who baken bread, or like gold and silver in a is coming to judge the quick and the dead; crucible, and gave forth a lovely fragrance as whose blood God will require of all, who of precious spices. Then one of the believe not on him. Polycarp guards with executioners pierced the body of the sound feeling against being considered equal with a spear, and forthwith there flowed such with the apostles: “I write these things, a stream of blood that the fire was brethren, not in arrogance, but because ye extinguished by it. The narrative mentions have requested me. For neither I, nor any also a dove which flew up from the burning other like me, can attain the wisdom of the pile; but the reading is corrupt, and Eusebius, blessed and glorious Paul, who was among Rufinus, and Nicephorus make no reference you, and in the presence of the then living to it. The sign of a dove (which is frequently accurately and firmly taught the word of found on ancient monuments) was probably truth, who also in his absence wrote you an first marked on the margin, as a symbol of the epistle, from which ye may edify yourselves pure soul of the martyr, or of the power of the in the faith given to you, which is the mother Holy Spirit which pervaded him; but the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 25 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course insertion of the word dove in the text O. v. GEBHARDT, HARNACK, and ZAHN: Patr. Ap. suggests an intended contrast to the eagle, 1876. Gebhardt ed. the text from Cod. Sin. which flew up from the ashes of the Roman Harnack prepared the critical commentary. In emperors, and proclaimed their apotheosis, the small ed. of 1877 the Const. Cod. is also and may thus be connected with the rising compared. worship of martyrs and saints. HEFELE-FUNK: Patr. Ap. 1878, p. 2–59. Throughout its later chapters this narrative AD. HILGENFELD: Barnabae Epistula. Inteqram Graece iterum edidit, veterem interpretationem considerably exceeds the sober limits of the Latinam, commentarium criticum et in the description of the adnotationes addidit A. H. Ed. altera et valde martyrdom of Stephen and the elder James, aucta. Lips. 1877. Dedicated to Bryennios. and serves to illustrate, in this respect also, “Orientalis Ecclesicae splendido lumini.” who the undeniable difference, notwithstanding being prevented by the Oriental troubles from all the affinity, between the apostolic and the editing the new MS., sent a collation to H. in Oct. old catholic literature. 1876 (Prol. p. XIII). The best critical edition. Comp. Harnack’s review in Schuerer’s “Theol. NOTES Lit. Ztg. 1877, f. 473–’77. I. Of all the writings of the Apostolic Fathers J. G. MUELLER (of Basle): Erklaerung des the Epistle of Polycarp is the least original, Barnabasbriefes. Leipz. 1869. An Appendix to De but nearest in tone to the Pastoral Epistles of Wette’s Corn. on the N.T. Paul, and fullest of reminiscences from the English translations by WAKE (1693), ROBERTS New Testament. and DONALDSON (in Ante-Nic. Lib. 1867), HOOLE For a good popular description of Polycarp, (1872), RENDALL (1877), SHARPE (1880, from the including his letter and martyrdom, see The Sinait. MS). German translations by HEFELE (1840), SCHOLZ (1865), MAYER (1869), Pupils of St. John the Divine, by the Author of RIGGENBACH (1873). the Heir of Redcliffe, in Macmillan’s “Sunday CRITICAL DISCUSSIONS. Library.” London 1863. C. JOS. HEFELE (R.C.): Das Sendschreiben des 2.167. Barnabas Apostels Barnabas, auf’s Neue untersucht und EDITIONS. erklaert. Tueb. 1840. First editions in Greek and Latin, except the first JOH. KAYSER: ueber den sogen. Barnabasbrief. four chapters and part of the fifth, which were Paderborn, 1866. known only in the Latin version, by Archbishop DONALDSON: Ap. Fathers (1874), p. 248–317. USSHER Oxf. 1643, destroyed by fire 1644, LUC. K. WIESELER: On the Origin and Authorship of the D’ACHERY (Par. 1645), and ISAAC VOSS (Amstel. Ep. of B., in the “Jahrbuecher füer Deutsche 1646). Theol.,” 1870, p. 603 sqq. First complete edition of the Greek original from O. BRAUNSBERGER (R.C.): Der Apostel Barnabas. the Codex Sinaiticus, to which it is appended, by Sein Leben und der ihm beigelegte Brief TISCHENDORF in the facsimile ed. of that Codex, wissenschaftlich gewuerdigt. Mainz, 1876. Petropoli, 1862, Tom. IV. 135–141, and in the W. CUNNINGHAM: The Ep. of St. Barnabas. London, Novum Testam. Sinait. 1863. The text dates from 1876. the fourth century. It was discovered by Tischendorf in the Convent of St. Catharine at SAMUEL SHARPE: The Ep. of B. from the Sinaitic MS. Mt. Sinai, 1859, and is now in the library of St. London, 1880. Petersburg. J. WEI ss: Der Barnabasbrief kritisch untersucht. A new MS. of the Greek B. from the eleventh Berlin, 1888. century (1056) was discovered in MILLIGAN in Smith and Wace, I. 260–265; Constantinople by BRYENNIOS, 1875, together Harnack in Herzog II. 101–105. with the Ep. of Clement, and has been utilized by Other essays by HENKE (1827), ROERDAM (1828), the latest editors, especially by Hilgenfeld. ULLMANN (1828), SCHENKEL (1837), FRANKE

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(1840), WEIZSAECKER (1864), HEYDECKE (1874). By Judaism, however, the author understands On the relation of Barnabas to Justin Martyr see not the Mosaic and prophetic writings in their M. von Engelhardt: Das Christenthum Justins d. true spiritual sense, but the carnal M. (1878), p. 375–394. misapprehension of them. The Old Testament The doctrines of B. are fully treated by HEFELE, is, with him, rather a veiled Christianity, KAYSER, DONALDSON, HILGENFELD, BRAUNSBERGER, which he puts into it by a mystical allegorical and SPRINZL. interpretation, as Philo, by the same method, Comp. the list of books from 1822–1875 in smuggled into it the Platonic philosophy. In HARNACK’S Prol. to the Leipz. ed. of Barn. Ep. p. this allegorical conception he goes so far, that XX sqq.; and in RICHARDSON, Synopsis 16–19 he actually seems to deny the literal historical (down to 1887). sense. He asserts, for example, that God never The CATHOLIC EPISTLE OF BARNABAS, so called, willed the sacrifice and fasting, the Sabbath is anonymous, and omits all allusion to the observance and temple-worship of the Jews, name or residence of the readers. He but a purely spiritual worship; and that the addresses them not as their teacher, but as laws of food did not relate at all to the eating one among them. He commences in a very of clean and unclean animals, but only to general way: “All hail, ye sons and daughters, intercourse with different classes of men, and in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, who to certain virtues and vices. His chiliasm loved us, in peace;” and concludes: “Farewell, likewise rests on an allegorical exegesis, and ye children of love and peace, The Lord of is no proof of a Judaizing tendency any more glory and all grace be with your spirit. Amen.” than in Justin, Irenæus, and Tertullian. He For this reason, probably, Origen called it a sees in the six days of creation a type of six “Catholic” Epistle, which must be understood, historical millennia of work to be followed however, with limitation. Though not first by the seventh millennium of rest, and addressed to any particular congregation, it is then by the eighth millennium of eternity, the intended for a particular class of Christians latter being foreshadowed by the weekly who were in danger of relapsing into Lord’s Day. The carnal Jewish interpretation Judaizing errors. of the Old Testament is a diabolical 1. CONTENTS. The epistle is chiefly doctrinal perversion. The Christians, and not the Jews, (ch. 1–17), and winds up with some practical are the true Israel of God and the righteous exhortations to walk “in the way of light,” and owners of the Old Testament Scriptures. to avoid “the way of darkness” (ch. 18–21). It Barnabas proclaims thus an has essentially the same object as the Epistle separation of Christianity from Judaism. In to the Hebrews, though far below it in depth, this respect he goes further than any post- originality and unction. It shows that apostolic writer. He has been on that ground Christianity is the all-sufficient, divine charged with unsound ultra-Paulinism institution for salvation, and an abrogation of bordering on antinomianism and heretical Judaism, with all its laws and ceremonies. Old Gnosticism. But this is unjust. He breathes the things have passed away; all things are made spirit of Paul, and only lacks his depth, new. Christ has indeed given us a law; but it is wisdom, and discrimination, Paul, in a new law, without the yoke of constraint. The Galatians and Colossians, likewise takes an tables of are broken that the love of uncompromising attitude against Jewish Christ may be sealed in our hearts. It is circumcision, sabbatarianism, and therefore sin and folly to assert that the old ceremonialism, if made a ground of covenant is still binding. Christians should justification and a binding yoke of conscience; strive after higher knowledge and understand but nevertheless he vindicated the Mosaic law the difference. as a preparatory school for Christianity. Barnabas Ignores this, and looks only at the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 27 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course negative side. Yet he, too, acknowledges the of Clement, the Epistle of Polycarp, and the new law of Christ. He has some profound Pastor of Hermas. Eusebius and Jerome glances and inklings of a Christian likewise ascribe it to Barnabas but number it philosophy. He may be called an orthodox among the “spurious,” or “apocryphal” Gnostic. He stands midway between St. Paul writings. They seem to have doubted the and Justin Martyr, as Justin Martyr stands authority, but not the authenticity of the between Barnabas and the Alexandrian epistle. The historical testimony therefore is school. Clement and Origen, while averse to strong and unanimous in favor of Barnabas, his chiliasm, liked his zeal for higher Christian and is accepted by all the older editors and knowledge and his allegorizing exegesis several of the later critics. which obscures every proper historical But the internal evidence points with greater understanding of the Old Testament. force to a post-apostolic writer. The Epistle The Epistle of Barnabas has considerable does not come up to the position and historical, doctrinal, and apologetic value. He reputation of Barnabas, the senior companion confirms the principal facts and doctrines of of Paul, unless we assume that he was a man the gospel. He testifies to the general of inferior ability and gradually vanished observance of Sunday on “the eighth day,” as before the rising star of his friend from the joyful of Christ’s Tarsus. It takes extreme ground against the resurrection, in strict distinction from the Mosaic law, such as we can hardly expect Jewish Sabbath on the seventh. He furnishes from one who stood as a mediator between the first clear argument for the canonical the Apostle of the Gentiles and the Jewish authority of the (without Apostles, and who in the collision at Antioch naming it) by quoting the passage: “Many are sided with Peter and Mark against the bold called, but few are chosen,” with the solemn champion of freedom; yet we should formula of Scripture quotation: “as it is remember that this was only a temporary written.” He introduces also (ch. 5) the words inconsistency, and that no doubt a reaction of Christ, that he did not come “to call just afterwards took place in his mind. The author men, but sinners,” which are recorded by in order to glorify the grace of the Saviour, Matthew 9:13. He furnishes parallels to a speaks of the apostles of Christ before their number of passages in the Gospels, Pauline conversion as over-sinful, and indulges in Epistles, First Peter, and the Apocalypse. His artificial and absurd allegorical fancies. He direct quotations from the Old Testament, also wrote after the destruction of Jerusalem especially the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and when Barnabas in all probability was no more , are numerous; but he quotes also IV. among the living, though the date of his death Esdras and the . is unknown, and the inference from Col. 4:10 2. AUTHORSHIP. The Epistle was first cited by and 1 Pet. 5:13 is uncertain. Clement of Alexandria, and Origen, as a work These arguments are not conclusive, it is true, of the apostolic Barnabas, who plays so but it is quite certain that if Barnabas wrote prominent a part in the early history of the this epistle, he cannot be the author of the church. Origen seems to rank it almost with Epistle to the Hebrews, and vice versa. The the inspired Scriptures. In the Sinaitic Bible, difference between the two is too great for of the fourth century, it follows as the “Epistle the unity of the authorship. The ancient of Barnabas,” immediately after the church showed sound tact in excluding that Apocalypse (even on the same page 135, book from the canon; while a genuine product second column), as if it were a regular part of of the apostolic Barnabas had a claim to be the New Testament. From this we may, infer admitted into it as well as the anonymous that it was read in some churches as a Epistle to the Hebrews or the writings of secondary ecclesiastical book, like the Epistle Mark and Luke.

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The author was probably a converted Jew the “Theol. Lit. Ztg.” 1877, fol. 58), and G. and from Alexandria (perhaps by the name H’s Proleg. xxxiv. sqq. Barnabas, which would easily explain the O. v. GEBHARDT, and HARNACK: Patrum Apost. confusion), to judge from his familiarity with Opera, Fascic. III. Lips. 1877. Greek and Latin. A Jewish literature, and, apparently, with Philo very careful recension of the text (from the and his allegorical method in handling the Old Sinaitic MS.) by v. Gebhardt, with ample Testament. In Egypt his Epistle was first Prolegomena (84 pages), and a critical and historical commentary by Harnack. known and most esteemed; and the Sinaitic Bible which contains it was probably written FUNK’S fifth ed. of Hefele’s Patres Apost. I. 334– in Alexandria or Caesarea in Palestine. The 563. Gr. and Lat. Follows mostly the text of Von Gebhardt. readers were chiefly Jewish Christians in Egypt and the East, who overestimated the AD. HILGENFELD: Hermae Pastor. Graece e codicibus Sinaitico et Lipsiensi … restituit, etc. Ed. Mosaic traditions and ceremonies. altera emendata et valde aucta. Lips. 1881. With 3. TIME of composition. The work was written Prolegomena and critical annotations (257 pp.). after the destruction of Jerusalem and the By the same: Hermae Pastor Graece integrum temple, which is alluded to as an ambitu. Lips., 1887 (pp. 130). From the Athos accomplished fact; yet probably before the and Sinaitic MSS. close of the first century, certainly before the S. P. LAMBROS (Prof. in ): A Collation of the reconstruction of Jerusalem under Hadrian Athos Codex of , together (120). with an Introduction. Translated and edited by J. A. ROBINSON, Cambridge, 1888. 2.168. Hermas English translations by WAKE (1693, from the EDITIONS. Latin version); F. CROMBIE (Vol. I. of the “Ante- The older editions give only the imperfect Latin Nicene Christian Library.” 1867, from the Greek Version, first published by FABER STAPULENSIS of the Sinait. MS.), by CHARLES H. HOOLE (1870, (Par. 1513). Other Latin MSS. were discovered from Hilgenfeld’s first ed. of 1866,) and by since. The Greek text (brought from Mt. Athos ROBINSON (1888). by Constantine Simonides, and called Cod. ESSAYS. Lipsiensis) was first published by R. ANGER, with C. REINH. JACHMANN: Der Hirte der Hermas. a preface by G. DINDORF (Lips. 1856); then by Koenigsberg, 1835. TISCHENDORF, in Dressel’s Patres Apost., Lips ERNST GAÂB: Der Hirte des Hermas. Basel, 1866 1857 (p. 572–637); again in the second ed. (pp. 203). 1863, where Tischenderf, (sic) in consequence of the intervening discovery of the Cod. THEOD. ZAHN: Der Hirt des Hermas. Gotha 1868. Sinaiticus retracted his former objections to the (Comp. also his review of Gaâb in the Studien originality of the Greek Hermas from Mt. Athos, und Kritiken for 1868, pp. 319–349). which he had pronounced a mediæval CHARLES R. HOOLE (of Christ Church, Oxf.): The retranslation from the Latin (see the Proleg., Shepherd of Hermas translated into English, with Appendix and Preface to the second ed.). The an Introduction and Notes. Lond., Oxf. and Ποιμὴν ὅρασις is also printed in the fourth vol. Cambr. 1870 (184 pages). of the large edition of the Codex Sinaiticus, at GUST. HEYNE: Quo tempore Hermae Pastor the close (pp. 142–148), Peters b. 1862. The scriptus sit. Regimonti, 1872. texts from Mt. Athos and Mt. Sinai substantially J. DONALDSON: The Apostolical Fathers (1874) p. agree. An Ethiopic translation appeared in 318–392. Leipz. 1860, ed. with a Latin version by ANT. D’ABBADIE. Comp. DILLMANN in the “Zeitschrift d. H. M. BEHM: Der Verfasser der Schrift., welche d. D. Morgenlaend. Gesellschaft” for 1861; Titel “Hirt” fuehrt. Rostock, 1876 (71 pp.). SCHODDE: Hêrmâ Nabî, the Ethiop. V of P. H. BRÜLL: Der Hirt des Hermas. Nach Ursprung und examined. Leipz. 1876 (criticised by Harnack in Inhalt untersucht. Freiburg i. B. 1882. The same:

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Ueber den Ursprung des ersten Clemensbriefs und It is difficult to decide whether the writer des Hirten des Hermas. 1882. actually had or imagined himself to have had AD. LINK: Christi Person und Werk im Hirten des those visions, or invented them as a pleasing Hermas. Marburg, 1886. Die Einheit des Pastor and effective mode of instruction, like Dante’s Hermae. Mar b. 1888. Defends the unity of vision and Bunyan’s dream. Hermas against Hilgenfeld. (2) Mandats, or twelve commandments, P. BAUMGAERTNER: Die Einheit des Hermas- prescribed by a guardian angel in the garb of Buches. Freiburg, 1889. He mediates between a shepherd. Hilgenfeld and Link, and holds that the book was written by one author, but at different (3) Similitudes, or ten parables, in which the times. church again appears, but now in the form of I. The SHEPHERD OF HERMAS has its title from a building, and the different virtues are the circumstance that the author calls himself represented under the figures of stones and Hermas and is instructed by the angel of trees. The similitudes were no doubt repentance in the costume of a shepherd. It is suggested by the parables of the gospel, but distinguished from all the productions of the bear no comparison with them for beauty and apostolic fathers by its literary form. It is the significance. oldest Christian allegory, an apocalyptic book, The scene is laid in Rome and the a sort of didactic religious romance. This neighborhood. The Tiber is named, but no accounts in part for its great popularity in the allusion is made to the palaces, the court, the ancient church. It has often been compared people and society of Rome, or to any with Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress and Dante’s classical work. An old lady, virgins, and angels Divina Commedia, though far inferior in appear, but the only persons mentioned by literary merit and widely different in theology name are Hermas, Maximus, Clement and from either. For a long time it was only Grapte. known in an old, inaccurate Latin translation, The literary merit of the Shepherd is which was first published by Faber insignificant. It differs widely from apostolic Stapulensis in 1513; but since 1856 and 1862, simplicity and has now only an antiquarian we have it also in the original Greek, in two interest, like the pictures and sculptures of texts, one hailing from Mount Athos re- the catacombs. It is prosy, frigid, monotonous, discovered and compared by Lambros, and repetitious, overloaded with uninteresting another (incomplete) from Mount Sinai. details, but animated by a pure love of nature II. CHARACTER AND CONTENTS. The PASTOR and an ardent zeal for doing good. The author HERMAE is a sort of system of Christian was a self-made man of the people, Ignorant morality in an allegorical dress, and a call to of the classics and Ignored by them, but repentance and to renovation of the already endowed with the imaginative faculty and a somewhat slumbering and secularized church talent for popular religious instruction. He in view of the speedily approaching day of derives lessons of wisdom and piety from judgment. It falls into three books: shepherd and sheep, vineyards and pastures, (1) Visions; four visions and revelations, towers and villas, and the language and which were given to the author, and in which events of every-day life. the church appears to him first in the form of The first Vision is a fair specimen of the book, a venerable matron in shining garments with which opens like a love story, but soon takes a book, then as a tower, and lastly as a virgin. a serious turn. The following is a faithful All the visions have for their object to call translation: Hermas and through him the church to 1. “He who had brought me up, sold me to a repentance, which is now possible, but will certain Rhoda at Rome. Many years after, I close when the church tower is completed. met her again and began to love her as a

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 30 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course sister. Some time after this, I saw her bathing bring upon themselves death and captivity, in the river Tiber, and I gave her my hand and especially they who set their affection upon led her out of the river. And when I beheld this world, and who glory in their wealth, and her beauty, I thought in my heart, lay not hold of the good things to come. The saying:’Happy should I be, if I had a wife of souls of those that have no hope, but have such beauty and goodness.’ This was my only cast themselves and their lives away, shall thought, and nothing more. greatly regret it. But do thou pray unto God, “After some time, as I went into the villages and thy sins shall be healed, and those of thy and glorified the creatures of God, for their whole house and of all the saints.’ greatness, and beauty, and power, I fell asleep 2. “After she had spoken these words, the while walking. And the Spirit seized me and were closed, and I remained carried me through a certain wilderness trembling all over and was sorely troubled. through which no man could travel, for the And I said within myself:’If this sin be set ground was rocky and impassable, on account down against me, how can I be saved? or how of the water. can I propitiate God for the multitude of my “And when I had crossed the river, I came to a sins? or with what words shall I ask the Lord plain; and falling upon my knees, I began to to have mercy upon me?’ pray unto the Lord and to confess my sins. “While I was meditating on these things, and And while I was praying, the heaven opened, was musing on them in my heart, I beheld in and I beheld the woman that I loved saluting front of me a great white chair made out of me from heaven, and saying:’Hail, Hermas!’ fleeces of wool; and there came an aged And when I beheld her, I said unto her:’Lady, woman, clad in very shining raiment, and what doest thou here?’ But she answered and having a book in her hand, and she sat down said:’I was taken up, in order that I might by herself on the chair and saluted me, bring to light thy sins before the Lord.’ And I saying:’Hail, Hermas!” And I, sorrowing and said unto her:’Hast thou become my accuser?’ weeping, said unto her:’Hail, Lady!’ And she ‘No,’ said she;’but hear the words that I shall said unto me:’Why art thou sorrowful, O say unto thee. God who dwells in heaven, and Hermas, for thou wert wont to be patient, and who made the things that are out of that good-tempered, and always smiling? Why is which is not, and multiplied and increased thy countenance cast down? and why art thou them on account of his holy church, is angry not cheerful?’ And I said unto her:’O Lady, I with thee because thou hast sinned against have been reproached by a most excellent me.’ I answered and said unto her:’Have I woman, who said unto me that I sinned sinned against thee? In what way? Did I ever against her.’ And she said unto me:’Far be it say unto thee an unseemly word? Did I not from the to do this thing. But always consider thee as a lady? Did I not of a surety a desire after her must have come always respect thee as a sister? Why doest into thy heart. Such an intent as this brings a thou utter against me, O Lady, these wicked charge of sin against the servant of God; for it and foul lies?’ But she smiled and said unto is an evil and horrible intent that a devout me:’The desire of wickedness has entered and tried spirit should lust after an evil deed; into thy heart. Does it not seem to thee an evil and especially that the chaste Hermas should thing for a just man, if an evil desire enters do so-he who abstained from every evil into his heart? Yea, it is a sin, and a great one desire, and was full of all simplicity, and of (said she). For the just man devises just great innocence!’ things, and by devising just things is his glory 3. “’But [she continued] God is not angry with established in the heavens, and he finds the thee on account of this, but in order that thou Lord merciful unto him in all his ways; but mayest convert thy house, which has done those who desire evil things in their hearts,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 31 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course iniquity against the Lord, and against you with firm faith the laws of God which they who art their parent. But thou, in thy love for have received.’ your children (φιλότεκνος ὠν) didst not 4. “When, therefore, she had ended her rebuke thy house, but didst allow it to reading, and had risen up from the chair, become dreadfully wicked. On this account is there came four young men, and took up the the Lord angry with thee; but He will heal all chair, and departed towards the east. Then the evils that happened aforetime in thy she called me, and touched my breast, and house; for through the sins and iniquities of said unto me:’Hast thou been pleased with my thy household thou hast been corrupted by reading?’ And I said unto her:’Lady, these last the affairs of this life. But the mercy of the things pleased me; but the former were hard Lord had compassion upon thee, and upon and harsh.’ But she spake unto me, thy house, and will make thee strong and saying:’These last are for the righteous; but establish thee in His glory. Only be not the former are for the heathen and the slothful, but be of good courage and apostates.” While she was yet speaking with strengthen thy house. For even as the smith, me, there appeared two men, and they took by smiting his work with the hammer, her up in their arms and departed unto the accomplishes the thing that he wishes, so east, whither also the chair had gone. And she shall the daily word of righteousness departed joyfully; and as she departed, she overcome all iniquity. Fail not, therefore, to said:’Be of good courage, O Hermas!’ rebuke thy children, for I know that if they III. The THEOLOGY of Hermas is ethical and will repent with all their heart, they will be practical. He is free from speculative opinions written in the book of life, together with the and Ignorant of theological technicalities. He saints.’ views Christianity as a new law and lays chief “After these words of hers were ended, she stress on practice. Herein he resembles said unto me:’Dost thou wish to hear me James, but he ignores the “liberty” by which read?’ I said unto her:’Yea, Lady, I do wish it.’ James distinguishes the “perfect” Christian She said unto me:’Be thou a hearer, and listen law from the imperfect old law of bondage. to the glories of God.’ Then I heard, after a He teaches not only the merit, but the great and wonderful fashion, that which my supererogatory merit of good works and the memory was unable to retain; for all the sin-atoning virtue of martyrdom. He knows words were terrible, and beyond man’s little or nothing of the gospel, never mentions power to bear. The last words, however, I the word, and has no idea of justifying faith, remembered; for they were profitable for us, although he makes faith the chief virtue and and gentle:’Behold the God of power, who by the mother of virtues. He dwells on man’s his invisible strength, and His great wisdom, duty and performance more than on God’s has created the world, and by His magnificent gracious promises and saving deeds. In a counsel hath crowned His creation with glory, word, his Christianity is thoroughly legalistic and by His mighty word has fixed the heaven, and ascetic, and further off from the and founded the earth upon the waters, and evangelical spirit than any other book of the by His own wisdom and foresight has formed apostolic fathers. Christ is nowhere named, His holy church, which He has also blessed! nor his example held up for imitation (which Behold, He removes the heavens from their is the true conception of Christian life); yet he places, and the mountains, and the hills, and appears as “the Son of God, and is the stars, and everything becomes smooth represented as pre-existent and strictly before His elect, that He may give unto them divine. The word Christian never occurs. the blessing which He promised them with But this meagre view of Christianity, far from great glory and joy, if only they shall keep being heretical or schismatic, is closely

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 32 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course connected with catholic orthodoxy as far as presiding angel. The last idea Jerome justly we can judge from hints and figures. Hermas condemns as foolish. stood in close normal relation to the Roman It is confusing and misleading to judge congregation (either under Clement or Pius), Hermas from the apostolic conflict between and has an exalted view of the “holy church,” Jewish and Gentile Christianity. That conflict as he calls the church universal. He was over. John shows no traces of it in his represents her as the first creature of God for Gospel and Epistles. Clement of Rome which the world was made, as old and ever mentions Peter and Paul as inseparable. The growing younger; yet he distinguishes this two types had melted into the one Catholic ideal church from the real and represents the family, and continued there as co-operative latter as corrupt. He may have inferred this elements in the same organization, but were conception in part from the Epistle to the as yet very imperfectly understood, especially Ephesians, the only one of Paul’s writings the free Gospel of Paul. Jewish and pagan with which he shows himself familiar. He features reappeared, or rather they never requires water-baptism as indispensable to disappeared, and exerted their influence for salvation, even for the pious Jews of the old good and evil. Hence there runs through the dispensation, who received it from the whole history of Catholicism a legalistic or apostles in Hades. He does not mention the Judaizing, and an evangelical or Pauline eucharist, but this is merely accidental. The tendency; the latter prevailed in the whole book rests on the idea of an exclusive Reformation and produced Protestant church out of which there is no salvation. It Christianity. Hermas stood nearest to James closes with the characteristic exhortation of and furthest from Paul; his friend Clement of the angel: “Do good works, ye who have Rome stood nearer to Paul and further off received earthly blessings from the Lord, that from James: but neither one nor the other had the building of the tower (the church) may any idea of a hostile conflict between the not be finished while ye loiter; for the labor of apostles. the building has been interrupted for your IV. RELATION TO THE SCRIPTURES. Hermas is the sakes. Unless, therefore, ye hasten to do right, only one of the apostolic fathers who abstains the tower will be finished, and ye will be shut from quoting the Old Testament Scriptures out.” and the words of our Lord. This absence is Much of the theology of Hermas is drawn due in part to the prophetic character of the from the Jewish apocalyptic writings of Shepherd, for prophecy is its own warrant, pseudo-Enoch, pseudo-Esdras, and the lost and speaks with divine authority. There are, Book of Eldad and Medad. So his doctrine of however, indications that he knew several angels. He teaches that six angels were first books of the New Testament, especially the created and directed the building of the , the , and the church. , their chief, writes the law in Epistle to the Ephesians. The name of Paul is the hearts of the faithful; the angel of nowhere mentioned, but neither are the other repentance guards the penitent against apostles. It is wrong, therefore, to infer from relapse and seeks to bring back the fallen. this silence an anti-Pauline tendency. Justin Twelve good spirits which bear the names of Martyr likewise omits the name, but shows Christian virtues, and are seen by Hermas in acquaintance with the writings of Paul. the form of Virgins, conduct the believer into V. RELATION TO MONTANISM. The assertion of the kingdom of heaven; twelve unclean spirits the prophetic gift and the disciplinarian named from the same number of sins hinder rigorism Hermas shares with the Montanists; him. Every man has a good and an evil genius. but they arose half a century later, and there Even reptiles and other animals have a is no historic connection. Moreover his zeal

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 33 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course for discipline does not run into schismatic trade through his own sins and those of his excess. He makes remission and absolution neglected sons but who awoke to repentance after baptism difficult, but not impossible; he and now came forward himself, as a plain ascribes extra merit to and seems to preacher of righteousness, though without have regretted his own unhappy marriage, any official position, and apparently a mere but he allows second marriage as well as layman. He had been formerly a slave and second repentance, at least till the return of sold by his master to a certain Christian lady the Lord which, with Barnabas, he supposes in Rome by the name of Rhoda. It has been to be near at hand. Hence Tertullian as a inferred from his Greek style that be was Montanist denounced Hermas. born in Egypt and brought up in a Jewish VI. AUTHORSHIP AND TIME OF COMPOSITION. Five family. But the fact that he first mistook the opinions are possible. (a) The author was the aged woman who represents the church, for friend of Paul to whom he sends greetings in the heathen Sibyl, rather suggests that he was Rom. 16:14, in the year 58. This is the oldest of Gentile origin. We may infer the same from opinion and accounts best for its high his complete silence about the prophetic authority. (b) A contemporary of Clement, Scriptures of the Old Testament. He says presbyter-bishop of Rome, A.D.92–101. Based nothing of his conversion. upon the testimony of he book itself. (c) A The book was probably written at the close of brother of Bishop Pius of Rome (140). So the first or early in the second century. It asserts an unknown author of 170 in the shows no trace of a hierarchical organization, of the canon. But he and assumes the identity of presbyters and may have confounded the older and younger bishops; even Clement of Rome is not called a Hermas with the Latin translator. (d) The bishop. The state of the church is indeed book is the work of two or three authors, was described as corrupt, but corruption began begun under Trajan before 112 and already in the apostolic age, as we see from completed by the brother of Pius in 140. (e) the Epistles and the Apocalypse. At the time Hermas is a fictitious name to lend apostolic of Irenæus the book was held in the highest authority to the Shepherd. (f) Barely worth esteem, which implies its early origin. mentioning is the isolated assertion of the VII. AUTHORITY and VALUE. No product of post- Ethiopian version that the apostle Paul wrote apostolic literature has undergone a greater the Shepherd under the name of Hermas change in public esteem. The Shepherd was a which was given to him by the inhabitants of book for the times, but not for all times. To Lystra. the Christians of the second and third century We adopt the second view, which may be it had all the charm of a novel from the spirit- combined with the first. The author calls world, or as Bunyan’s Pilgrims’ Progress has himself Hermas and professes to be a at the present day. It was even read in public contemporary of the Roman Clement, who worship down to the time of Eusebius and was to send his book to foreign churches. This Jerome, and added to copies of the Holy testimony is clear and must outweigh every Scriptures (as the Codex Sinaiticus, where it other. If the Hermas mentioned by Paul was a follows after the Ep. of Barnabas). Irenæus young disciple in 58, he may well have lived quotes it as “divine Scripture.” The to the age of Trajan, and be expressly Alexandrian fathers, who with all their represents himself as an aged man at the time learning were wanting in sound critical when he wrote. discrimination, regarded it as “divinely We further learn from the author that he was inspired,” though Origen intimates that a rather unfortunate husband and the father others judged less favorably. Eusebius classes of bad children, who had lost his wealth in it with the “spurious,” though orthodox books, like the Epistle of Barnabas, the Acts of

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Paul, etc.; and Athanasius puts it on a par with Pius. Gaâb thinks that Hermas was gifted with the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, which the power of vision, and inspired in the same are useful for catechetical instruction. sense as Swedenborg. In the Latin church where it originated, it Westcott ascribes “the highest value” to the never rose to such high authority. The Shepherd, “as showing in what way Muratorian canon regards it as apocryphal, Christianity was endangered by the influence and remarks that “it should be read, but not of Jewish principles as distinguished from publicly used in the church or numbered Jewish forms.” Hist. of the Canon of the N. T p. among the prophets or the apostles.” 173 (second ed.) Tertullian, who took offence at its doctrine of Donaldson (a liberal Scotch Presbyterian) the possibility of a second repentance, and thinks that the Shepherd “ought to derive a the lawfulness of second marriage, speaks peculiar interest from its being the first work even contemptuously of it. So does Jerome in extant, the main effort of which is to direct one passage, though he speaks respectfully of the soul to God. The other religious books it in another. Ambrose and Augustin Ignore it. relate to internal workings in the church— The decree of . (about 500) this alone specially deals with the great condemns the book as apocryphal. Since that change requisite to living to God.… Its creed is time it shared the fate of all Apocrypha, and a very short and simple one. Its great object is fell into entire neglect. The Greek original to exhibit the morality implied in conversion, even disappeared for centuries, until it turned and it is well calculated to awaken a true up unexpectedly in the middle of the sense of the spiritual foes that are ever ready nineteenth century to awaken a new interest, to assail him.” (Ap. Fath., p. 339). But he also and to try the ingenuity of scholars as one of remarks (p. 336) that “nothing would more the links in the development of catholic completely show the immense difference Christianity. between ancient Christian feeling and NOTE. modern, than the respect in which ancient, The Pastor Hermae has long ceased to be read and a large number of modern Christians hold for devotion or entertainment. We add some this work.” modern opinions. Mosheim (who must have George A. Jackson (an American read it very superficially) pronounced the talk Congregationalist) judges even more of the heavenly spirits in Hermas to be more favorably (Ap. Fath., 1879, p. 15): Reading stupid and insipid than that of the barbers of the’Shepherd,’ and remembering that it his day, and concluded that he was either a appeared in the midst of a society differing fool or an impostor. The great historian little from that satirized by Juvenal, we no Niebuhr, as reported by Bunsen, used to say longer wonder at the esteem in which it was that he pitied the Athenian [why not the held by the early Christians, but we almost Roman?] Christians who were obliged to join with them in calling it an inspired book.” listen to the reader of such a book in the Mr. Hoole, of Oxford, agrees with the church. Bunsen himself pronounces it “a well- judgment of Athanasius, and puts its literary meant but silly romance.” character on the same footing as the pious On the other hand, some Irvingite scholars, but rude art of the Roman catacombs. Dr. Thiersch and Mr. Gaâb, have revived the Dr. Salmon, of Dublin, compares Hermas with old belief in a supernatural foundation for the Savonarola, who sincerely believed: (a) that visions, as having been really seen and the church of his time was corrupt and recorded in the church of Rome during the worldly; (b) that a time of great tribulation apostolic age, but afterwards modified and was at hand, in which the dross should be mingled with errors by the compiler under purged away; (c) that there was still an

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 35 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course intervening time for repentance; (d) that he Polycarp at Smyrna. As the death of the latter himself was divinely commissioned to be a has recently been put back from 166 to 155, preacher of that repentance. the date of Papias must undergo a similar change; and as his contemporary friend was 2.169. Papias at least 86 years old, Papias was probably (I.) The fragments of PAPIAS collected in ROUTH: born about A.D.70, so that he may have known Reliquiae, Sacrae, ed. II., Oxf., 1846, vol. I., 3–16. St. John, St. , and other VON GEBHARDT and HARNACK: Patres Apost., primitive disciples who survived the Appendix: Papice Fragmenta, I., 180–196. English translation in Roberts and Donaldson. destruction of Jerusalem. “Ante-Nicene Library.” I., 441–448. Papias was a pious, devout and learned Passages on Papias in IRENÆUS:Adv. Haer., v. 33, student of the Scriptures, and a faithful §2.3, 4. EUSEB. H. E. III. 36, 39; Chron. ad Olymp. traditionist, though somewhat credulous and 220, ed. Schöne II. 162. Also a few later notices; of limited comprehension. He carried the see Routh and the Leipz. ed. of P. A … The Vita S. heavenly treasure in an earthen vessel. His Papiae, by the Jesuit Halloix, Duaei, 1633, is associations give him considerable weight. He filled with a fanciful account of the birth, went to the primitive sources of the Christian education, ordination, episcopal and literary faith. “I shall not regret,” he says, “to subjoin labors of the saint, of whom very little is really to my interpretations [of the Lord’s Oracles], known. whatsoever I have at any time accurately (II.) Separate articles on Papias, mostly ascertained and treasured up in my memory, connected with the Gospel question, by as I have received it from the elders (παρὰ SCHLEIERMACHER (on his testimonies concerning Matthew and Mark in the “Studien und Kritiken” τῶν πρεσβυτέρων) and have recorded it to for 1832, p. 735); TH. ZAHN (ibid. 1866, No. IV. p. give additional confirmation to the truth, by 649 sqq.); G. E. STEITZ (in the “Studien und my testimony. For I did not, like most men, Kritiken” for 1868, No. 1. 63–95, and art. Papias delight in those who speak much, but in those in Herzog’s Encyc.” ed. I. vol. XI., 78–86; revised who teach the truth; nor in those who record by LEIMBACH in ed. II. vol. XI. 194–206); JAMES the commands of others [or new and strange DONALDSON (The Apost. Fathers 1874, p. 393– commands], but in those who record the 402); Bishop LIGHTFOOT (in the “Contemporary commands given by the Lord to our faith, and Review” for Aug., 1875, pp. 377–403; a careful proceeding from truth itself. If then any one examination of the testimonies of Papias who had attended on the elders came, I made concerning the Gospels of Mark and Matthew against the misstatements in “Supernatural it a point to inquire what were the words of Religion”); LEIMBACH (Das Papiasfragment, 1875) the elders; what Andrew, or what Peter said, WEIFFENBACH Das Papiasfragment, 1874 and or Philip, or Thomas, or James, or John, or 1878); HILGEFELD (“Zeitschrift fuer wissensch. Matthew, or any other of the disciples of our Theol.” 1875, 239 sqq.); LUDEMANN (Zur Lord; and what things Aristion and the elder Erklaerunq des Papiasfragments, in the John, the disciples of the Lord, say. For I was “Jahrbücher für protest. Theol.,” 1879, p. 365 of opinion that I could not derive so much sqq.); H. HOLTZMANN (Papias und Johannes, in benefit from books as from the living and Hilgenfeld’s “Zeitschrift fuer wissensch. abiding voice.” He collected with great zeal Theologie,” 1880, pp. 64–77). Comp. also the oral traditions of the apostles and their WESTCOTT on the Canon of the N.T., p. 59–68. disciples respecting the discourses and works PAPIAS, a disciple of John and friend of of Jesus, and published them in five books Polycarp, was bishop of Hierapolis, in under the title: “Explanation of the Lord’s Phrygia, till towards the middle of the second Discourses.“ century. According to a later tradition in the Unfortunately this book, which still existed in “Paschal Chronicle,” he suffered martyrdom the thirteenth century, is lost with the at Pergamon about the same time with exception of valuable and interesting

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 36 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course fragments preserved chiefly by Irenæus and second century. He knew the first two Eusebius. Among these are his testimonies Gospels, and in all probability also the Gospel concerning the Hebrew Gospel of Matthew of John, for he quoted, as Eusebius expressly and the Petrine Gospel of Mark, which figure says, from the first Epistle of John, which is so so prominently in all the critical discussions much like the fourth Gospel in thought and on the origin of the Gospels. The episode on style that they stand or fall as the works of the woman taken in adultery which is found one and the same author. He is one of the in some MSS. of John 7:53–8:11, or after Luke oldest witnesses to the inspiration and 21:38, has been traced to the same source credibility of the Apocalypse of John, and and was perhaps to illustrate the word of commented on a part of it. He made use of the Christ, :15 (“I judge no man”); for , but is silent as far as we Eusebius reports that Papias “set forth know concerning Paul and Luke. This has another narrative concerning a woman who been variously explained from accident or was maliciously accused before the Lord of Ignorance or dislike, but best from the nature many sins, which is contained in the Gospel of his design to collect only words of the Lord. according to the Hebrews.” If so, we are Hermas and Justin Martyr likewise Ignore indebted to him for the preservation of a Paul, and yet knew his writings. That Papias precious fact which at once illustrates in a was not hostile to the great apostle may be most striking manner our Saviour’s absolute inferred from his intimacy with Polycarp, purity in dealing with sin, and his tender who lauds Paul in his Epistle. compassion toward the sinner. Papias was an NOTES enthusiastic chiliast, and the famous parable of the fertility of the millennium which he The relation of Papias to the Apostle John is puts in the Lord’s mouth and which Irenæus still a disputed point. Irenæus, the oldest accepted in good faith, may have been witness and himself a pupil of Polycarp, calls intended as an explanation of the Lord’s word Papias Ἰωάννου μὲν ἀκουστὴς, Πολυκάρπου concerning the fruit of the vine which he shall δὲ ἑταῑρος (Adv. Haer. V. 33, 4). He must drink new in his Father’s kingdom, Matt. evidently mean here the Apostle John. 26:29. His chiliasm is no proof of a Judaizing Following him, Jerome and later writers tendency, for it was the prevailing view in the (Maximus Confessor, Andrew of and second century. He also related two miracles, Anastasius Sinaita) call him a disciple of the the resurrection of a dead man which took Apostle John, and this view has been place at the time of Philip (the Evangelist), as defended with much learning and acumen by he learned from his daughters, and the Dr. Zahn (1866), and, independently of him, drinking of poison without harm by Justus by Dr. Milligan (on , in Barsabas. Cowper’s “Journal of Sacred Literature” for Oct., 1867, p. 106 sqq.), on the assumption of Papias proves the great value which was the identity of the Apostle John with attached to the oral traditions of the apostles “Presbyter John;” comp. 2 and 3 John, where and their disciples in the second century. He the writer calls himself ὁ πρεσβύτερος. stood on the threshold of a new period when Riggenbach (on John the Ap. and John the the last witnesses of the apostolic age were Presbyter, in the “Jahrbücher für Deutsche fast disappearing, and when it seemed to be Theologie,” 1868, pp. 319–334), of the utmost importance to gather the Hengstenberg, Leimbach, take the same view remaining fragments of inspired wisdom (also Schaff in History of the Apost. Ch., 1853, which might throw light on the Lord’s p. 421). teaching, and guard the church against error. On the other hand, Eusebius (H. E. III. 39) But he is also an important witness to the infers that Papias distinguishes between John state of the canon before the middle of the

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 37 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course the Apostle and “the Presbyter John” (ὁ 2.170. The Epistle to Diognetus πρεσβύτερος Ἰωάννης) so called, and that he EDITIONS. was a pupil of the Presbyter only. He bases EPISTOLA AD DIOGNETUM, ed. Otto (with Lat. the distinction on a fragment he quotes from transl., introduction and critical notes), ed. II. the introduction to the “Explanation of the Lips. 1852. Lord’s Discourses,” where Papias says that he In the Leipz. edition of the Apost. Fathers, by O. ascertained the primitive traditions: τί v. Gebhardt and Ad Harnack, I. 216–226; in the Ἀνδρέας ἢ τί Πέτρος εἰπεν [in the past tense], Tubingen ed. of Hefele-Funk, I. pp 310–333. ἢ τί Φίλιππος ἢ τί θωμα ς ἢ Ἰάκωβος ἢ τί W. A. HOLLENBERG: Der Brief an Diognet. Berl. Ἰωάννης [the Apostle] ἢ Ματθαῑος, ἢ τις 1853. ἕτερος τω ν το υ κυρίου μαθητω ν, ἅ τε E. M. KRENKEL: Epistola, ad Diogn. Lips. 1860. Ἀριστίων καὶ ὁ πρεσβύτερος Ἰωάννης, οἱ τοῡ English translation: in Kitto’s “Journal of S. Lit.” κυρίου [not τω ν ἀποστόλων] μαθηταὶ, 1852, and in vol. I of the “Ante-Nicene Library.” λέγουσιν [present tense]. Here two Johns Edinb. 1867. seem to be clearly distinguished; but the French versions by P. le Gras, Paris 1725; M. de Presbyter John, together with an unknown Genoude, 1838; A. Kayser, 1856. Aristion, is likewise called a disciple of the Lord (not of the Apostles). The distinction is Discussions. maintained by Steitz, Tischendorf, Keim, OTTO: De Ep. ad Diognetum. 1852. Weiffenbach, Luedemann, Donaldson, A. KAYSER: La Lettre à Diognète 1856 (in “Révue Westcott, and Lightfoot. In confirmation of de Théologie”). this view, Eusebius states that two graves G. J. SNOECK: Specimen theologicum exhibens were shown at bearing the name of introductionem in Epistolan ad Diogn. Lugd. Bat. John (III 39: δύο ἐν Ἐφέσῳ γενέσθαι 1861. μνήματα, καὶ ἐκάτερον Ἰωάννου ἐτι νῡν DONALDSON: A Critical Hist. of Christian Liter., etc. λέγεσθαι. But Jerome, De Vir. ill. c. 9, suggests, Lond., 1866, II 126 sqq. He was inclined to that both graves were only memories of the assume that Henry Stephens, the first editor, Apostle. Beyond this, nothing whatever is manufactured the Ep., but gave up the strange hypothesis, which was afterwards reasserted by known of this mysterious Presbyter John, and COTTERILL in his Peregrinus Proteus, 1879. it was a purely critical conjecture of the anti- FRANZ OVERBECK: Ueber den pseudo-justinischen millennarian Dionysius of Alexandria that he Brief an Diognet. Basel 1872. And again with was the author of the Apocalypse (Euseb. VII. additions in his Studien zur Geschichte der alten 25). The substance of the mediæval legend of Kirche (Schloss-Chemnitz, 1875), p. 1–92. He “” was undoubtedly derived from represents the Ep. (like Donaldson) as a post- another source. Constantinian fiction, but has been refuted by In any case, it is certainly possible that Papias, Hilgenfeld, Keim, Lipsius, and Draeseke. like his friend Polycarp, may have seen and JOH. DRAESEKE: Der Brief an Diognetos. Leipz. heard the aged apostle who lived to the close 1881 (207 pp.). Against Overbeck and of the first or the beginning of the second Donaldson. The Ep. was known and used by century. It is therefore unnecessary to charge Tertullian, and probably composed in Rome by a Christian Gnostic (perhaps Appelles). Unlikely. Irenæus with an error either of name or memory. It is more likely that Eusebius HEINR. KIHN (R.C.): Der Ursprung des Briefes an misunderstood Papias, and is responsible for Diognet. Freiburg i. B. 1882 (XV. and 168 pages). a fictitious John, who has introduced so much SEMISCH: art. Diognet, in Herzog III. 611–615 confusion into the question of the authorship (and in his Justin der Maert., 1840, vol. I. 172 of the Johannean Apocalypse. sqq.); SCHAFF, in McClintock and Strong, III. 807 sq., and BIRKS, in Smith and Wace, II. 162–167.

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The Ep. to D. has also been discussed by martyrs, and to trace their heroic courage to Neander, Hefele, Credner, Moehler, Bunsen, sheer obstinacy. It is quite probable that our Ewald, Dorner, Hilgenfeld, Lechler, Baur, Diognetus was identical with the imperial Harnack, Zahn, Funk, Lipsius, Keim (especially tutor; for he wished especially to know what in Rom und das Christhum, 460–468). enabled these Christians “to despise the 1. The short but precious document called the world and to make light of death.” EPISTLE TO DIOGNETUS was unknown in 3. The EPISTLE before us is an answer to the Christian literature until Henry Stephens, the questions of this noble heathen. It is a brief learned publisher of Paris, issued it in Greek but masterly vindication of Christian life and and Latin in 1592, under the name of Justin doctrine from actual experience. It is Martyr. He gives no account of his sources. evidently the product of a man of genius, fine The only Codex definitely known is the taste and classical culture It excels in fresh Strassburg Codex of the thirteenth century, enthusiasm of faith, richness of thought, and and even this (after having been thoroughly elegance of style, and is altogether one of the compared by Professor Cunitz for Otto’s most beautiful memorials of Christian edition), was destroyed in the accidental fire antiquity, unsurpassed and hardly equalled at Strassburg during the siege of 1870. So by any genuine work of the Apostolic Fathers. great is the mystery hanging over the origin of this document, that some modern scholars 4. CONTENTS. The document consists of twelve have soberly turned it into a post- chapters. It opens with an address to Constantinian fiction in imitation of early Diognetus who is described as exceedingly Christianity, but without being able to agree desirous to learn the Christian doctrine and upon an author, or his age, or his nationality. mode of worship in distinction from that of the and the Jews. The writer, rejoicing Yet this most obscure writer of the second in this opportunity to lead a Gentile friend to century is at the same time the most brilliant; the path of truth, exposes first the vanity of and while his name remains unknown to this idols (ch. 2), then the superstitions of the day, he shed lustre on the Christian name in Jews (ch. 3, 4); after this he gives by contrasts times when it was assailed and blasphemed a striking and truthful picture of Christian life from Jew and Gentile, and could only be which moves in this world like the invisible, professed at the risk of life. He must be immortal soul in the visible, perishing body ranked with the “great unknown” authors of (ch. 5 and 6), and sets forth the benefits of and the Epistle to the Hebrews, who are Christ’s coming (ch. 7). He next describes the known only to God. miserable condition of the world before 2. DIOGNETIUS was an inquiring heathen of Christ (ch. 8), and answers the question why high social position and culture, who desired He appeared so late (ch. 9). In this connection information concerning the origin and nature occurs a beautiful passage on redemption, of the religion of the Christians, and the secret fuller and clearer than any that can be found of their contempt of the world, their courage before Irenæus. He concludes with an account in death, their brotherly love, and the reason of the blessings and moral effects which flow of the late origin of this new fashion, so from the Christian faith (ch. 10). The last two different from the of the Greeks and the chapters which were probably added by a superstition of the Jews. A Stoic philosopher younger contemporary, and marked as such of this name instructed in his in the MS., treat of knowledge, faith and youth (about 133) in painting and spiritual life with reference to the tree of composition, and trained him in Attic knowledge and the tree of life in paradise. simplicity of life, and “whatever else of the Faith opens the paradise of a higher kind belongs to Grecian discipline.” Perhaps knowledge of the mysteries of the he taught him also to despise the Christian supernatural world.

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The Epistle to Diognetus forms the transition instead of Sixtus I.); and by GILDEMEISTER (Gr., from the purely practical literature of the Lat. and Syr.), Bonn 1873. Apostolic Fathers to the reflective theology of A Syriac Version in P. LAGARDII Analecta Syriaca, the Apologists. It still glows with the ardor of Lips. and Lond. 1858 (p. 1–31, only the Syriac the first love. It is strongly Pauline. It breathes text, derived from seven MSS. of the Brit. the spirit of freedom and higher knowledge Museum, the oldest before A.D.553, but grounded in faith. The Old Testament is mutilated). Ignored, but without any sign of Gnostic The book is discussed in the “Max. Bibl.” l. c.; by contempt. FONTANINUS: Historia liter. Aquilejensis (Rom. 1742); by FABRICIUS, in the Bibliotheca Graeca, 5. AUTHORSHIP and TIME of composition. The Tom. I. 870 sqq. (ed. Harles, 1790); by EWALD: author calls himself “a disciple of the Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vol. VII. (Goettingen, Apostles,” but this term occurs in the 1859), p. 321–326; and by TOBLER in Annulus appendix, and may be taken in a wider sense. Rufini, Sent. Sext. (Tuebingen 1878). In the MS. the letter is ascribed to Justin XYSTUS, or as the Romans spelled the name, Martyr, but its style is more elegant, vigorous SEXTUS or SIXTUS I., was the sixth bishop of and terse than that of Justin and the thoughts Rome, and occupied this position about ten are more original and vigorous. It belongs, years under the reign of Hadrian (119–128). however, in all probability, to the same age, Little or nothing is known about him except that is, to the middle of the second century, that he was supposed to be the author of a rather earlier than later. Christianity appears remarkable collection of moral and religious in it as something still new and unknown to maxims, written in Greek, translated into the aristocratic society, as a stranger in the Latin by Rufinus and extensively read in the world, everywhere exposed to calumny and ancient church. The sentences are brief and persecution of Jews and Gentiles. All this suits weighty after the manner of the Hebrew the reign of Antoninus Pius and of Marcus Proverbs and the Sermon on the Mount. They Aurelius. If Diognetus was the teacher of the do not mention the prophets or apostles, or latter as already suggested, we would have an even the name of Christ, but are full of God indication of Rome, as the probable place of and sublime moral sentiments, only composition. bordering somewhat on . If it is the Some assign the Epistle to an earlier date production of a heathen philosopher, he came under Trajan or Hadrian, others to the reign nearer the genius of than of Marcus Aurelius, others to the close of the even Seneca, or Epictetus, or Plutarch, or second century or still later. The speculations Marcus Aurelius; but the product has no about the author begin with in the doubt undergone a transformation in first, and end with Stephens in the sixteenth Christian hands, and this accounts for its century. He will probably remain unknown. ancient popularity, and entitles it to a place in the history of ecclesiastical literature. Rufinus 2.171. Sixtus of Rome took great liberties as translator; besides, the Enchiridion SIXTI philosophi Pythagorici, first ed. MSS. vary very much. by Symphor. Champerius, Lugd. 1507 (under the title: Sixtii Xysti Anulus); again at Wittenberg Origen first cites in two places the Gnomae or with the Carmina aurea of Pythagoras, 1514; by Sententiae of SEXTUS (γνῶμαι Σέξτου), as a Beatus Rhenanus, Bas. 1516; in the “Maxima work well known and widely read among the Bibliotheca Vet. Patrum.” Lugd. 1677, Tom. Ill. Christians of his times, i.e., in the first half of 335–339 (under the title Xysti vel Sexti the second century, but he does not mention Pythagorici philosophi ethnici Sententicae, that the writer was a bishop, or even a interprete Rufino Presbytero Aquilejensi); by U. Christian. Rufinus translated them with G. Siber, Lips. 1725 (under the name of Sixtus II. additions, and ascribes them to Sixtus, bishop

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 40 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course of Rome and martyr. But Jerome, who was world. They refuted the charges and slanders well versed in classical literature, charges him of Jews and Gentiles, vindicated the truths of with prefixing the name of a Christian bishop the Gospel, and attacked the errors and vices to the product of a christless and most of idolatry. They were men of more learning heathenish Pythagorean philosopher, Xystus, and culture than the Apostolic Fathers. They who is admired most by those who teach were mostly philosophers and rhetoricians, Stoic apathy and Pelagian sinlessness. who embraced Christianity in mature age Augustin first regarded the author as one of after earnest investigation, and found peace the two Roman bishops Sixti, but afterwards in it for mind and heart. Their writings retracted his opinion, probably in breathe the same heroism, the same consequence of Jerome’s statement. Maximus enthusiasm for the faith, which animated the the Confessor and John of Damascus ascribe it martyrs in their sufferings and death. to Xystus of Rome. Gennadius merely calls the The earliest of these Apologists are work Xysti Sententiae. Pope Gelasius declares QUADRATUS and ARISTIDES who wrote against it spurious and written by heretics. More the heathen, and ARISTO of Pella, who wrote recent writers (as Fontanini, Brucker, against the Jews, all in the reign of Hadrian Fabricius, Mosheim) agree in assigning it to (117–137). the elder QUINTUS SEXTUS or SEXTIUS (Q. S. QUADRATUS (Κοδράτης) was a disciple of the PATER), a Stoic philosopher who declined the apostles, and bishop (presbyter) of Athens. dignity of Roman Senator offered to him by His Apology is lost. All we know of him is a Julius Caesar and who is highly lauded by quotation from Eusebius who says: Seneca. He abstained from animal food, and “QUADRATUS addressed a discourse to Ælius subjected himself to a scrupulous self- Hadrian, as an apology for the religion that examination at the close of every day. Hence we profess; because certain malicious this book was entirely ignored by modern persons attempted to harass our brethren. church historians. But Paul de Lagarde, who The work is still in the hands of some of the published a Syriac Version, and Ewald have brethren, as also in our own; from which any again directed attention to it and treat it as a one may see evident proof, both of the genuine work of the first Pope Xystus. Ewald understanding of the man, and of his puts the highest estimate on it. “The Christian apostolic faith. This writer shows the conscience,” he says,” appears here for the antiquity of the age in which he lived, in these first time before all the world to teach all the passages:’The deeds of our Saviour,’ says world its duty, and to embody the Christian he,’were always before you, for they were wisdom of life in brief pointed sentences.” But true miracles; those that were healed, those it seems impossible that a Christian sage and that were raised from the dead, who were bishop should write a system of Christian seen, not only when healed and when raised, Ethics or a collection of Christian proverbs but were always present. They remained without even mentioning the name of Christ. living a long time, not only whilst our Lord 2.172. The Apologists. Quadratus and was on earth, but likewise when he left the Aristides earth. So that some of them have also lived to our own times.’ Such was Quadratus.” We now proceed to that series of ecclesiastical authors who, from the character ARISTIDES (Ἀριστείδης) was an eloquent and name of their chief writings are called philosopher at Athens who is mentioned by APOLOGISTS. They flourished during the reigns Eusebius as a contemporary of Quadratus. His of Hadrian, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius, Apology likewise disappeared long ago, but a when Christianity was exposed to the literary fragment of it was recently recovered in an as well as bloody persecution of the heathen Armenian translation and published by the

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Mechitarists in 1878. It was addressed to (Paris, 1857), c. 10–800 and 1102–1680, with Hadrian, and shows that the preaching of Paul additions from Otto. The Apologies were also in Athens had taken root. It sets forth the often published separately, e.g. by Prof B. L. Christian idea of God as an infinite and Gildersleeve, N. Y. 1877, with introduction and indescribable Being who made all things and notes. cares for all things, whom we should serve On the MSS. of Justin see Otto’s Proleg., p. xx. and glorify as the only God; and the idea of sqq., and Harnack, Texte. Of the genuine works we have only two, and they are corrupt, one in Christ, who is described as “the Son of the Paris, the other in Cheltenham, in possession of most high God, revealed by the Holy Spirit, Rev. F. A. Fenwick (see Otto, p. xxiv.). descended from heaven, born of a Hebrew English translation in the Oxford “Library of the Virgin. His flesh he received from the Virgin, Fathers,” Lond., 1861, and another by G. J. Davie and he revealed himself in the human nature in the “Ante-Nicene Library,” Edinb. Vol. II., as the Son of God. In his goodness which 1867 (465 pages), containing the Apologies, the brought the glad tidings, he has won the Address to the Greeks, the Exhortation, and the whole world by his life-giving preaching. [It Martyrium, translated by M. Dods; the Dialogue was he who according to the flesh was born with Trypho, and On the Sole Government of God, from the race of the Hebrews, of the mother trsl. by G. Reith; and also the writings of of God, the Virgin Mariam.] He selected Athenagoras, trsl. by B. P. Pratten. Older twelve apostles and taught the whole world translations by Wm. Reeves, 1709, Henry by his mediatorial, light-giving truth. And he Brown, 1755, and J. Chevallier, 1833 (ed. II., 1851). On German and other versions see Otto, was crucified, being pierced with nails by the Prol. LX. sqq. Jews; and he rose from the dead and Works on Justin Martyr. ascended to heaven. He sent the apostles into all the world and instructed all by divine BP. KAYE: Some Account of the Writings and miracles full of wisdom. Their preaching Opinions of Justin Martyr.Cambr., 1829, 3d ed., 1853. bears blossoms and fruits to this day, and calls the whole world to illumination.” C. A. CREDNER: Beitraege zur Einleitung in die bibl. Schriften. Halle, vol. I., 1832 (92–267); also A curious feature in this document is the in Vol. II., 1838 (on the quotations from the O.T., division of mankind into four parts, p. 17–98; 104–133; 157–311). Credner Barbarians, Greeks, Jews, and Christians. discusses with exhaustive learning Justin’s ARISTO OF PELLA, a Jewish Christian of the first relation to the Gospels and the Canon of the half of the second century, was the author of a N.T., and his quotations from the Septuagint. Comp. also his Geschichte des N. T Canon, ed. by lost apology of Christianity against Judaism. Volkmar, 1860. 2.173. Justin the Philosopher and Martyr *C. SEMISCH: Justin der Maertyrer. Breslau, 1840 EDITIONS OF JUSTIN MARTYR. and 1842, 2 vols. Very thorough and complete up to date of publication. English translation by *JUSTINI Philosophi et Martyris Opera omnia, in Ryland, Edinb., 1844, 2 vols. Comp. SEMISCH: Die the CORPUS APOLOGETARUMChristianorum saeculi apostol. Denkwuerdigkeiten des Just. M. (Hamb. secundi, ed. Jo. Car. Th. de Otto, Jen. 1847, 3d ed. and Gotha, 1848), and his article Justin in the 1876–’81. 5 vols. 8vo. Contains the genuine, the first ed. of Herzog, VII. (1857), 179–186. doubtful, and the spurious works of Justin Martyr with commentary, and Maran’s Latin FR. BOHRINGER: Die Kirchengesch. in Biographien. Version. Vol. I. Zuerich, 1842, ed. II., 1861, p. 97–270. Older ed. (mostly incomplete) by Robt. AD. HILGENFELD: Krit. Untersuchungen ueber die Stephanus, Par., 1551; Sylburg, Heidelb., 1593; Evangelien Justin’s. Halle, 1850. Also: Die Ap. Grabe, Oxon., 1700 (only the Apol. I.); Prudent. Gesch. u. der M. Just. in his “Zeitschr. f. wiss. Maranus, Par., 1742 (the Bened. ed.), republ. at Theol.,” 1872, p. 495–509, and Ketzergesch., Venice, 1747, and in Migne’s Patrol. Gr. Tom. VI. 1884, pp. 21 sqq.

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*J. C. TH. OTTO: Zur Characteristik des heil. Sanday, Westcott, Abbot; his relation to the Acts Justinus. Wien, 1852. His art.Justinus der by Overbeck (1872) and Hilgenfeld; his relation Apologete, in “Ersch and Gruber’s Encyklop.” to the Pauline Epistles by H. D. Tjeenk Willink Second Section, 30 Part (1853), pp. 39–76. (1868), Alb. Thoma (1875), and v. Engelhardt Comp. also his Prolegomena in the third ed. of (1878). Justin’s works. He agrees with Semisch in his The most eminent among the Greek general estimate of Justin. Apologists of the second century is FLAVIUS C. G. SEIBERT: Justinus, der Vertheidiger des JUSTINUS, surnamed “Philosopher and Martyr.” Christenthums vor dem Thron der He is the typical apologist, who devoted his Caesaren.Elberf., 1859. whole life to the defense of Christianity at a CH. E. FREPPEL (R.C. Bp.): Les Apologistes time when it was most assailed, and he sealed Chrétiens du II. siècle. Par., 1860. his testimony with his blood. He is also the L. SCHALLER: Les deux Apologies de Justin M. au first Christian philosopher or the first point de vie dogmatique. Strasb., 1861. philosophic theologian. His writings were B. AUBÉ: De l’apologetique Chrétienne au II.siècle. well known to Irenæus, Hippolytus, Eusebius, Par., 1861; and S. Justin philosophe et martyr, Epiphanius, Jerome, and Photius, and the 1875. most important of them have been preserved E. DE PRESSENSÉ, in the third vol. of his Histoire to this day. des trois premiers siècles, or second vol. of the English version (1870), which treats of Martyrs I. His LIFE. Justin was born towards the close and Apologists, and his art. in Lichtenberger VII. of the first century, or in the beginning of the (1880) 576–583. second, in the Graeco-Roman colony of Flavia EM. RUGGIERI: Vita e dottrina di S. Giustino. Rom., Neapolis, so called after the emperor Flavius 1862. Vespasian, and built near the ruins of Sychem in Samaria (now Nablous). He calls himself a *J. DONALDSON: Hist. of Ante-Nicene Christian Literature. Lond., vol. II. (1866), which treats of Samaritan, but was of heathen descent, Justin M., pp. 62–344. uncircumcised, and ignorant of Moses and the *C. WEIZSAECKER: Die Theologie des Maertyrers prophets before his conversion. Perhaps he Justinus in the “Jahrbuecher fur Deutsche belonged to the Roman colony which Theologie. Gotha, 1867 (vol. XII., I. pp. 60–120). Vespasian planted in Samaria after the RENAN: L’église chrétienne (Par., 1879), ch. XIX., destruction of Jerusalem. His grandfather’s pp. 364–389, and ch. XXV. 480 sqq. name was Greek (Bacchius), his father’s *MORITZ VON ENGELHARDT (d. 1881): Das (Priscus) and his own, Latin. His education Christenthum Justins des Maertyrers. Erlangen, was Hellenic. To judge from his employment 1878. (490 pages, no index.) With an instructive of several teachers and his many journeys, he critical review of the various treatments of must have had some means, though he no Irenæus and his place in history (p. 1–70). See doubt lived in great simplicity and may have also his art. Justin in Herzog, VII. been aided by his brethren. G. F. PURVES: The Testimony of Justin M. to Early His conversion occurred in his early Christianity. New York. 1888. manhood. He himself tells us the interesting ADOLF STAEHELIN: Justin der Maertyrer und sein story. Thirsting for truth as the greatest neuster Beurtheiler. Leipzig, 1880 (67 pages). A possession, he made the round of the systems careful review of Engelhardt’s monograph. of philosophy and knocked at every gate of HENRY SCOTT HOLLAND: Art. Justinus Martyr, in ancient wisdom, except the Epicurean which Smith and Wace III. (1880), 560–587. he despised. He first went to a Stoic, but AD. HARNACK: Die Werke des Justin, in “Texte und found him a sort of agnostic who considered Untersuchungen,” etc. Leipz., 1882. I. 130–195. the knowledge of God impossible or The relation of Justin to the Gospels is discussed unnecessary; then to a Peripatetic, but he was by Credner, Semisch, Hilgenfeld, Norton, more anxious for a good fee than for

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 43 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course imparting instruction; next to a celebrated After his conversion Justin sought the society Pythagorean, who seemed to know of Christians, and received from them something, but demanded too much instruction in the history and doctrine of the preliminary knowledge of music, astronomy gospel. He now devoted himself wholly to the and geometry before giving him an insight spread and vindication of the Christian into the highest truths. At last he threw religion. He was an itinerant evangelist or himself with great zeal into the arms of teaching missionary, with no fixed abode and Platonism under the guidance of a no regular office in the church. There is no distinguished teacher who had recently come trace of his ordination; he was as far as we to his city. He was overpowered by the know a lay-preacher, with a commission from perception of immaterial things and the the Holy Spirit; yet he accomplished far more contemplation of eternal ideas of truth, for the good of the church than any known beauty, and goodness. He thought that he was bishop or presbyter of his day. “Every one,” already near the promised goal of this says he, “who can preach the truth and does philosophy—the vision of God—when, in a not preach it, incurs the judgment of God.” solitary walk not far from the sea-shore, a Like Paul, he felt himself a debtor to all men, venerable old Christian of pleasant Jew and Gentile, that he might show them the countenance and gentle dignity, entered into way of salvation. And, like Aristides, a conversation with him, which changed the Athenagoras, Tertullian, Heraclas, Gregory course of his life. The unknown friend shook Thaumaturgus, he retained his philosopher’s his confidence in all human wisdom, and cloak, that he might the more readily pointed him to the writings of the Hebrew discourse on the highest themes of thought; prophets who were older than the and when he appeared in early morning (as philosophers and had seen and spoken the he himself tells us), upon a public walk, many truth, not as reasoners, but as witnesses. came to him with a “Welcome, philosopher!” More than this: they had foretold the coming He spent some time in Rome where he met of Christ, and their prophecies were fulfilled and combated Marcion. In Ephesus he made in his life and work. The old man departed, an effort to gain the Jew Trypho and his and Justin saw him no more, but he took his friends to the Christian faith. advice and soon found in the prophets of the He labored last, for the second time, in Rome. Old Testament as illuminated and confirmed Here, at the instigation of a Cynic philosopher, by the Gospels, the true and infallible Crescens, whom he had convicted of philosophy which rests upon the firm ground ignorance about Christianity, Justin, with six of revelation. Thus the enthusiastic Platonist other Christians, about the year 166, was became a believing Christian. scourged and beheaded. Fearlessly and To Tatian also, and Theophilus at Antioch, joyfully, as in life, so also in the face of death, and Hilary, the Jewish prophets were in like he bore witness to the truth before the manner the bridge to the Christian faith. We tribunal of Rusticus, the prefect of the city, must not suppose, however, that the Old refused to sacrifice, and proved by his own Testament alone effected his conversion; for example the steadfastness of which he had so in the Second Apology, Justin distinctly often boasted as a characteristic trait of his mentions as a means the practical working of believing brethren. When asked to explain the Christianity. While he was yet a Platonist, and mystery of Christ, he replied: “I am too little listened to the calumnies against the to say something great of him.” His last words Christians, he was struck with admiration for were: “We desire nothing more than to suffer their fearless courage and steadfastness in for our Lord Jesus Christ; for this gives us the face of death. salvation and joyfulness before his dreadful

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 44 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course judgment seat, at which all the world must He appeals from the, lower courts and the appear.” violence of the mob to the highest tribunal of Justin is the first among the fathers who may law, and feels confident that such wise and be called a learned theologian and Christian philosophic rulers as he addresses would thinker. He had acquired considerable acquit them after a fair hearing. He ascribes classical and philosophical culture before his the persecutions to the instigation of the conversion, and then made it subservient to demons who tremble for their power and will the defense of faith. He was not a man of soon be dethroned. genius and accurate scholarship, but of The Dialogue (142 chapters) is more than respectable talent, extensive reading, and twice as large as the two Apologies, and is a enormous memory. He had some original and vindication of Christianity from Moses and profound ideas, as that of the spermatic the prophets against the objections of the , and was remarkably liberal in his Jews. It was written after the former (which judgment of the noble heathen and the milder are referred to in ch. 120), but also in the section of the Jewish Christians. He lived in reign of Antoninus Pius, i.e., before A.D.161 times when the profession of Christ was a probably about A.D.148. In the Apologies he crime under the Roman law against secret speaks like a philosopher to philosophers; in societies and prohibited religious. He had the the Dialogue as a believer in the Old courage of a confessor in life and of a martyr Testament with a son of . The in death. It is impossible not to admire his disputation lasted two days, in the fearless devotion to the cause of truth and the gymnasium just before a voyage of Justin, and defense of his persecuted brethren. If not a turned chiefly on two questions, how the great man, he was (what is better) an Christians could profess to serve God, and yet eminently good and useful man, and worthy break his law, and how they could believe in a of an honored place in “the noble army of human Saviour who suffered and died. martyrs.” Trypho, whom Eusebius calls “the most II. WRITINGS. To his oral testimony Justin distinguished among the Hebrews of his day,” added extensive literary labors in the field of was not a fanatical Pharisee, but a tolerant and polemics. His pen was and courteous Jew, who evasively confessed incessantly active against all the enemies of at last to have been much instructed, and Christian truth, Jews, Gentiles, and heretics. asked Justin to come again, and to remember him as a friend. The book is a storehouse of (1) His chief works are apologetic, and still early interpretation of the prophetic remain, namely, his two Apologies against the Scriptures. heathen, and his Dialogue with the Jew Trypho The First or larger Apology (68 chapters) is The polemic works, Against all Heresies, and addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius Against Marcion, are lost. The first is (137–161) and his adopted sons, and was mentioned in the First Apology; of the second, probably written about A.D.147, if not earlier; Irenæus has preserved some fragments; the Second or smaller Apology (25 chapters) perhaps it was only a part of the former. is a supplement to the, former, perhaps its Eusebius mentions also a Psalter of Justin, conclusion, and belongs to the same reign and a book On the Soul, which have wholly (not to that of Marcus Aurelius). Both are a disappeared. defense of the Christians and their religion (2) Doubtful works which bear Justin’s name, against heathen calumnies and persecutions. and may have been written by him: An He demands nothing but justice for his address To the Greeks; a treatise On the Unity brethren, who were condemned without trial of God; another On the Resurrection simply as Christians and suspected criminals.

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(3) Spurious works attributed to him: The Apostles,” as he calls the canonical Gospels, Epistle to Diognetus probably of the same without naming the authors. He says that they date, but by a superior writer, the Exhortation were publicly read in the churches with the to the Greeks, the Deposition of the True Faith, prophets of the Old Testament. He only the epistle To Zenas and Serenus, the quotes the words and acts of the Lord. He Refutation of some Theses of Aristotle, the makes most use of Matthew and Luke, but Questions to the Orthodox, the Questions of the very freely, and from John’s Prologue (with Christians to the Heathens, and the Questions the aid of Philo whom he never names) he of the Heathens to the Christians. Some of derived the inspiration of the Logos-doctrine, these belong to the third or later centuries. which is the heart of his theology. He The genuine works of Justin are of unusual expressly mentions the Revelation of John. He importance and interest. They bring vividly knew no fixed canon of the New Testament, before us the time when the church was still a and, like Hernias and Papias, he nowhere small sect, despised and persecuted, but bold notices Paul; but several allusions to passages in faith and joyful in death. They everywhere of his Epistles (Romans, First Corinthians, attest his honesty and earnestness, his Ephesians, Colossians, etc.), can hardly be enthusiastic love for Christianity, and his mistaken, and his controversy with Marcion fearlessness in its defense against all assaults must have implied a full knowledge of the ten from without and perversions from within. Epistles which that heretic included in his He gives us the first reliable account of the canon. Any dogmatical inference from this public worship and the celebration of the silence is the less admissible, since, in the . His reasoning is often ingenious genuine writings of Justin, not one of the and convincing but sometimes rambling and apostles or evangelists is expressly named fanciful, though not more so than that of except John once, and Simon Peter twice, and other writers of those times. His style is fluent “the sons of Zebedee whom Christ called and lively, but diffuse and careless. He writes Boanerges,” but reference is always made under a strong impulse of duty and fresh directly to Christ and to the prophets and impression without strict method or aim at apostles in general. The last are to him rhetorical finish and artistic effect. He thinks typified in the twelve bells on the border of pen in hand, without looking backward or the high priest’s garment which sound forward, and uses his memory more than through the whole world. But this no more books. Only occasionally, as in the opening of excludes Paul from apostolic dignity than the the Dialogue, there is a touch of the literary names of the twelve apostles on the art of Plato, his old master. But the lack of foundation stones of the new Jerusalem (Rev. careful elaboration is made up by freshness 21:14). They represent the twelve tribes of and truthfulness. If the emperors of Rome had Israel, Paul the independent apostolate of the read the books addressed to them they must Gentiles. have been strongly impressed, at least with Justin’s exegesis of the Old Testament is the honesty of the writer and the innocence of apologetic, typological and allegorical the Christians. throughout. He finds everywhere references III. THEOLOGY. As to the sources of his to Christ, and turned it into a text book of religious knowledge, Justin derived it partly . He carried the whole New from the Holy Scriptures, partly from the Testament into the Old without living church tradition. He cites, most discrimination, and thus obliterated the frequently, and generally from memory, difference. He had no knowledge of Hebrew, hence often inaccurately, the Old Testament and freely copied the blunders and prophets (in the Septuagint), and the interpolations of the Septuagint. He had no “Memoirs” of Christ, or “Memoirs by the idea of grammatical or historical

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 46 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course interpretation. He used also two or three Christianity was to Justin, theoretically, the times the Sibylline Oracles and Hystaspes for true philosophy, and, practically, a new law of genuine prophecies, and appeals to the holy living and dying. The former is chiefly Apocryphal Acts of Pilate as an authority. We the position of the Apologies, the latter that of should remember, however, that he is no the Dialogue more credulous, inaccurate and uncritical He was not an original philosopher, but a than his contemporaries and the majority of philosophizing eclectic, with a prevailing love the fathers. for Plato, whom be quotes more frequently Justin forms the transition from the apostolic than any other classical author. He may be fathers to the church fathers properly so called, in a loose sense, a Christian Platonist. called. He must not be judged by the standard He was also influenced by . He of a later orthodoxy, whether Greek, Roman, thought that the philosophers of had or Evangelical, nor by the apostolic conflict borrowed their light from Moses and the between Jewish and Gentile Christianity, or prophets. But his relation to Plato after all is Ebionism and Gnosticism, which at that time merely external, and based upon fancied had already separated from the current of resemblances. He illuminated and Catholic Christianity. It was a great mistake to transformed his Platonic reminiscences by charge him with Ebionism. He was a the prophetic Scriptures, and especially by converted Gentile, and makes a sharp the Johannean doctrine of the Logos and the distinction between the church and the incarnation. This is the central idea of his synagogue as two antagonistic organizations. philosophical theology. Christianity is the He belongs to orthodox Catholicism as highest reason. The Logos is the preexistent, modified by Greek philosophy. The Christians absolute, personal Reason, and Christ is the to him are the true people of God and heirs of embodiment of it, the Logos incarnate. all the promises. He distinguishes between Whatever is rational is Christian, and Jewish Christians who would impose the yoke whatever is Christian is rational. The Logos of the Mosaic law (the ), and those endowed all men with reason and freedom, who only observe it themselves, allowing which are not lost by the fall. He scattered freedom to the Gentiles (the Nazarenes); the seed (σπέρματα) of truth before his former he does not acknowledge as incarnation, not only among the Jews but also Christians, the latter be treats charitably, like among the Greeks and barbarians, especially Paul in Romans ch. 14 and 15. The only among philosophers and poets, who are the difference among orthodox Christians which prophets of the heathen. Those who lived he mentions is the belief in the millennium reasonably (οἱ μετὰ λόγου βιώσαντες) and which he held, like Barnabas, Irenæus and virtuously in obedience to this preparatory Tertullian, but which many rejected. But, like light were Christians in fact, though not in all the ante-Nicene writers, he had no clear name; while those who lived unreasonably (οἱ insight into the distinction between the Old ἄνευ λόγου βιώσαντες) were Christless and Testament and the New, between the law and enemies of Christ. Socrates was a Christian as the gospel, nor any proper conception of the well as Abraham, though he did not know it. depth of sin and redeeming grace, and the None of the fathers or schoolmen has so justifying power of faith. His theology is widely thrown open the gates of salvation. He legalistic and ascetic rather than evangelical was the broadest of broad churchmen. and free. He retained some heathen notions This extremely liberal view of heathenism, from his former studies, though he honestly however, did not blind him to the prevailing believed them to be in full harmony with corruption. The mass of the Gentiles are revelation. idolaters, and idolatry is under the control of the devil and the demons. The Jews are even

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 47 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course worse than the heathen, because they sin IV. From the time of Justin Martyr, the against better knowledge. And worst of all are PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY continued to exercise a the heretics, because they corrupt the direct and indirect influence upon Christian Christian truths. Nor did he overlook the theology, though not so unrestrainedly and difference between Socrates and Christ, and naively as in his case. We can trace it between the best of heathen and the especially in Clement of Alexandria and humblest Christian. “No one trusted Origen, and even in St. Augustin, who Socrates,” he says, “so as to die for his confessed that it kindled in him an incredible doctrine but Christ, who was partially known fire. In the scholastic period it gave way to the by Socrates, was trusted not only by Aristotelian philosophy, which was better philosophers and scholars, but also by adapted to clear, logical statements. But artizans and people altogether unlearned.” Platonism maintained its influence over The Christian faith of Justin is faith in God the Maximus, John of Damascus, Thomas Aquinas, Creator, and in his Son Jesus Christ the and other schoolmen, through the pseudo- Redeemer, and in the prophetic Spirit. All Dionysian writings which first appear at other doctrines which are revealed through Constantinople in 532, and were composed the prophets and apostles, follow as a matter probably in the fifth century. They sent a of course. Below the are good and bad whole system of the universe under the angels; the former are messengers of God, the aspect of a double hierarchy, a heavenly and latter servants of Satan, who caricature Bible an earthly, each consisting of three triads. doctrines in heathen mythology, invent The Platonic philosophy offered many points slanders, and stir up persecutions against of resemblance to Christianity. It is spiritual Christians, but will be utterly overthrown at and idealistic, maintaining the supremacy of the of Christ. The human soul the spirit over matter, of eternal ideas over all is a creature, and hence perishable, but temporary phenomena, and the pre-existence receives immortality from God, eternal and immortality of the soul; it is theistic, happiness as a reward of piety, eternal fire as making the supreme God above all the a punishment of wickedness. Man has reason secondary , the beginning, middle, and and free will, and is hence responsible for all end of all things; it is ethical, looking towards his actions; he sins by his own act, and hence present and future rewards and punishments; deserves punishment. Christ came to break it is religious, basing ethics, politics, and the power of sin, to secure forgiveness and physics upon the authority of the Lawgiver regeneration to a new and holy life. and Ruler of the universe; it leads thus to the Here comes in the practical or ethical side of very threshold of the revelation of God in this . It is wisdom which Christ, though it knows not this blessed name emanates from God and leads to God. It is a nor his saving grace, and obscures its new law and a new covenant, promised by glimpses of truth by serious errors. Upon the Isaiah and , and introduced by whole the influence of Platonism, especially Christ. The old law was only for the Jews, the as represented in the moral essays of new is for the whole world; the old was Plutarch, has been and is to this day elevating, temporary and is abolished, the new is stimulating, and healthy, calling the mind eternal; the old commands circumcision of away from the vanities of earth to the the flesh, the new, circumcision of the heart; contemplation of eternal truth, beauty, and the old enjoins the observance of one day, the goodness. To not a few of the noblest teachers new sanctifies all days; the old refers to of the church, from Justin the philosopher to outward performances, the new to spiritual Neander the historian, Plato has been a repentance and faith, and demands entire schoolmaster who led them to Christ. consecration to God. NOTES.

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The theology and philosophy of Justin are him, and lays even greater stress on the learnedly discussed by Maran, and recently heathen element. Against this Staehelin by Moehler and Freppel in the Roman (1880) justly protests, and vindicates his Catholic interest, and in favor of his full truly Christian character. orthodoxy. Among Protestants his orthodoxy Among recent French writers, Aubé was first doubted by the authors of the represents Justin’s theology superficially as “Magdeburg Centuries,” who judged him from nothing more than popularized heathen the Lutheran standpoint. philosophy. Renan (p. 389) calls his Modern Protestant historians viewed him philosophy “une sorte d’eclectisme fondé sur chiefly with reference to the conflict between un rationalisme mystic.” Freppel returns to Jewish and Gentile Christianity. Credner first Maran’s treatment, and tries to make the endeavored to prove, by an exhaustive philosopher and martyr of the second century investigation (1832), that Justin was a Jewish even a Vatican Romanist of the nineteenth. Christian of the Ebionitic type, with the For the best estimates of his character and Platonic Logos-doctrine attached to his low merits see Neander, Semisch, Otto, von creed as an appendix. He was followed by the Engelhardt, Staehelin, Donaldson (II. 147 Tuebingen critics, Schwegler (1846), Zeller, sqq.), and Holland (in Smith and Wace). Hilgenfeld, and Baur himself (1853). Baur, however, moderated Credner’s view, and put, 2.174. The Other Greek Apologists. Tatian Justin rather between Jewish and Gentile Lit. on the later Greek Apologists: Christianity, calling him a Pauline in fact, but OTTO: Corpus Apologetarum Christ. Vol. VI. not in name (“er ist der Sache nach Pauliner, (1861): TATIANI ASSYRII Opera; vol. VII.: aber dem Namen nach will er es nicht sein”). ATHENAGORUS; vol. VIII.: THEOPHILUS; Vol. IX.: This shaky judgment shows the HERMIAS, QUADRATUS, ARISTIDES, ARISTO, unsatisfactory character of the Tuebingen MILTIADES, MELITO, APOLLINARIS (Reliquiae) Older construction of Catholic Christianity as the ed. by MARANUS, 1742, reissued by Migne, 1857, result of a conflux and compromise between in Tom. VI. of his “Patrol. Gr.” A new ed. by O. v. GEBHARDT and E. SCHWARTZ, begun Leipz. 1888. Ebionism and Paulinism. The third vol. of DONALDSON’S Critical History of Ritschl (in the second ed. of his Entstehung Christ. Lit. and Doctr., etc. (Lond. 1866) is der altkatholischen Kirche, 1857) broke loose devoted to the same Apologists. Comp. also from this scheme and represented ancient KEIM’S Rom und das Christenthum (1881), p. Catholicism as a development of Gentile 439–495; and on the MSS. and early traditions Christianity, and Justin as the type of the HARNACK’S Texte, etc. Band I. Heft. 1 and 2 “katholisch werdede Heidenchristenthum,” (1882), and SCHWARTZ in his ed. (1888). who was influenced by Pauline ideas, but TATIAN of Assyria (110–172) was a pupil of unable to comprehend them in their depth Justin Martyr whom he calls a most admirable and fulness, and thus degraded the man (θαυμασιώτατος), and like him an standpoint of freedom to a new form of itinerant Christian philosopher; but unlike legalism. This he calls a “herabgekommener or him he seems to have afterwards wandered abgeschwaechter Paulinismus.” Engelhardt to the borders of heretical Gnosticism, or at goes a step further, and explains this least to an extreme type of asceticism. He is degradation of Paulinism from the influences charged with having condemned marriage as of Hellenic heathenism and the Platonic and a corruption and denied that was Stoic modes of thought. He says (p. 485): saved, because Paul says: “We all die in “Justin was at once a Christian and a heathen. Adam.” He was an independent, vigorous and We must acknowledge his Christianity and his earnest man, but restless, austere, and heathenism in order to understand him.” sarcastic. In both respects he somewhat Harnack (in a review of E., 1878) agrees with

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 49 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course resembles Tertullian. Before his conversion approval, though it were only as dealing in he had studied mythology, history, , legends similar to your own. We, however, do and chronology, attended the theatre and not deal in folly, but your legends are only athletic games, became disgusted with the idle tales. If you speak of the origin of the world, and was led by the Hebrew Scriptures gods, you also declare them to be mortal. For to the Christian faith. what reason is Hera now never pregnant? Has We have from him an apologetic work she grown old? or is there no one to give you addressed To the Greeks. It was written in the information? Believe me now, O Greeks, and reign of Marcus Aurelius, probably in Rome, do not resolve your myths and gods into and shows no traces of heresy. He vindicates allegory. If you attempt to do this, the divine Christianity as the “philosophy of the nature as held by you is overthrown by your barbarians,” and exposes the contradictions, own selves; for, if the demons with you are absurdities, and immoralities of the Greek such as they are said to be, they are worthless mythology from actual knowledge and with as to character; or, if regarded as symbols of much spirit and acuteness but with vehement the powers of nature, they are not what they contempt and bitterness. He proves that are called. But I cannot be persuaded to pay Moses and the prophets were older and wiser religious homage to the natural elements, nor than the Greek philosophers, and gives much can I undertake to persuade my neighbor. information on the antiquity of the Jews. And Metrodorus of Lampsacus, in his treatise Eusebius calls this “the best and most useful concerning Homer, has argued very foolishly, of his writings,” and gives many extracts in turning everything into allegory. For he says his Praeparatio Evangelica that neither Hera, nor Athene, nor Zeus are what those persons suppose who consecrate The following specimens show his power of to them sacred enclosures and groves, but ridicule and his radical antagonism to Greek parts of nature and certain arrangements of mythology and philosophy: the elements. Hector also, and Achilles, and Ch. 21.—Doctrines of the Christians and Greeks Agamemnon, and all the Greeks in general, respecting God compared. and the Barbarians with Helen and Paris, “We do not act as fools, O Greeks, nor utter being of the same nature, you will of course idle tales, when we announce that God was say are introduced merely for the sake of the born in the form of a man. (ἐν ἀνθρώπου machinery of the poem, not one of these μορφῇ γεγονέναι). I call on you who reproach personages having really existed. us to compare your mythical accounts with But these things we have put forth only for our narrations. Athene, as they say, took the argument’s sake; for it is not allowable even form of Deiphobus for the sake of Hector, and to compare our notions of God with those the unshorn Phoebus for the sake of Admetus who are wallowing in matter and mud.” fed the trailing-footed oxen, and the spouse of CH. 25.—BOASTINGS AND QUARRELS OF THE Zeus came as an old woman to Semélé. But, PHILOSOPHERS. while you treat seriously such things, how can you deride us? Your Asclepios died, and he “What great and wonderful things have your who ravished fifty virgins in one night at philosophers effected? They leave uncovered Thespiae, lost his life by delivering himself to one of their shoulders; they let their hair the devouring flame. Prometheus, fastened to grow long; they cultivate their beards; their Caucasus, suffered punishment for his good nails are like the claws of wild beasts. Though deeds to men. According to you, Zeus is they say that they want nothing, yet, like envious, and hides the dream from men, Proteus [the Cynic, Proteus Peregrinus wishing their destruction. Wherefore, looking known to us from Lucian], they need a currier at your own memorials, vouchsafe us your for their wallet, and a weaver for their

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 50 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course mantle, and a woodcutter for their staff, and was preserved in an Armenian translation by they need the rich [to invite them to the Mechitarists at Venice, translated into banquets], and a cook also for their gluttony. Latin by Aucher (1841), and published with a O man competing with the dog [cynic learned introduction by Moesinger (1876). philosopher], you know not God, and so have From this commentary Zahn has restored the turned to the imitation of an irrational text (1881). Since then an Arabic translation animal. You cry out in public with an of the Diatessaron itself has been discovered assumption of authority, and take upon you and published by Ciasca (1888). The to avenge your own self; and if you receive Diatessaron begins with the Prologue of John nothing, you indulge in abuse, for philosophy (In principio erat Verbum, etc.), follows his is with you the art of getting money. You order of the festivals, assuming a two years’ follow the doctrines of Plato, and a disciple of ministry, and makes a connected account of Epicurus lifts up his voice to oppose you. the life of Christ from the . Again, you wish to be a disciple of Aristotle, There is no heretical tendency, except and a follower of Democritus rails at you. perhaps in the omission of Christ’s human Pythagoras says that he was Euphorbus, and genealogies in Matthew and Luke, which may he is the heir of the doctrine of Pherecydes, have been due to the influence of a docetic but Aristotle impugns the immortality of the spirit. This Diatessaron conclusively proves soul. You who receive from your the existence and ecclesiastical use of the four predecessors doctrines which clash with one Gospels, no more and no less, in the middle of another, you the inharmonious, are fighting the second century. against the harmonious. One of you asserts “that God is body,” but I assert that He is 2.175. Athenagoras without body; “that the world is OTTO, Vol. VII.; MIGNE, VI. 890–1023. Am. ed. by indestructible,” but I assert that it is to be W. B. OWEN, N. Y., 1875. destroyed; “that a conflagration will take CLARISSE: De Athenagorae vita, scriptis doctrina place at various times,” but I say that it will (Lugd. Bat. 1819); DONALDSON, III. 107–178; come to pass once for all; “that Minos and HARNACK, Texte, I. 176 sqq., and his art. “Athen.” in Herzog I. 748–750; SPENCER MANSEL in Smith Rhadamanthus are judges,” but I say that God and Wace, 1. 204–207; RENAN, Marc-Auréle, Himself is Judge; “that the soul alone is 382–386. endowed with immortality,” but I say that the ATHENAGORAS was “a Christian philosopher of flesh also is endowed with it. What injury do Athens,” during the reign of Marcus Aurelius we inflict upon you, O Greeks? Why do you (A. D., 161–180), but is otherwise entirely hate those who follow the word of God, as if unknown and not even mentioned by they were the vilest of mankind? It is not we Eusebius, Jerome, and Photius. His philosophy who eat human flesh—they among you who was Platonic, but modified by the prevailing assert such a thing have been suborned as eclecticism of his age. He is less original as an false witnesses; it is among you that Pelops is apologist than Justin and Tatian, but more made a supper for the gods, although beloved elegant and classical in style. by Poseidon; and Kronos devours his children, and Zeus swallows Metis.” He addressed an Apology or Intercession in behalf of the Christians to the Emperors Of great importance for the history of the Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. He reminds canon and of exegesis is Tatian’s Diatessaron the rulers that all their subjects are allowed or Harmony of the Four Gospels, once widely to follow their customs without hindrance circulated, then lost, but now measurably recovered. Theodoret found more than two except the Christians who are vexed, plundered and killed on no other pretence hundred copies of it in his diocese. Ephraem than that they bear the name of their Lord the Syrian wrote a commentary on it which

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 51 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course and Master. We do not object to punishment most of the Apologists, elegant, free from if we are found guilty, but we demand a fair superfluity of language, forcible in style, and trial. A name is neither good nor bad in itself, rising occasionally into great powers of but becomes good or bad according to the description, and in his reasoning remarkable character and deeds under it. We are accused for clearness and cogency.” of three crimes, atheism, Thyestean banquets Tillemont found traces of Montanism in the (cannibalism), Oedipodean connections condemnation of second marriage and the (incest). Then he goes on to refute these view of prophetic inspiration, but the former charges, especially that of atheism and incest. was common among the Greeks, and the He does it calmly, clearly, eloquently, and latter was also held by Justin M. and others. conclusively. By a divine law, he says, Athenagoras says of the prophets that they wickedness is ever fighting against virtue. were in an ecstatic condition of mind and that Thus Socrates was condemned to death, and the Spirit of God “used them as if a flute- thus are stories invented against us. We are player were breathing into his flute.” so far from committing the excesses of which Montanus used the comparison of the we are accused, that we are not permitted to plectrum and the lyre. lust after a woman in thought. We are so particular on this point that we either do not 2.176. Theophilus of Antioch marry at all, or we marry for the sake of OTTO, Vol. VIII. MIGNE, VI. Col. 1023–1168. children, and only once in the course of our DONALDSON, Critical History, III. 63–106. RENAN, life. Here comes out his ascetic tendency Marc-Aur. 386 sqq. which he shares with his age. He even THEOD. ZAHN: Der Evanqelien-commentar des condemns second marriage as “decent Theophilus von Antiochien. Erlangen 1883 (302 adultery.” The Christians are more humane pages). The second part of his Forschung zur than the heathen, and condemn, as murder, Gesch. des neutestam. Kanons und der the practices of abortion, infanticide, and altkirchlichen Lit. Also his Supplementum gladiatorial shows. Clementinum, 1884, p. 198–276 (in self-defense against Harnack). Another treatise under his name, “On the Resurrection of the Dead, is a masterly HARNACK, Texte, etc. Bd. I., Heft II., 282–298., and Heft. IV. (I 8., 3), 97–175 (on the Gospel argument drawn from the wisdom, power, Commentary cf Theoph. against Zahn). and justice of God, as well as from the destiny A. HAUCK: Zur Theophilusfrage, Leipz. 1844, and of man, for this doctrine which was especially in Herzog,xv. 544. offensive to the Greek mind. It was a discourse actually delivered before a W. BORNEMANN: Zur Theophilusfrage; In “Brieger’s Zeitschrift f. Kirchen-Geschte,” 1888, philosophical audience. For this reason p. 169–283 perhaps he does not appeal to the Scriptures. THEOPHILUS was converted from heathenism All historians put a high estimate on by the study of the Scriptures, and occupied Athenagoras. “He writes,” says Donaldson, “as the episcopal see at Antioch, the sixth from a man who is determined that the real state of the Apostles, during the later part of the reign the case should be exactly known. He of Marcus Aurelius. He died about A.D.181. introduces similes, he occasionally has an antithesis, he quotes poetry but always he has His principal work, and the only one which his main object distinctly before his mind, and has come down to us, is his three books to he neither makes a useless exhibition of his Autolycus, an educated heathen friend. His own powers, nor distracts the reader by main object is to convince him of the digressions. His Apology is the best defence of falsehood of idolatry, and of the truth of the Christians produced in that age.” Spencer Christianity. He evinces extensive knowledge Mansel declares him “decidedly superior to of Grecian literature, considerable

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 52 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course philosophical talent, and a power of graphic NOTES and elegant composition. His treatment of the Jerome is the only ancient writer who philosophers and poets is very severe and mentions a Commentary or Commentaries of contrasts unfavorably with the liberality of Theophilus on the Gospel, but adds that they Justin Martyr. He admits elements of truth in are inferior to his other books in elegance and Socrates and Plato, but charges them with style; thereby indicating a doubt as to their having stolen the same from the prophets. He genuineness. De Vir ill. 25: “Legi sub nomine thinks that the Old Testament already eius [Theophili] IN EVANGELIUM et in Proverbia contained all the truths which man requires Salomonis COMMENTARIOS, (qui mihi cum to know. He was the first to use the term superiorum voluminum [the works Contra “triad” for the holy Trinity, and found this Marcionem, Ad Autolycum, and Contra mystery already in the words: Let us make Hermogenem] elegantia et phrasi non videntur man “(Gen. 1:26); for, says he, “God spoke to congruere.” He alludes to the Gospel no other but to his own Reason and his own Commentary in two other passages (in the Wisdom,” that is, to the Logos and the Holy Pref. to his Com. on Matthew, and Ep. 121 (ad Spirit hypostatized. He also first quoted the Algasiam), and quotes from it the exposition Gospel of John by name, but it was of the parable of the unjust steward (Luke undoubtedly known and used before by 16:1 sqq.). Eusebius may possibly have Tatian, Athenagoras, Justin, and by the included the book in the κατηχητικὰ βιβλία Gnostics, and can be traced as far back as 125 which he ascribes to Theophilus. within the lifetime of many personal disciples A Latin Version of this Commentary was first of the Apostle. Theophilus describes the published (from MSS. not indicated and since Christians as having a sound mind, practising lost) by Marg. de la Bigne in Sacrae, self-restraint, preserving marriage with one, Bibliothecae Patrum, Paris 1576, Tom. V. Col. keeping chastity, expelling injustice, rooting 169–196; also by Otto in the Corp. Apol. VIII. out sin, carrying out righteousness as a habit, 278–324, and with learned notes by Zahn in regulating their conduct by law, being ruled the second vol. of his Forschungen zur Gesch. by truth, preserving grace and peace, and des neutest. Kanons (1883), p. 31–85. obeying God as king. They are forbidden to visit gladiatorial shows and other public The position of Luke as the fourth is very amusements, that their eyes and ears may not peculiar and speaks for great antiquity. Then be defiled. They are commanded to obey follows a brief exposition of the genealogy of authorities and to pray for them, but not to Christ by Matthew with the remark that worship them. Matthew traces the origin “per reges,” Luke “per sacerdotes.” The first book of the The other works of Theophilus, polemical and Commentary is chiefly devoted to Matthew, exegetical, are lost. Eusebius mentions a book the second and third to Luke, the fourth to against Hermogenes, in which he used proofs John. It concludes with an ingenious allegory from the Apocalypse of John, another against representing Christ as a gardener (who Marcion and “certain catechetical books” appeared to , John 20:15), (κατηχητικὰ βιβλία) Jerome mentions in and the church as his garden full of rich addition commentaries on the Proverbs, and flowers) as follows (see Zahn, p. 85): “Hortus on the Gospel, but doubts their genuineness. Domini est ecclesia catholica, in qua sunt rosae There exists under his name though only in martyrum, lilia virginum, violae viduarum, Latin, a sort of exegetical Gospel Harmony, hedera coniugum; nam illa, quae aestimabat which is a later compilation of uncertain date eum hortulanum esse significabat scilicet eum and authorship. plantantem diversis virtutibus credentium vitam. Amen.”

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Dr. Zahn, in his recent monograph (1883), Herzog IX. 537–539. LIGHTFOOT in “Contemp. which abounds in rare patristic learning, Review,” Febr. 1876. HARNACK, Texte, etc., I. 240– vindicates this Commentary to Theophilus of 278. SALMON in Smith and Wace III. 894–900. Antioch and dates the translation from the RENAN, Marc-Auréle, 172 sqq. (Comp. also the third century. If so, we would have here a short notice in L’église chrét., p. 436). work of great apologetic as well as exegetical MELITO, bishop of Sardis, the capital of Lydia, importance, especially for the history of the was a shining light among the churches of canon and the text; for Theophilus stood Asia Minor in the third quarter of the second midway between Justin Martyr and Irenæus century. Polycrates of Ephesus, in his epistle and would be the oldest Christian exegete. to bishop Victor of Rome (d. 195), calls him a But a Nicene or post-Nicene development of “eunuch who, in his whole conduct, was full of theology and church organization is clearly the Holy Ghost, and sleeps in Sardis awaiting indicated by the familiar use of such terms as the episcopate from heaven (or visitation,) on regnum Christi catholicum, catholica doctrina, the day of the resurrection.” The term catholicum dogma, sacerdos, peccatum “eunuch” no doubt refers to voluntary originale, monachi, saeculares, pagani. The celibacy for the kingdom of God (Matt. 19:12) suspicion of a later date is confirmed by the … He was also esteemed as a prophet. He discovery of a MS. of this commentary in wrote a book on prophecy, probably against Brussels, with an anonymous preface which the pseudo-prophecy of the Montanists; but declares it to be a compilation. Harnack, who his relation to Montanism is not clear. He took made this discovery, ably refutes the an active part in the paschal and other conclusions of Zahn, and tries to prove that controversies which agitated the churches of the commentary ascribed to Theophilus is a Asia Minor. He was among the chief Latin work by an anonymous author of the supporters of the Quartadeciman practice fifth or sixth century (470–520). Zahn (1884) which was afterwards condemned as defends in part his former position against schismatic and heretical. This may be a Harnack, but admits the weight of the reason why his writings fell into oblivion. argument furnished by the Brussels MS. Otherwise he was quite orthodox according Hauck holds that the commentary was to the standard of his age, and a strong written after A.D.200, but was used by Jerome. believer in the divinity of Christ, as is evident Bornemann successfully defends Harnack’s from one of the Syrian fragments (see below). view against Zahn and Hauck, and puts the Melito was a man of brilliant mind and a most work between 450 and 700. prolific author. Tertullian speaks of his elegant and eloquent genius. Eusebius 2.177. Melito of Sardis enumerates no less than eighteen or twenty (I.) EUSEB. H. E. IV. 13, 26; V. 25. HIERON.: De Vir. works from his pen, covering a great variety ill. 24. The remains Of MELITO in ROUTH, Reliq. of topics, but known to us now only by name. sacr. I. 113–153; more fully in OTTO, Corp. Ap. IX. He gives three valuable extracts. There must (1872), 375–478. His second Apology, of have been an uncommon literary fertility in doubtful genuineness, in CURETON, Spicilegium Syriacum, Lond. 1835 (Syriac, with an English Asia Minor after the middle of the second translation), and in PITRA, Spicil. Solesm. II. (with century. The Apology of Melito was addressed a Latin translation by Renan, which was revised to Marcus Aurelius, and written probably at by Otto, Corp. Ap. vol. IX.); German transl. by the outbreak of the violent persecutions in Welte in the Tueb.” Theol. Quartalschrift” for 177, which, however, were of a local or 1862. provincial character, and not sanctioned by (II.) PIPER in the Studien und Kritiken for 1838, p. the general government. He remarks that 54–154. UHLHORN in “Zeitschrift fuer Hist. Nero and Domitian were the only imperial Theol.” 1866. DONALDSON, Ill. 221–239 STEITZ in persecutors, and expresses the hope that,

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Aurelius, if properly informed, would with Isaac, exiled with , was Captain interfere in behalf of the innocent Christians. with Moses; He foretold his own sufferings in In a passage preserved in the “Paschal David and the prophets; He was incarnate in Chronicle” he says: “We are not worshipers of the Virgin; worshipped by the Magi; He senseless stones, but adore one only God, healed the lame, gave sight to the blind, was who is before all and over all, and His Christ rejected by the people, condemned by Pilate, truly God the Word before all ages.” hanged upon the tree, buried in the earth, A Syriac Apology bearing his name was rose from the dead and appeared to the discovered by Tattam, with other Syrian MSS. apostles, ascended to heaven; He is the Rest in the convents of the Nitrian desert (1843), of the departed, the Recoverer of the lost, the and published by Cureton and Pitra (1855). Light of the blind, the Refuge of the afflicted, But it contains none of the passages quoted the Bridegroom of the Church, the Charioteer by Eusebius, and is more an attack upon of the cherubim, the Captain of angels; God idolatry than a defense of Christianity, but who is of God, the Son of the Father, the King may nevertheless be a work of Melito under for ever and ever. an erroneous title. 2.178. Apolinarius of Hierapolis. Miltiades To Melito we owe the first Christian list of the CLAUDIUS APOLINARIUS, bishop of Hierapolis in Hebrew Scriptures. It agrees with the Jewish Phrygia, a successor of Papias, was a very and the Protestant canon, and omits the active apologetic and polemic writer about Apocrypha. The books of Esther and A.D.160–180. He took a leading part in the Nehemiah are also omitted, but may be Montanist and Paschal controversies. included in Esdras. The expressions “the Old Eusebius puts him with Melito of Sardis Books,” “the Books of the Old Covenant,” among the orthodox writers of the second imply that the church at that time had a canon century, and mentions four of his “many of the New Covenant. Melito made a visit to works” as known to him, but since lost, Palestine to seek information on the Jewish namely an “Apology” addressed to Marcus canon. Aurelius (before 174). “Five books against the He wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse, Greeks” “Two books on Truth.” “Two books and a “Key” (ἡ κλείς), probably to the against the Jews.” He also notices his later Scriptures. books “Against the heresy of the Phrygians” The loss of this and of his books “on the (the Montanists), about 172. Church” and “on the Lord’s Day” are perhaps Apolinarius opposed the Quartodeciman to be regretted most. observance of Easter, which Melito defended. Among the Syriac fragments of Melito Jerome mentions his familiarity with heathen published by Cureton is one from a work “On literature, but numbers him among the Faith,” which contains a remarkable Chiliasts. The latter is doubtful on account of christological creed, an eloquent expansion of his opposition to Montanism. Photius praises the Regula Fidei. The Lord Jesus Christ is his style. He is enrolled among the saints. acknowledged as the perfect Reason, the MILTIADES was another Christian Apologist of Word of God; who was begotten before the the later half of the second century whose light; who was Creator with the Father; who writings are entirely lost. Eusebius mentions was the Fashioner of man; who was all things among them an “Apology” addressed to the in all; Patriarch among the patriarchs, Law in rulers of the world, a treatise “against the the law, Chief Priest among the priests, King Greeks,” and another “against the Jews;” but among the kings, Prophet among the be gives no extracts. Tertullian places him prophets, among the angels; He between Justin Martyr and Irenæus. piloted , conducted Abraham, was bound

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2.179. Hermias philosophers with keen wit, but from the Ερμείου φιλοσόφου Διασυρμὸς τω ν ἔξω infidel heathen standpoint. Hence we may φιλοσόφων, HERMIAE PHILOSOPHI Gentilium well assign him to the later part of the second Philosophorum Irrisio, ten chapters. Ed. princeps century. with Lat. vers. Base!, 1553, Zurich, 1560. Worth added it to his Tatian, Oxf. 1700. In Otto and 2.180. Hegesippus Maranus (Migne, vi. Col. 1167–1180). (I.) EUSEB. H. E. II. 23; III. 11, 16, 19, 20, 32; IV. 8, RABE DONALDSON, III. 179–181. 22. Collection of fragments in G , Spicil. II. 203–214; ROUTH, Reliq. S. I. 205–219; Under the name of the “philosopher” HERMIAS HILGENFELD, in his “Zeitschrift fuer (Ἑρμείας or Ἑρμίας) otherwise entirely wissenschaftliche Theol.” 1876 and 1878. unknown to us, we have a “Mockery of (II.) The Annotationes in Heges. Fragm. by Heathen Philosophers,” which, with the light ROUTH, I. 220–292 (very valuable). DONALDSON: arms of wit and sarcasm, endeavors to prove L. c. III. 182–213. NÖSGEN: Der Kirchl. Standpunkt from the history of philosophy, by exposing des Heg. in Brieger’s “Zeitschrift fuer the contradictions of the various systems, the Kirchengesch.” 1877 (p. 193–233). Against truth of Paul’s declaration, that the wisdom of Hilgenfeld. ZAHN: Der griech. Irenæus und der this world is foolishness with God. He derives ganze Hegesippus im 16 Jahr., ibid. p. 288–291. the false philosophy from the demons. He H. DANNREUTHER: Du Témoignage d’Hégésippe sur first takes up the conflicting heathen notions l’église chrétienne au deux premiers siècles. Nancy 1878. See also his art. in Lichtenberger’s about the soul, and then about the origin of “Encycl.” VI. 126–129. FRIEDR. VOGEL: De the world, and ridicules them. The following Hegesippo, qui dicitur, Josephi interprete. is a specimen from the discussion of the first Erlangen 1881. W. MILLIGAN: Hegesippus, in topic: Smith and Wace II. (1880) 875–878. C. “I confess I am vexed by the reflux of things. For WEIZSAECKER: Hegesippus, in Herzog V. 695–700. now I am immortal, and I rejoice; but now again CASPARI: Quellen, etc., III. 345–348. I become mortal, and I weep; but straightway I The orthodoxy of Hegesippus has been am dissolved into atoms. I become water, and I denied by the Tuebingen critics, Baur, become air: I become fire: then after a little I am Schwegler, and, more moderately by neither air nor fire: one makes me a wild beast, Hilgenfeld, but defended by Dorner, one makes me a fish. Again, then, I have dolphins for my brothers. But when I see myself, Donaldson, Noesgen, Weizsaecker, Caspari I fear my body, and I no longer know how to call and Milligan. it, whether man, or dog, or wolf, or bull, or bird, Contemporary with the Apologists, though or serpent, or dragon, or chimaera. I am not of their class, were Hegesippus (d. about changed by the philosophers into all the wild 180), and Dionysius of Corinth (about 170). beasts, into those that live on land and on water, into those that are winged, many-shaped, wild, HEGESIPPUS was an orthodox Jewish Christian tame, speechless, and gifted with speech, and lived during the reigns of Hadrian, rational and irrational. I swim, fly, creep, run, Antoninus, and Marcus Aurelius. He travelled sit; and there is Empedocles too, who makes me extensively through Syria, Greece, and Italy, a bush.” and was in Rome during the episcopate of The work is small and unimportant. Some put Anicetus. He collected “Memorials” of the it down to the third or fourth century; but the apostolic and post-apostolic churches. He writer calls himself a “philosopher” (though used written sources and oral traditions. be misrepresents his profession), has in view Unfortunately this work which still existed in a situation of the church like that under the sixteenth century, is lost, but may yet be Marcus Aurelius, and presents many points of recovered. It is usually regarded as a sort of resemblance with the older Apologists and church history, the first written after the Acts with Lucian who likewise ridiculed the of St. Luke. This would make Hegesippus

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 56 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course rather than Eusebius “the father of church the doctrine prevails according to what is history.” But it seems to have been only a announced by the law and the prophets and collection of reminiscences of travel without the Lord.” He gives an account of the heretical regard to chronological order (else the corruption which proceeded from the account of the martyrdom of James would unbelieving Jews, from Thebuthis and Simon have been put in the first instead of the fifth Magus and Cleobius and Dositheus, and other book.) He was an antiquarian rather than a unknown or forgotten names, but “while the historian. His chief object was to prove the sacred choir of the apostles still lived, the purity and catholicity of the church against church was undefiled and pure, like a virgin, the Gnostic heretics and sects. until the age of Trajan, when those impious Eusebius has preserved his reports on the errors which had so long crept in darkness martyrdom of St. James the Just, Simeon of ventured forth without shame into open Jerusalem, Domitian’s inquiry for the daylight.” He felt perfectly at home in the descendants of David and the relatives of Catholic church of his day which had Jesus, the rise of heresies, the episcopal descended from, or rather never yet ascended succession, and the preservation of the the lofty mountain-height of apostolic orthodox doctrine in Corinth and Rome. knowledge and freedom. And as Hegesippus These scraps of history command attention was satisfied with the orthodoxy of the for their antiquity; but they must be received Western churches, so Eusebius was satisfied with critical caution. They reveal a strongly with the orthodoxy of Hegesippus, and Jewish type of piety, like that of James, but by nowhere intimates a doubt. no means Judaizing heresy. He was not an 2.181. Dionysius of Corinth Ebionite, nor even a , but decidedly EUSEB.: H. E. II. 25; III. 4; IV. 21, 23. HIERON.: De catholic. There is no trace of his insisting on Vir. ill. 27. circumcision or the observance of the law as necessary to salvation. His use of “the Gospel ROUTH: Rel. S. I. 177–184 (the fragments), and 185–201 (the annotations). Includes Pinytus according to the Hebrews” implies no Cretensis and his Ep. ad Dion. (Eus. IV. 23). heretical bias. He derived all the heresies and DONALDSON III. 214–220. SALMON in Smith and schisms from Judaism. He laid great stress on Wace II. 848 sq. the regular of bishops. In every city he set himself to inquire for two DIONYSIUS was bishop of Corinth (probably things: purity of doctrine and the unbroken the successor of Primus) in the third quarter succession of teachers from the times of the of the second century, till about A.D.170. He apostles. The former depended in his view on was a famous person in his day, distinguished the latter. The result of his investigation was for zeal, moderation, and a catholic and satisfactory in both respects. He found in peaceful spirit. He wrote a number of pastoral every apostolic church the faith maintained. letters to the congregations of Lacedaemon, “The church of Corinth,” he says, “continued Athens, Nicomedia, Rome, Gortyna in Crete, in the true faith, until Primus was bishop and other cities. One is addressed to there [the predecessor of Dionysius], with Chrysophora, “a most faithful sister.” They are whom I had familiar intercourse, as I passed all lost, with the exception of a summary of many days at Corinth, when I was about their contents given by Eusebius, and four sailing to Rome, during which time we were fragments of the letter to Soter and the mutually refreshed in the true doctrine. After Roman church. They would no doubt shed coming to Rome, I stayed with Anicetus, much light on the spiritual life of the church. whose deacon was Eleutherus. After Anicetus, Eusebius says of him that he “imparted freely Soter succeeded, and after him Eleutherus. In not only to his own people, but to others every succession, however, and in every city, abroad also, the blessings of his divine (or

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 57 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course inspired) industry.” His letters were read in Graeco-Lat.”, Tom. VII. Par. 1857 (the Bened. ed., the churches. the best of the older, based on three MSS., with ample Proleg. and 3 Dissertations). Such active correspondence promoted catholic unity and gave strength and comfort English translation by A. ROBERTS and W. H. in persecution from without and heretical RAMBAUT, 2 vols., in the “Ante-Nicene Library,” Edinb. 1868. Another by JOHN KEBLE, ed. by Dr. corruption within. The bishop is usually Pusey, for the Oxford “Library of the Fathers,” mentioned with honor, but the letters are 1872. addressed to the church; and even the Roman Biographical and Critical. bishop Soter, like his predecessor Clement, addressed his own letter in the name of the REN. MASSUET (R.C.): Dissertationes in Irenaei libros (de hereticis, de Irenaei vita, gestis et Roman church to the church of Corinth. scriptis, de Ir. doctrina) prefixed to his edition of Dionysius writes to the Roman Christians: the Opera, and reprinted in Stieren and Migne. “To-day we have passed the Lord’s holy day, Also the Proleg. of HARVEY, on Gnosticism, and in which we have read your epistle. In the Life and Writings of Iren. reading it we shall always have our minds H. DODWELL: Dissert. in Iren. Oxon. 1689. stored with admonition, as we shall also from TILLEMONT: Mêmoirs, etc. III. 77–99. that written to us before by Clement.” He DEYLING: Irenæus, evangelicae veritatis confessor speaks very highly of the liberality of the ac testis. Lips. 1721. (Against Massuet.) church of Rome in aiding foreign brethren condemned to the mines, and sending STIEREN: Art. Irenæus in “Ersch and Gruber’s Encykl.” IInd sect. Vol. xxiii. 357–386. contributions to every city. J. BEAVEN: Life and Writings of Irenæus. Lond. Dionysius is honored as a martyr in the 1841. Greek, as a confessor in the Latin church. J. M. PRAT (R.C.): Histoire de St. Irenée. Lyon and 2.182. Irenæus Paris 1843. EDITIONS OF HIS WORKS. L. DUNCKER: Des heil. Irenæus Christologie. Goett. 1843. Very, valuable. S. IRENAEI Episcopi Lugdun. Opera quae supersunt omnia, ed. A. STIEREN. Lips. 1853, 2 vols. The K. GRAUL: Die Christliche Kirche an der Schwelle second volume contains the Prolegomena of des Irenaeischen Zeitalters. Leipz. 1860. (168 older editors, and the disputations of Maffei and pages.) Introduction to a biography which never Pfaff on the Fragments of Irenæus. It really appeared. supersedes all older ed., but not the later one of CH. E. FREPPEL (bishop of Angers, since 1869): Harvey. Saint Irénée et l’éloquence chrétienne dans la S. IRENAEI libros quinque adversus Haereses edidit Gaule aux deux premiers siècles. Par. 1861. W. WIGAN HARVEY. Cambr. 1857, in 2 vols. Based G. SCHNEEMANN: Sancti Irenaei de ecclesiae upon a new and careful collation of the Cod. Romanae principatu testimonium. Freib. i. Br. Claromontanus and Arundel, and embodying 1870. the original Greek portions preserved in the BOHRINGER: Die Kirche Christi und ihre Zeugen, Philosoph. of Hippolytus, the newly discovered vol. II. new ed. 1873. Syriac and Armenian fragments, and learned HEINRICH ZIEGLER: Irenæus der Bischof von Lyon. Prolegomena. Berlin 1871. (320 p.) Older editions by , Basel 1526 (from R. A. Lipsius: Die Zeit des lrenaeus von Lyon und three Latin MSS. since lost, repeated 1528, die Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, in 1534); Gallasius, Gen. 1570 (with the use of the Sybel’s “Histor. Zeitschrift.” Muenchen 1872, p. Gr. text in Epiphan.); Grynaeus, Bas. 1571 241 sqq. See his later art. below. (worthless); Fevardentius (Feuardent), Paris 1575, improved ed. Col. 1596, and often; Grabe, A. GUILLOUD: St. Irenée et son temps. Lyon 1876. Oxf. 1702; and above all Massuet, Par. 1710, Ven. Bp. LIGHTFOOT: The Churches of Gaul, in the 1734, 2 vols. fol., and again in Migne’s “Patrol. “Contemporary Review” for Aug. 1876.

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C. J. H. ROPES: Irenæus of Lyons, in the properly so called, and one of the chief Andover“Bibliotheca Sacra” for April 1877, p. architects of the Catholic system of doctrine. 284–334. A learned discussion of the nationality I. LIFE AND CHARACTER. Little is known of of Irenæus (against Harvey). Irenæus except what we may infer from his J. QUARRY: Irenæus; his testimony to early writings. He sprang from Asia Minor, Conceptions of Christianity. In the “British Quarterly Review” for 1879, July and Oct. probably from Smyrna, where he spent his youth. He was born between A.D.115 and 125 RENAN: Marc Aurèle. Paris 1882, p. 336–344. … He enjoyed the instruction of TH. ZAHN: art. Iren. in HerZog, VII. 129–140 Polycarp of Smyrna, the pupil of John, and of (abridged in Schaff-Herzog), chiefly other “Elders,” who were mediate or chronological; and R. A. LIPSIUS in Smith and Wace III. 253–279. Both these articles are very immediate disciples of the apostles. The spirit important; that of Lipsius is fuller. of his preceptor passed over to him. “What I heard from him” says he, “that wrote I not on Comp. also the Ch. Hist. of NEANDER, and BAUR, paper, but in my heart, and by the grace of and the Patrol. of MOEHLER, and ALZOG. God I constantly bring it afresh to mind.” Special doctrines and relations of Irenæus have Perhaps he also accompanied Polycarp on his been discussed by Baur, Dorner, Thiersch, Hoefling, Hopfenmiller, Koerber, Ritschl, journey to Rome in connexion with the Easter Kirchner, Zahn, Harnack, Leimbach, Reville, controversy (154). He went as a missionary Hackenschmidt. See the Lit. in Zahn’s art. in to Southern Gaul which seems to have Herzog. derived her Christianity from Asia Minor. A full and satisfactory monograph of Irenæus During the persecution in Lugdunum and and his age is still a desideratum. Vienne under Marcus Aurelius (177), he was Almost simultaneously with the apology a presbyter there and witnessed the horrible against false religions without arose the cruelties which the infuriated heathen polemic literature against the heresies, or populace practiced upon his brethren. The various forms of pseudo-Christianity, aged and venerable bishop, Pothinus, fell a especially the Gnostic; and upon this was victim, and the presbyter took the post of formed the dogmatic theology of the church. danger, but was spared for important work. At the head of the old catholic He was sent by the Gallican confessors to the controversialists stand Irenæus and his Roman bishop Eleutherus (who ruled disciple Hippolytus, both of Greek education, A.D.177–190), as a mediator in the but both belonging, in their ecclesiastical Montanistic disputes. relations and labors, to the West. After the martyrdom of Pothinus he was Asia Minor, the scene of the last labors of St. elected bishop of Lyons (178), and labored John, produced a luminous succession of there with zeal and success, by tongue and divines and confessors who in the first three pen, for the restoration of the heavily visited quarters of the second century reflected the church, for the spread of Christianity in Gaul, light of the setting sun of the apostolic age, and for the defence and development of its and may be called the pupils of St. John. doctrines. He thus combined a vast Among them were Polycarp of Smyrna, missionary and literary activity. If we are to , Apolinarius of trust the account of Gregory of Tours, he Hierapolis, Melito of Sardis, and others less converted almost the whole population of known but honorably mentioned in the letter Lyons and sent notable missionaries to other of Polycrates of Ephesus to bishop Victor of parts of pagan France. Rome (A. D. 190). After the year 190 we lose sight of Irenæus. The last and greatest representative of this Jerome speaks of him as having flourished in school is IRENÆUS, the first among the fathers the reign of Commodus, i.e., between 180 and

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192. He is reported by later tradition (since account than either John or Paul of the the fourth or fifth century) to have died a outward visible church, the episcopal martyr in the persecution under Septimus succession, and the sacraments; and his Severus, A.D.202, but the silence of Tertullian, whole conception of Christianity is Hippolytus, Eusebius, and Epiphanius makes predominantly legalistic. Herein we see the this point extremely doubtful. He was buried catholic churchliness which so strongly set in under the altar of the church of St. John in during the second century. Lyons. This city became again famous in Irenæus is an enemy of all error and schism, church history in the twelfth century as the and, on the whole, the most orthodox of the birthplace of the Waldensian martyr church, ante-Nicene fathers. We must, however, the Pauperes de Lugduno. except his . Here, with Papias and II. HIS CHARACTER AND POSITION. Irenæus is the most of his contemporaries, he maintains the leading representative of catholic Christianity pre-millennarian views which were in the last quarter of the second century, the subsequently abandoned as Jewish dreams by champion of orthodoxy against Gnostic the catholic church. While laboring hard for heresy, and the mediator between the the spread and defense of the church on Eastern and Western churches. He united a earth, he is still “gazing up into heaven,” like learned Greek education and philosophical the men of Galilee, anxiously waiting for the penetration with practical wisdom and return of the Lord and the establishment of moderation. He is neither very original nor his kingdom. He is also strangely mistaken brilliant, but eminently sound and judicious. about the age of Jesus from a false inference His individuality is not strongly marked, but of the question of the Jews, John 8:57. almost lost in his catholicity. He modestly Irenæus is the first among patristic writers disclaims elegance and eloquence, and says who makes full use of the New Testament. that he had to struggle in his daily The Apostolic Fathers reëcho the oral administrations with the barbarous Celtic traditions; the Apologists are content with dialect of Southern Gaul; but he nevertheless quoting the Old Testament prophets and the handles the Greek with great skill on the most Lord’s own words in the Gospels as proof of abstruse subjects. He is familiar with Greek divine revelation; but Irenæus showed the poets (Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Sophocles) and unity of the Old and New Testaments in philosophers (Thales, Pythagoras, Plato), opposition to the Gnostic separation, and whom he occasionally cites. He is perfectly at made use of the four Gospels and nearly all home in the Greek Bible and in the early Epistles in opposition to the mutilated canon Christian writers, as Clement of Rome, of Marcion. Polycarp, Papias, Ignatius, Hermas, Justin M., With all his zeal for pure and sound doctrine, and Tatian. His position gives him additional Irenæus was liberal towards subordinate weight, for he is linked by two long lives, that differences, and remonstrated with the of his teacher and grand-teacher, to the bishop of Rome for his unapostolic efforts to fountain head of Christianity. We plainly trace force an outward uniformity in respect to the in him the influence of the spirit of Polycarp time and manner of celebrating Easter. We and John. “The true way to God,” says he, in may almost call him a forerunner of opposition to the false Gnosis, “is love. It is Gallicanism in its protest against better to be willing to know nothing but Jesus ultramontane despotism. “The apostles have Christ the crucified, than to fall into ordained,” says he in the third fragment, ungodliness through over-curious questions which appears to refer to that controversy, and paltry subtleties.” We may trace in him “that we make conscience with no one of food also the strong influence of the anthropology and drink, or of particular feasts, new moons, and soteriology of Paul. But he makes more

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 60 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course and sabbaths. Whence, then, controversies; the correct interpretation of Scripture against whence schisms? We keep feasts but with the heretical perversion. To the ever-shifting and leaven of wickedness and deceit, rending contradictory opinions of the heretics asunder the church of God, and we observe Irenæus opposes the unchanging faith of the the outward, to the neglect of the higher, faith catholic church which is based on the and love.” He showed the same moderation in Scriptures and tradition, and compacted the Montanistic troubles. He was true to his together by the episcopal organization. It is name Peaceful (Εἰρηναῖος) and to his spiritual the same argument which Bellarmin, Bossuet, ancestry. and Moehler use against divided and III. His WRITINGS. (1.) The most important distracted , but Protestantism work of Irenæus is his Refutation of differs as much from old Gnosticism as the Gnosticism, in five books. It was composed New Testament from the apocryphal Gospels, during the pontificate of Eleutherus, that is and as sound, sober, practical sense differs between the years 177 and 190. It is at once from mystical and transcendental nonsense. the polemic theological masterpiece of the The fifth book dwells on the resurrection of ante-Nicene age, and the richest mine of the body and the millennial kingdom. Irenæus information respecting Gnosticism and the derived his information from the writings of church doctrine of that age. It contains a Valentinus and Marcion and their disciples, complete system of Christian divinity, but and from Justin Martyr’s Syntagma. enveloped in polemical smoke, which makes The interpretation of Scripture is generally it very difficult and tedious reading. The work sound and sober, and contrasts favorably was written at the request of a friend who with the fantastic distortions of the Gnostics. wished to be informed of the Valentinian He had a glimpse of a theory of inspiration heresy and to be furnished with arguments which does justice to the human factor. He against it. Valentinus and Marcion had taught attributes the irregularities of Paul’s style to in Rome about A.D.140, and their doctrines his rapidity of discourse and the impetus of had spread to the south of France. The first the Spirit which is in him. book contains a minute exposition of the (2.) The Epistle to Florinus, of which Eusebius gorgeous speculations of Valentinus and a has preserved an interesting and important general view of the other Gnostic sects; the fragment, treated On the Unity of God, and the second an exposure of the unreasonableness Origin of Evil. It was written probably after and contradictions of these heresies; the work against heresies, and as late as 190. especially the notions of the as Florinus was an older friend and fellow- distinct from the Creator, of the Aeons, the student of lrenaeus and for some time Pleroma and Kenoma, the emanations, the fall presbyter in the church of Rome, but was of Achamoth, the formation of the lower deposed on account of his to the world of matter, the sufferings of the Sophia, Gnostic heresy. Irenæus reminded him very the difference between the three classes of touchingly of their common studies at the feet men, the Somatici, Psychici, and Pneumatici. of the patriarchal Polycarp, when he held The last three books refute Gnosticism from some position at the royal court (probably the Holy Scripture and Christian tradition during Hadrian’s sojourn at Smyrna), and which teach the same thing; for the same tried to bring him back to the faith of his gospel which was first orally preached and youth, but we do not know with what effect. transmitted was subsequently committed to (3.) On the Ogdoad against the Valentinian writing and faithfully preserved in all the system of Aeons, in which the number eight apostolic churches through the regular figures prominently with a mystic meaning. succession of the bishops and elders; and this Eusebius says that it was written on account apostolic tradition insures at the same time

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 61 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course of Florinus, and that he found in it “a most (7.) Finally, we must mention four more delightful remark,” as follows: “I adjure thee, Greek fragments of Irenæus, which Pfaff whoever thou art, that transcribest this book, discovered at Turin in 1715, and first by our Lord Jesus Christ and by his gracious published. Their genuineness has been called appearance, when he shall come to judge the in question by some Roman divines, chiefly quick and the dead, to compare what thou for doctrinal reasons. The first treats of the hast copied, and to correct it by this original true knowledge, which consists not in the manuscript, from which thou hast carefully solution of subtle questions, but in divine transcribed. And that thou also copy this wisdom and the imitation of Christ; the adjuration, and insert it in the copy.” The second is on the eucharist; the third, on the carelessness of transcribers in those days is duty of toleration in subordinate points of the chief cause of the variations in the text of difference, with reference to the Paschal the Greek Testament which abounded already controversies; the fourth, on the object of the in the second century. Irenæus himself incarnation, which is stated to be the purging mentions a remarkable difference of reading away of sin and the annihilation of all evil. in the mystic number of Antichrist (666 and 616), on which the historic interpretation of 2.183. Hippolytus the book depends (Rev. 13:18). (I.) S. HIPPOLYTI episcopi et martyris Opera, Graece et Lat. ed. J. AFABRICIUS, Hamb. 1716–18, (4.) A book On Schism, addressed to Blastus 2 vols. fol.; ed. GALLANDI in “Biblioth. Patrum,” who was the head of the Roman Montanists Ven. 1760, Vol. II.; MIGNE: Patr. Gr., vol. x. Col. and also a Quartodeciman. It referred 583–982. P. ANT. DE LAGARDE: HIPPOLYTI Romani probably to the Montanist troubles in a quae feruntur omnia Graece, Lips. et Lond. 1858 conciliatory spirit. (216 pages). Lagarde has also published some (5.) Eusebius mentions several. other Syriac and Arabic fragments, of Hippol., in his treatises which are entirely lost, as Against Analecta Syriaca (p. 79–91) and Appendix, Leipz. and Lond. 1858. the Greeks (or On Knowledge), On Apostolic Preaching, a Book on Various Disputes, and on Patristic notices of Hippolytus. EUSEB.: H. E. VI. 20, 22; PRUDENTIUS in the 11th of his Martyr the Wisdom of . In the Syriac Hymns (περὶ στεφάνων) HIERON De Vir. ill. c. 61; fragments some other lost works are PHOTIUS, Cod. 48 and 121. EPIPHANIUS barely mentioned. mentions Hippol. (Haer. 31). THEODORET quotes (6.) Irenæus is probably the author of that several passages and calls him “holy Hippol. touching account of the persecution of 177, bishop and martyr” (Haer. Fab. III. 1 and Dial. I., which the churches of Lyons and Vienne sent II. and III.). See Fabricius, Hippol. I. VIII.–XX. to the churches in Asia Minor and Phrygia, S. HIPPOLYTI EpIs. et Mart. Refutationis omnium and which Eusebius has in great part haeresium librorum decem quae supersunt, ed. preserved. He was an eyewitness of the cruel DUNCKER et SCHNEIDEWIN. Goett. 1859. The first scene, yet his name is not mentioned, which ed. appeared under the name of Origen: Ὠριγένους φιλοσοφύμενα ἣ κατὰ πασῶν would well agree with his modesty; the αἱρέεων ἔλεγχος. ORIGENIS Philosophumena, sive document breathes his mild Christian spirit, omnium haeresium refutatio. E codice Parisino reveals his aversion to Gnosticism, his ninc primum ed. EMMANUEL MILLER. Oxon. indulgence for Montanism, his expectation of (Clarendon Press), 1851. Another ed. by Abbe the near approach of Antichrist. It is certainly CRUICE, Par. 1860. An English translation by J. H. one of the purest and most precious remains MACMAHON, in the “Ante-Nicene Christian of ante-Nicene literature and fully equal, yea Library,” Edinb. 1868. superior to the “Martyrdom of Polycarp,” A MS. of this important work from the 14th because free from superstitious relic- century was discovered at, Mt. Athos in Greece worship. in 1842, by a learned Greek, Minoïdes Mynas (who had been sent by M. Villemain, minister of

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public instruction under Louis Philippe, to L’ABBÉ CRUICE (chanoine hon. de Paris): Etudes Greece in search of MSS.), and deposited in the sur de nouv. doc. hist. des Philosophumena. Paris national library at Paris. The first book had been 1853 (380 p.) long known among the works of Origen, but had W. ELFE TAYLER: Hippol. and the Christ. Ch. of the justly been already denied to him by Huet and third century. Lond. 1853. (245 p.) De la Rue; the second and third, and beginning LE NORMANT: Controverse sur les Philos. d’ Orig. of the fourth, are still wanting; the tenth lacks Paris 1853. In “Le Correspondant,” Tom. 31 p. the conclusion. This work is now universally 509–550. For Origen as author. ascribed to Hippolytus. G. VOLKMAR: Hippolytus und die roem. Canones S. HIPPOLYTI Arabice e codicibus Romanis Zeitgenossen. Züerich 1855. (174 pages.) cum versione Latina, ed. D. B. DE HANEBERG. Monach. 1870. The canons are very rigoristic, CASPARI: Quellen zur Gesch. des Taufsymbols und but “certain evidence as to their authorship is der Glaubensregel. Christiania, vol. III. 349 sqq. wanting.” and 374–409. On the writings of H. O. BARDENHEWER: Des heil. Hippolyt von Rom. LIPSIUS: Quellen der aeltesten Ketzergesch. Commentar zum B. . Freib. i. B. 1877, Leipzig 1875. (II.) E. F. KIMMEL: De Hippolyti vita et scriptis. Jen. DE SMEDT (R.C.): De Auctore Philosophumenon. In 1839. MOEHLER: Patrol. p. 584 sqq. Both are “Dissertationes Selectae.” Ghent, 1876. confined to the older confused sources of G. SALMON: Hipp. Romanus in Smith and Wace III. information. 85–105 (very good.) Since the discovery of the Philosophumena the I. LIFE OF HIPPOLYTUS. This famous person has following books and tracts on Hippolytus have lived three lives, a real one in the third appeared, which present him under a new light. century as an opponent of the popes of his BUNSEN: Hippolytus and his Age. Lond. 1852. 4 day, a fictitious one in the middle ages as a vols. (German in 2 vols. Leipz. 1855); 2d ed. canonized saint, and a literary one in the with much irrelevant and heterogeneous matter nineteenth century after the discovery of his (under the title: Christianity and Mankind). long lost works against heresies. He was Lond. 1854. 7 vols. undoubtedly one of the most learned and JACOBI in the “Deutsche Zeitschrift,” Berl. 1851 eminent scholars and theologians of his time. and’53; and Art.” Hippolytus” in Herzog’s The Roman church placed him in the number Encykl. VI. 131 sqq. (1856), and in HerzogVI. 139–149. of her saints and martyrs, little suspecting that he would come forward in the nineteenth BAUR, in the “Theol. Jahrb.” Tueb. 1853. VOLKMAR century as an accuser against her. But the and RITSCHL, ibid. 1854, statements of the ancients respecting him are GIESELER, in the “Stud. u. Krit.” for 1853. very obscure and confused. Certain it is, that DOELLINGER (R. Cath., but since 1870 an Old he received a thorough Grecian education, Cath.): Hippolytus und Callistus, oder die roem. and, as he himself says, in a fragment Kirche in der ersten Haelfte des dritten Jahrh. preserved by Photius, heard the discourses of Regensburg 1853. English translation by ALFRED PLUMMER, Edinb. 1876 (360 pages). The most Irenæus (in Lyons or in Rome). His public life learned book on the subject. An apology for falls in the end of the second century and the Callistus and the Roman see, against Hippolytus first three decennaries of the third (about 198 the supposed first anti-Pope. to 236), and he belongs to the western CHR. WORDSWORTH (Anglican): St. Hippolytus and church, though he may have been, like the Church of Rome in the earlier part of the third Irenæus, of Oriental extraction. At all events century. London 1853. Second and greatly he wrote all his books in Greek. enlarged edition, 1880. With the Greek text and Eusebius is the first who mentions him, and an English version of the 9th and 10th books. he calls him indefinitely, bishop, and a The counter-part of Doellinger. An apology for contemporary of Origen and Beryl of Bostra; Hippolytus against Callistus and the papacy. he evidently did not know where he was

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 63 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course bishop, but he gives a list of his works which (perhaps intended originally for the he saw (probably in the library of Caesarea). mythological Hippolytus). But as no such Jerome gives a more complete list of his church is found in the early lists of Roman writings, but no more definite information as churches, it may have been the church of St. to his see, although he was well acquainted Lawrence, the famous gridiron-martyr, which with Rome and Pope Damasus. He calls him adjoined the tomb of Hippolytus. martyr, and couples him with the Roman Notwithstanding the chronological error senator Apollonius. An old catalogue of the about the Novatian schism and the extreme popes, the Catalogus Liberianus (about improbability of such a horrible death under A.D.354), states that a “presbyter” Hippolytus Roman laws and customs, there is an was banished, together with the Roman important element of truth in this legend, bishop Pontianus, about 235, to the unhealthy namely the schismatic position of Hippolytus island of Sardinia, and that the bodies of both which suits the Philosophumena, perhaps also were deposited on the same day (Aug. 13), his connection with Portus. The later Pontianus in the cemetery of Callistus, tradition of the catholic church (from the Hippolytus on the Via Tiburtina (where his middle of the seventh century) makes him statue was discovered in 1551). The bishop of Portus Romanus (now Porto) which translation of Pontianus was effected by Pope lies at the Northern mouth of the Tiber, Fabianus about 236 or 237. From this opposite Ostia, about fifteen miles from statement we would infer that Hippolytus Rome. The Greek writers, not strictly died in the mines of Sardinia and was thus distinguishing the city from the surrounding counted a martyr, like all those confessors country, call him usually bishop of Rome. who died in prison. He may, however, have These are the vague and conflicting returned and suffered martyrdom elsewhere. traditions, amounting to this that Hippolytus The next account we have is from the Spanish was an eminent presbyter or bishop in Rome poet Prudentius who wrote in the beginning or the vicinity, in the early part of the third of the fifth century. He represents Hippolytus century, that he wrote many learned works in poetic description as a Roman presbyter and died a martyr in Sardinia or Ostia. So the (therein agreeing with the Liberian matter stood when a discovery in the Catalogue) who belonged to the Novatian sixteenth century shed new light on this party (which, however, arose several years mysterious person. after the death of Hippolytus), but in the In the year 1551, a much mutilated marble prospect of death regretted the schism statue, now in the Lateran Museum, was exhorted his numerous followers to return exhumed at Rome near the basilica of St. into the bosom of the catholic church, and Lawrence on the Via Tiburtina (the road to then, in bitter allusion to his name and to the Tivoli). This statue is not mentioned indeed mythical Hippolytus, the son of Theseus, was by Prudentius, and was perhaps originally bound by the feet to a team of wild horses designed for an entirely different purpose, and dragged to death over stock and stone. possibly for a Roman senator; but it is at all He puts into his mouth his last words: “These events very ancient, probably from the steeds drag my limbs after them; drag Thou, middle of the third century. It represents a O Christ, my soul to Thyself.” He places the venerable man clothed with the Greek scene of his martyrdom at Ostia or Portus pallium and Roman toga, seated in a bishop’s where the Prefect of Rome happened to be at chair. On the back of the cathedra are that time who condemned him for his engraved in uncial letters the , or Christian profession. Prudentius also saw the easter-table of Hippolytus for seven series of subterranean grave-chapel in Rome and a sixteen years, beginning with the first year of picture which represented his martyrdom Alexander Severus (222), and a list of

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 64 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course writings, presumably written by the person before him, and to the later schism of whom the statue represents. Among these Novatian. It is for this reason the more writings is named a work On the All, which is remarkable, that we have no account mentioned in the tenth book of the respecting the subsequent course of this Philosophumena as a product of the writer. movement, except the later unreliable This furnishes the key to the authorship of tradition, that Hippolytus finally returned that important work. into the bosom of the catholic church, and Much more important is the recent discovery expiated his schism by martyrdom, either in and publication (in 1851) of one of his works the mines of Sardinia or near Rome (A. D. themselves, and that no doubt the most 235, or rather 236, under the persecuting valuable of them all, viz. the Philosophumena, emperor Maximinus the Thracian). or Refutation of all Heresies. It is now almost II. HIS WRITINGS. Hippolytus was the most universally acknowledged that this work learned divine and the most voluminous comes not from Origen, who never was a writer of the Roman church in the third bishop, nor from the antimontanistic and century; in fact the first great scholar of that antichiliastic presbyter Caius, but from church, though like his teacher, Irenæus, he Hippolytus; because, among other reasons, used the Greek language exclusively. This fact, the author, in accordance with the together with his polemic attitude to the Hippolytus-statue, himself refers to a work Roman bishops of his day, accounts for the On the All, as his own, and because Hippolytus early disappearance of his works from the is declared by the fathers to have written a remembrance of that church. He is not so work Adversus omnes Haereses. The entire much an original, productive author, as a matter of the work, too, agrees with the learned and skilful compiler. In the scattered statements of antiquity respecting philosophical parts of his Philosophumena he his ecclesiastical position; and at the same borrows largely from Sextus Empiricus, word time places that position in a much clearer for word, without acknowledgment; and in light, and gives us a better understanding of the theological part from Irenæus. In doctrine those statements. The author of the he agrees, for the most part, with Irenæus, Philosophumena appears as one of the most even to his chiliasm, but is not his equal in prominent of the in or near Rome in discernment, depth, and moderation. He the beginning of the third century; probably a repudiates philosophy, almost with bishop, since he reckons himself among the Tertullian’s vehemence, as the source of all successors of the apostles and the guardians heresies; yet he employs it to establish his of the doctrine of the church. He took an own views. On the subject of the trinity he active part in all the doctrinal and ritual assails Monarchianism, and advocates the controversies of his time, but severely hypostasian theory with a zeal which brought opposed the Roman bishops Zephyrinus down upon him the charge of ditheism. His (202–218) and Callistus (218–223), on disciplinary principles are rigoristic and account of their Patripassian leanings, and ascetic. In this respect also he is akin to their loose penitential discipline. The latter Tertullian, though he places the Montanists, especially, who had given public offence by like the Quartodecimanians, but with only a his former mode of life, he attacked without brief notice, among the heretics. His style is mercy and not without passion. He was, vigorous, but careless and turgid. Caspari therefore, if not exactly a schismatical calls Hippolytus “the Roman Origen.” This is counter-pope (as Döllinger supposes), yet the true as regards learning and independence, head of a disaffected and schismatic party, but Origen had more genius and moderation. orthodox in doctrine, rigoristic in discipline, The principal work of Hippolytus is the and thus very nearly allied to the Montanists Philosophumena or Refutation of all Heresies.

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It is, next to the treatise of Irenæus, the most slave, then a dishonest banker, and became a instructive and important polemical bankrupt and convict, but worked himself production of the ante-Nicene church, and into the good graces of Zephyrinus and after sheds much new light, not only upon the his death obtained the object of his ambition, ancient heresies, and the development of the the papal chair, taught heresy and ruined the church doctrine, but also upon the history of discipline by extreme leniency to offenders. philosophy and the condition of the Roman Here the author shows himself a violent church in the beginning of the third century. partizan, and must be used with caution. It furthermore affords valuable testimony to The tenth book, made use of by Theodoret, the genuineness of the Gospel of John, both contains a brief recapitulation and the from the mouth of the author himself, and author’s own confession of faith, as a positive through his quotations from the much earlier refutation of the heresies. The following is the Gnostic Basilides, who was a later most important part relating to Christ: contemporary of John (about A.D.125). The “This Word (Logos) the Father sent forth in composition falls some years after the death these last days no longer to speak by a prophet, of Callistus, between the years 223 and 235. nor willing that He should be only guessed at The first of the ten books gives an outline of from obscure preaching, but bidding Him be the heathen philosophies which he regards as manifested face to face, in order that the world the sources of all heresies; hence the title should reverence Him when it beheld Him, not Philosophumena which answers the first four giving His commands in the person of a prophet, books, but not the last six. It is not in the nor alarming the soul by an angel, but Himself Athos-MS., but was formerly known and present who had spoken. incorporated in the works of Origen. The “Him we know to have received a body from the second and third books, which are wanting, Virgin and to have refashioned the old man by a treated probably of the heathen mysteries, new creation, and to have passed in His life through every age, in order that He might be a and mathematical and astrological theories. law to every age, and by His presence exhibit The fourth is occupied likewise with the His own humanity as a pattern to all men, and heathen astrology and magic, which must thus convince man that God made nothing evil, have exercised great influence, particularly in and that man possesses free will, having in Rome. In the fifth book the author comes to himself the power of volition or non-volition, his proper theme, the refutation of all the and being able to do both. Him we know to have heresies from the times of the apostles to his been a man of the same nature with ourselves. own. He takes up thirty-two in all, most of “For, if He were not of the same nature, He which, however, are merely different would in vain exhort us to imitate our Master. branches of Gnosticism and Ebionism. He For if that man was of another nature, why does simply states the heretical opinions from lost He enjoin the same duties on me who am weak? writings, without introducing his own And how can He be good and just? But that He reflection, and refers them to the Greek might be shown to be the same as we, He underwent toil and consented to suffer hunger philosophy, , and magic, thinking and thirst, and rested in sleep, and did not them sufficiently refuted by being traced to refuse His passion, and became obedient unto those heathen sources. The ninth book, in death, and manifested His resurrection, having refuting the doctrine of the Noëtians and consecrated in all these things His own Callistians, makes remarkable disclosures of humanity, as first fruits, in order that thou when events in the Roman church. He represents suffering mayest not despair, acknowledging as a weak and ignorant man thyself a man of like nature and waiting for the who gave aid and comfort to the Patripassian appearance of what thou gavest to Him. heresy, and his successor Callistus, as a “Such is the true doctrine concerning the Deity, shrewd and cunning manager who was once a O ye Greeks and Barbarians, Chaldaeans and

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Assyrians, Egyptians and Africans, Indians and probably the concluding part of that synopsis. Ethiopians, Celts, and ye warlike , and all If not, it must have been the conclusion of a ye inhabitants of Europe, Asia, and Africa, whom special work against the Monarchian heretics, I exhort, being a disciple of the man-loving but no such work is mentioned. Word and myself a lover of men (λόγου ὑπάρχων μαθητὴς καὶ φιλάνθρωπος). Come ye The book On the Universe was directed and learn from us, who is the true God, and against Platonism. It made all things consist what is His well-ordered workmanship, not of the four elements, earth, air, fire, and heeding the sophistry of artificial speeches, nor water. Man is formed of all four elements, his the vain professions of plagiarist heretics, but soul, of air. But the most important part of the grave simplicity of unadorned truth. By this this book is a description of Hades, as an knowledge ye will escape the coming curse of abode under ground where the souls of the the judgment of fire, and the dark rayless aspect departed are detained until the day of of Tartarus, never illuminated by the voice of judgment: the righteous in a place of light and the Word.… happiness called Abraham’s Bosom; the “Therefore, O men, persist not in your enmity, wicked in a place of darkness and misery; the nor hesitate to retrace your steps. For Christ is the God who is over all (, comp. Rom. 9:5), who two regions being separated by a great gulf. commanded men to wash away sin [in baptism], The entrance is guarded by an archangel. On regenerating the old man, having called him His the judgment day the bodies of the righteous image from the beginning, showing by a figure will rise renewed and glorified, the bodies of His love to thee. If thou obeyest His holy the wicked with all the diseases of their commandment and becomest an imitator in earthly life for everlasting punishment. This goodness of Him who is good, thou wilt become description agrees substantially with the like Him, being honored by Him. For God has a eschatology of Justin Martyr, Irenæus, and need and craving for thee, having made thee Tertullian. divine for His glory.” The anonymous work called The Little Hippolytus wrote a large number of other Labyrinth, mentioned by Eusebius and works, exegetical, chronological, polemical, Theodoret as directed against the and homiletical, all in Greek, which are mostly rationalistic heresy of Artemon, is ascribed by lost, although considerable fragments remain. some to Hippolytus, by others to Caius. But He prepared the first continuous and detailed The Labyrinth mentioned by Photius as a commentaries on several books of the work of Caius is different and identical with Scriptures, as the Hexaëmeron (used by the tenth book of the Philosophumena, which Ambrose), on Exodus, Psalms, Proverbs, begins with the words, “The labyrinth of Ecclesiastes, the larger prophets (especially heresies.” Daniel), Zechariah, also on Matthew, Luke, and the Apocalypse. He pursued in exegesis The lost tract on the Charismata dealt the allegorical method, like Origen, which probably with the Montanistic claims to suited the taste of his age. continued prophecy. Others make it a collection of apostolical canons. Among, his polemical works was one Against Thirty-two Heresies, different from the The book on Antichrist which has been almost Philosophumen a, and described by Photius as entirely recovered by Gudius, represents a “little book,” and as a synopsis of lectures Antichrist as the complete counterfeit of which Hippolytus heard from Irenæus. It Christ, explains Daniel’s four kingdoms as the must have been written in his early youth. It Babylonian, Median, Grecian, and Roman, and began with the heresy of Dositheus and the apocalyptic number of the beast as ended with that of Noëtus. His treatise meaning, i.e., heathen Rome. This is one of the Against Noëtus which is still preserved, three interpretations given by Irenæus who, presupposes previous sections, and formed however, preferred Teitan.

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In a commentary on the Apocalypse he gives he built an altar of marble there to appease another interpretation of the number, namely the disquieted saint.” Dantialos (probably because Antichrist was to II. Was Hippolytus a bishop, and where? descend from the tribe of Dan). The woman in Hippolytus does not call himself a bishop, nor the twelfth chapter is the church; the sun a “bishop of Rome,” but assumes episcopal with which she is clothed, is our Lord; the authority, and describes himself in the moon, ; the twelve stars, the preface to the first book as “a successor of the twelve apostles; the two wings on which she Apostles, a partaker with them in the same was to fly, hope and love. Armageddon is the grace and principal sacerdocy (ἀρχιεράτεια), valley of Jehoshaphat. The five kings (17:13) and doctorship, and as numbered among the are Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Darius, guardians of the church.” Such language is Alexander, and his four successors; the sixth scarcely applicable to a mere presbyter. He is the Roman empire, the seventh will be also exercised the power of excommunication Antichrist. In his commentary on Daniel he on certain followers of the Pope Callistus. But fixes the consummation at A.D.500, or A. M. where was his bishopric? This is to this day a 6000, on the assumption that Christ appeared point in dispute. in the year of the world 5500, and that a sixth millennium must yet be completed before the (1.) He was bishop of Portus, the seaport of beginning of the millennial Sabbath, which is Rome. This is the traditional opinion in the prefigured by the divine rest after creation. Roman church since the seventh century, and This view, in connection with his relation to is advocated by Ruggieri (De Portuensi S. Irenæus, and the omission of chiliasm from Hippolyti, episcopi et martyris, Sede, Rom. his list of heresies, makes it tolerably certain 1771), Simon de Magistris (Acta Martyrum ad that be was himself a chiliast, although he put Ostia Tiberina, etc. Rom. 1795), Baron off the millennium to the sixth century after Bunsen, Dean Milman, and especially by Christ. Bishop Wordsworth. In the oldest accounts, however, he is represented as a Roman We conclude this section with an account of a “presbyter.” Bunsen combined the two views visit of Pope Alexander III. to the shrine of St. on the unproved assumption that already at Hippolytus in the church of St. Denis in 1159, that early period the Roman suburban to which his bones were transferred from bishops, called cardinales episcopi, were at Rome under Charlemagne. “On the threshold the same time members of the Roman of one of the chapels the Pope paused to ask, presbytery. In opposition to this Dr. whose relics it contained.’Those of St. Doellinger maintains that there was no Hippolytus,’ was the answer.’Non credo, non bishop in Portus before the year 313 or 314; credo,’ replied the infallible authority,’the that Hippolytus considered himself the bones of St. Hippolytus were never removed rightful bishop of Rome, and that he could not from the holy city.’ But St. Hippolytus, whose be simultaneously a member of the Roman dry bones apparently had as little reverence presbytery and bishop of Portus. But his chief for the spiritual progeny of Zephyrinus and argument is that from silence which bears Callistus as the ancient bishop’s tongue and with equal force against his own theory. It is pen had manifested towards these saints true that the first bishop of Portus on record themselves, was so very angry that he appears at the Synod of Arles, 314, where he rumbled his bones inside the reliquary with a signed himself Gregorius episcopus de loco qui noise like thunder. To what lengths he might est in Portu Romano. The episcopal see of have gone if rattling had not sufficed we dare Ostia was older, and its occupant had not conjecture. But the Pope, falling on his (according to St. Augustin) always the knees, exclaimed in terror, I believe, O my privilege of consecrating the bishop of Rome. Lord Hippolytus, I believe, pray be quiet.’ And

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But it is quite possible that Ostia and Portus accidentally collocated with Beryllus, bishop which were only divided by an island at the of Bostra in Arabia. Adan is nowhere mouth of the Tiber formed at first one mentioned as an episcopal see, and our diocese. Prudentius locates the martyrdom of Hippolytus belonged to the West, although he Hippolytus at Ostia or Portus (both are may have been of eastern origin, like Irenæus. mentioned in his poem). Moreover Portus (3.) Rome. Hippolytus was no less than the was a more important place than Doellinger first Anti-Pope and claimed to be the will admit. The harbor whence the city legitimate bishop of Rome. This is the theory derived its name Portus (also Portus Ostien of Doellinger, derived from the Portus Urbis, Portus Romae) was constructed Philosophumena and defended with much by the Emperor Claudius (perhaps Augustus, learning and acumen. The author of the hence Portus Augusti), enlarged by Nero and Philosophumena was undoubtedly a resident improved by Trajan (hence Portus Trajani), of Rome, claims episcopal dignity, never and was the landing place of Ignatius on his recognized Callistus as bishop, but treated voyage to Rome (Martyr. Ign. c. 6: τοῡ him merely as the head of a heretical school καλουμένου Πόρτου) where he met Christian (διδασκαλεῖον) or sect, calls his adherents brethren. Constantine surrounded it with “Callistians,” some of whom he had strong walls and towers. Ostia may have been excommunicated, but admits that Callistus much more important as a commercial had aspired to the episcopal throne and emporium and naval station (see Smith’s Dict. “imagined himself to have obtained” the of Gr. and Rom. Geogr. vol. II 501–504); but object of his ambition after the death of Cavalier de Rossi, in the Bulletino di Archeol., Zephyrinus, and that his school formed the 1866, p. 37 (as quoted by Wordsworth, p. majority and claimed to be the catholic 264, sec ed.), proves from 13 inscriptions that church Callistus on his part charged “the site and name of Portus are celebrated in Hippolytus, on account of his view of the the records of the primitive [?] church,” and independent personality of the Logos, with that “the name is more frequently the heresy of ditheism (a charge which stung commemorated than that of Ostia.” The close him to the quick), and probably proceeded to connection of Portus with Rome would easily excommunication. All this looks towards an account for the residence of Hippolytus at open schism. This would explain the fact that Rome and for his designation as Roman Hippolytus was acknowledged in Rome only bishop. In later times the seven suburban as a presbyter, while in the East he was bishops of the vicinity of Rome were the widely known as bishop, and even as bishop suffragans of the Pope and consecrated him. of Rome. Dr. Doellinger assumes that the Finally, as the harbor of a large metropolis schism continued to the pontificate of attracts strangers from every nation and Pontianus, the successor of Callistus, was the tongue, Hippolytus might with propriety be cause of the banishment of the two rival called “bishop of the nations” (ἐπίσκοπος bishops to the pestilential island of Sardinia ε θνω ν). We conclude then that the Portus- (in 235), and brought to a close by their hypothesis is not impossible, though it cannot resignation and reconciliation; hence their be proven. bones were brought back to Rome and (2.) He was bishop of the Arabian Portus solemnly deposited on the same day. Their Romanus, now Aden on the Red Sea. This was death in exile was counted equivalent to the opinion of Stephen Le Moyne (1685), martyrdom. Dr. Caspari of Christiania who adopted by Cave, Tillemont, and Basnage, but has shed much light on the writings of now universally given up as a baseless Hippolytus, likewise believes that the conjecture, which rests on a misapprehension difficulty between Hippolytus and Callistus of Euseb. VI. 20, where Hippolytus resulted in an open schism and mutual

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 69 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course excommunication (l. c. Ill. 330). Langen difficulty that Hippolytus notwithstanding his (Gesch. der roem. Kirche, Bonn. 1881, p. 229) open resistance rose afterwards to such high is inclined to accept Doellinger’s conclusion honors in the papal church. We can only offer as at least probable. the following considerations as a partial This theory is plausible and almost forced solution: first, that he wrote in Greek which upon us by the Philosophumena, but without died out in Rome, so that his books became any solid support outside of that polemical unknown; secondly, that aside from those work. History is absolutely silent about an attacks he did, like the schismatic Tertullian, Anti-Pope before Novatianus, who appeared eminent service to the church by his learning fifteen years after the death of Hippolytus and and championship of orthodoxy and churchly shook the whole church by his schism (251), piety; and lastly, that be was believed (as we although he was far less conspicuous as a learn from Prudentius) to have repented of scholar and writer. A schism extending his schism and, like Cyprian, wiped out his sin through three pontificates (for Hippolytus by his martyrdom. opposed Zephyrinus as well as Callistus) III. But no matter whether Hippolytus was could not be hidden and so soon be forgotten, bishop or presbyter in Rome or Portus, he especially by Rome which has a long memory stands out an irrefutable witness against the of injuries done to the chair of St. Peter and claims of an infallible papacy which was looks upon rebellion against authority as the entirely unknown in the third century. No greatest sin. The name of Hippolytus is not wonder that Roman divines of the nineteenth found in any list of Popes and Anti-Popes, century (with the exception of Doellinger who Greek or Roman, while that of Callistus occurs seventeen years after he wrote his book on in all. Even Jerome who spent over twenty Hippolytus seceded from Rome in years from about 350 to 372, and afterwards consequence of the Vatican decree of four more years in Rome and was intimate infallibility) deny his authorship of this to with Pope Damasus, knew nothing of the see them most obnoxious book. The Abbé Cruice of Hippolytus, although he knew some of his ascribes it to Caius or Tertullian, the Jesuit writings. It seems incredible that an Anti- Armellini to Novatian, and de Rossi (1866) Pope should ever have been canonized by hesitatingly to Tertullian, who, however, was Rome as a saint and martyr. It is much easier no resident of Rome, but of Carthage. Cardinal to conceive that the divines of the distant East Newman declares it “simply incredible” that a were mistaken. The oldest authority which man so singularly honored as St. Hippolytus Doellinger adduces for the designation should be the author of “that malignant libel “bishop of Rome,” that of Presbyter Eustratius on his contemporary popes,” who did not of Constantinople about A.D.582 (see p. 84), is scruple “in set words to call Pope Zephyrinus not much older than the designation of a weak and venal dunce, and Pope Callistus a Hippolytus as bishop of Portus, and of no sacrilegious swindler, an infamous convict, more critical value. and an heresiarch ex cathedra.” (Tracts, (4.) Dr. Salmon offers a modification of the Theological and Ecclesiastical, 1874, p. 222, Doellinger-hypothesis by assuming that quoted by Plummer, p. XIV. and 340.) But he Hippolytus was a sort of independent bishop offers no solution, nor can he. Dogma versus of a Greek-speaking congregation in Rome. He history is as unavailing as the pope’s bull thus explains the enigmatical expression against the comet. Nor is Hippolytus, or ἐθνῶν ἐπίσκοπος, which Photius applies to whoever wrote that “malignant libel” alone in Caius, but which probably belongs to his position. The most eminent ante-Nicene Hippolytus. But history knows nothing of two fathers, and the very ones who laid the independent and legitimate bishops in the foundations of the catholic system, Irenæus, city of Rome. Moreover there still remains the Tertullian, and Cyprian (not to speak of

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Origen, and of Novatian, the Anti-Pope), repeats the, statements of Eusebius, although protested on various grounds against Rome. from his knowledge of Rome we might expect And it is a remarkable fact that the learned some additional information. Photius, on the Dr. Doellinger who, in 1853, so ably defended strength of a marginal note in the MS. of a the Roman see against the charges of supposed work of Caius On the Universe, says Hippolytus should, in 1870, have assumed a that he was a “presbyter of the Roman church position not unlike that of Hippolytus, against during the episcopate of Victor and the error of papal infallibility. Zephyrinus, and that he was elected bishop of the Gentiles (ἐθνῶν ἐπίσκοπος).” He ascribes 2.184. Caius of Rome to him that work and also The Labyrinth, but EUSEB.: H. E. II. 25; III. 28, 31; VI. 20. HIERON.: De hesitatingly. His testimony is too late to be of Vir. ill. 59. THEODOR.: Fa b. Haer. II. 3; III. 2. any value, and rests on a misunderstanding of PHOTIUS: Biblioth. Cod. 48. Perhaps also Martyr. Eusebius and a confusion of Caius with Polyc., c. 22, where a Caius is mentioned as a pupil or friend of Irenæus. Hippolytus, an error repeated by modern critics. Both persons have so much in ROUTH: Rel. S. II. 125–158 (Comp. also I. 397– common—age, residence, title—that they 403). BUNSEN: Analecta Ante-Nicaena I. 409 sq. have been identified (Caius being supposed to CASPARI: Quellen etc., III. 330, 349, 374 sqq. HARNACK in Herzog, III. 63 sq. SALMON in Smith be simply the praenomen of Hippolytus). But and Wace I. 384–386. Comp. also HEINICHEN’S this cannot be proven; Eusebius clearly notes on Euseb. II. 25 (in Comment. Ill. 63–67), distinguishes them, and Hippolytus was no and the Hippolytus liter., 2.183, especially opponent of Chiliasm, and only a moderate DOELLINGER. (250 sq.) and VOLKMAR. (60–71). opponent of Montanism; while Caius wrote Among the Western divines who, like Irenæus against the Chiliastic dreams of Cerinthus; but and Hippolytus, wrote exclusively in Greek, he did not deny, as has been wrongly inferred must be mentioned CAIUS who flourished from Eusebius, the Johannean authorship of during the episcopate of Zephyrinus in the the Apocalypse; he probably meant first quarter of the third century. He is known pretended revelations (ἀποκαλύψεις) of that to us only from a few Greek fragments as an heretic. He and Hippolytus no doubt agreed opponent of Montanism and Chiliasm. He was with the canon of the Roman church, which probably a Roman presbyter. From his name, recognized thirteen epistles of Paul and from the fact that he did not number (excluding Hebrews) and the Apocalypse of Hebrews among the Pauline Epistles, we may John. infer that he was a native of Rome or at least Caius has been surrounded since Photius with of the West. Eusebius calls him a very learned a mythical halo of authorship, and falsely churchman or ecclesiastic author at Rome, credited with several works of Hippolytus, and quotes four times his disputation with including the recently discovered Proclus (δισ λογος πρὸς Πρόκλον), the leader Philosophumena. The Muratorian fragment on of one party of the Montanists. He preserves the canon of the New Testament was also from it the notice that Philip and his four ascribed to him by the discoverer (Muratori, prophetic daughters are buried at Hierapolis 1740) and recent writers. But this fragment is in Phrygia, and an important testimony of earlier date (A.D.170), and written in Latin, concerning the monuments or trophies though perhaps originally in Greek. It is as far (τρόπαια) of Peter and Paul, the founders of as we know the oldest Latin church document the Roman church, on the Vatican hill and the of Rome, and of very great importance for the Ostian road. history of the canon. This is nearly all that is certain and interesting about Caius. Jerome, as usual in his catalogue of illustrious men, merely

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2.185. The Alexandrian School of Theology “Catechetical school” under the supervision of J. G. MICHAELIS: De Scholae Alexandrinae prima the bishop. It was originally designed only for origine, progressu, ac praecpuis doctoribus. Hal. the practical purpose of preparing willing 1739. heathens and Jews of all classes for baptism. H. E. FR. GUERIKE: De Schola quae Alexandriae But in that home of the Philonic theology, of floruit catechetica commentatio historica et Gnostic heresy, and of Neo-Platonic theologica. Hal. 1824 and’25. 2 Parts (pp. 119 philosophy, it soon very naturally assumed a and 456). The second Part is chiefly devoted to learned character, and became, at the same Clement and Origen. time, a sort of theological seminary, which C. F. W. HASSELBACH: De Schola, quae Alex. floruit, exercised a powerful influence on the catech. Stettin 1826. P. 1. (against Guerike), and education of many bishops and church De discipulorum … s. De Catechumenorum teachers, and on the development of Christian ordinibus, Ibid. 1839. science. It had at first but a single teacher, J. MATTER: L’Histoire de l’ École d’Alexandrie, afterwards two or more, but without fixed second ed. Par. 1840. 3 vols. salary, or special buildings. The more wealthy J. SIMON: Histoire de I’ École d’Alexandrie. Par. pupils paid for tuition, but the offer was often 1845. declined. The teachers gave their instructions E. VACHEROT: Histoire critique de l’ École in their dwellings, generally after the style of d’Alexandrie. Par. 1851. 3 vols. the ancient philosophers. NEANDER: I. 527–557 (Am. ed.); GIESELER I. 208– The first superintendent of this school known 210 (Am. ed.) to us was PANTAENUS, a converted Stoic RITTER: Gesch. der christl. Philos. I. 421 sqq. philosopher, about A.D.180. He afterwards UEBERWEG: History of Philosophy, vol. I. p. 311– labored as a missionary in India, and left 319 (Engl. transl. 1875). several commentaries, of which, however, REDEPENNING in his Origenes I. 57–83, and art. in nothing remains but some scanty fragments. HerzogI. 290–292. Comp. also two arts. on the He was followed by CLEMENT, to A.D.202 and Jewish, and the New-Platonic schools of Clement, by ORIGEN, to 232, who raised the Alexandria, by M. NICOLAS in Lichtenberger’s school to the summit of its prosperity, and “Encyclopédie” I. 159–170. founded a similar one at Caesarea in C. H. BIGG: The Christian Platonists of Alexandria. Palestine. The institution was afterwards Lond. 1886. conducted by Origen’s pupils, HERACLAS (d. Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great 248), and DIONYSIUS (d. 265), and last by the three hundred and twenty-two years before blind but learned DIDYMUS (d. 395), until, at Christ, on the mouth of the Nile, within a few the end of the fourth century, it sank for ever hours’ sail from Asia and Europe, was the amidst the commotions and dissensions of metropolis of Egypt, the flourishing seat of the Alexandrian church, which at last commerce, of Grecian and Jewish learning, prepared the way for the destructive and of the greatest library of the ancient conquest of the Arabs (640). The city itself world, and was destined to become one of the gradually sank to a mere village, and Cairo great centres of Christianity, the rival of took its place (since 969). In the present Antioch and Rome. There the religious life of century it is fast rising again, under European Palestine and the intellectual culture of auspices, to great commercial importance. Greece commingled and prepared the way for From this catechetical school proceeded a the first school of theology which aimed at a peculiar theology, the most learned and philosophic comprehension and vindication genial representatives of which were Clement of the truths of revelation. Soon after the and Origen. This theology is, on the one hand, founding of the church which tradition traces a regenerated Christian form of the to St. Mark, the Evangelist, there arose a Alexandrian Jewish religious philosophy of

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Philo; on the other, a catholic counterpart, recognized the desire for deeper religious and a positive refutation of the heretical knowledge, which lay at its root, and sought Gnosis, which reached its height also in to meet this desire with a wholesome supply Alexandria, but half a century earlier. The from the Bible itself. To the γνῶσις Alexandrian theology aims at a reconciliation ψευδώνυμος they opposed a γνῶσις ἀληθινή. of Christianity with philosophy, or, Their maxim was, in the words of Clement: subjectively speaking, of pistis with gnosis; “No faith without knowledge, no knowledge but it seeks this union upon the basis of the without faith;” or: “Unless you believe, you Bible, and the doctrine of the church. Its will not understand.” Faith and knowledge centre, therefore, is the Divine Logos, viewed have the same substance, the saving truth of as the sum of all reason and all truth, before God, revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and and after the incarnation. Clement came from faithfully handed down by the church; they the Hellenic philosophy to the Christian faith; differ only in form. Knowledge is our Origen, conversely, was led by faith to consciousness of the deeper ground and speculation. The former was an aphoristic consistency of faith. The Christian knowledge, thinker, the latter a systematic. The one however, is also a gift of grace, and has its borrowed ideas from various systems; the condition in a holy life. The ideal of a other followed more the track of Platonism. Christian gnostic includes perfect love as well But both were Christian philosophers and as perfect knowledge, of God. Clement churchly gnostics. As Philo, long before them, describes him as one “who, growing grey in in the same city, had combined Judaism with the study of the Scriptures, and preserving Grecian culture, so now they carried the the orthodoxy of the apostles and the church, Grecian culture into Christianity. This, indeed, lives strictly according to the gospel.” the apologists and controversialists of the The Alexandrian theology is intellectual, second century had already done, as far back profound, stirring and full of fruitful germs of as Justin the “philosopher.” But the thought, but rather unduly idealistic and Alexandrians were more learned, and made spiritualistic, and, in exegesis, loses itself in much freer use of the Greek philosophy. They arbitrary allegorical fancies. In its efforts to saw in it not sheer error, but in one view a gift reconcile revelation and philosophy it took of God, and an intellectual schoolmaster for up, like Philo, many foreign elements, Christ, like the law in the moral and religious especially of the Platonic stamp, and here. Clement compares it to a wild olive tree, wandered into speculative views which a which can be ennobled by faith; Origen (in the later and more orthodox, but more narrow- fragment of an epistle to Gregory minded and less productive age condemned Thaumaturgus), to the jewels, which the as heresies, not appreciating the immortal Israelites took with them out of Egypt, and service of this school to its own and after turned into ornaments for their sanctuary, times. though they also wrought them into the golden calf. Philosophy is not necessarily an 2.186. Clement of Alexandria enemy to the truth, but may, and should be its (I.) CLEMENTIS ALEX. Opera omnia Gr. et Lat. ed. handmaid, and neutralize the attacks against POTTER (bishop of Oxford). Oxon. 1715. 2 vols. it. The elements of truth in the heathen Reprinted Venet. 1757. 2 vols. fol., and in philosophy they attributed partly to the MIGNE’S“Patr. Gr.” vols. VIII. and IX., with various secret operation of the Logos in the world of additions and the comments of Nic. Le Nourry. For an account of the MSS. and editions of reason, partly to acquaintance with the Clement see FABRICIUS; Biblioth. Graeca, ed. writings of Moses and the prophets. Harles, vol. VII. 109 sqq. So with the Gnostic heresy. The Alexandrians Other edd. by VICTORINUS (Florence, 1550); did not sweepingly condemn it, but SYLBURG (Heidel b. 1592) HEINSIUS (Graeco-

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Latin., Leyden, 1616); KLOTZ (Leipz. 1831–34, 4 he embraced the Christian religion, and by vols., only in Greek, and very incorrect); W. long journeys East and West he sought the DINDORF (Oxf. 1868–69, 4 vols.). most distinguished teachers, “who preserved English translation by WM. WILSON in Clark’s the tradition of pure saving doctrine, and “Ante-Nicene Library,” vols. IV. and V. Edinb. implanted that genuine apostolic seed in the 1867. hearts of their pupils.” He was captivated by (II.) EUSEBIUS: Hist. Eccl. V. 11; VI. 6, 11, 13. Pantaenus in Egypt, who, says he, “like the HIERONYMUS: De Vir. ill. 38; PHOTIUS: Biblioth. Sicilian bee, plucked flowers from the 109–111. See the Testimonia Veterum de Cl. apostolic and prophetic meadow, and filled collected in Potter’s ed. at the beginning of vol. I. the souls of his disciples with genuine, pure and in Migne’s ed. VIII. 35–50. knowledge.” He became presbyter in the (III.) HOFSTEDE DE GROOT: Dissert. de Clem. Alex. church of Alexandria, and about A.D.189 Groning. 1826. A. F. DAEHNE: DE γνώσει CLEM AL. succeeded Pantaenus as president of the Hal. 1831. catechetical school of that city. Here he F. R. EYLERT: Clem. v. Alex. als Philosoph und labored benignly some twelve years for the Dichter. Leipz. 1832. conversion of heathens and the education of Bishop KAYE: Some Account of the Writings and the Christians, until, as it appears, the Opinions of Clement of Alex. Lond. 1835. persecution under Septimius Severus in 202 KLING: Die Bedeutung des Clem. Alex. fuer die compelled him to flee. After this we find him Entstehung der Theol. (“Stud. u. Krit.” for 1841, in Antioch, and last (211) with his former No. 4). pupil, the bishop Alexander, in Jerusalem. H. J. REINKENS: De Clem. Alex. homine, scriptore, Whether he returned thence to Alexandria is philosopho, theologo. Wratisl. (Breslau) 1851. unknown. He died before the year 220, about H. REUTER: Clementis Alex. Theol. moralis. Berl. the same time with Tertullian. He has no 1853. place, any more than Origen, among the saints LAEMMER.: Clem. Al. de Logo doctrina. Lips. 1855. of the Roman church, though he frequently Abbé COGNAT: Clement d’Alexandrie. Paris 1859. bore this title of honor in ancient times. His J. H. MUELLER: Idées dogm. de Clement d’Alex. name is found in early Western Strasb. 1861. , but was omitted in the CH. E. FREPPEL. (R.C.): Clément d’Alexandrie. issued by Clement VIII. at the Paris, 1866, second ed. 1873. suggestion of Baronius. Benedict XIV. C. MERK: Clemens v. Alex. in s. Abhaengigkeit von elaborately defended the omission (1748), on der griech. Philosophie. Leipz. 1879. the ground of unsoundness in doctrine. FR. JUL. WINTER: Die Ethik des Clemens v. Alex. II. Clement was the father of the Alexandrian Leipz. 1882 (first part of Studien zur Gesch. der Christian philosophy. He united thorough christl. Ethik). biblical and Hellenic learning with genius and JACOBI in Herzog III. 269–277, and WESTCOTT in speculative thought. He rose, In many points, Smith and Wace l. 559–567. far above the prejudices of his age, to more THEOD. ZAHN: Supplementum Clementinum. Third free and spiritual views. His theology, Part of his Forschungen zur Gesch. des N.T. lichen however, is not a unit, but a confused eclectic Kanons. Erlangen 1884. mixture of true Christian elements with many I. TITUS FLAVIUS CLEMENS1 sprang from Greece, Stoic, Platonic, and Philonic ingredients. His probably from Athens. He was born about writings are full of repetition, and quite 150, and brought up in heathenism. He was lacking in clear, fixed method. He throws out versed in all branches of Hellenic literature his suggestive and often profound thoughts in and in all the existing systems of philosophy; fragments, or purposely veils them, especially but in these he found nothing to satisfy his in the Stromata, in a mysterious darkness, to thirst for truth. In his adult years, therefore, conceal them from the exoteric multitude,

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 74 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course and to stimulate the study of the initiated or methodical arrangement, a heterogeneous philosophical Christians. He shows here an mixture of curiosities of history, beauties of affinity with the heathen mystery cultus, and poetry, reveries of philosophy, Christian the Gnostic arcana. His extended knowledge truths and heretical errors (hence the name). of Grecian literature and rich quotations from He compares it to a thick-grown, shady the lost works of poets, philosophers, and mountain or garden, where fruitful and historians give him importance also in barren trees of all kinds, the cypress, the investigations regarding classical antiquity. laurel, the ivy, the apple, the olive, the fig, He lived in an age of transition when stand confusedly grouped together, that Christian thought was beginning to master many may remain hidden from the eye of the and to assimilate the whole domain of human plunderer without escaping the notice of the knowledge. “And when it is frankly admitted” laborer, who might transplant and arrange (says Dr. Westcott) “that his style is generally them in pleasing order. It was, probably, only deficient in terseness and elegance; that his a prelude to a more comprehensive theology. method is desultory; that his learning is At the close the author portrays the ideal of undigested: we can still thankfully admire his the true gnostic, that is, the perfect Christian, richness of information, his breadth of assigning to him, among other traits, a stoical reading, his largeness of sympathy, his lofty elevation above all sensuous affections. The aspirations, his noble conception of the office inspiring thought of Clement is that and capacities of the Faith.” Christianity satisfies all the intellectual and III. The three leading works which he moral aspirations and wants of man. composed during his residence as teacher in Besides these principal works we have, from Alexandria, between the years 190 and 195, Clement also, an able and moderately ascetic represent the three stages in the discipline of treatise, on the right use of wealth. His ethical the human race by the divine Logos, principles are those of the Hellenic corresponding to the three degrees of philosophy, inspired by the genius of knowledge required by the ancient in Christianity. He does not run into the mystagogues, and are related to one another excesses of asceticism, though evidently very much as apologetics, ethics, and under its influence. His exegetical works, as dogmatics, or as faith, love, and mystic vision, well as a controversial treatise on prophecy or as the, stages of the Christian cultus up to against the Montanists, and another on the the celebration of the sacramental mysteries. passover, against the Judaizing practice in The “Exhortation to the Greeks,” in three Asia Minor, are all lost, except some books, with almost a waste of learning, points inconsiderable fragments. out the unreasonableness and immorality, but To Clement we owe also the oldest Christian also the nobler prophetic element, of hymn that has come down to us; an elevated heathenism, and seeks to lead the sinner to but somewhat turgid song of praise to the repentance and faith. The “Tutor” or Logos, as the divine educator and leader of “Educator” unfolds the Christian morality the human race. with constant reference to heathen practices, and exhorts to a holy walk, the end of which is 2.187. Origen likeness to God. The Educator is Christ, and (I.) ORIGENISOpera omnia Graece et Lat. Ed. the children whom he trains, are simple, CAROL. ET VINC. DE LA RUE. Par. 1733–’59, 4 vols. sincere believers. The “Stromata” or fol. The only complete ed., begun by the “Miscellanies,” in seven books (the eighth, Benedictine Charles D. L. R., and after his death containing, an imperfect treatise on logic, is completed by his nephew Vincent. Republ. in Migne’s Patrol. Gr. 1857, 8 vols., with additions spurious), furnishes a guide to the deeper knowledge of Christianity, but is without any

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from Galland (1781), Cramer (1840–44), and I. LIFE AND CHARACTER. ORIGENES, surnamed Mai (1854). “Adamantius” on account of his industry and Other editions by J. MERLINUS (ed. princeps, Par. purity of character is one of the most 1512–’19, 2 vols. fol., again in Venice 1516, and remarkable men in history for genius and in Paris 1522; 1530, only the Lat. text); by learning, for the influence he exerted on his ERASMUS and BEATUS RHENANUS (Bas. 1536, 2 age, and for the controversies and discussions vols. fol.; 1545; 1551; 1557; 1571); by the to which his opinions gave rise. He was born Benedictine G. GENEBRARD (Par. 1574; 1604; of Christian parents at Alexandria, in the year 1619 in 2 vols. fol., all in Lat.); by CORDERIUS (Antw. 1648, partly in Greek); by P. D. HUETIUS, 185, and probably baptized in childhood, or HUET, afterwards Bp. of Avranges (Rouen, according to Egyptian custom which he 1668, 2 vols. fol., the Greek writings, with very traced to apostolic origin. Under the direction learned dissertations, Origeniana; again Paris of his father, Leonides, who was probably a 1679; Cologne 1685); by MONTFAUCON (only the rhetorician, and of the celebrated Clement at Hexapla, Par. 1713,’14, 2 vols. fol., revised and the catechetical school, he received a pious improved ed. by FIELD, Oxf. 1875); by and learned education. While yet a boy, he LOMMATSCH (Berol. 1837–48, 25 vols. oct.). knew whole sections of the Bible by memory, English translation of select works of Origen by and not rarely perplexed his father with F. CROMBIE in Clark’s “Ante-Nicene Library,” questions on the deeper sense of Scripture. Edinb. 1868, and N. York 1885. The father reproved his curiosity, but (II.) EUSEBIUS: Hist. Eccles. VI. 1–6 and passim. thanked God for such a son, and often, as he HIERONYMUS: De Vir. ill. 54; Ep. 29, 41, and often. slept, reverentially kissed his breast as a GREGORIUS THAUMAT.: Oratio panegyrica in temple of the Holy Spirit. Under the Origenem. PAMPHILUS: Apologia Orig. RUFINUS: De persecution of Septimius Severus in 202, he Adulteratione librorum Origenis. All in the last vol. of Delarue’s ed. wrote to his father in prison, beseeching him not to deny Christ for the sake of his family, (III.) P. D. HUETIUS: Origeniana. Par. 1679, 2 vols. (and in Delarue’s ed. vol. 4th). Very learned, and and strongly desired to give himself up to the apologetic for Origen. heathen authorities, but was prevented by his mother, who hid his clothes. Leonides died a G. THOMASIUS: Origenes. Ein Beitrag zur Dogmengesch. Nuernb. 1837. martyr, and, as his property was confiscated, he left a helpless widow with seven children. E. RUD. REDEPENNING: Origenes. Eine Darstellung Origen was for a time assisted by a wealthy seines Lebens und seiner Lehre. Bonn 1841 and’46, in 2 vols. (pp. 461 and 491). matron, and then supported himself by giving instruction in the Greek language and BOEHRINGER: Origenes und sein Lehrer Klemens, oder die Alexandrinische innerkirchliche Gnosis literature, and by copying manuscripts. des Christenthums. Bd. V. of Kirchengesch. in In the year 203, though then only eighteen Biographieen. Second ed. Leipz. 1873. years of age, he was nominated by the bishop CH. E. FREPPEL, (R.C.): Origène, Paris 1868, Demetrius, afterwards his opponent, second ed. 1875. president of the catechetical school of Comp. the articles of SCHMITZ in Smith’s “Dict. of Alexandria, left vacant by the flight of Gr. and Rom. Biogr.” III. 46–55; MOELLER in Clement. To fill this important office, he made Herzog Vol. XI. 92–109 WESTCOTT in “Dict. of himself acquainted with the various heresies, Chr. Biogr,” IV. 96–142; FARRAR, in “Lives of the especially the Gnostic, and with the Grecian Fathers,” I. 291–330. philosophy; he was not even ashamed to Also the respective sections in BULL (Defens. Fid. study under the heathen Ammonius Saccas, Nic. ch. IX. in Delarue, IV. 339–357), NEANDER, the celebrated founder of Neo-Platonism. He BAUR, and DORNER (especially on Origen’s learned also the , and made doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation); and on journeys to Rome (211), Arabia, Palestine his Philosophy, RITTER, HUBER, UEBERWEG. (215), and Greece. In Rome he became

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 76 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course slightly acquainted with Hippolytus, the against all temptation and calumny which author of the Philosophumena, who was next might arise from his intercourse with many to himself the most learned man of his age. female catechumens. By this inconsiderate Doellinger thinks it all but certain that he and misdirected heroism, which he himself sided with Hippolytus in his controversy with repented in his riper years, he incapacitated Zephyrinus and Callistus, for he shared (at himself, according to the canons of the least in his earlier period) his rigoristic church, for the clerical office. Nevertheless, a principles of discipline, had a dislike for the long time afterwards, in 228, he was ordained proud and overbearing bishops in large cities, presbyter by two friendly bishops, Alexander and held a subordinatian view of the Trinity, of Jerusalem, and Theoctistus of Caesarea in but he was far superior to his older Palestine, who had, even before this, on a contemporary in genius, depth, and former visit of his, invited him while a penetrating insight. layman, to teach publicly in their churches, When his labors and the number of his pupils and to expound the Scriptures to their people. increased he gave the lower classes of the But this foreign ordination itself, and the catechetical school into the charge of his pupil growing reputation of Origen among Heraclas, and devoted himself wholly to the heathens and Christians, stirred the jealousy more advanced students. He was successful in of the bishop Demetrius of Alexandria, who bringing many eminent heathens and heretics charged him besides, and that not wholly to the Catholic church; among them a wealthy without foundation, with corrupting Gnostic, Ambrosius, who became his most Christianity by foreign speculations. This liberal patron, furnishing him a costly library bishop held two councils, A.D.231 and 232, for his biblical studies, seven stenographers, against the great theologian, and enacted, that and a number of copyists (some of whom he, for his false doctrine, his self-mutilation, were young Christian women), the former to and his violation of the church laws, be note down his dictations, the latter to engross deposed from his offices of presbyter and them. His fame spread far and wide over catechist, and excommunicated. This Egypt. Julia Mammaea, mother of the unrighteous sentence, in which envy, Emperor Alexander Severus, brought him to hierarchical arrogance, and zeal for Antioch in 218, to learn from him the orthodoxy joined, was communicated, as the doctrines of Christianity. An Arabian prince custom was, to other churches. The Roman honored him with a visit for the same church, always ready to anathematize, purpose. concurred without further investigation; His mode of life during the whole period was while the churches of Palestine, Arabia, strictly ascetic. He made it a matter of Phoenicia, and Achaia, which were better principle, to renounce every earthly thing not informed, decidedly disapproved it. indispensably necessary. He refused the gifts In this controversy Origen showed a genuine of his pupils, and in literal obedience to the Christian meekness. “We must pity them,” Saviour’s injunction he had but one coat, no said he of his enemies, “rather than hate shoes, and took no thought of the morrow. He them; pray for them, rather than curse them; rarely ate flesh, never drank wine; devoted for we are made for blessing, and not for the greater part of the night to prayer and cursing.” He betook himself to his friend, the study, and slept on the bare floor. Nay, in his bishop of Caesarea in Palestine, prosecuted youthful zeal for ascetic holiness, he even his studies there, opened a new philosophical committed the act of self-emasculation, partly and theological school, which soon outshone to fulfil literally the mysterious words of that of Alexandria, and labored for the spread Christ, in Matt. 19:12, for the sake of the of the kingdom of God. The persecution under kingdom of God, partly to secure himself Maximinus Thrax (235) drove him for a time

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 77 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course to Cappadocia. Thence he went to Greece, and all departments of the philology, philosophy, then back to Palestine. He was called into and theology of his day. With this he united consultation in various ecclesiastical disputes, profound and fertile thought, keen and had an extensive correspondence, in penetration, and glowing imagination. As a which were included even the emperor Philip true divine, he consecrated all his studies by the Arabian, and his wife. Though thrust out prayer, and turned them, according to his as a heretic from his home, he reclaimed the best convictions, to the service of truth and erring in foreign lands to the faith of the piety. church. At an Arabian council, for example, be He may be called in many respects the convinced the bishop Beryllus of his Schleiermacher of the Greek church. He was a christological error, and persuaded him to guide from the heathen philosophy and the retract (A. D. 244). heretical Gnosis to the Christian faith. He At last he received an honorable invitation to exerted an immeasurable influence in return to Alexandria, where, meantime, his stimulating the development of the catholic pupil Dionysius had become bishop. But in theology and forming the great Nicene the Decian persecution he was cast into fathers, Athanasius, Basil, the two Gregories, prison, cruelly tortured, and condemned to Hilary, and Ambrose, who consequently, in the stake; and though he regained his liberty spite of all his deviations, set great value on by the death of the emperor, yet he died some his services. But his best disciples proved time after, at the age of sixty-nine, in the year unfaithful to many of his most peculiar views, 253 or 254, at Tyre, probably in consequence and adhered far more to the reigning faith of of that violence. He belongs, therefore, at least the church. For—and in this too he is like among the confessors, if not among the Schleiermacher—he can by no means be martyrs. He was buried at Tyre. called orthodox, either in the Catholic or in It is impossible to deny a respectful the Protestant sense. His leaning to idealism, sympathy, veneration and gratitude to this his predilection for Plato, and his noble effort extraordinary man, who, with all his brilliant to reconcile Christianity with reason, and to talents and a best of enthusiastic friends and commend it even to educated heathens and admirers, was driven from his country, Gnostics, led him into many grand and stripped of his sacred office, excommunicated fascinating errors. Among these are his from a part of the church, then thrown into a extremely ascetic and almost docetistic dungeon, loaded with chains, racked by conception of corporeity, his denial of a torture, doomed to drag his aged frame and material resurrection, his doctrine of the pre- dislocated limbs in pain and poverty, and long existence and the pre-temporal fall of souls after his death to have his memory branded, (including the pre-existence of the human his name anathematized, and his salvation soul of Christ), of eternal creation, of the denied; but who nevertheless did more than extension of the work of redemption to the all his enemies combined to advance the inhabitants of the stars and to all rational cause of sacred learning, to refute and creatures, and of the final restoration of all convert heathens and heretics, and to make men and fallen angels. Also in regard to the the church respected in the eyes of the world. dogma of the divinity of Christ, though he powerfully supported it, and was the first to II. His THEOLOGY. Origen was the greatest teach expressly the eternal generation of the scholar of his age, and the most gifted, most Son, yet he may be almost as justly industrious, and most cultivated of all the considered a forerunner of the Arian ante-Nicene fathers. Even heathens and heteroousion, or at least of the semi-Arian heretics admired or feared his brilliant talent homoiousion, as of the Athanasian and vast learning. His knowledge embraced .

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These and similar views provoked more or Origen is one of the most important witnesses less contradiction during his lifetime, and of the ante-Nicene text of the Greek were afterwards, at a local council in Testament, which is older than the received Constantinople in 543, even solemnly text. He compared different MSS. and noted condemned as heretical. But such a man textual variations, but did not attempt a might in such an age hold erroneous opinions recension or lay down any principles of without being a heretic. For Origen textual criticism. The value of his testimony is propounded his views always with modesty due to his rare opportunities and life-long and from sincere conviction of their study of the Bible before the time when the agreement with Scripture, and that in a time traditional Syrian and Byzantine text was when the church doctrine was as yet very formed. indefinite in many points. For this reason even learned Roman divines, such as 2.188. The Works of Origen Tillemont and Moehler have shown Origen Origen was an uncommonly prolific author, the greatest respect and leniency; a fact the but by no means an idle bookmaker. Jerome more to be commended, since the Roman says, he wrote more than other men can read. church has refused him, as well as Clement of Epiphanius, an opponent, states the number Alexandria and Tertullian, a place among the of his works as six thousand, which is perhaps saints and the fathers in the stricter sense. not much beyond the mark, if we include all Origen’s greatest service was in exegesis. He his short tracts, homilies, and letters, and is father of the critical investigation of count them as separate volumes. Many of Scripture, and his commentaries are still them arose without his cooeperation, and useful to scholars for their suggestiveness. sometimes against his will, from the writing Gregory Thaumaturgus says, he had “received down of his oral lectures by others. Of his from God the greatest gift, to be an books which remain, some have come down interpreter of the word of God to men.” For to us only in Latin translations, and with that age this judgment is perfectly just. Origen many alterations in favor of the later remained the exegetical oracle until orthodoxy. They extend to all branches of the Chrysostom far surpassed him, not indeed in theology of that day. originality and vigor of mind and extent of 1. His biblical works were the most learning, but in sound, sober tact, in simple, numerous, and may be divided into critical, natural analysis, and in practical application exegetical, and hortatory. of the text. His great defect is the neglect of Among the critical were the Hexapla (the the grammatical and historical sense and his Sixfold Bible) and the shorter Tetrapla (the constant desire to find a hidden mystic Fourfold), on which he spent eight-and- meaning. He even goes further in this twenty years of the most unwearied labor. direction than the Gnostics, who everywhere The Hexapla was the first polyglott Bible, but saw transcendental, unfathomable mysteries. covered only the Old Testament, and was His hermeneutical principle assumes a designed not for the critical restoration of the threefold sense—somatic, psychic, and original text, but merely for the improvement pneumatic; or literal, moral, and spiritual. His of the received Septuagint, and the defense of allegorical interpretation is ingenious, but it against the charge of inaccuracy. It often runs far away from the text and contained, in six columns, the original text in degenerates into the merest caprice; while at two forms, in Hebrew and in Greek times it gives way to the opposite extreme of characters, and the four Greek versions of the a carnal literalism, by which he justifies his Septuagint, of Aquila, of Symmachus, and of ascetic extravagance. Theodotion. To these he added, in several books two or three other anonymous Greek

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 79 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course versions. The order was determined by the retrenchments and additions, which perplex degree of literalness. The Tetrapla contained and are apt to mislead investigators. only the four versions of Aquila, Symmachus, 2. Apologetic and polemic works. The the Septuagint, and Theodotion. The refutation of Celsus’s attack upon Christianity, departures from the standard he marked with in eight books, written in the last years of his the critical signs asterisk (*) for alterations life, about 248, is preserved complete in the and additions, and obelos (V) for proposed original, and is one of the ripest and most omissions. He also added marginal notes, e. g., valuable productions of Origen, and of the explanations of Hebrew names. The whole ancient apologetic literature. And yet voluminous work was placed in the library at he did not know who this Celsus was, Caesarea, was still much used in the time of whether he lived in the reign of Nero or that Jerome (who saw it there), but doubtless of Hadrian, while modern scholars assign him never transcribed, except in certain portions, to the period A.D.150 to 178. His numerous most frequently the Septuagint columns polemic writings against heretics are all gone. (which were copied, for instance, by 3. Of his dogmatic writings we have, though Pamphilus and Eusebius, and regarded as the only in the inaccurate Latin translation of standard text), and was probably destroyed Rufinus, his juvenile production, De Principiis, by the Saracens in 653. We possess, therefore, i.e. on the fundamental doctrines of the only some fragments of it, which were Christian faith, in four books. It was written in collected and edited by the learned Alexandria, and became the chief source of Benedictine Montfaucon (1714), and more objections to his theology. It was the first recently by an equally learned Anglican attempt at a complete system of dogmatics, scholar, Dr. Field (1875). but full of his peculiar Platonizing and His commentaries covered almost all the Gnosticizing errors, some of which he books of the Old and New Testaments, and retracted in his riper years. In this work contained a vast wealth of original and Origen treats in four books, first, of God, of profound suggestions, with the most Christ, and of the Holy Spirit; in the second arbitrary allegorical and mystical fancies. book, of creation and the incarnation, the They were of three kinds: (a) Short notes on resurrection and the judgment; in the third, of single difficult passages for beginners; all freedom, which he very strongly sets forth these are lost, except what has been gathered and defends against the Gnostics; in the from the citations of the fathers (by Delarue fourth, of the Holy Scriptures, their under the title Ἔκλογαί Selecta). (b) Extended inspiration and authority, and the expositions of whole books, for higher interpretation of them; concluding with a scientific study; of, these we have a number of recapitulation of the doctrine of the trinity. important fragments in the original, and in His Stromata, in imitation of the work of the the translation of Rufinus. In the Commentary same name by Clemens Alex., seems to have on John the Gnostic exegeses of Heracleon is been doctrinal and exegetical, and is lost with much used. (c) Hortatory or practical the exception of two or three fragments applications of Scripture for the congregation quoted in Latin by Jerome. His work on the or Homilies. They were delivered Resurrection is likewise lost. extemporaneously, mostly in Caesarea and in 4. Among his practical works may be the latter part of his life, and taken down by mentioned a treatise on prayer, with an stenographers. They are important also to the exposition of the Lord’s Prayer, and an history of pulpit oratory. But we have them exhortation to martyrdom, written during the only in part, as translated by Jerome and persecution of Maximin (235–238), and Rufinus, with many unscrupulous

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 80 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course addressed to his friend and patron and other eminent divines Ambrosius. of the Nicene age. 5. Of his letters, of which Eusebius collected GREGORY, surnamed THAUMATURGUS, “the over eight hundred, we have, besides a few wonder-worker,” was converted from fragments, only an answer to Julius Africanus heathenism in his youth by Origen at on the authenticity of the history of Susanna. Caesarea, in Palestine, spent eight years in his Among the works of Origen is also usually society, and then, after a season of inserted the Philocalia, or a collection, in contemplative retreat, labored as bishop of twenty-seven chapters, of extracts from his Neo-Caesarea in Pontus from 244 to 270 with writings on various exegetical questions, extraordinary success. He could thank God on made by Gregory Nazianzen and Basil the his death-bed, that he had left to his successor Great. no more unbelievers in his diocese than he had found Christians in it at his accession; 2.189. Gregory Thaumaturgus and those were only seventeen. He must have T. S. GREGORII episcopi Neocaesariensis Opera had great missionary zeal and executive omnia, ed. G. VOSSIUS, Mag. 1604; better ed. by ability. He attended the Synod of Antioch in FRONTO DUCAEUS, Par. 1622, fol.; in GALLANDI, 265, which condemned Paul of Samasota. Bibl. Vet. Patrum” (1766–77), Tom. III., p. 385– 470; and in Migne. “Patrol. Gr.” Tom. X. (1857), Later story represents him as a “second 983–1343. Comp. also a Syriac version of Moses,” and attributed extraordinary Gregory’s κατὰ μέρος πίστις in R. DE LAGARDE’S miracles to him. But these are not mentioned Analecta Syriaca, Leipz. 1858, pp. 31–67. till a century after his time, by Gregory of II. GREGORY OF NYSSA: Βίος καὶ ἐγκώμιον ῤηθεν Nyssa and Basil, who made him also a εἰς τὸν ἅγιον Γρηγόριον τὸν θαυματουργόν. In champion of the Nicene orthodoxy before the the works of Gregory of Nyssa, (Migne, vol. 46). Council of Nicæa. Eusebius knows nothing of A eulogy full of incredible miracles, which the them, nor of his trinitarian creed which is author heard from his grandmother. said to have been communicated to him by a English translation by S. D. F. SALMOND, in Clark’s special revelation in a vision. This creed is “Ante-Nicene Library,” vol. xx. (1871), p. 1–156. almost too Orthodox for an admiring Pupil Of C. P. CASPARI: Alte und neue Quellen zur Gesc. des Origen, and seems to presuppose the Arian Taufsymbols und der Glaubensregel. Christiania, controversy (especially the conclusion). It has 1879, p. 1–160. probably been enlarged. Another and fuller VICTOR RYSSEL: Gregorius Thaumaturgus. Sein creed ascribed to him, is the work of the Leben und seine Schriften. Leipzig, 1880 (160 younger Apollinaris at the end of the fourth pp.). On other biograpbical essays of G., see century. Ryssel, pp. 59 sqq. Contains a translation of two Among his genuine writings is a glowing hitherto unknown Syriac writings of Gregory. eulogy on his beloved teacher Origen, which W. MOELLER in Herzog, V. 404 sq. H. R. REYNOLDS ranks as a masterpiece of later Grecian in Smith & Wace, II. 730–737. eloquence. Also a simple paraphrase of the Most of the Greek fathers of the third and book of Ecclesiastes. To these must be added fourth centuries stood more or less under the two books recently published in a Syriac influence of the spirit and the works of translation, one on the co-equality of the Origen, without adopting all his peculiar Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and the other on speculative views. The most distinguished the impossibility and the possibility of God. among his disciples are Gregory Thaumaturgus, Dionysius of Alexandria, NOTES surnamed the Great, Heraclas, Hieracas, I. The DECLARATION OF FAITH (ἔκθεσις πίστεως Pamphilus; in a wider sense also Eusebius, κατὰ ἀποκάλυψιν) is said to have been revealed to Gregory in a night vision by St.

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John, at the request of the Virgin Mary, and Instead of dividing it between them, they the autograph of it was, at the time of Gregory referred the dispute to the Wonderworker, of Nyssa (as he says), in possession of the who exhorted them to be reconciled to one church of Neocaesarea. It is certainly a very another. The young men however, became remarkable document and the most explicit exasperated, and resolved upon a murderous statement of the doctrine of the Trinity from duel, when the man of God, remaining on the the ante-Nicene age. Caspari (in his Alte und banks of the lake, by the power of prayer, neue Quellen, etc., 1879, pp. 25–64), after an transformed the whole lake into dry land, and elaborate discussion, comes to the conclusion thus settled the conflict. that the creed contains nothing inconsistent Deducting all these marvellous features, with a pupil of Origen, and that it was written which the magnifying distance of one century by Gregory in opposition to Sabellianism and after the death of the saint created, there Paul of Samosata, and with reference to the remains the commanding figure of a great controversy between Dionysius of Alexandria and good man who made a most powerful and Dionysius of Rome on the Trinity, impression upon his and the subsequent between A.D.260 and 270. But I think it more generations. probable that it has undergone some enlargement at the close by a later hand. This 2.190. Dionysius the Great is substantially also the view of Neander, and (I.) S. DIONYSII Episcopi Alexandrini quae of Dorner (ntwicklungsgesch. der L. v. d. Pers. supersunt Operum et Episto larum fragmenta, in Christi, I. 735–737). The creed is at all events MIGNE’S“Patrol. Gr.” Tom. X. Col. 1237–1344 and a very remarkable production and a Greek Addenda, Col. 1575–1602. Older collections of anticipation of the Latin Quicunque which the fragments by SIMON DE MAGISTRIS, Rom. 1796, and ROUTH, Rel. Sacr., vol. IV. 393–454. Add falsely goes under the name of the PITRA, Spicil. Solesm. I. 15 sqq.—English “.” We give the Greek with a translation by SALMOND in Clark’s “Ante-Nicene translation. See Mansi, Conc. I. 1030 Patr. Gr. Library,” vol. xx. (1871), p. 161–266. X. col. 983; Caspari, l. c.; comp. the (II.) EUSEBIUS: H. E. III. 28; VI. 41, 45, 46; VII. 2, 4, comparative tables in Schaff’s Creeds of 7, 9, 11, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28. ATHANASIUS: De Sent. Christendom, II. 40 and 41. Dionys. HIERONYM.: De Fir. ill. 69. II. The MIRACLES ascribed to Gregory (Ill.) TH. FOERSTER: De Doctrina et Sententiis Thaumaturgus in the fourth century, one Dionysii Magni Episcopi Alex. Berl. 1865. And in hundred years after his death, by the the “Zeitschrift fuer hist. Theol.” 1871. DR. enlightened and philosophic Gregory of DITTRICH (R.C.): Dionysius der Grosse von Nyssa, and defended in the nineteenth Alexandrien. Freib. i. Breisg. 1867 (130 pages). century by Cardinal Newman of England as WEIZSAECKER in Herzog III. 61, 5 sq. WESTCOTT in credible (Two Essays on Bibl. and Eccles. Smith and Wace I. 850 sqq. Miracles. Lond. 3d ed., 1873, p. 261–270), are DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA—so distinguished stupendous and surpass all that are recorded from the contemporary Dionysius of Rome— of the Apostles in the New Testament. surnamed “the Great,” was born about A.D.190, of Gentile parents, and brought up to Gregory not only expelled demons, healed the a secular profession with bright prospects of sick, banished idols from a heathen temple, wealth and renown, but be examined the but he moved large stones by a mere word, claims of Christianity and was won to the altered the course of the Armenian river faith by Origen, to whom he ever remained Lycus, and, like Moses of old, even dried up a faithful. He disputes with Gregory lake. The last performance is thus related by St. Gregory of Nyssa: Two young brothers Thaumaturgus the honor of being the chief disciple of that great teacher; but while claimed as their patrimony the possession of Gregory was supposed to have anticipated a lake. (The name and location are not given.)

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 82 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course the Nicene dogma of the trinity, the more firm and orthodox Dionysius of Rome orthodoxy of Dionysius was disputed. He he modified his view, and Athanasius became Origen’s assistant in the Catechetical vindicated his orthodoxy against the charge School (233), and after the death of Heraclas of having sowed the seeds of Arianism. He bishop of Alexandria (248). During the violent wished to adhere to Origen’s christology, but persecution under Decius (249–251) he fled, the church pressed towards the Nicene and thus exposed himself, like Cyprian, to the formula. There is nothing, however, in the suspicion of cowardice. In the persecution narrative of Athanasius which implies a under Valerian (247), he was brought before recognition of Roman supremacy. His last the praefect and banished, but he continued christological utterance was a letter to direct his church from exile. On the concerning the heresy of Paul of Samosata; he accession of Gallienus he was allowed to was prevented from attending the Synod of return (260). He died in the year 265. Antioch in 264, which condemned and His last years were disturbed by war, famine deposed Paul. He rejected, with Origen, the and pestilence, of which he gives a lively chiliastic notions, and induced Nepos and his account in the Easter encyclical of the year adherents to abandon them, but he denied 263. “The present time,” he writes, “does not the apostolic origin of the Apocalypse and appear a fit season for a festival … All things ascribed it to the “Presbyter John,” of doubtful are filled with tears, all are mourning, and on existence. He held mild views on discipline account of the multitudes already dead and and urged the Novatians to deal gently with still dying, groans are daily heard throughout the lapsed and to preserve the peace of the the city … There is not a house in which there church. He also counselled moderation in the is not one dead … After this, war and famine controversy between Stephen and Cyprian on succeeded which we endured with the the validity of heretical baptism, though he heathen, but we bore alone those miseries sided with the more liberal Roman theory. with which they afflicted us … But we rejoiced Dionysius wrote many letters and treatises on in the peace of Christ which he gave to us exegetic, polemic, and ascetic topics, but only alone … Most of our brethren by their short fragments remain, mostly in Eusebius. exceeding great love and affection not sparing The chief books were Commentaries on themselves and adhering to one another, Ecclesiastes, and Luke; Against Sabellius were constantly superintending the sick, (christological); On Nature (philosophical); ministering to their wants without fear and On the Promises (against Chiliasm): On cessation, and healing them in Christ.” The Martyrdom. He compared the style of the heathen, on the contrary, repelled the sick or fourth Gospel and of the Apocalypse to deny cast them half-dead into the street. The same the identity of authorship, but he saw only the self-denying charity in contrast with heathen difference and not the underlying unity. “All selfishness manifested itself at Carthage the fragments of Dionysius,” says Westcott, during the raging of a pestilence, under the “repay careful perusal. They are uniformly persecuting reign of Gallus (252), as we learn inspired by the sympathy and large- from Cyprian. heartedness which he showed in practice.” Dionysius took an active part in the Dionysius is commemorated in the Greek christological, chiliastic, and disciplinary church on October 3, in the Roman on controversies of his time, and showed in them November 17. moderation, an amiable spirit of concession, and practical churchly tact, but also a want of 2.191. Julius Africanus independence and consistency. He opposed (I.) The fragments in ROUTH: Rel. Sacr. II. 221– Sabellianism, and ran to the brink of 509. Also in GALLANDI, Tom. II., and MIGNE, “Patr. tritheism, but in his correspondence with the Gr.,” Tom. X. Col. 35–108.

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(II.) EUSEBIUS: H. E. VI. 31. JEROME: De Vir. ill. 63. attempt at a systematic chronicle of sacred SOCRATES: H. E. II. 35. PHOTIUS: Bibl. 34. and profane history. He used as a fixed point (III.) FABRICIUS: “Bibl. Gr.” IV. 240 (ed. Harles). G. the accession of Cyrus, which he placed SALMON in Smith and Wace I. 53–57. AD. HARNACK Olymp. 55, 1, and then counting backwards in in Herzog VII. 296–298. Also PAULY’S“Real- sacred history, he computed 1237 years Encykl.” V. 501 sq.; NICOLAI’S“Griech. Lit. Gesch.” between the exodus and the end of the II. 584; and Smith’s “Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Biogr.” seventy years’ captivity or the first year of I. 56 sq. Cyrus. He followed the Septuagint JULIUS AFRICANUS, the first Christian chronology, placed the exodus A. M. 3707, chronographer and universal historian, an and counted 740 years between the exodus older friend of Origen, lived in the first half of and Solomon. He fixed the Lord’s birth in A. the second century at Emmaus (Nicopolis), in M. 5500, and 10 years before our Dionysian Palestine, made journeys to Alexandria, era, but he allows only one year’s public where he heard the lectures of Heraclas, to ministry and thus puts the A. M. Edessa, Armenia and Phrygia, and was sent 5531. He makes the 31 years of the Saviour’s on an embassy to Rome in behalf of the life the complement of the 969 years of rebuilding of Emmaus which had been ruined Methuselah. He understood the 70 weeks of (221). He died about A.D.240 in old age. He Daniel to be 490 lunar years, which are was not an ecclesiastic, as far as we know, but equivalent to 475 Julian years. He treats the a philosopher who pursued his favorite darkness at the crucifixion as miraculous, studies after his conversion and made them since an eclipse of the sun could not have useful to the church. He may have been a taken place at the full moon. presbyter, but certainly not a bishop. He was Another work of Africanus, called Cesti the forerunner of Eusebius, who in his (Κεστοί) or Variegated Girdles, was a sort of Chronicle has made copious use of his learned universal scrap-book or miscellaneous labor and hardly gives him sufficient credit, collection of information on geography, although he calls his chronography “a most natural history, medicine, agriculture, war, accurate and labored performance.” He was and other subjects of a secular character. Only acquainted with Hebrew. Socrates classes fragments remain. Some have unnecessarily him for learning with Clement of Alexandria denied his authorship on account of the and Origen. secular contents of the book, which was His chief work is his chronography, in five dedicated to the Emperor Alexander Severus. books. It commenced with the creation (B. C. Eusebius mentions two smaller treatises of 5499) and came down to the year 221, the Africanus, a letter to Origen, “in which he fourth year of Elagabalus. It is the foundation intimates his doubts on the history of of the mediæval historiography of the world Susanna, in Daniel, as if it were a spurious and the church. We have considerable and fictitious composition,” and “a letter to fragments of it and can restore it in part from Aristides on the supposed discrepancy the Chronicle of Eusebius. A satisfactory between the genealogies of Christ in Matthew estimate of its merits requires a fuller and Luke, in which he most clearly examination of the Byzantine and oriental establishes the consistency of the two chronography of the church than has hitherto evangelists, from an account which had been been made. Earlier writers were concerned to handed down from his ancestors.” prove the antiquity of the Christian religion against the heathen charge of novelty by The letter to Origen is still extant and takes a tracing it back to Moses and the prophets prominent rank among the few specimens of who were older than the Greek philosophers higher criticism in the literature of the and poets. But Africanus made the first ancient church. He urges the internal

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 84 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course improbabilities of the story of Susanna, its II. Among the successors of Heraclas and omission from the Hebrew canon, the Dionysius in the Catechetical School was difference of style as compared with the THEOGNOSTUS, not mentioned by Eusebius, but canonical Daniel, and a play on Greek words by Athanasius and Photius. We have from him which shows that it was originally written in a brief fragment on the blasphemy against the Greek, not in Hebrew. Origen tried at great Holy Ghost, and a few extracts from his length to refute these objections, and one of Hypotyposeis (Adumbrations). his arguments is that it would be degrading to III. PIERIUS probably, succeeded Theognostus Christians to go begging to the Jews for the while Theonas was bishop of Alexandria (d. unadulterated Scriptures. 300), and seems to have outlived the The letter to Aristides on the genealogies Diocletian persecution. He was the teacher of solves the difficulty by assuming that Pamphilus, and called “the younger Origen.” Matthew gives the natural, Luke the legal, IV. PAMPHILUS, a great admirer of Origen, a descent of our Lord. It exists in fragments, presbyter and theological teacher at Caesarea from which F. Spitta has recently in Palestine, and a martyr of the persecution reconstructed it. of Maximinus (309), was not an author 2.192. Minor Divines of the Greek Church himself, but one of the most liberal and efficient promoters of Christian learning. He A number of divines of the third century, of did invaluable service to future generations great reputation in their day, mostly of Egypt by founding a theological school and and of the school of Origen, deserve a brief collecting a large library, from which his pupil mention, although only few fragments of their and friend Eusebius (hence called “Eusebius works have survived the ravages of time. Pampili”), Jerome, and many others, drew or I. HERACLAS and his brother Plutarch (who increased their useful information. Without afterwards died a martyr) were the oldest that library the church history of Eusebius distinguished converts and pupils of Origen, would be far less instructive than it is now. and older than their teacher. Heraclas had Pamphilus transcribed with his own hand even before him studied the New-platonic useful books, among others the Septuagint philosophy under Ammonius Saccas. He was from the Hexapla of Origen. He aided poor appointed assistant of Origen, and afterwards students, and distributed the Scriptures. his successor in the Catechetical School. After While in prison, he wrote a defense of Origen, the death of Demetrius, the jealous enemy of which was completed by Eusebius in six Origen, Heraclas was elected bishop of books, but only the first remains in the Latin Alexandria and continued in that high office version of Rufinus, whom Jerome charges sixteen years (A. D. 233–248). We know with wilful alterations. It is addressed to the nothing of his administration, nor of his confessors who were condemned to the writings. He either did not adopt the mines of Palestine, to assure them of the speculative opinions of Origen, or prudently orthodoxy of Origen from his own writings, concealed them, at least he did nothing to especially on the trinity and the person of recall his teacher from exile. He was Christ. succeeded by Dionysius the Great. Eusebius V. PETER, pupil and successor of Theonas, was says that he was “devoted to the study of the bishop of Alexandria since A.D.300, lived Scriptures and a most learned man, not during the terrible times of the Diocletian unacquainted with philosophy,” but is silent persecution, and was beheaded by order of about his conduct to Origen during and after Maximinus in 311. He held moderate views his trial for heresy. on the restoration of the lapsed, and got involved in the Meletian schism which

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 85 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course engaged much of the attention of the Council Eusebius is silent about Method., perhaps of Nicæa. Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, taking because of his opposition to Origen; while advantage of Peter’s flight from persecution, Photius, perhaps for the same reason, pays introduced himself into his diocese, and more attention to him than to Origen, whose De assumed the character of primate of Egypt, Principiis he pronounces blasphemous, Bibl 8. Gregory of Nyssa, Arethas, Leontius Byzantius, but was deposed by Peter in 306 for Maximus, the Martyrologium Romanum (XIV. insubordination. We have from Peter fifteen Kal. Oct.) and the Menologium Graecum (ad diem canons on discipline, and a few homiletical 20 Junii), make honorable mention of him. fragments in which he rejects Origen’s views (III.) LEO ALLATIUS: Diatribe de Methodiorum of the pre-existence and ante-mundane fall of Scriptis, in his ed. of the Convivium in 1656. the soul as heathenish, and contrary to the FABRIC.” Bibl. Gr.,” ed. Harles, VII. 260 sqq. W. Scripture account of creation. This dissent MOELLER in Herzog, IX. 724–726. (He discusses would place him among the enemies of especially the relation of Methodius to Origen.) Origen, but Eusebius makes no allusion to it, G. SALMON in Smith and Wace, III. 909–911. and praises him for piety, knowledge of the The opposition of Demetrius to Origen Scriptures, and wise administration. proceeded chiefly from personal feeling, and VI. HIERACAS (Hierax), from Leontopolis in had no theological significance. Yet it made a Egypt, towards the end of the third century, pretext at least of zeal for orthodoxy, and in belongs only in a wider sense to the subsequent opponents this motive took the Alexandrian school, and perhaps had no principal place. This was the case, so early as connexion with it at all. Epiphanius reckons the third century, with Methodius, who may him among the Manichæan heretics. He was, be called a forerunner of Epiphanius in his at all events, a perfectly original orthodox war against Origen, but with this phenomenon, distinguished for his varied difference that he was much more moderate, learning, allegorical exegesis, poetical talent, and that in other respects he seems to have and still more for his eccentric asceticism. been an admirer of Plato whom he imitated in Nothing is left of the works which he wrote in the dramatic dress of composition, and of the Greek and Egyptian languages. He is said Origen whom he followed in his allegorical to have denied the historical reality of the fall method of interpretation. He occupied the and the resurrection of the body, and to have position of Christian realism against the declared celibacy the only sure way to speculative idealism of the Alexandrian salvation, or at least to the highest degree of teacher. blessedness. His followers were called METHODIUS (also called Eubulius) was bishop Hieracitae. first of Olympus and then of Patara (both in 2.193. Opponents of Origen. Methodius the province of Lycia, Asia Minor on the southern coast), and died a martyr in 311 or (I.) Μεθοδίου ἐπισκόπου καὶ μάρτυρος τὰ earlier in the Diocletian persecution. εὑρισκόμενα πάντα. In Gallandi’s “Vet. Patr. Biblioth.” Tom. Ill.; in Migne’s “Patrol. Gr.” Tom. His principal work is his Symposium or XVIII. Col. 9–408; and by A. Jahn (S. Methodii Banquet of Ten Virgins. It is an eloquent but Opera, et S. Methodius Platonizans, Hal. 1865, 2 verbose and extravagant eulogy on the pts.). The first ed. was publ. by Combefis, 1644, advantages and blessings of voluntary and more completely in 1672. English virginity, which he describes as “something translation in Clark’s “Ante-Nicene Libr.,” vol. supernaturally great, wonderful, and XIV. (Edinb. 1869.) glorious,” and as “the best and noblest (II) HIERONYMUS: De Viris ill. 83, and in several of manner of life.” It was unknown before Christ his Epp. and Comment. EPIPHANIUS: Haer. 64. (the ἀρχιπάρθενος). At first men were SOCRATES: H. E. VI. 31. PHOTIUS: Bibl. 234–237. allowed to marry sisters, then came

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 86 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course polygamy, the next progress was monogamy, enthusiastic praise of chastity to the extent of with continence, but the perfect state is total abstinence was in full accord with the celibacy for the kingdom of Christ, according prevailing asceticism of the fathers, including to his mysterious hint in Matt. 19:12, the Origen, who freed himself from carnal recommendation of Paul, 1 Cor. 7:1, 7, 34, 40, temptation by an act of violence against and the passage in Revelation 14:1–4, where nature. “a hundred and forty-four thousand virgins” The work On the Resurrection, likewise in the are distinguished from the innumerable form of a dialogue, and preserved in large multitude of other saints (7:9). extracts by Epiphanius and Photius, was The literary form is interesting. The ten directed against Origen and his views on virgins are, of course, suggested by the creation, pre-existence, and the immateriality parable in the gospel. The conception of the of the resurrection body. The orthodox Symposium and the dialogue are borrowed speakers (Eubulios and Auxentios) maintain from Plato, who celebrated the praises of that the soul cannot sin without the body, that Eros, as Methodius the praises of virginity. the body is not a fetter of the soul, but its Methodius begins with a brief dialogue inseparable companion and an instrument for between Eubulios and Eubuloin (i.e. himself) good as well is evil, and that the earth will not and the virgin Gregorion who was present at be destroyed, but purified and transformed a banquet of the ten virgins in the gardens of into a blessed abode for the risen saints. In a Arete (i.e. personified virtue) and reports to book On Things Created he refutes Origen’s him ten discourses which these virgins view of the eternity of the world, who thought successively delivered in praise of chastity. At it necessary to the conception of God as an the end of the banquet the victorious Thecla, Almighty Creator and Ruler, and as the chief of the virgins (St. Paul’s apocryphal unchangeable Being. companion), standing on the right hand of The Dialogue On Free Will treats of the origin Arete, begins to sing a hymn of chastity to of matter, and strongly resembles a work on which the virgins respond with the oft- that subject (περὶ τῆς ὕλης) of which repeated refrain, Eusebius gives an extract and which he I keep myself pure for Thee, O Bridegroom, ascribes to Maximus, a writer from the close And holding a lighted torch, I go to meet Thee.” of the second century. Then follows a concluding dialogue between Other works of Methodius, mentioned by Eubulios and Gregorion on the question, Jerome, are: Against Porphyry (10, 000 lines); whether chastity ignorant of lust is preferable Commentaries on Genesis and Canticles; De to chastity which feels the power of passion Pythonissa (on the witch of Endor, against and overcomes it, in other words, whether a Origen’s view that Samuel was laid under the wrestler who has no opponents is better than power of Satan when he evoked her by a wrestler who has many and strong magical art). A Homily for Palm Sunday, and a antagonists and continually contends against Homily on the Cross are also assigned to him. them without being worsted. Both agree in But there were several Methodii among the giving the palm to the latter, and then they patristic writers. betake themselves to “the care of the outward 2.194. Lucian of Antioch man,” expecting to resume the delicate discussion on the next day. (I.) LUCIANI Fragmenta in Routh, Rel. s. IV. 3–17. The taste and morality of virgins discussing at (II.) EUSEB. H. E. VIII. 13; IX. 6 (and Rufinus’s Eus. IX. 6). HIER De Vir. ill. 77, and in other works. great length the merits of sexual purity are SOCRAT.: H. E. II. 10. SOZOM.: H. E. III. 5. EPIPHAN.: very questionable, at least from the Ancoratus, c. 33. THEODOR.: H. E. I. 3. standpoint of modern civilization, but the PHILOSTORGIUS: H. E., II. 14, 15. CHRYSOSTOM’S

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Hom. in Lucian, (in Opera ed. Montfaucon, T. II. harmony with the later Nicene orthodoxy, but 524 sq; Migne, “Patr. Gr.” I. 520 sqq.) RUINART: that he wiped out all stains by his heroic Acta Mart., p. 503 sq. confession and martyrdom. (III.) Acta Sanct. Jan. VII. 357 sq. BARON. Ann. ad II. The creed which goes by his name and was Ann. 311. Brief notices in TILLEMONT, CAVE, found after his death, is quite orthodox as far FABRICIUS, NEANDER, GIESELER, HEFELE as it goes, and was laid with three similar (Conciliengesch. vol. I). HARNACK: Luc. der Maert. in Herzog, VIII. (1881), pp. 767–772. J. T. STO creeds before the Synod of Antioch held kes, in Smith & Wace, III., 748 and 749. A.D.341, with the intention of being substituted for the Creed of Nicæa. It I. LUCIAN was an eminent presbyter of Antioch and martyr of the Diocletian persecution, resembles the creed of Gregorius renewed by Maximin. Very little is known of Thaumaturgus, is strictly trinitarian and him. He was transported from Antioch to acknowledges Jesus Christ “as the Son of God, Nicomedia, where the emperor then resided, the only begotten God, through whom all made a noble confession of his faith before things were made, who was begotten of the the judge and died under the tortures in Father before all ages, God of God, Whole of prison (311). His memory was celebrated in Whole, One of One, Perfect of Perfect, King of Antioch on the 7th of January. His piety was Kings, Lord of Lords, the living Word, of the severely ascetic type. Wisdom, Life, True Light, Way, Truth, Resurrection, Shepherd, Door, unchangeable His memory was obscured by the suspicion of and unalterable, the immutable Likeness of unsoundness in the faith. Eusebius twice the Godhead, both of the substance and will mentions him and his glorious martyrdom, and power and glory of the Father, the first- but is silent about his theological opinions. born of all creation, who was in the beginning Alexander of Alexandria, in an encyclical of with God, the Divine Logos, according to what 321, associates him with Paul of Samosata is said in the Gospel:’And the Word was God and makes him responsible for the Arian (John 1:1), through whom all things were heresy; he also says that he was made’ (ver. 3), and in whom’all things consist’ excommunicated or kept aloof from the (Col. 1:17): who in the last days came down church (ἀποσυνάγωγος ἔμεινε) during the from above, and was born of a Virgin, episcopate of Domnus, Timaeus, and Cyrillus; according to the Scriptures, and became man, intimating that his schismatic condition the Mediator between God and man, etc. ceased before his death. The charge brought against him and his followers is that he III. Lucianus is known also by his critical denied the eternity of the Logos and the revision of the text of the Septuagint and the human soul of Christ (the Logos taking the Greek Testament. Jerome mentions that place of the rational soul). Arius and the copies were known in his day as “exemplaria Arians speak of him as their teacher. On the Lucianea,” but in other places he speaks other hand Pseudo-Athanasius calls him a rather disparagingly of the texts of Lucian, great and holy martyr, and Chrysostom and of Hesychius, a bishop of Egypt (who preached a eulogy on him Jan. 1, 387. distinguished himself in the same field). In Baronius defends his orthodoxy, other the absence of definite information it is Catholics deny it. Some distinguished two impossible to decide the merits of his critical Lucians, one orthodox, and one heretical; but labors. His Hebrew scholarship is uncertain, this is a groundless hypothesis. and hence we do not know whether his revision of the Septuagint was made from the The contradictory reports are easily original. reconciled by the assumption that Lucian was a critical scholar with some peculiar views on As to the New Testament, it is likely that he the Trinity and Christology which were not in contributed much towards the Syrian

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 88 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course recension (if we may so call it), which was licentiousness of the allegorizing method used by Chrysostom and the later Greek which often substitutes imposition for fathers, and which lies at the basis of the exposition. But it may lead to different results textus receptus. in different hands, according to the spirit of the interpreter. The Arians and Nestorians 2.195. The Antiochian School claimed descent from, or affinity with, Lucian KIHN (R.C.): Die Bedeutung der antioch. Schule. and his school; but from the same school Weissenburg, 1856. proceeded also the prince of commentators C. HORNUNG: Schola Antioch. Neostad. ad S. 1864. among the fathers, , the JOS. HERGENROETHER. (Cardinal): Die Antioch. eulogist of Lucian and Diodorus, and the Schule. Wuerzb. 1866. friend and fellow student of Theodore of DIESTEL: Gesch. des A. Test. in, der christl. Kirche. Mopsuestia. Theodoret followed in the same Jena, 1869 (pp. 126–141). line. W. MOELLER in Herzog,I. 454–457. After the condemnation of Nestorius, the Lucian is the reputed founder of the Antiochian theology continued to be ANTIOCHIAN SCHOOL of theology, which was cultivated at Nisibis and Edessa among the more fully developed in the fourth century. Nestorians. He shares this honor with his friend NOTES Dorotheus, likewise a presbyter of Antioch, who is highly spoken of by Eusebius as a Cardinal Newman, when still an Anglican (in biblical scholar acquainted with Hebrew. But his book on Arians of the Fourth Century, p. the real founders of that school are Diodorus, 414) made the Syrian School of biblical bishop of Tarsus (c. A.D.379–394), and criticism responsible for the Arian heresy, Theodorus, bishop of Mopsuestia (393–428), and broadly maintained that the “mystical both formerly presbyters of Antioch. interpretation and orthodoxy will stand or fall together.” But Cardinal Hergenroether, The Antiochian School was not a regular who is as good a Catholic and a better scholar, institution with a continuous succession of makes a proper distinction between use and teachers, like the Catechetical School of abuse, and gives the following fair and Alexandria, but a theological tendency, more discriminating statement of the relation particularly a peculiar type of hermeneutics between the Antiochian and Alexandrian and exegesis which had its centre in Antioch. schools, and the critical and mystical method The characteristic features are, attention to of interpretation to which a Protestant the revision of the text, a close adherence to historian can fully assent. the plain, natural meaning according to the use of language and the condition of the 2.196. Tertullian and the African School writer, and justice to the human factor. In (I.) TERTULLIANI quae supersunt omnia. Ed. FRANC. other words, its exegesis is grammatical and OEHLER. Lips. 1853, 3 vols. The third vol. historical, in distinction from the allegorical contains dissertations De Vita et Scriptis Tert. by method of the Alexandrian School. Yet, as Nic. Le Nourry, Mosheim, Noesselt, Semler, regards textual criticism, Lucian followed in Kaye. the steps of Origen. Nor did the Antiochians Earlier editions by Beatus Rhenanus, Bas. 1521; disregard the spiritual sense, and the divine Pamelius, Antwerp, 1579; Rigaltius (Rigault), element in the Scriptures. The grammatico- Par. 1634 and Venet. 1744; Semler, Halle, 1770– historical exegesis is undoubtedly the only 3. 6 vols.; Oberthuer, 1780; Leopold, in safe and sound basis for the understanding of Gersdorf’s “Biblioth. patrum Eccles. Latinorum the Scriptures as of any other book; and it is a selecta” (IV-VII.), Lips. 1839–41; and Migne, Par. I 1884. A new ed. by REIFFERSCHEID will appear wholesome check upon the wild in the Vienna “Corpus Scriptorum Eccles. Lat.”

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English transl. by P. HOLMES and others in the The apostolic church was predominantly “Ante-Nicene Christian Library,” Edinb. 1868 Jewish, the ante-Nicene church, Greek, the sqq. 4 vols. German translation by K. A. H. post-Nicene, Roman. The Roman church itself KELLNER. Koeln, 1882, 2 vols. was first predominantly Greek, and her (II.) EUSEB. H. G. II. 2, 25; III. 20; V. 5. JEROME:DE earliest writers—Clement, Hermas, Irenæus, VIRIS ILL.c.53. Hippolytus—wrote exclusively in Greek. Latin (III.) NEANDER: Antignosticus, Geist des Christianity begins to appear in literature at Tertullianus u. Einleitung in dessen Schriften. the end of the second century, and then not in Berl. 1825, 2d ed. 1849. Italy, but in North Africa, not in Rome, but in J. KAYE: Eccles. Hist. of the second and third Carthage, and very characteristically, not with Centuries, illustrated from the Writings of converted speculative philosophers, but with Tertullian. 3d ed. Lond. 1845. practical lawyers and rhetoricians. This CARL HESSELBERG: Tertullian’s Lehre aus seinen literature does not gradually unfold itself, but Schriften entwickelt. 1. Th. Leben und Schriften. appears at once under a fixed, clear stamp, Dorpat 1848 (136 pages). with a strong realistic tendency. North Africa P. GOTTWALD: De Montanismo Tertulliani. also gave to the Western church the Breslau, 1863. fundamental book—the Bible in its first Latin HERMANN ROENSCH: Das Neue Testament Version, the so-called Itala, and this was the Tertullian’s. Leipz. 1871 (731 pages.) A basis of Jerome’s Vulgata which to this day is reconstruction of the text of the old Latin the recognized standard Bible of Rome. There version of the N.T. from the writings of were, however, probably several Latin Tertullian. versions of portions of the Bible current in AD. EBERT: Gesch. der Christl. lat. Lit. Leipz. 1874, the West before Jerome. sqq. I. 24–41. I. Life of Tertullian. A. HAUCK: Tertullian’s Leben und Schriften, Erlangen, 1877 (410 pages.) With judicious QUINTUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS TERTULLIANUS is extracts from all his writings. the father of the Latin theology and church (IV.) On the chronology of Tertullian’s works language, and one of the greatest men of see NOESSELT: De vera aetate et doctrina Christian antiquity. We know little of his life Scriptorum Tertull. (in Oehler’s ed. III. 340– but what is derived from his book and from 619); UHLHORN: Fundamenta Chronologica the brief notice of Jerome in his catalogue of Tertullianeae (Goettingen 1852); BONWETSCH: illustrious men. But few writers have Die Schriften nach der Zeit ihrer impressed their individuality so strongly in Abfassung (Bonn 1879, 89 pages); HARNACK: Zur their books as this African father. In this Chronologie der Schriften Tertullians (Leipz. respect, as well as in others, he resembles St. 1878); NOELDECHEN: Abfassungszeit der Schriften Tertullians (Leipz. 1888). Paul, and Martin Luther. He was born about the year 150, at Carthage, the ancient rival of (V.) On special points: OEHNINGER: Tertullian und seine Auferstehungslehre Augsb. 1878, 34 pp). F. Rome, where his father was serving as J. SCHMIDT: De Latinitate Tertutliani (Erlang. captain of a Roman legion under the 1877). M. KLUSSMANN: Curarum Tertullianearum, proconsul of Africa. He received a liberal part. I et II. (Halle 1881). G. R. HAUSCHILD: Graeco-Roman education; his writings Tertullian’s Psychologie (Frankf. a. M. 1880, 78 manifest an extensive acquaintance with pp.). By the same: Die Grundsaetze u. Mittel der historical, philosophical, poetic, and Wortbildung bei Tertullian (Leipz. 1881, 56 pp); antiquarian literature, and with juridical LUDWIG.: Tert’s Ethik. (Leipz. 1885). Special terminology and all the arts of an advocate. treatises on Tertullian, by Hefele, Engelhardt, He seems to have devoted himself to politics Leopold, Schaff (in Herzog), Ebert, Kolberg. and forensic eloquence, either in Carthage or The Western church in this period exhibits no in Rome. Eusebius calls him “a man such scientific productiveness as the Eastern. accurately acquainted with the Roman laws,”

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 90 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course and many regard him as identical with the sarcastic way: He has executed in Rome two Tertyllus, or Tertullianus, who is the author works of the devil; has driven out prophecy of several fragments in the Pandects. (the Montanistic) and brought in heresy (the To his thirtieth or fortieth year he lived in Patripassian); has turned off the Holy Ghost heathen blindness and licentiousness. and crucified the Father. Tertullian now Towards the end of the second century he fought the catholics, or the psychicals, as he embraced Christianity, we know not exactly frequently calls them, with the same on what occasion, but evidently from deepest inexorable sternness with which he had conviction, and with all the fiery energy of his combated the heretics. The departures of the soul; defended it henceforth with fearless Montanists, however, related more to points decision against heathens, Jews, and heretics; of morality and discipline than of doctrine; and studied the strictest morality of life. His and with all his hostility to Rome, Tertullian own words may be applied to himself: “Fiunt, remained a zealous advocate of the catholic non nascuntur Christiani.” He was married, faith, and wrote, even from his schismatic and gives us a glowing picture of Christian position, several of his most effective works family life, to which we have before referred; against the heretics, especially the Gnostics. but in his zeal for every form of self-denial, he Indeed, as a divine, he stood far above this set celibacy still higher, and advised his wife, fanatical sect, and gave it by his writings an in case he should die before her to remain a importance and an influence in the church widow, or, at least never to marry an itself which it certainly would never unbelieving husband; and he afterwards put otherwise have attained. second marriage even on a level with He labored in Carthage as a Montanist adultery. He entered the ministry of the presbyter and an author, and died, as Jerome Catholic church, first probably in Carthage, says, in decrepit old age, according to some perhaps in Rome, where at all events he spent about the year 220, according to others not some time but, like Clement of Alexandria and till 240; for the exact time, as well as the Origen, he never rose above the rank of manner of his death, are unknown. His presbyter. followers in Africa propagated themselves, Some years after, between 199 and 203, he under the name of “Tertullianists,” down to joined the puritanic, though orthodox, sect of the time of Augustin in the fifth century, and the Montanists. Jerome attributes this change took perhaps a middle place between the to personal motives, charging it to the envy proper Montanists and the catholic church. and insults of the Roman clergy, from whom That he ever returned into the bosom of he himself experienced many an indignity. Catholicism is an entirely groundless opinion. But Tertullian was inclined to extremes from Strange that this most powerful defender of the first, especially to moral austerity. He was old catholic orthodoxy and the teacher of the no doubt attracted by the radical contempt high-churchly Cyprian, should have been a for the world, the strict asceticism, the severe schismatic and an antagonist of Rome. But he discipline, the martyr enthusiasm, and the had in his constitution the tropical fervor and chiliasm of the Montanists, and was repelled acerbity of the Punic character, and that bold by the growing conformity to the world in the spirit of independence in which his native city Roman church, which just at that period, of Carthage once resisted, through more than under Zephyrinus and Callistus, openly took a hundred years’ war, the rising power of the under its protection a very lax penitential seven-hilled city on the Tiber. He truly discipline, and at the same time, though only represents the African church, in which a temporarily, favored the Patripassian error of similar antagonism continued to reveal itself, Praxeas, an opponent of the Montanists. Of not only among the Donatists, but even this man Tertullian therefore says, in his among the leading advocates of Catholicism.

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Cyprian died at variance with Rome on the ideas. He calls the Grecian philosophers the question of heretical baptism; and Augustin, patriarchs of all heresies, and scornfully asks: with all his great services to the catholic “What has the academy to do with the system of faith, became at the same time, church? what has Christ to do with Plato— through the anti-Peligian doctrines of sin and Jerusalem with Athens?” He did not shrink grace, the father of evangelical Protestantism from insulting the greatest natural gift of God and of semi-Protestant . to man by his “Credo quia absurdum est.” And Hippolytus presents several interesting yet reason does him invaluable service points of contact. He was a younger against his antagonists. He vindicates the contemporary of Tertullian though they never principle of church authority and tradition met as far as we know. Both were champions with great force and ingenuity against all of catholic orthodoxy against heresy, and yet heresy; yet, when a Montanist, he claims for both opposed to Rome. Hippolytus charged himself with equal energy the right of private two popes with heresy as well as laxity of judgment and of individual protest. He has a discipline; and yet in view of his supposed vivid sense of the corruption of human nature repentance and martyrdom (as reported by and the absolute need of moral regeneration; Prudentius nearly two hundred years yet he declares the soul to be born Christian, afterwards), he was canonized in the Roman and unable to find rest except in Christ. “The church; while such honor was never testimonies of the soul, says he, “are as true conferred upon the African, though he was a as they are simple; as simple as they are greater and more useful man. popular; as popular as they are natural; as natural as they are divine.” He is just the II. Character. Tertullian was a rare genius, opposite of the genial, less vigorous, but more perfectly original and fresh, but angular, learned and comprehensive Origen. He boisterous and eccentric; full of glowing adopts the strictest supranatural principles; fantasy, pointed wit, keen discernment, and yet he is a most decided realist, and polemic dexterity, and moral earnestness, but attributes body, that is, as it were, a wanting in clearness, moderation, and corporeal, tangible substantiality, even to God symmetrical development. He resembled a and to the soul; while the idealistic foaming mountain torrent rather than a calm, Alexandrian cannot speak spiritually enough transparent river in the valley. His vehement of God, and can conceive the human soul temper was never fully subdued, although he without and before the existence of the body. struggled sincerely against it. He was a man of Tertullian’s theology revolves about the great strong convictions, and never hesitated to Pauline antithesis of sin and grace, and express them without fear or favor. breaks the road to the Latin anthropology and Like almost all great men, he combined soteriology afterwards developed by his like- strange contrarieties of character. Here we minded, but clearer, calmer, and more are again reminded of Luther; though the considerate countryman, Augustin. For his reformer had nothing of the ascetic gloom opponents, be they heathens, Jews, heretics, and rigor of the African father, and exhibits or Catholics, he has as little indulgence and instead with all his gigantic energy, a kindly regard as Luther. With the adroitness of a serenity and childlike simplicity altogether special pleader he entangles them in self- foreign to the latter. Tertullian dwells contradictions, pursues them into every nook enthusiastically on the divine foolishness of and corner, overwhelms them with the gospel, and has a sublime contempt for arguments, sophisms, apophthegms, and the world, for its science and its art; and yet sarcasms, drives them before him with his writings are a mine of antiquarian unmerciful lashings, and almost always knowledge, and novel, striking, and fruitful makes them ridiculous and contemptible. His

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 92 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course polemics everywhere leave marks of blood. It sensuous images, governed him. His fiery and is a wonder that he was not killed by the passionate disposition, and his previous heathens, or excommunicated by the training as an advocate and rhetorician, easily Catholics. impelled him, especially in controversy, to His style is exceedingly characteristic, and rhetorical exaggerations. When he defends a corresponds with his thought. It is terse, cause, of whose truth he was convinced, we abrupt, laconic, sententious, nervous, often see in him the advocate, whose sole figurative, full of hyperbole, sudden turns, anxiety is to collect together all the legal technicalities, African provincialisms, or arguments which can help his case, it matters rather antiquated or vulgar latinisms. It not whether they are true arguments or only abounds in latinized Greek words, and new plausible sophisms; and in such cases the expressions, in roughnesses, angles, and very exuberance of his wit sometimes leads obscurities; sometimes, like a grand volcanic him astray from the simple feeling of truth. eruption, belching precious stones and dross What must render this man a phenomenon in strange confusion; or like the foaming presenting special claims to the attention of torrent tumbling over the precipice of rocks the Christian historian is the fact, that and sweeping all before it. His mighty spirit Christianity is the inspiring soul of his life and wrestles with the form, and breaks its way thoughts; that out of Christianity an entirely through the primeval forest of nature’s new and rich inner world developed itself to thinking. He had to create the church his mind: but the leaven of Christianity had language of the Latin tongue. first to penetrate through and completely refine that fiery, bold and withal rugged In short, we see in this remarkable man both nature. We find the new wine in an old bottle; intellectually and morally, the fermenting of a and the tang which it has contracted there, new creation, but not yet quite set free from may easily embarrass the inexperienced the bonds of chaotic darkness and brought judge. Tertullian often had more within him into clear and beautiful order. than he was able to express: the overflowing NOTES mind was at a loss for suitable forms of Estimates of Tertullian as a man and an phraseology. He had to create a language for author. the new spiritual matter,—and that out of the rude Punic Latin,—without the aid of a logical NEANDER (Ch. Hist. I. 683 sq., Torrey’s and grammatical education, and as he was translation): “Tertullian presents special hurried along in the current of thoughts and claims to attention, both as the first feelings by his ardent nature. Hence the often representative of the theological tendency in difficult and obscure phraseology; but hence, the North-African church, and as a too, the original and striking turns in his representative of the Montanistic mode of mode of representation. And hence this great thinking. He was a man of an ardent and church-teacher, who unites great gifts with profound spirit, of warm and deep feelings; great failings, has been so often misconceived inclined to give himself up, with his whole by those who could form no friendship with soul and strength, to the object of his love, the spirit which dwelt in so ungainly a form.” and sternly to repel everything that was foreign from this. He possessed rich and PRESSENSÉ (Martyrs and Apoloqists, p. 375): various stores of knowledge; which had been “The African nationality gave to Christianity accumulated, however, at random, and its most eloquent defender, in whom the without scientific arrangement. His intense vehemence, the untempered ardor of profoundness of thought was not united with the race, appear purified indeed, but not logical clearness and sobriety: an ardent, subdued. No influence in the early ages could unbridled imagination, moving in a world of equal that of Tertullian; and his writings

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 93 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course breathe a spirit of such undying power that toleration and equal rights with the other they can never grow old, and even now sects of the Roman empire. It is the first plea render living, controversies which have been for religious liberty, as an inalienable right silent for fifteen centuries. We must seek the which God has given to every man, and which man in his own pages, still aglow with his the civil government in its own interest enthusiasm and quivering with his passion, should not only tolerate but respect and for the details of his personal history are very protect. He claims no support, no favor, but few. The man is, as it were, absorbed in the simply justice. The church was in the first writer, and we can well understand it, for his three centuries a self-supporting and self- writings embody his whole soul. Never did a governing society (as it ought always to be), man more fully infuse his entire moral life and no burden, but a blessing to the state, and into his books, and act through his words.” furnished to it the most peaceful and useful citizens. The cause of truth and justice never 2.197. The Writings of Tertullian found a more eloquent and fearless defender Tertullian developed an extraordinary in the very face of despotic power, and the literary activity in two languages between blazing fires of persecution, than the author about 190 and 220. His earlier books in the of this book. It breathes from first to last the Greek language, and some in the Latin, are assurance of victory in apparent defeat. lost. Those which remain are mostly short; “We conquer,” are his concluding words to but they are numerous, and touch nearly all the prefects and judges of the Roman empire, departments of religious life. They present a “We conquer in dying; we go forth victorious graphic picture of the church of his day. Most at the very time we are subdued.… Many of of his works, according to internal evidence, your writers exhort to the courageous fill in the first quarter of the third century, in bearing of pain and death, as in the the Montanistic period of his life, and among Tusculans, as Seneca in his Chances, as these many of his ablest writings against the Diogenes, Pyrrhus, Callinicus. And yet their heretics; while, on the other hand, the gloomy words do not find so many disciples as moral austerity, which predisposed him to Christians do, teachers not by words, but by Montanism, comes out quite strongly even in their deeds. That very obstinacy you rail his earliest productions. against is the preceptress. For who that His works may be grouped in three classes: contemplates it is not excited to inquire what apologetic; polemic or anti-heretical; and is at the bottom of it? Who, after inquiry, does ethic or practical; to which may be added as a not embrace our doctrines? And, when he has fourth class the expressly Montanistic tracts embraced them, desires not to suffer that he against the Catholics. We can here only may become partaker of the fulness of God’s mention the most important: grace, that he may obtain from God complete 1. In the APOLOGETIC works against heathens forgiveness, by giving in exchange his blood? and Jews, he pleads the cause of all For that secures the remission of all offences. Christendom, and deserves the thanks of all On this account it is that we return thanks on Christendom. Preëminent among them is the the very spot for your sentences. As the (or Apologeticum). It was divine and human are ever opposed to each composed in the reign of Septimius Severus, other, when we are condemned by you, we between 197 and 200. It is unquestionably are acquitted by the Highest.” one of the most beautiful monuments of the The relation of the Apologeticus to the heroic age of the church. In this work, Octavius of Minucius Felix will be discussed in Tertullian enthusiastically and triumphantly the next section. But even if Tertullian should repels the attacks of the heathens upon the have borrowed from that author (as he new religion, and demands for it legal undoubtedly borrowed, without

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 94 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course acknowledgment, much matter from Irenæus, dealing with heresy. Tertullian cuts off all in his book against the Valentinians), he errors and neologies at the outset from the remains one of the most original and vigorous right of legal contest and appeal to the holy writers. Moreover the plan is different; Scriptures, because these belong only to the Minucius Felix pleads for Christianity as a catholic church as the legitimate heir and philosopher before philosophers, to convince guardian of Christianity. Irenæus had used the intellect; Tertullian as a lawyer and the same argument, but Tertullian gave it a advocate before judges, to induce them to legal or forensic form. The same argument, give fair play to the Christians, who were however, turns also against his own refused even a hearing in the courts. secession; for the difference between heretics The beautiful little tract “On the Testimony of and schismatics is really only relative, at least the Soul,” (6 chapters) is a supplement to the in Cyprian’s view. Tertullian afterwards Apologeticus, and furnishes one of the asserted, in contradiction with this book, that strongest positive arguments for Christianity. in religious matters not custom nor long Here the human soul is called to bear witness possession, but truth alone, was to be to the one true God: it springs from God, it consulted. longs for God; its purer and nobler instincts Among the heretics, he attacked chiefly the and aspirations, if not diverted and perverted Valentinian Gnostics, and Marcion. The work by selfish and sinful passions, tend upwards against Marcion (A. D. 208) is his largest, and and heavenwards, and find rest and peace the only one in which he indicates the date of only in God. There is, we may say, a pre- composition, namely the 15th year of the established harmony between the soul and reign of Septimius Severus (A. D. 208). He the Christian religion; they are made for each wrote three works against this famous other; the human soul is constitutionally heretic; the first he set aside as imperfect, the Christian. And this testimony is universal, for second was stolen from him and published as God is everywhere, so the human soul is with many blunders before it was finished. In everywhere. But its testimony turns against the new work (in five books), he elaborately itself if not heeded. defends the unity of God, the Creator of all, “Every soul,” he concludes, “is a culprit as the integrity of the Scriptures, and the well as a witness: in the measure that it harmony of the Old and New Testaments. He testifies for truth, the guilt of error lies on it; displays all his power of solid argument, and on the day of judgment it will stand subtle sophistry, ridicule and sarcasm, and before the court of God, without a word to exhausts his vocabulary of vituperation. He is say. Thou proclaimedst God, O soul, but thou more severe upon heretics than Jews or didst not seek to know Him; evil spirits were Gentiles. He begins with a graphic description detested by thee, and yet they were the of all the physical abnormities of Pontus, the objects of thy adoration; the punishments of native province of Marcion, and the gloomy were foreseen by thee, but no care was temper, wild passions, and ferocious habits of taken to avoid them; thou hadst a savor of its people, and then goes on to say: Christianity, and withal wert the persecutor “Nothing in Pontus is so barbarous and sad as of Christians.” the fact that Marcion was born there, fouler 2. His POLEMIC works are occupied chiefly than any Scythian, more roving than the with the refutation of the Gnostics. Here Sarmatian, more inhuman than the belongs first of all his thoroughly catholic Massagete, more audacious than an Amazon, tract.” On the Prescription of Heretics.“ It is of darker than the cloud of the Euxine, colder a general character and lays down the than its winter, more brittle than its ice, more fundamental principle of the church in deceitful than the Ister, more craggy than Caucasus. Nay, more, the true Prometheus,

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Almighty God, is mangled by Marcion’s customs of the “Psychicals,” as he commonly blasphemies. Marcion is more savage than calls the Catholics in distinction from the even the beasts of that barbarous region. For sectarian Pneumatics. His plea, also, for what beaver was ever a greater emasculator excessive fasting (De Jejuniis), and his than he who has abolished the nuptial bond? justification of a Christian soldier, who was What Pontic mouse ever had such gnawing discharged for refusing to crown his head (De powers as he who has gnawed the Gospel to Corona Militis), belong here. Tertullian pieces? Verily, O Euxine, thou hast produced a considers it unbecoming the followers of monster more credible to philosophers than Christ, who, when on earth, wore a crown of to Christians. For the cynic Diogenes used to thorns for us, to adorn their heads with go about, lantern in hand, at mid-day, to find a laurel, myrtle, olive, or with flowers or gems. man; whereas Marcion has quenched the light We may imagine what he would have said to of his faith, and so lost the God whom he had the tiara of the pope in his mediæval found.” splendor. The tracts “On Baptism” “On the Soul,” “On the NOTES Flesh of Christ,” “On the Resurrection of the The chronological order of Tertullian’s work Flesh” “Against Hermogenes,” “Against can be approximately determined by the Praxeas,” are concerned with particular frequent allusions to the contemporaneous errors, and are important to the doctrine of history of the Roman empire, and by their baptism, to Christian psychology, to relation to Montanism. See especially eschatology, and christology. Uhlhorn, Hauck, Bonwetsch, and also Bp. 3. His numerous PRACTICAL or ASCETIC Kaye (in Oehler’s ed. of the Opera III. 709– treatises throw much light on the moral life of 718.) We divide the works into three classes, the early church, as contrasted with the according to their relation to Montanism. immorality of the heathen world. Among (1) Those books which belong to the author’s these belong the books “On Prayer” “On catholic period before A.D.200; viz.: Penance” “On Patience,“—a virtue, which he Apologeticus or Apologeticum (in the autumn extols with honest confession of his own of 197, according to Bonwetsch; 198, Ebert; natural impatience and passionate temper, 199, Hesselberg; 200, Uhlhorn); Ad Martyres and which he urges upon himself as well as (197); Ad Nationes (probably soon after others,—the consolation of the confessors in Apol.); De Testimonio Animae; De Poenitentia; prison (Ad Martyres), and the admonition De Oratione; De Baptismo (which according to against visiting theatres (De Spectaculis), cap. 15, was preceded by a Greek work which he classes with the pomp of the devil, against the validity of Heretical Baptism); Ad and against all share, direct or indirect, in the Uxorem; De Patientia; Adv. Judaeos; De worship of idols (De Idololatria). Praescriptione Haereticorum; De Spectaculis 4. His strictly MONTANISTIC or anti-catholic (and a lost work on the same subject in the writings, in which the peculiarities of this sect Greek language). are not only incidentally touched, as in many Kaye puts De Spectaculis in the Montanistic of the works named above, but vindicated period. De Praescriptione is also placed by expressly and at large, are likewise of a some in the Montanistic period before or practical nature, and contend, in fanatical after Adv. Marcionem. But Bonwetsch (p. 46) rigor, against the restoration of the lapsed (De puts it between 199 and 206, probably in 199. Pudicitia), flight in persecutions, second Hauck makes it almost simultaneous with De marriage (De Monogamia, and De Baptismo. He also places De Idololatria in this Exhortatione Castitatis), display of dress in period. females (De Cultu Feminarum), and other

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(2) Those which were certainly not composed (II.) JEROME: De Vir. ill. c. 58, and Ep. 48 ad till after his transition to Montanism, between Pammach., and Ep. 70 ad Magn. LACTANT.: Inst. A.D.200 and 220; viz.: Adv. Marcionem (5 Div. V. 1, 22. books, composed in part at least in the 15th (III.) Monographs, dissertations and year of the Emperor Septimius Severus, i.e. prolegomena to the different editions of M. Fel., A.D.207 or 208; comp. I. 15); De Anima; De by van Hoven (1766, also in Lindner’s ed. II. Carne Christi; De Resurrectione Carnis; Adv. 1773); MEIER (Turin, 1824,) NIC. LE NOURRY, and LUMPER (in Migne, “Patr. Lat.” III. 194–231; 371– Praxean; Scorpiace (i.e. antidote against the 652); ROEREN (Minuciania,) Bedburg, 1859); poison of the Gnostic heresy); De Corona BEHR (on the relation of M. F. to Cicero, Gera Militis; De Virginibus ve’andis; De Exhortatione 1870); ROENSCH (in Das N. T Tertull.’s, 1871, P. Castitatis; De Pallio (208 or 209); De Fuga in 25 sqq.); PAUL P. DE FELICE (Études sur l’Octavius, persecutione; De Monogamia; De Jejuniis; De Blois, 1880); KEIM (in his Celsus, 1873, 151–168, Pudicitia; Ad Scapulam (212); De Ecstasi and in Rom. und das Christenthum, 1881, 383 (lost); De Spe Fidelium (likewise lost). sq., and 468–486); AD. EBERT (1874, in Gesch. Kellner (1870) assigns De Pudicitia, De der christlich-latein. Lit. I. 24–31); G. LOESCHE (On the relation of M. F. to Athanagoras, in the Monogamia, De Jejunio, and Adv. Praxean to “Jahr b. fuer Prot. Theol.” 1882, p. 168–178); the period between 218 and 222. RENAN (Marc-Auréle, 1882, p. 389–404); (3) Those which probably belong to the RICHARD KUHN: Der Octavius des Minucius Felix. Montanistic period; viz.: Adv. Valentinianos; Eine heidnisch philosophische Auffassung vom De cultu Feminarum (2 libri); Adv. Christenthum. Leipz. 1882 (71 pages). See also Hermogenem the art. of MANGOLD in Herzog X. 12–17 (abridged in Schaff-Herzog); G. SALMON in Smith 2.198. Minucius Felix and Wace III. 920–924. (I.) M. MINUCII FELICIS Octavius, best ed. by CAR. (IV.) On the relation of Minuc. Fel. to Tertullian: HALM, Vienna 1867 (in vol. II. of the “Corpus AD. EBERT: Tertullian’s Verhaeltniss zu Minucius Scriptorum Eccles. Latin.”), and BERNH. DOMBART, Felix, nebst einem Anhang ueber Commodian’s with German translation and critical notes, 2d Carmen apoloqeticum (1868, in the 5th vol. of ed. Erlangen 1881. Halm has compared the only the “Abhandlungen der philol. histor. Classe der MS. of this book, formerly in the Vatican library K. saechs. Ges. der Wissenschaften”); W. HARTEL now in Paris, very carefully (“tanta diligentia ut (in Zeitschrift fuer d. Oeester. Gymnas. 1869, p. de nullo jam loco dubitari possit quid in codice 348–368, against Ebert); E. KLUSMANN (“Jenaer uno scriptum inveniatur”). Lit. Zeitg,” 1878) BONWETSCH (in Die Schriften Ed. princeps by Faustus Sabaeus (Rom. 1543, as Tert., 1878, p. 21;) V. SCHULTZE (in “Jahr b. fuer the eighth book of Arnobius Adv. Gent); then by Prot. Theol.” 1881, p. 485–506; P. SCHWENKE Francis Balduin (Heidelb. 1560, as an (ueber die Zeit des Min. Fel. in “Jahr b. fuer Prot. independent work). Many edd. since, by Ursinus Theol.’ ” 1883, p. 263–294). (1583), Meursius (1598), Wowerus (1603), In close connection with Tertullian, either Rigaltius (1643), Gronovius (1709, 1743), Davis shortly before, or shortly after him, stands the (1712), Lindner (1760, 1773), Russwurm Latin Apologist Minucius Felix. (1824), Luebkert (1836), Muralt (1836), Migne Converts are always the most zealous, and (1844, in “Patrol.” III. Col. 193 sqq.), Fr Oehler (1847, in Gersdorf’s “Biblioth. Patr. ecelesiast. often the most effective promoters of the selecta,” vol. XIII). Kayser (1863), Cornelissen system or sect which they have deliberately (Lugd. Bat. 1882), etc. chosen from honest and earnest conviction. English translations by H. A. HOLDEN (Cambridge The Christian Apologists of the second 1853), and R. E. WALLIS in Clark’s “Ante-Nic. century were educated heathen philosophers Libr.” vol. XIII. p. 451–517. or rhetoricians before their conversion, and used their secular learning and culture for the refutation of idolatry and the vindication of

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 97 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course the truths of revelation. In like manner the ancestral gods. It is best to adhere to what the Apostles were Jews by birth and training, and experience of all nations has found to be made their knowledge of the Old Testament salutary. Every nation has its peculiar god or Scriptures subservient to the gospel. The gods; the Roman nation, the most religious of Reformers of the sixteenth century came out all, allows the worship of all gods, and thus of the bosom of mediæval Catholicism, and attained to the highest power and prosperity. were thus best qualified to oppose its He charges the Christians with presumption corruptions and to emancipate the church for claiming a certain knowledge of the from the bondage of the papacy. highest problems which lie beyond human I. MARCUS MINUCIUS FELIX belongs to that class ken; with want of patriotism for forsaking the of converts, who brought the rich stores of ancestral traditions; with low breeding (as classical culture to the service of Christianity. Celsus did). He ridicules their worship of a He worthily opens the series of Latin writers crucified malefactor and the instrument of his of the Roman church which had before crucifixion, and even an ass’s head. He spoken to the world only in the Greek tongue. repeats the lies of secret crimes, as He shares with Lactantius the honor of being promiscuous incest, and the murder of the Christian Cicero. He did not become a innocent children, and quotes for these clergyman, but apparently continued in his slanders the authority of the celebrated legal profession. We know nothing of his life orator Fronto. He objects to their religion that except that he was an advocate in Rome, but it has no temples, nor altars, nor images. He probably of North African descent. attacks their doctrines of one God, of the destruction of the present world, the II. We have from him an apology of resurrection and judgment, as irrational and Christianity, in the form of a dialogue under absurd. He pities them for their austere habits the title Octavius. The author makes with his and their aversion to the theatre, banquets, friend Octavius Januarius, who had, like and other innocent enjoyments. He concludes himself, been converted from heathen error with the re-assertion of human ignorance of to the Christian truth an excursion from things which are above us, and an exhortation Rome to the sea-bath at Ostia. There they to leave those uncertain things alone, and to meet on a promenade along the beach with adhere to the religion of their fathers, “lest Caecilius Natalis, another friend of Minucius, either a childish superstition should be but still a heathen, and, as appears from his introduced, or all religion should be reasoning, a philosopher of the sceptical overthrown.” school of the New Academy. Sitting down on the large stones which were placed there for In the second part (ch. 16–38), Octavius the protection of the baths, the two friends in refutes these charges, and attacks idolatry; full view of the ocean and inhaling the gentle meeting each point in proper order. He sea breeze, begin, at the suggestion of vindicates the existence and unity of the Caecilius, to discuss the religious question of Godhead, the doctrine of creation and the day. Minucius sitting between them is to providence, as truly rational, and quotes in act as umpire (chaps. 1–4). confirmation the opinions of various philosophers (from Cicero). He exposes the Caecilius speaks first (chs. 5–15), in defence absurdity of the heathen mythology, the of the heathen, and in opposition to the worship of idols made of wood and stone, the Christian, religion. He begins like a sceptic or immoralities of the gods, and the cruelties agnostic concerning the existence of a God as and obscene rites connected with their being doubtful, but he soon shifts his ground, worship. The Romans have not acquired their and on the principle of expediency and utility power by their religion, but by rapacity and he urges the duty of worshipping the acts of violence. The charge of worshipping a

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 98 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course criminal and his cross, rests on the ignorance the name of Christ is not even mentioned; of his innocence and divine character. The though we may reasonably infer from the Christians have no temples, because they will manner in which the author repels the charge not limit the infinite God, and no images, of worshipping “a crucified malefactor,” that because man is God’s image, and a holy life he regarded Christ as more than a mere man the best sacrifice. The slanderous charges of (ch. 29). He leads only to the outer court of immorality are traced to the demons who the temple. His object was purely apologetic, invented and spread them among the people, and he gained his point. Further instruction is who inspire oracles, work false miracles and not excluded, but is solicited by the converted try in every way to draw men into their ruin. Caecilius at the close, “as being necessary to a It is the heathen who practice such infamies, perfect training.” We have therefore no right who cruelly expose their new-born children to infer from this silence that the author was or kill them by abortion. The Christians avoid ignorant of the deeper mysteries of faith. and abhor the immoral amusements of the His philosophic stand-point is eclectic with a theatre and circus where madness, adultery, preference for Cicero, Seneca, and Plato. and murder are exhibited and practiced, even Christianity is to him both theoretically and in the name of the gods. They find their true practically the true philosophy which teaches pleasure and happiness in God, his knowledge the only true God, and leads to true virtue and and worship. piety. In this respect he resembles Justin At the close of the dialogue (chs. 39–40), Martyr. Caecilius confesses himself convinced of his IV. The literary form of Octavius is very error, and resolves to embrace Christianity, pleasing and elegant. The diction is more and desires further instruction on the next classical than that of any contemporary Latin day. Minucius expresses his satisfaction at writer heathen or Christian. The book bears a this result, which made a decision on his part strong resemblance to Cicero’s De Natura unnecessary. Joyful and thankful for the joint Deorum, in many ideas, in style, and the victory over error, the friends return from the urbanity, or gentlemanly tone. Dean Milman sea-shore to Ostia. says that it “reminds us of the golden days of III. The apologetic value of this work is Latin prose.” Renan calls it “the pearl of the considerable, but its doctrinal value is very apologetic literature of the last years of insignificant. It gives us a lively idea of the Marcus Aurelius.” But the date is under great controversy between the old and the dispute, and depends in part on its relation to new religion among the higher and cultivated Tertullian. classes of Roman society, and allows fair play V. Time of composition. Octavius closely and full force to the arguments on both sides. resembles Tertullian’s Apologeticus, both in It is an able and eloquent defense of argument and language, so that one book against , and of presupposes the other; although the aim is Christian morality against heathen different, the former being the plea of a immorality. But this is about all. The philosopher and refined gentleman, the other exposition of the truths of Christianity is the plea of a lawyer and ardent Christian. The meagre, superficial, and defective. The unity older opinion (with some exceptions) of the Godhead, his all-ruling providence, the maintained the priority of Apologeticus, and resurrection of the body, and future consequently put Octavius after A.D.197 or retribution make up the whole creed of 200 when the former was written. Ebert Octavius. The Scriptures, the prophets and reversed the order and tried to prove, by a apostles are ignored, the doctrines of sin and careful critical comparison, the originality of grace, Christ and redemption, the Holy Spirit Octavius. His conclusion is adopted by the and his operations are left out of sight, and

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 99 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course majority of recent German writers, but has Considering these conflicting possibilities and also met with opposition. If Tertullian used probabilities, we conclude that Octavius was Minucius, he expanded his suggestions; if written in the first quarter of the third Minucius used Tertullian, he did it by way of century, probably during the peaceful reign of abridgement. Alexander Severus (A. D. 222–235). The last It is certain that Minucius borrowed from possible date is the year 250, because Cicero (also from Seneca, and, perhaps, from Cyprian’s book De Idolorum Vanitate, written Athenagoras), and Tertullian (in his Adv. about that time is largely based upon it. Valent.) from Irenæus; though both make 2.199. Cyprian excellent use of their material, reproducing (I.) S. CYPRIANI Opera omnia. Best critical ed. by rather than copying it; but Tertullian is W. HARTEL, Vindob. 1868–’71, 3 vols. oct. (in the beyond question a far more original, Vienna “Corpus Scriptorum ecclesiast. vigorous, and important writer. Moreover the Latinorum”); based upon the examination of 40 Roman divines used the Greek language from MSS. Clement down to Hippolytus towards the Other edd. by Sweynheym and Pannartz, Rom. middle of the third century, with the only 1471 (ed. princeps), again Venice 1477; by exception, perhaps, of Victor (190–202). So Erasmus, Bas. 1520 (first critical ed., often far the probability is for the later age of reprinted); by Paul Manutius, Rom. 1563; by Minucius. Morell, Par. 1564; by Rigault (Rigaltius), Par. But a close comparison of the parallel 1648; John Fell, Bp. of Oxford, Oxon. 1682 (very good, with Bishop Pearson’s Annales Cyprianici), passages seems to favor his priority; yet the again Amst. 1700 and since; the Benedictine ed. argument is not conclusive. The priority of begun by Baluzius and completed by Prud. Minucius has been inferred also from the fact Maranus, Par. 1726, 1 vol. fol. (a magnificent ed., that he twice mentions Fronto (the teacher with textual emendations to satisfy the Roman and friend of Marcus Aurelius), apparently as curia), reprinted in Venice, 1758, and in Migne’s a recent celebrity, and Fronto died about 168. “Patrol. Lat.” (vol. IV. Par. 18, and part of vol. V. Keim and Renan find allusions to the 9–80, with sundry additions); a convenient persecutions under Marcus Aurelius (177), manual ed. by Gersdorf, Lips. 1838 sq. (in and to the attack of Celsus (178), and hence Gersdorf’s “Biblioth. Patrum Lat.” Pars II. and put Octavius between 178 and 180. But these III.) assumptions are unfounded, and they would English translations by N. MARSHALL, Lond., lead rather to the conclusion that the book 1717; in the Oxf. “Library of the Fathers,” Oxf. was not written before 200; for about twenty 1840 and by R. G. WALLIS in “Ante-Nicene Lib.” Edinb. 1868, 2 vols. N. York ed. vol. V. (1885). years elapsed (as Keim himself supposes) before the Dialogue actually was recorded on (II.) Vita Cypriani by PONTIUS, and the Acta Proconsularia Martyrii Cypr., both in Ruinart’s paper. Acta Mart. II., and the former in most ed. of his An unexpected argument for the later age of works. Minucius is furnished by the recent French (III.) J. PEArson: Annales Cyprianici. Oxon. 1682, discovery of the name of Marcus Caecilius in the ed. of Fell. A work of great learning and Quinti F. Natalis, as the chief magistrate of acumen, determining the chronological order of Cirta (Constantine) in Algeria, in several many Epp. and correcting innumerable inscriptions from the years 210 to 217. The mistakes. heathen speaker Caecilius Natalis of our H. DODWELL: Dissertationes Cyprianicae tres. Dialogue hailed from that very city (chs. 9 and Oxon. 1684; Amst. 1700; also in Tom. V of 31). The identity of the two persons can Migne’s “Patr. Lat.” col. 9–80. indeed not be proven, but is at least very A. F. GERVAISE: Vie de St. Cyprien. Par. 1717. probable.

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F. W. RETTBERG: Cyprianus nach seinem Leben u. others, in visions and dreams, and had some Wirken. Goett. 1831. only a short time before his martyrdom. G. A. POOLE: Life and Times of Cyprian. Oxf. 1840 A worthy presbyter, Caecilius, who lived in (419 pages). High-church Episcop. and anti- Cyprian’s house, and afterwards at his death papal, committed his wife and children to him, first AEM. BLAMPIGNON: Vie de Cyprien. Par. 1861. made him acquainted with the doctrines of CH. E. FREPPEL (Ultramontane): Saint Cyprien et the Christian religion, and moved him to read l’église d’ Afrique an troisième siécle. Paris, 1865, the Bible. After long resistance Cyprian 2d ed. 1873. forsook the world, entered the class of AD. EBERT: Geschichte der christl. latein. Literatur. catechumens, sold his estates for the benefit Leipz. 1874, vol. I. 54–61. of the poor, took a vow of chastity, and in 245 J. PETERS (R.C.): Der heil. Cyprian. Leben u. or 246 received baptism, adopting, out of Wirken. Regensb. 1877. gratitude to his spiritual father, the name of B. FECHTRUP: Der h. Cyprian, Leben u. Lehre, vol. I. Caecilius. Muenster, 1878. He himself, in a tract soon afterwards written OTTO RITSCHL: Cyprian vom Karthago und die to a friend, gives us the following oratorical Verfassung der Kirche. Goettingen 1885. description of his conversion: While I Articles on special topics connected with languished in darkness and deep night, Cyprian by J. W. NEVIN and VARIEN (both in tossing upon the sea of a troubled world, “Mercerburg Review” for 1852 and ’53); Peters ignorant of my destination, and far from truth (Ultramontane: Cyprian’s doctrine on Unity of and light, I thought it, according to my then the Church in opposition to the schisms of Carthage and Rome, Luxemb 1870); JOS. HUB. habits, altogether a difficult and hard thing REINKENS (Old Cath. Bp.: Cypr’s. Doctr. on the that a man could be born anew, and that, Unity of the Church. Wuerzburg, 1873). being quickened to new life by the bath of I. Life of Cyprian. saving water, he might put off the past, and, while preserving the identity of the body, THASCIUS CAECILIUS CYPRIANUS, bishop and might transform the man in mind and heart. martyr, and the impersonation of the catholic How, said I, is such a change possible? How church of the middle of the third century, can one at once divest himself of all that was sprang from a noble and wealthy heathen either innate or acquired and grown upon family of Carthage, where he was born about him?… Whence does he learn frugality, who the year 200, or earlier. His deacon and was accustomed to sumptuous feasts? And biographer, Pontius, considers his earlier life how shall he who shone in costly apparel, in not worthy of notice in comparison with his gold and purple, come down to common and subsequent greatness in the church. Jerome simple dress? He who has lived in honor and tells us, that he stood in high repute as a station, cannot bear to be private and teacher of rhetoric. He was, at all events, a obscure.… But when, by the aid of the man of commanding literary, rhetorical, and regenerating water, the stain of my former legal culture, and of eminent administrative life was washed away, a serene and pure light ability which afterwards proved of great poured from above into my purified breast. service to him in the episcopal office. He lived So soon as I drank the spirit from above and in worldly splendor to mature age, nor was he was transformed by a second birth into a new free from the common vices of heathenism, as man, then the wavering mind became we must infer from his own confessions. But wonderfully firm; what had been closed the story, that he practised arts of magic opened; the dark became light; strength came arises perhaps from some confusion, and is at for that which had seemed difficult; what I any rate unattested. Yet, after he became a had thought impossible became practicable.” Christian he believed, like Tertullian and

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Cyprian now devoted himself zealously, in and buried his body by night. Two chapels ascetic retirement, to the study of the were erected on the spots of his death and Scriptures and the church teachers, especially burial. The anniversary of his death was long Tertullian, whom he called for daily with the observed; and five sermons of Augustin still words: “Hand me the master!” The influence remain in memory of Cyprian’s martyrdom, of Tertullian on his theological formation is Sept. 14, 258. unmistakable, and appears at once, for II. Character and Position. example, on comparing the tracts of the two As Origen was the ablest scholar, and on prayer and on patience, or the work of the Tertullian the strongest writer, so Cyprian one on the vanity of idols with the apology of was the greatest bishop, of the third century. the other. It is therefore rather strange that in He was born to be a prince in the church. In his own writings we find no acknowledgment executive talent, he even surpassed all the of his indebtedness, and, as far as I recollect, Roman bishops of his time; and he bore no express allusion whatever to Tertullian himself towards them, also, as “frater” and and the Montanists. But he could derive no “collega,” in the spirit of full equality. aid and comfort from him in his conflict with Augustin calls him by, eminence, “the catholic schism. bishop and catholic martyr;” and Vincentius Such a man could not long remain concealed. of Lirinum, “the light of all saints, all martyrs, Only two years after his baptism, in spite of and all bishops.” His stamp of character was his earnest remonstrance, Cyprian was raised more that of Peter than either of Paul or John. to the bishopric of Carthage by the His peculiar importance falls not so much in acclamations of the people, and was thus at the field of theology, where he lacks the same time placed at the head of the whole originality and depth, as in church North African clergy. This election of a organization and discipline. While Tertullian neophyte was contrary to the letter of the dealt mainly with heretics, Cyprian directed ecclesiastical laws (comp. 1 Tim. 3:6), and led his polemics against schismatics, among afterwards to the schism of the party of whom he had to condemn, though he never Novatus. But the result proved, that here, as does in fact, his venerated teacher, who died a in the similar elevation of Ambrose, Augustin, Montanist. Yet his own conduct was not and other eminent bishops of the ancient perfectly consistent with his position; for in church, the voice of the people was the voice the controversy on heretical baptism he of God. himself exhibited his master’s spirit of For the space of ten years, ending with his opposition to Rome. He set a limit to his own triumphant martyrdom, Cyprian exclusive catholic principle of tradition by the administered the episcopal office in Carthage truly Protestant maxims: “Consuetudo sine with exemplary energy, wisdom, and fidelity, veritate vetustas erroris est, and, Non est de and that in a most stormy time, amidst consuetudine praescribendum, sed ratione persecutions from without and schismatic vincendum.” In him the idea of the old catholic agitations within. The persecution under hierarchy and episcopal autocracy, both in its Valerian brought his active labors to a close. affinity and in its conflict with the idea of the He was sent into exile for eleven months, then papacy, was personally embodied, so to tried before the Proconsul, and condemned to speak, and became flesh and blood. The unity be beheaded. When the sentence was of the church, as the vehicle and medium of pronounced, he said: “Thanks be to God,” all salvation, was the thought of his life and knelt in prayer, tied the bandage over his eyes the passion of his heart. But he contended with his own hand, gave to the executioner a with the same zeal for an independent gold piece, and died with the dignity and episcopate as for a Roman primacy; and the composure of a hero. His friends removed

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 102 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course authority of his name has been therefore as play-actor permission to give instruction in often employed against the papacy as in its declamation and pantomime. He lived in a favor. On both sides he was the faithful organ simple, ascetic way, under a sense of the of the churchly spirit of the age. perishableness of all earthly things, and in It were great injustice to attribute his high view of the solemn eternity, in which alone churchly principle to pride and ambition, also the questions and strifes of the church though temptations to this spirit militant would be perfectly settled. “Only unquestionably beset a prominent position above,” says he in his tract De Mortalitate, like his. Such principles are, entirely which he composed during the pestilence, compatible with sincere personal humility “only above are true peace, sure repose, before God. It was the deep conviction of the constant, firm, and eternal security; there is divine authority, and the heavy responsibility our dwelling, there our home. Who would not of the episcopate, which lay it the bottom fain hasten to reach it? There a great both of his first “nolo episcopari,” and of multitude of beloved awaits us; the numerous subsequent hierarchical feeling. He was as host of fathers, brethren, and children. There conscientious in discharging the duties, as he is a glorious choir of apostles there the was jealous in maintaining the rights, of his number of exulting prophets; there the office. Notwithstanding his high conception of countless multitude of martyrs, crowned with the dignity of a bishop, he took counsel of his victory after warfare and suffering; there presbyters in everything, and respected the triumphing virgins; there the merciful rights of his people. He knew how to combine enjoying their reward. Thither let us hasten strictness and moderation, dignity and with longing desire; let us wish to be soon gentleness, and to inspire love and confidence with them, soon with Christ. After the earthly as well as esteem and veneration. He took comes the heavenly; after the small follows upon himself, like a father, the care of the the great after perishableness, eternity.” widows and orphans, the poor and sick. III. His writings. During the great pestilence of 252 he showed As an author, Cyprian is far less original, the most self-sacrificing fidelity to his flock, fertile and vigorous than Tertullian, but is and love for his enemies. He forsook his clearer, more moderate, and more elegant congregation, indeed, in the Decian and rhetorical in his style. He wrote persecution, but only, as he expressly assured independently only on the doctrines of the them, in pursuance of a divine admonition, church, the priesthood, and sacrifice. and in order to direct them during his (1.) His most important works relate to fourteen months of exile by pastoral epistles. practical questions on church government His conduct exposed him to the charge of and discipline. Among these is his tract on the cowardice. In the Valerian persecution he Unity of the Church (A. D. 251), that “magna completely washed away the stain of that charta” of the old catholic high-church spirit, flight with the blood of his calm and cheerful the commanding importance of which we martyrdom. have already considered. Then eighty-one He exercised first rigid discipline, but at a Epistles, some very long, to various bishops, later period—not in perfect consistency—he to the clergy and the churches of Africa and of moderated his disciplinary principles in Rome, to the confessors, to the lapsed, &c.; prudent accommodation to the exigencies of comprising also some letters from others in the times. With Tertullian he prohibited all reply, as from Cornelius of Rome and display of female dress, which only deformed Firmilian of Caesarea. They give us a very the work of the Creator; and he warmly graphic picture of his pastoral labors, and of opposed all participation in heathen the whole church life of that day. To the same amusements,—even refusing a converted

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 103 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course class belongs also his treatise: De Lapsis (A. D. includes the dissertation of Lumper and the 250) against loose penitential discipline. Commentary of Gallandi. (2.) Besides these he wrote a series of moral English translation by R. E. WALLIS in Clark’s works, On the Grace of God (246); On the “Ante-Nicene Library,” vol. II. (1869), p. 297– Lord’s Prayer (252); On Mortality (252); 395; Comp. vol. I. 85 sqq. against worldly-mindedness and pride of (II.) EUSEB.: H. E. VI. 43, 44, 45. HIERON.: De Vir. ill. dress in consecrated virgins (De Habitu 66 and 70; Ep. 36 ad Damas.; Apol. adv. Ruf. II. 19. SOCRATES: H. E. IV. 28. The Epistles Of CYPRIAN Virginum); a glowing call to Martyrdom; an and CORNELIUS referring to the schism of exhortation to liberality (De Opere el Novatian (Cypr. Ep. 44, 45, 49, 52, 55, 59, 60, 68, Eleemosynis, between 254 and 256), with a 69, 73). EPIPHANIUS: Haer. 59; SOCRATES: H. E IV. touch of the “opus operatum” doctrine; and 28. THEODOR.: Haer. Fab. III. 5. PHOTIUS Biblioth. two beautiful tracts written during his 182, 208, 280. controversy with pope Stephanus: De Bono (III.) WALCH: Ketzerhistorie II. 185–288. Patienti, and De Zelo et Livore (about 256), in SCHOENEMANN: Biblioth. Hist. Lit. Patr. Latinorum, which he exhorts the excited minds to I. 135–142. LUMPER: Dissert. de Vita, Scriptis, et patience and moderation. doctrina Nov., in Migne’s ed. Ill. 861–884. (3.) Least important are his two apologetic NEANDER, I. 237–248, and 687 (Am ed.) CASPARI: Quellen zur Gesch. des Taufsymbols, III. 428–430, works, the product of his Christian pupilage. 437–439. JOS. LANGEN (Old Cath.): Gesch. der One is directed against heathenism (de roem. Kirche (Bonn 1881), p. 289–314. HARNACK; Idolorum Vanitate), and is borrowed in great Novatian in Herzog X. (1882), p. 652–670. Also part, often verbally, from Tertullian and the works on Cyprian, especially FECHTRUP. See Minucius Felix. The other, against Judaism Lit. 2.199. On Novatian’s doctrine of the trinity (Testimonia adversus Judaeos), also contains and the person of Christ see DORNER’S no new thoughts, but furnishes a careful Entwicklungsgesch. der L. v. d. Pers. Christi collection of Scriptural proofs of the (1851), I. 601–604. (Dem Tertullian nahe Messiahship and divinity of Jesus. stehend, von ihm abhaengig, aber auch ihn verflachend ist Novatian.”) NOTE.—Among the pseudo-Cyprianic writings is a homily against dice-playing and all games NOVATIAN, the second Roman anti-Pope of chance (Adversus Aleatores, in Hartel’s ed. (Hippolytus being probably the first), III. 92–103), which has been recently orthodox in doctrine, but schismatic in vindicated for Bishop Victor of Rome (190– discipline, and in both respects closely 202), an African by birth and an exclusive resembling Hippolytus and Tertullian, high churchman. It is written in the tone of a flourished in the middle of the third century papal encyclical and in rustic Latin. See and became the founder of a sect called after his name. He was a man of unblemished, HARNACK: Der pseudo-cyprian. Tractat De though austere character, considerable Aleatoribus, Leipzig 1888. PH. SCHAFF: The Oldest Papal Encyclical, in The Independent, N. biblical and philosophical learning, York, Feb. 28, 1889. speculative talent, and eloquence. He is moreover, next to Victor and Minucius Felix, 2.200. Novatian the first Roman divine who used the Latin (I.) NOVATIANI, Presbyteri Romani, Opera quae Language, and used it with skill. We may infer exstant omnia. Ed. by Gagnaeus (Par. 1545, in that at his time the Latin had become or was the works of Tertullian); Gelenius (Bas. 1550 fast becoming the ruling language of the and 1562); Pamelius (Par. 1598); Gallandi (Tom Roman church, especially in correspondence III.); Edw. Welchman (Oxf. 1724); J. Jackson with North Africa and the West; yet both (Lond. 1728, the best ed.); Migne (in “Patrol. Novatian and his rival Cornelius addressed Lat.” Tom. III. col. 861–970). Migne’s ed. the Eastern bishops in Greek. The epitaphs of five Roman bishops of the third century,

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Urbanus, Anteros, Fabianus, Lucius, and Italian bishops. He was excommunicated by a Eutychianus (between 223 and 283), in the Roman council, and Cornelius denounced him cemetery of Callistus are Greek, but the in official letters as “a deceitful, cunning and epitaph of Cornelius (251–253) who probably savage beast.” Both parties appealed to belonged to the noble Roman family of that foreign churches. Fabian of Antioch name, is Latin (“Cornelius Martyr E. R. X.”) sympathized with Novatian, but Dionysius of At, that time the Roman congregation Alexandria, and especially Cyprian who in the numbered forty presbyters, seven deacons, mean time had relaxed his former rigor and seven sub-deacons, forty-two acolytes, who hated schism like the very pest, besides exorcists, readers and janitors, and an supported Cornelius, and the lax and more “innumerable multitude of the people,” which charitable system of discipline, together with may have amounted perhaps to about 50,000 worldly conformity triumphed in the Catholic members. church. Nevertheless the Novatian schism spread East and West and maintained its We know nothing of the time and place of the severe discipline and orthodox creed in spite birth and death of Novatian. He was probably of imperial persecution down to the sixth an Italian. The later account of his Phrygian century. Novatian died a martyr according to origin deserves no credit, and may have the tradition of his followers. The controversy arisen from the fact that he had many turned on the extent of the power of the Keys followers in Phrygia, where they united with and the claims of justice to the purity of the the Montanists. He was converted in adult church and of mercy towards the fallen. The age, and received only clinical baptism by charitable view prevailed by the aid of the sprinkling on the sick bed without principle that out of the church there is no subsequent episcopal confirmation, but was salvation. nevertheless ordained to the priesthood and rose to the highest rank in the Roman clergy. Novatian was a fruitful author. Jerome He conducted the official correspondence of ascribes to him works On the Passover; On the the Roman see during the vacancy from the Sabbath; On Circumcision; On the Priest (De martyrdom of Fabian, January 21, 250, till the Sacerdote); On Prayer; On the Jewish Meats; On election of Cornelius, March, 251. In his letter Perseverance; On Attilus (a martyr of to Cyprian, written in the name of “the Pergamus); and “On the Trinity.” presbyters and deacons abiding at Rome,” he Two of these books are preserved. The most refers the question of the restoration of the important is his Liber de Trinitate (31 chs.), lapsed to a future council, but shows his own composed A.D.256. It has sometimes been preference for a strict discipline, as most ascribed to Tertullian or Cyprian. Jerome calls necessary in peace and in persecution, and as it a “great work,” and an extract from an “the rudder of safety in the tempest.” unknown work of Tertullian on the same He may have aspired to the papal chair to subject. Novatian agrees essentially with which he seemed to have the best claim. But Tertullian’s subordination trinitarianism. He after the Decian persecution had ceased his ably vindicates the divinity of Christ and of rival Cornelius, unknown before, was elected the Holy Spirit, strives to reconcile the divine by a majority of the clergy and favored the threeness with unity, and refutes the lenient discipline towards the Fallen which Monarchians, especially the Sabellians by his predecessors Callistus and Zephyrinus biblical and philosophical arguments. had exercised, and against which Hippolytus In his Epistola de Cibus Judaicis (7 chapters) had so strongly protested twenty or thirty written to his flock from a place of retirement years before. Novatian was elected anti-Pope during persecution, he tries to prove by by a minority and consecrated by three allegorical interpretation, that the Mosaic

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 105 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course laws on food are no longer binding upon about the middle of the third century two Christians, and that Christ has substituted works in the style of vulgar African latinity, in temperance and abstinence for the uncouth versification and barbarian prohibition of unclean animals, with the hexameter, without regard to quantity and exception of meat offered to idols, which is hiatus. They are poetically and theologically forbidden by the Apostolic council (Acts 15). worthless, but not unimportant for the history of practical Christianity, and reveal 2.201. Commodian under a rude dress with many superstitious (I.) COMMODIANUS: Instructiones adversus notions, an humble and fervent Christian Gentium Deos pro Christiana Disciplina, and heart. Commodian was a Patripassian in Carmen Apologeticum adversus Judaeos et christology and a Chiliast in eschatology. Gentes. The Instructiones were discovered by Sirmond, and first edited by Rigault at Toul, Hence he is assigned by Pope Gelasius to the 1650; more recently by Fr. Oehler in Gersdorf’s apocryphal writers. His vulgar African latinity “Biblioth. P. Lat.,” vol. XVIII., Lips. 1847 (p. 133– is a landmark in the history of the Latin 194,) and by Migne.” Patrol.” vol. V. col. 201– language and poetry in the transition to the 262. Romance literature of the middle ages. The second work was discovered and published The first poem is entitled “Instructions for the by Card. Pitra in the “Spicilegium Solesmense,” Christian Life,” written about A.D.240 or Tom. I. Par. 1852, p. 21–49 and Excurs. 537– earlier. It is intended to convert heathens and 543, and with new emendations of the corrupt Jews, and gives also exhortations to text in Tom. IV. (1858), p. 222–224; and better catechumens, believers, and penitents. The by Roensch in the “Zeitschrift fuer hist. Theol.” for 1872. poem has over twelve hundred verses and is divided into eighty strophes, each of which is Both poems were edited together by E. LUDWIG: an acrostic, the initial letters of the lines Commodiani Carmina, Lips. 1877 and 1878; and composing the title or subject of the section. by B. DOMBART, Vienna. The first 45 strophes are apologetic, and English translation of the first poem (but in aimed at the heathen, the remaining 35 are prose) by R. E. WALLIS in Clark’s “Ante-Nicene Library,” vol. III. (1870, pp. 434–474. parenetic and addressed to Christians. The first part exhorts unbelievers to repent in (II.) DODWELL: Dissert. de aetate Commod. view of the impending end of the world, and Prolegg. in Migne, V. 189–200. ALZOG: Patrol. 340–342. J. L. JACOBI in Schneider’s “Zeitschrift gives prominence to chiliastic ideas about fuer christl. Wissenschaft und christl. Leben” for Antichrist, the return of the Twelve Tribes, 1853, pp. 203–209. AD. EBERT, in an appendix to the first resurrection, the millennium, and the his essay on Tertullian’s relation to Minucius . The second part exhorts Felix, Leipz. 1868, pp. 69–102; in his Gesch. er catechumens and various classes of christl. lat. Lit., I. 86–93; also his art. in Herzog Christians. The last acrostic which again III. 325 sq. LEIMBACH, in an Easter Programme on reminds the reader of the end of the world, is Commodian’s Carmen apol. adv. Gentes et entitled “Nomen Gazaei,” and, if read Judaeos, Schmalkalden, 1871 (he clears up many backwards, gives the name of the author: points). HERMANN ROENSCH, in the “Zeitschrift fuer historische Theologie” for 1872, No. 2, pp. Commodianus mendicus Christi. 163–302 (he presents a revised Latin text with 2. The second work which was only brought philological explanations). YOUNG in Smith and to light in 1852, is an “Apologetic Poem Wace, I. 610–611. against Jews and Gentiles,” and was written COMMODIAN was probably a clergyman in about 249. It exhorts them (like the first part North Africa. He was converted from of the “Instructions” to repent without delay heathenism by the study of the Scriptures, in view of the approaching end of the world. especially of the Old Testament. He wrote It is likewise written in uncouth hexameters and discusses in 47 sections the doctrine of

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God, of man, and of the Redeemer (vers. 89– Other editions: by Faustus Sabaeus, Florence 275); the meaning of the names of Son and 1543 (ed. princeps); Bas. (Frobenius) 1546; Father in the of salvation (276– Paris 1580, 1666, 1715; Antw. 1582; Rom. 573); the obstacles to the progress of 1583; Genev. 1597; Lugd. Bat. 1598, 1651; by Christianity (574–611); it warns Jews and Orelli, Lips. 1816; Hildebrand, Halle, 1844; Migne, “Patrol. Lat.” v. 1844, col. 350 sqq. Fr. Gentiles to forsake their religion (612–783), Oehler (in Gersdorf’s “Bibl. Patr. Lat.”), Lips. and gives a description of the last things 1846. On the text see the Prolegg of Oehler and (784–1053). Reifferscheid. The most interesting part of this second poem English Version by A. HAMILTON BRYCE and HUGH is the conclusion. It contains a fuller CAMPBELL, in Clark’s “Ante-Nic. Libr.” vol. XIX. description of Antichrist than the first poem. (Edinb. 1871). German transl. by BENARD The author expects that the end of the world (1842), and ALLEKER (1858). will soon come with the seventh persecution; (II.) HIERONYMUS: De Vir. ill. 79; Chron. ad ann. the Goths will conquer Rome and redeem the 325 (xx. Constantini); Ep. 46, and 58, ad Christians; but then Nero will appear as the Paulinum. heathen Antichrist, reconquer Rome, and rage (III) The learned Dissertatio praevia of the against the Christians three years and a-half; Benedictine LE NOURRY in Migne’s ed. v. 365– he will be conquered in turn by the Jewish 714. NEANDER: I. 687–689. MOEHLER (R.C.): and real Antichrist from the east, who after Patrol. I. 906–916. ALZOG (R.C.): Patrologie (3d the defeat of Nero and the burning of Rome ed), p. 205–210. Zink: Zur Kritik und Erklaerung des Arnob., Bamb. 1873. EBERT, Gesch. der christl. will return to Judaea, perform false miracles, lat. Lit. I 61–70. HERZOG in Herzog I. 692 sq. and be worshipped by the Jews. At last Christ MOULE in Smith and Wace I. 167–169. appears, that is God himself (from the ARNOBIUS, a successful teacher of rhetoric Monarchian standpoint of the author), with with many pupils (Lactantius being one of the lost Twelve Tribes as his army, which had them), was first an enemy, then an advocate lived beyond Persia in happy simplicity and of Christianity. He lived in Sicca, an important virtue; under astounding phenomena of city on the Numidian border to the Southwest nature he will conquer Antichrist and his of Carthage, in the latter part of the third and host, convert all nations and take possession the beginning of the fourth century. He was of the holy city of Jerusalem. The concluding converted to Christ in adult age, like his more description of the judgment is preserved only distinguished fellow-Africans, Tertullian and in broken fragments. The idea of a double Cyprian. “O blindness,” he says, in describing Antichrist is derived from the two beasts of the great change, “only a short time ago I was the Apocalypse, and combines the Jewish worshipping images just taken from the forge, conception of the Antimessiah, and the gods shaped upon the anvil and by the heathen Nero-legend. But the remarkable hammer.… When I saw a stone made smooth feature is that the second Antichrist is and smeared with oil, I prayed to it and represented as a Jew and as defeating the addressed it as if a living power dwelt in it, heathen Nero, as he will be defeated by and implored blessings from the senseless Christ. The same idea of a double antichrist stock. And I offered grievious insult even to appears in Lactantius. the gods, whom I took to be such, in that I 2.202. Arnobius considered them wood, stone, and bone, or (I.) ARNOBII (oratoris) adversus Nationes (or fancied that they dwelt in the stuff of such Gentes) libri septem. Best ed. by REIFFERSCHEID, things. Now that I have been led by so great a Vindob. 1875. (vol. IV. of the “Corpus teacher into the way of truth, I know what all Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum,” issued that is, I think worthily of the Worthy, offer by the Academy of Vienna.) no insult to the Godhead, and give every one

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 107 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course his due.… Is Christ, then, not to be regarded as Roman empire. He exposes at length the God? And is He who in other respects may be absurdities and immoralities of the heathen deemed the very greatest, not to be honored mythology. He regards the gods as real, but with divine worship, from whom we have evil beings. received while alive so great gifts, and from The positive part is meagre and whom, when the day comes we expect greater unsatisfactory. Arnobius seems as ignorant gifts?” about the Bible as Minucius Felix. He never The contrast was very startling indeed, if we quotes the Old Testament, and the New remember that Sicca bore the epithet Testament only once. He knows nothing of “Veneria,” as the seat of the vile worship of the history of the Jews, and the Mosaic the of lust in whose temple the worship, and confounds the Pharisees and maidens sacrificed their chastity, like the Sadducees. Yet he is tolerably familiar, Corinthian priestesses of Aphrodite. He is whether from the Gospels or from tradition, therefore especially severe in his exposure of with the history of Christ. He often refers in the sexual immoralities of the heathen gods, growing language to his incarnation, among whom Jupiter himself takes the lead in crucifixion, and exaltation. He represents him all forms of vice. as the supreme teacher who revealed God to We know nothing of his subsequent life and man, the giver of eternal life, yea, as God, death. Jerome, the only ancient writer who though born a man, as God on high, God in his mentions him, adds some doubtful inmost nature, as the Saviour God, and the particulars, namely that he was converted by object of worship. Only his followers can be visions or dreams, that he was first refused saved, but he offers salvation even to his admission to the Church by the bishop of enemies. His divine mission is proved by his Sicca, and hastily wrote his apology in proof miracles, and these are attested by their of his sincerity. But this book, though written unique character, their simplicity, publicity soon after his conversion, is rather the result and beneficence. He healed at once a hundred of an inward impulse and strong conviction or more afflicted with various diseases, he than outward occasion. stilled the raging tempest, he walked over the sea with unwet foot, he astonished the very We have from him an Apology of Christianity waves, he fed five thousand with five loaves, in seven books of unequal length, addressed and filled twelve baskets with the fragments to the Gentiles. It was written A.D.303, at the that remained, he called the dead from the outbreak of the Diocletian persecution; for he tomb. He revealed himself after the alludes to the tortures, the burning of the resurrection “in open day to countless sacred Scriptures and the destruction of the numbers of men;” “he appears even now to meeting houses, which were the prominent righteous men of unpolluted mind who love features of that persecution. It is preserved in him, not in any dreams, but in a form of pure only one manuscript (of the ninth or tenth simplicity.” century), which contains also the “Octavius” of Minucius Felix. The first two books are His doctrine of God is Scriptural, and apologetic, the other five chiefly polemic. strikingly contrasts with the absurd Arnobius shows great familiarity with Greek mythology. God is the author and ruler of all and Roman mythology and literature, and things, unborn, infinite, spiritual, quotes freely from Homer, Plato, Cicero, and omnipresent, without passion, dwelling in Varro. He ably refutes the objections to light, the giver of all good, the sender of the Christianity, beginning with the popular Saviour. charge that it brought the wrath of the gods As to man, Arnobius asserts his free will, but and the many public calamities upon the also his ignorance and sin, and denies his

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 108 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course immortality. The soul outlives the body but In them all that is said tends to make men depends solely on God for the gift of eternal humane, gentle, modest, virtuous, chaste, duration. The wicked go to the fire of generous in dealing with their substance, and Gehenna, and will ultimately be consumed or inseparably united to all that are embraced in annihilated. He teaches the resurrection of our brotherhood.” He uttered his testimony the flesh, but in obscure terms. boldly in the face of the last and most cruel Arnobius does not come up to the standard of persecution, and it is not unlikely that he Catholic orthodoxy, even of the ante-Nicene himself was one of its victims. age. Considering his apparent ignorance of The work of Arnobius is a rich store of the Bible, and his late conversion, we need antiquarian and mythological knowledge, and not be surprised at this. Jerome now praises, of African latinity. now censures him, as unequal, prolix, and confused in style, method, and doctrine. Pope 2.203. Victorinus of Petau Gelasius in the fifth century banished his (I.) Opera in the “Max. Biblioth. vet. Patrum.” book to the apocryphal index, and since that Lugd. Tom. Ill., in Gallandi’s “Bibl. PP.,” Tom. IV.; time it was almost forgotten, till it was and in Migne’s “Patrol. Lat.,” V. 281–344 (De Fabrica Mundi, and Scholia in Apoc. Joannis). brought to light again in the sixteenth century. Modern critics agree in the verdict English translation by R. E. WALLIS, in Clark’s “Ante-Nicene Library,” Vol. III., 388–433; N. that he is more successful in the refutation of York ed. VII. (1886). error than in the defense of truth. (II.) JEROME: De. Vir. ill., 74. CASSIODOR: Justit. Div. But the honesty, courage, and enthusiasm of Lit., c. 9. CAVE: Hist. Lit., I., 147 sq. LUMPER’S the convert for his new faith are as obvious as Proleg., in Migne’s ed., V. 281–302, ROUTH: the defects of his theology. If he did not know Reliq., S. I., 65; Ill., 455–481. or clearly understand the doctrines of the VICTORINUS, probably of Greek extraction, was Bible, he seized its moral tone. “We have first a rhetorician by profession, and became learned,” he says, “from Christ’s teaching and bishop of Petavium, or Petabio, in ancient his laws, that evil ought not to be requited Panonia (Petau, in the present Austrian with evil (comp. Matt. 5:39), that it is better to Styria). He died a martyr in the Diocletian suffer wrong than to inflict it, that we should persecution (303). We have only fragments of rather shed our own blood than stain our his writings, and they are not of much hands and our conscience with that of importance, except for the age to which they another. An ungrateful world is now for a belong. Jerome says that he understood Greek long period enjoying the benefit of Christ; for better than Latin, and that his works are by his influence the rage of savage ferocity excellent for the sense, but mean as to the has been softened, and restrained from the style. He counts him among the Chiliasts, and blood of a fellow-creature. If all would lend an ascribes to him commentaries on Genesis, ear to his salutary and peaceful laws, the Exodus, Leviticus, Isaiah, , , world would turn the use of steel to Canticles, the Apocalypse, a book Against all occupations of peace, and live in blessed Heresies, “et multa alia.” Several poems are harmony, maintaining inviolate the sanctity also credited to him, but without good reason. of treaties.” He indignantly asks the heathen, 1. The fragment on the Creation of the World “Why have our writings deserved to be given is a series of notes on the account of creation, to the flames, and our meetings to be cruelly probably a part of the commentary on broken up? In them prayer is offered to the Genesis mentioned by Jerome. The days are supreme God, peace and pardon are invoked taken liberally. The creation of angels and upon all in authority, upon soldiers, kings, preceded the creation of man, as friends, enemies, upon those still in life, and light was made before the sky and the earth. those released from the bondage of the flesh.

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The seven days typify seven millennia; the waste the Catholic church of North Africa and seventh is the millennial sabbath, when Christ sacked the city of Rome. will reign on earth with his elect. It is the The exposition of ch. 20:1–6 is not so strongly same chiliastic notion which we found in the chiliastic, as the corresponding passage in the Epistle of Barnabas, with the same opposition Commentary on Genesis, and hence some to Jewish sabbatarianism. Victorinus have denied the identity of authorship. The compares the seven days with the seven eyes first resurrection is explained spiritually with of the Lord (Zech. 4:10), the seven heavens reference to Col. 3:1, and the author leaves it (comp. Ps. 33:6), the seven spirits that dwelt optional to understand the thousand years as in Christ (Isa. 11:2, 3), and the seven stages of endless or as limited. Then he goes on to his humanity: his nativity, infancy, boyhood, allegorize about the numbers: ten signifies youth, young-manhood, mature age, death. the decalogue, and hundred the crown of This is a fair specimen of these allegorical virginity; for he who keeps the vow of plays of a pious imagination. virginity completely, and fulfils the precepts 2. The scholia on the Apocalypse of John are of the decalogue, and destroys the impure not without interest for the history of the thoughts within the retirement of his own interpretation of this mysterious book. But heart, is the true priest of Christ, and reigns they are not free from later interpolations of with him; and “truly in his case the devil is the fifth or sixth century. The author assigns bound.” At the close of the notes on ch. 22, the the Apocalypse to the reign of Domitian author rejects the crude and sensual chiliasm (herein agreeing with Irenæus), and of the heretic Cerinthus. “For the kingdom of combines the historical and allegorical Christ,” he says, “is now eternal in the saints, methods of interpretation. He also regards although the glory of the saints shall be the visions in part as synchronous rather than manifested after the resurrection.” This looks successive. He comments only on the more like a later addition, and intimates the change difficult passages. We select the most striking which Constantine’s reign produced in the points. mind of the church as regards the millennium. The woman in ch. 12 is the ancient church of Henceforth it was dated from the incarnation the prophets and apostles; the dragon is the of Christ. devil. The woman sitting on the seven hills (in 2.204. Eusebius, Lactantius, Hosius ch. 17), is the city of Rome. The beast from the On EUSEBIUS see vol. III. 871–879—Add to Lit. abyss is the Roman empire; Domitian is the exhaustive article of Bp. LIGHTFOOT in Smith counted as the sixth, Nerva as the seventh, and Wace, II. (1880), p. 308–348; Dr. SALMON, on and Nero revived as the eighth Roman King. the Chron. of Eus. ibid. 354–355; and SEMISCH in The number 666 (13:18) means in Greek Herzog IV. 390–398. Teitan (this is the explanation preferred by On LACTANTIUS see vol. III. 955–959.—Add to Lit. Irenæus), in Latin Diclux. Both names signify EBERT: Gesch. der christl. lat. Lit. I. (1874), p. 70– Antichrist, according to the numerical value 86; and his art. in Herzog VIII. 364–366; and E. of the Greek and Roman letters. But Diclux S. FFOULKES in Smith and Wace III. 613–617. has this meaning by contrast, for Antichrist, On HOSIUS, see 2.55 p. 179 sqq.; and vol. III. 627, “although he is cut off from the supernal light, 635, 636.—Add to Lit. P. BONIF. GAMS (R.C.): yet transforms himself into an angel of light, Kirchengesch. v. Spanien, Regensb. 1862 sqq, Bd daring to call himself light.” To this curious II. 137–309 (the greater part of the second vol. explanation is added, evidently by a much is given to Hosius); W. MOELLER in Herzog VI. later hand, an application of the mystic 326–328; and T. D. C. MORSE in Smith and Wace number to the Vandal king Genseric III. 162–174. (γενσήρικος) who in the fifth century laid At the close of our period we meet with three representative divines, in close connection

History of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff 110 CH213: Volume 2, Chapter 13 a Grace Notes course with the first Christian emperor who effected patronage. They carried the moral forces of the politico-ecclesiastical revolution known the age of martyrdom into the age of victory. as the union of church and state. Their public Eusebius with his literary industry saved for life and labors belong to the next period, but us the invaluable monuments of the first must at least be briefly foreshadowed here. three centuries down to the Nicene Council; EUSEBIUS, the historian, LACTANTIUS, the Lactantius bequeathed to posterity, in rhetorician, and HOSIUS, the statesman, form Ciceronian Latin, an exposition and the connecting links between the ante-Nicene vindication of the Christian religion against and Nicene ages; their long lives—two died the waning idolatry of Greece and Rome, and octogenarians, Hosius a centenarian—are the tragic memories of the imperial almost equally divided between the two; and persecutors; Hosius was the presiding genius they reflect the lights and shades of both. of the synods of Elvira (306), Nicæa (325), Eusebius was bishop of Caesarea and a man and Sardica (347), the friend of Athanasius in of extensive and useful learning, and a liberal the defense of orthodoxy and in exile. theologian; Lactantius, a professor of All three were intimately associated with eloquence in Nicomedia, and a man of elegant Constantine the Great, Eusebius as his friend culture; Hosius, bishop of Cordova and a man and eulogist, Lactantius as the tutor of his of counsel and action. They thus respectively eldest son, Hosius as his trusted counsellor represented the Holy Land, Asia Minor, and who probably suggested to him the idea of Spain; we may add Italy and North Africa, for convening the first œcumenical synod; he was Lactantius was probably a native Italian and a we may say for a few years his ecclesiastical pupil of Arnobius of Sicca, and Hosius acted to prime minister. They were, each in his way, some extent for the whole western church in the emperor’s chief advisers and helpers in Eastern Councils. With him Spain first that great change which gave to the religion emerges from the twilight of legend to the of the cross the moral control over the vast daylight of church history; it was the border empire of Rome. The victory was well land of the west which Paul perhaps had deserved by three hundred years of unjust visited, which had given the philosopher persecution and heroic endurance, but it was Seneca and the emperor Trajan to heathen fraught with trials and temptations no less Rome, and was to furnish in Theodosius the dangerous to the purity and peace of the Great the strong defender of the Nicene faith. church than fire and sword. Eusebius, Lactantius, and Hosius were witnesses of the cruelties of the Diocletian persecution, and hailed the reign of imperial