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Biomechanics of the Sacroiliac Joint: Anatomy, Function, Biomechanics, Sexual Dimorphism, and Causes of Pain

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Biomechanics of the Sacroiliac Joint: Anatomy, Function, Biomechanics, Sexual Dimorphism, and Causes of Pain International Journal of Spine Surgery, Vol. 14, Supplement 1, 2020, pp. S3–S13 https://doi.org/10.14444/6077 ÓInternational Society for the Advancement of Spine Surgery Biomechanics of the Sacroiliac Joint: Anatomy, Function, Biomechanics, Sexual Dimorphism, and Causes of Pain ALI KIAPOUR, PHD,1,2 AMIN JOUKAR, MS,1 HOSSEIN ELGAFY, MD,1 DENIZ U. ERBULUT, PHD,1 ANAND K. AGARWAL, MD,1 VIJAY K. GOEL, PHD1 1Engineering Center for Orthopaedic Research Excellence (E-CORE), Departments of Bioengineering and Orthopaedics, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio; 2Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts ABSTRACT Background: The sacroiliac joints (SIJs), the largest axial joints in the body, sit in between the sacrum and pelvic bones on either side. They connect the spine to the pelvis and thus facilitate load transfer from the lumbar spine to the lower extremities. The majority of low back pain (LBP) is perceived to originate from the lumbar spine; however, another likely source of LBP that is mostly overlooked is the SIJ. This study (Parts I and II) aims to evaluate the clinical and biomechanical literature to understand the anatomy, biomechanics, sexual dimorphism, and causes and mechanics of pain of the SIJ leading to conservative and surgical treatment options using instrumentation. Part II concludes with the mechanics of the devices used in minimal surgical procedures for the SIJ. Methods: A thorough review of the literature was performed to analyze studies related to normal SIJ mechanics, as well as the effects of sex and pain on SIJ mechanics. Results: A total of 65 studies were selected related to anatomy, biomechanical function of the SIJ, and structures that surround the joints. These studies discussed the effects of various parameters, gender, and existence of common physiological disorders on the biomechanics of the SIJ. Conclusions: The SIJ lies between the sacrum and the ilium and connects the spine to the pelvic bones. The SIJ transfers large bending moments and compression loads to lower extremities. However, the joint does not have as much stability of its own against the shear loads but resists shear due the tight wedging of the sacrum between hip bones on either side and the band of ligaments spanning the sacrum and the hip bones. Due to these, sacrum does not exhibit much motion with respect to the ilium. The SIJ range of motion in flexion-extension is about 38, followed by axial rotation (about 1.58), and lateral bending (about 0.88). The sacrum of the female pelvis is wider, more uneven, less curved, and more backward tilted, compared to the male sacrum. Moreover, women exhibit higher mobility, stresses/loads, and pelvis ligament strains compared to male SIJs. Sacroiliac pain can be due to, but not limited to, hypo- or hypermobility, extraneous compression or shearing forces, micro- or macro-fractures, soft tissue injury, inflammation, pregnancy, adjacent segment disease, leg length discrepancy, and prior lumbar fusion. These effects are well discussed in this review. This review leads to Part II, in which the literature on mechanics of the treatment options is reviewed and synthesized. Biomechanics Keywords: sacroiliac joint, anatomy, biomechanics, sexual dimorphism, causes of pain, surgery BACKGROUND ing the SIJs provide resistance to shear loads. Several of the largest and most powerful muscles One of the most overlooked sources of low back of the body also surround the SIJ; however, these pain (LBP) is the sacroiliac joint (SIJ) due to its muscles don’t produce its active movements. complex nature and the fact that presumed radicular pain syndromes could be linked to the SIJ.1 The SIJ The sacrum can move with respect to the ilium in is the largest axial joint in the body that connects the 6 degrees of freedom, although this motion is spine to the pelvis and thus transfers load between minimal, and the joint’s hyper- or hypo-mobility the lumbar spine and the lower extremities.2,3 may cause pain emanating from the joint region. However, the joint does not have as much stability Sexual dimorphism exists in the pelvis. Men tend to against the shear loads. There are several ligaments have a relatively long and narrow pelvis, with a across the joint that support and limit the movement longer and more conical pelvic cavity than that of of the SIJ. The tight wedging of the sacrum between women.4 These sex differences also reflect in the the hip bones and the band of ligaments surround- biomechanics of the joint: the female SIJ has higher Biomechanics of the Sacroiliac Joint transfer between the lumbar spine and the lower extremities.2,3 The SIJ lies between the sacrum and the ilium, spanning about 1 to 2 mm in width and a joint on either side of the sacrum is held together by a fibrous capsule (Figures 1 and 2). The sacral side of the joint is covered with hyaline cartilage that is thicker (1.18 mm) than iliac cartilage (0.8 mm), which appears more fibro- cartilaginous.9 The iliac cortical bone is thicker than the sacral cortical bone (0.36 mm vs. 0.23 mm). Figure 1. Articular surfaces of the sacroiliac joint.10 Thus, cartilage and cortical bone thicknesses have a reverse relationship. No relationship between age mobility, and more stresses, loads, and pelvis- and cortical bone thickness was observed by Dall et 5 ligament strains, compared to the male SIJ. al.10 Regarding bone density, iliac cancellous bone Recent studies have reported a higher prevalence density was greater than sacral bone in all anterior, of LBP due to the SIJ, with some reports having central, and posterior parts of the joint. estimated that the SIJ is the actual source of pain in 15% to 30% of cases.6–8 From an anatomical Ligaments perspective, pathologic changes and injuries specific Several ligaments depicted in Figure 2 support to different SIJ structures can result in SIJ pain. and limit the movement of the SIJ (see 7, Figure 2). These changes or disorders include, but are not These ligaments include the interosseous sacroiliac limited to, capsular and ligamentous tension, hypo- ligament (8), the posterior and anterior ligaments (5 or hypermobility, extraneous compression or shear- and 6), and the sacrotuberous (4), sacrospinous (3) ing forces, micro- or macro-fractures, soft tissue and iliolumbar ligaments (1 and 2). The interosseous injury, and inflammation.2 ligament (8), also known as the axial ligament, Due to the high importance of the SIJ to LBP, connects the sacrum and ilium at the S1 and S2 this Part I review addresses basic anatomy, function, levels. The long posterior sacroiliac ligament (5) is biomechanics, and mechanisms of pain in the SIJ. quite strong and consists of multiple bundles that The review leads to the need for treatment options pass from the lateral crest of the sacrum to the and thus Part II narrates the mechanics of treatment posterior superior iliac spine and the posterior end options specific to SIJ. of the iliac crest. The anterior sacroiliac ligament (6) is a thin ligament. It is weaker than the posterior ANATOMY ligament and runs over the joint obliquely from The SIJ, the largest axial joint in the body, sacrum to ilium. The sacrotuberous ligament (4) is connects the spine to the pelvis, which allows load located at the inferior-posterior part of the pelvis Figure 2. (a) Posterior view, (b) anterior view and (c) sacroiliac joint cut in transverse plane. 1, 2: superior and inferior iliolumbar ligaments, respectively; 3: sacrospinous ligament; 4: sacrotuberous ligament; 5: posterior sacroiliac ligaments; 6: anterior sacroiliac ligaments; 7: sacroiliac joint; 8: interosseous ligament.11 International Journal of Spine Surgery, Vol. 14, Supplement 1 S4 Kiapour et al. Table 1. Sacroiliac joint (SIJ) ligaments, locations, and functions.10 Ligament Location Primary Restraint Posterior ligaments (5) Posterior superior iliac spine to sacral tubercles Sacral extension Long ligament Short ligament Sacrotuberous (4) Posterior superior iliac spine and sacrum to ischial tuberosity Sacral flexion Sacrospinous (3) Apex of the sacrum to ischial spine Sacral flexion Anterior ligament (6) Crosses ventral and caudal aspect of SIJ Sacral flexion, axial rotation Interosseous (8) Between sacrum and ilium dorsal to SIJ Sacral flexion, axial rotation Iliolumbar (1 and 2) Transverse process of L5 to the iliac tuberosity and crest Lateral side bending Ventral band Ventral band Dorsal band Forward flexion Sacroiliac part Dorsal band and runs from sacrum to the ischial tuberosity. The indirectly produced by gravity and muscles acting sacrospinous ligament’s (3) attachment is behind on the trunk and lower limbs rather than active that of the sacrotuberous ligament, and it connects movements of the sacrum.11 However, pelvic floor the outer edge of the sacrum and coccyx to the muscles (levator ani and coccygeus muscles) act to ischia of the ilium. The iliolumbar ligament (1 and stabilize the joints. Table 2 summarizes sacroiliac 2) originates from the tip of the fifth lumbar joint muscles, their actions, and their effect on SIJ. vertebral body to the iliac crest.11 The long posterior sacroiliac ligament (5) can stretch in periods of Summary reduced lumbar lordosis, such as during pregnancy. Table 1 summarizes sacroiliac joint ligaments, The SIJ, the largest axial joint in the body, lies locations, and functions. between the sacrum and the ilium and connects the spine to the pelvis. It allows load transfer from the Muscles lumbar spine to the lower extremities. The iliac side of SIJ has thinner cartilage, thicker cortical bone, While no muscles are designed to act on the SIJ to produce active movements, the joint is still sur- and greater cancellous bone density than the sacral rounded by some of the largest and most powerful side.
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