Timeline / 1860 to 1890 / ALL COUNTRIES

Date Country Theme

1860 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The restoration of the Aqueduct of Zaghouan is completed, running water arrives in Tunis.

1860 - 1863 Tunisia Economy And Trade

Restoration of the Zaghouan Aqueduct, Tunisia’s largest water-service network, allows supply to the capital and its suburbs.

1860 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

7 November: on the initiative of painter Gheorghe Panaitescu-Bardasare, a School of Fine Arts and an art gallery are founded in Ia#i.

1860 France Travelling

First trip by Napoleon III to Algeria; the second will take place in 1865.

1860 - 1870 Jordan Reforms And Social Changes

By the 1860s, population density has decreased drastically. The border of the sawn cultivated land had been pushed westwards under the pressure of the nomadic tribes from the east. Several reasons are suggested for this decline, including maladministration and the taxation policies of the Ottoman Empire. Some of the regions south of Ajlun, including Amman area, and along the escarpment of the Jordan valley were almost completely abandoned. Recovery starts during the last quarter of the 19th century.

1860 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old city walls, which have lost their defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in order to build monumental architecture.

1860 - 1870 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

In opposition to academic painting, the Macchiaioli movement (Telemaco Signorini, Vincenzo Cabianca and Silvestro Lega) experiments with “spot painting”, based on the strong contrast between light and shadow.

1860 Italy Political Context

The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of income and education: only 2.2% of the Italians can vote.

1860 - 1865 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

Both Nikolaos Gyzis and Nikiphoros Lytras win scholarships to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. Date Country Theme

1860 - 1874 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos writes a five-volume History of the Greek Nation, a highly influential historiographical work about the continuity of Greek history since antiquity.

1860 Austria Migrations

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is born in Moravia; he emigrates from Moravia to Vienna.

1860 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

The Manises pottery begins to produce objects in lustreware.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

The icon “Seven Holy Teachers” (Sedmochislenitzi) is painted by the most significant representative of Christian religious art in Macedonia, Dicho Krstevic Zograph, at the peak of his creativity. It represents the Slav missionaries Sts Cyril and Methodius and their disciples Clement, Nahum, Gorazd, Sabbas and Angelarij in a solo composition. His icons are distinguished by bright colour and baroque features.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He studied music in Russia and was conductor of several school choirs and of the first city choir in Prilep.

1860 - 1870 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Marko K. Cepenkov (1829–1920) was born in Prilep. Among the greatest collectors of Macedonian oral folk literature, during the 1860s he was prolific in recording folklore creations. The importance of his collecting activities lies not only in the volume but also in the diversity of folklore traditions recorded, including proverbs, sayings, tales, songs, riddles, charms, beliefs, dreams and interpretation, and children's games.

1860 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at the annual poetry competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and translator was a dedicated advocate of introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools. He was referred to as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language.

1860 Lebanon Political Context Date Country Theme

Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860 civil war and leads a rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been interpreted as an early expression of Lebanese nationalism.

1860 Lebanon Political Context

A full-scale war erupts between Maronites and Druze. Napoleon III of France sends 7,000 troops to Beirut and helps impose a partition: Druze control of the territory is recognised as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites are forced into an enclave. This is ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861.

1860 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Under the liberal educational reforms, Lyceu Nacional de Aveiro (Aveiro High School) is the first school in Portugal to occupy a building designed specifically for this function. Previously schools occupied existing buildings, often old convents. The school had been created as Colégio de Aveiro in 1848.

1860 Portugal Travelling

Travelling became a great cultural and social phenomenon with Romanticism. The “Grand Tour” through the countries of the known world, namely around the Mediterranean, became a means of developing cultural and social skills. Travel became refined and even a simple journey to the countryside required such accessories as this travel case for meals.

1860 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

October: First private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists,Tercüman- # Ahvâl, published by Agah Efendi and #brahim #inasi.

1860 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

October: Journalists #brahim #inasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private Muslim newspaper Tercümân-# Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).

1861 Tunisia Political Context

Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution limiting his powers. Tunisia’s first constitution is the culmination of the reformist policies of the 19th-century Husaynid beys.

1861 France Travelling

Embassy sent by King Mongkut of Siam (now Thailand) to Napoleon III.

1861 Italy International Exhibitions

First Italian National Exhibition of Agricultural and Industrial Products and Fine Arts opens in Florence.

1861 Italy Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme

The pre-unification laws on the protection of cultural heritage of the individual Italian states remain in force even after unification. Until 1902, different Italian regions are thus subject to different disciplines.

1861 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Collection of Macedonian poems compiled by the Miladinov brothers is published in Zagreb. Konstantin Miladinov (1830–62), a prominent Macedonian poet, folklorist and educator is a major contributor. Despite a reference to Bulgarian songs in the title, the folk literature recorded by the Miladinovs originated mostly from the areas of Struga, Ohrid, Prilep, Kukush and Bitola.

1861 Lebanon Political Context

In the aftermath of the Lebanese civil war in 1860, the Ottoman authorities impose a new system of government for the mountain districts of Lebanon. Formerly, the region had been divided into two districts, one with a Maronite Christian administrator and the other with a Druze. The Ottomans combine them into a single district, known as the mutasarrifiyya.

1861 - 1876 Turkey Political Context

Reign of Sultan Abdülaziz.

1862 France Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the Museum of Celtic and Gallo-Roman Antiquities by Napoleon III in Saint-Germain-en-Laye.

1862 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The British India Company establishes a regular steamer service in the Arabian Gulf, first as a mail service, and later enhanced by cargo and passenger services.

1862 Italy Economy And Trade

Law on the unification of currencies passed: the lira becomes the Italian currency.

1862 Portugal International Exhibitions

The “International Exhibition on Industry and Art” in London distinguishes Portugal with 165 Medals of Honor and 240 mentions.

1862 France Fine And Applied Arts

The Picnic on the Grass by Édouard Manet marks a transition from Realism to Impressionism

1862 Germany Political Context

Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia. Date Country Theme

1862 Turkey Travelling

Steamship company Fevâid-I Osmâniyye is founded.

1862 Turkey Travelling

April: Sultan Abdülaziz visits Egypt.

1863 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The literary society Junimea, which had an important role in promoting Romanian literature, is founded in Ia#i. In 1867 it begins publishing a periodical in which the works of Romanian writers appear and also translations from worldwide literature.

1863 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

December: the National Gathering of the United Principalities adopts the law through which the land owned by monasteries (more than a quarter of Romania’s surface) becomes property of the state.

1863 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the 167.5 m high Mole Antonelliana in Turin, initially conceived as a synagogue. It soon becomes the city’s landmark building.

1863 - 1885 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Opening of applied art schools, often attached to museums: Industrial Museum of Turin (1863), Artistic Industrial Museum of Rome (1873), Naples (1882) and Palermo (1885).

1863 Italy Travelling

The Club Alpino Italiano is founded in Turin. Its goal is “to promote the knowledge of mountains, and especially of Italian mountains, their ascent and scientific expeditions”. In 25 years, membership reaches 4,500 with 34 local branches. By 1900 it had built 57 mountain huts.

1863 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Bedrich Smetana's (1824–1884) opera Verkaufte Braut (The Bartered Bride) had its first performance in Prague.

1863 Morocco Political Context

The intention of the trade treaty signed with France in August 1863 is to curb the damaging effects of protectionism and to limit the extent of European penetration but, subverted from its original purpose, it becomes one of the causes of the protectionism problem. The Dahir of June 1864 then proclaimed freedom of trade throughout the Sharifian Empire. The conventions of 1856, 1860–1 and 1863 established the legal bases for relations between Morocco and Europe. Europe’s influence then began to grow. Date Country Theme

1863 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

On 18 October, under the rule of Khedive Isma‘il, the Egyptian Museum opens in the Caireen district of Bulaq under the management of French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, known as Mariette Pasha.

1863 Egypt Migrations

Muhammad Sa‘id Pasha dispatches part of a Sudanese battalion to help stop a rebellion against the Second Mexican Empire.

1863 - 1879 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

Education attracts renewed interest during Isma‘il Pasha’s era. His government establishes schools and reviews students’ expenses, including their living expenses, which sees the restoration of the Diwan (or ministry) of Schools that Sa‘id had annulled. Now as the education budget increased, gradually, the government also returned to dispatching missions to Europe, mostly to France. A number of primary schools were established across the country: from Alexandria in the north to Minya in the south.

1863 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

The painters Mariano Fortuny y Marsal and Francisco Lameyer travel to North Africa. Fortuny buys different artworks and textiles for his collection.

1863 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novel Amor de Perdição (Fatal Love) by Camilo Castelo-Branco (1825–90). Written very quickly, this romance has everything to be a major work of passion: tragic intensity, speed of action, balance of characters and simplicity of style.

1863 Turkey International Exhibitions

Sergi-i Umumi-I Osmani (Ottoman General Exhibition), its format borrowed from Western exhibitions, is opened in #stanbul.

1864 Tunisia Political Context

The popular uprising sounds the death knell for reform. The great figure of this insurrection, ‘Ali bin Ghedham, comes from the region of Kasserine.

1864 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

Dimitrie Bolintineanu, the Minister of Religion and Public Instruction, organises in Bucharest an exhibition displaying works of contemporary Romanian artists, the most important of the time being painters Theodor Aman, Gheorghe Tattarescu and Carol Popp de Szathmari.

1864 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

14 April: the Commune Law is adopted by which cities and towns become urban communes, led by a mayor and a council. All urban communes must have a fire department and a hospital.

1864 Romania Political Context

14 May: coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who dissolves parliament and proposes a new constitutional project, which is voted the same month and ratified by the Ottoman Empire and the guaranteeing Powers in June 1864. The Statute Expanding the Paris Convention assigned greater power to the prince and the government.

1864 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

4 August: establishment of the General Directorate of the Post and the Telegraph in the United Principalities.

1864 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

19 August: establishment of Bucharest’s city hall. Bucharest had been the United Principalities’ capital since 1861.

1864 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

26 August: Alexandru Ioan Cuza promulgates the first Romanian land reform, which transforms peasants into owners of the land on which they had been working on the estates of the aristocracy. Peasants are also freed from the duties they had to perform for the nobility.

1864 Romania Economy And Trade

27 October: foundation of the Romanian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.

1864 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

14 November: a School of Fine Arts (which today is the National University of Art) is founded in Bucharest by painters Gheorghe Tattarescu and Theodor Aman.

1864 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

December: the law of public instruction establishes free, compulsory primary education.

1864 - 1865 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral are held by Britain to sign a Treaty pledging to abstain from any interference with British Gulf Telegraph installations and to punish any aggressions made against them.

1864 Lebanon Travelling

Inauguration of the Capuchin cathedral dedicated to Saint Louis IX King of France. The Capuchins had arrived in Beirut in 1628, practising their rites in the old Saint Date Country Theme George church where the current Maronite cathedral now stands. Before moving to their present location the Capuchins built their first church, also dedicated to Saint Louis, in Beirut in 1732.

1864 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

A governmental survey reveals the existence of 443 friendly societies (Società di mutuo soccorso), all located in Central and Northern Italy (Milan has 38 societies with a total of 9,923 members, Turin 13 with 14,864 members). Their number and membership grows considerably over time until the development of modern welfare.

1864 Greece Political Context

The Ionian islands are incorporated within the newly established Greek State.

1864 Lebanon Political Context

Dawud Pasha (the mutasarrif [governor] of Lebanon, appointed by the Ottomans) restores to Lebanon a part of its lost territory, establishes for the Druze a school in Abayh that still bears his name and struggles against the feudal lords in the south and the clerical party in the north.

1864 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the Carmo Archaeological Museum by the Portuguese Association of Civil Architects, which in 1867 adopts the title of Royal Association of Civil Architects and Portuguese Archaeologists. The museum is located in the ruins of medieval Convento do Carmo, destroyed by the 1755 earthquake.

1864 Portugal Economy And Trade

Banco Nacional Ultramarino is established in Lisbon, as the issuing bank for Portuguese overseas territories. BNU has a significant role in supporting the economic development of the country and the former colonies. Its savings, investment and issuing role facilitates the currency circulation throughout them.

1864 Portugal Economy And Trade

The unpopular tobacco monopoly is ended by parliamentary law. Hereafter tobacco will be auctioned and exploited by those offering the best price to the state. Some of the main tobacco companies merge into bigger companies to ensure its exploration. The Companhia Lisbonense de Tabacos, founded in 1865, becomes a major player.

1864 Germany Political Context

As a consequence of the Prussian–Danish war, Denmark retracts its demand for Schleswig and Holstein.

1864 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–95) develops the first periodic table of chemical elements. Date Country Theme

1864 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Imperial decree orders that all civil servants have to light one or two street gas lamps in front of their houses both in summer and winter.

1865 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

The first showing of the “Living Artists Exhibition” (for painters and sculptors), organised by painter Theodor Aman, takes place in Ia#i. The annual organisation of such an exhibition is established by a decree issued in December 1864.

1865 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The new-born Italian state approves a civil code that places women in a subordinate position in the family. Boys and girls can inherit equally, but married women need “marital authorisation” to manage their property. Male and female adultery are treated differently. The “defence of honour” is accepted as attenuating circumstance in murder cases.

1865 - 1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The worst of the five cholera epidemics that hit Italy during the 19th century kills more than 160,000. The most affected towns are always Naples and Palermo.

1865 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The royal yacht Mahroussa is built for Isma‘il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt.

1865 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

1 May: Santa Apolónia Central Railway Station of Lisbon, connecting to the East and North Railways, is inaugurated. It is sited in the north bank of the Tagus River, close to Praça do Comércio in Lisbon. It is an example of 19th-century iron buildings.

1865 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

The stuccoes of the corridor of the Monserrate Palace are inspired by those of Alhambra Palace in Granada. The profusion of columns is considered to recall those in the Hypostyle Hall of the Cordova Mosque.

1865 Portugal International Exhibitions

“A Exposição Internacional”, in Porto, is the first international exhibition organised in Portugal. Designed by the English architect Thomas Dillen Jones, it follows the London model and was conceived to accommodate the Portuguese International Exhibition.

1865 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Bom-senso e Bom-gosto (Good Sense and Good Taste) by Antero de Quental (1842–91) is an open letter published as pamphlet, replying to and ridiculing the poetry of António Feliciano de Castilho (1800–75) and urging young writers to take Date Country Theme a revolutionary position instead. This controversy became known as the "Questão Coimbrã” (the Coimbra Question).

1865 Turkey Political Context

Formation of Young Ottoman opposition against the bureaucratic domination of Ali Pa#a and Fuad Pa#a.

1865 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz orders the building of a hospital known as the military infirmary. It will later be turned into a courthouse after the French Mandate and then become the Insitute of Fine Arts of the Lebanese University.

1865 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first comprehensive physics textbook in Turkish, Mehmed Emin Dervi# Pa#a’s (1817–79) Usul-i Hikmet-i Tabiiyye (Elements of physics) is published in Istanbul.

1866 Romania Political Context

February: because of his authoritative regime, Cuza is forced to abdicate by a coalition of conservative and liberal-radical politicians.

1866 Romania Political Context

14–20 April: plebiscite leading to German Prince Carol de Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen being elected ruler of the United Principalities and recognised by the Ottoman Empire in October. On 13 July a new constitution is adopted, based on the Belgian one from 1835.

1866 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context

Qawasim lands are divided among the four sons of Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr following his death. The number of Trucial States rises from five to nine.

1866 Austria Migrations

Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from south-western Germany is elected as Prince of Romania.

1866 Italy Economy And Trade

A law confiscates the properties of religious orders and congregations, and establishes a state fund to support the clergy and monks.

1866 Italy Political Context

Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice.

1866 Greece Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme

Nikiphoros Lytras takes up a professorship at the School of the Arts in Athens.

1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The poet Kostis Palamas publishes his first collection of verse entitled the Songs of My Fatherland. A major figure on the Greek literary scene, Palamas writes the Olympic Anthem and is nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature.

1866 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Emmanuel Roidis, one of Greece’s most influential authors, publishes his novel Pope Joan, which is translated into a number of languages.

1866 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Egyptian stamps are issued on 1 January.

1866 - 1867 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

In 1866 the School of Irrigation and Architecture is inaugurated at al-Za‘faran Saray in ‘Abbasiyya in Cairo; it then transfers to Mustafa Fadil Saray at Darb al-Jama‘iz in 1867. The School provides a study programme of five years: a preparatory year followed by a further four years; two years respectively specialising in irrigation and architecture.

1866 Spain Economy And Trade

Financial crisis during the last years of Queen Isabel II's government because of public investments in the construction of the railway.

1866 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Werner von Siemens invents the dynamo.

1866 - 1871 Germany Economy And Trade

Formation of the North German Confederation in 1866/7 sees a federation of the 22 independent states of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. It was the first modern German nation-state and the basis for the later German Empire (1871–1918).

1866 Turkey Economy And Trade

#zmir-Ayd#n railway is built.

1866 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

The Civil Medical School is opened.

1866 Austria Political Context Date Country Theme

Following defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz (3 October), at the Peace of Vienna, Austria is forced to cede the Venetian province to Italy.

1867 Romania Political Context

The centre of present-day Transylvania is integrated into the Hungarian kingdom after the creation of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Partium and Banat had already been included in Hungary.

1867 Romania Economy And Trade

4 May: proclamation of the law for the introduction of a new monetary system and for the issuing of national coins; 1870 is the year when the first Romanian coins are minted in Romania having previously been minted abroad.

1867 Romania International Exhibitions

At the International Exposition held in Paris, the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia have their own pavilions.

1867 Romania International Exhibitions

On the occasion of the International Exposition of Paris a book with information about Romania’s agriculture, commerce, industry and resources is published in Paris by a commission coordinated by Alexandru Odobescu.

1867 Romania Rediscovering The Past

The Pietroasa Treasure is displayed at the International Exposition in Paris.

1867 France International Exhibitions

The exposition known as the Universal World Exhibition of Art and Industry – the seventh World Expo/Fair and the second held in Paris after that of 1855; it ran from 1 April to 3 November 1867 on the Champ-de-Mars in Paris; 41 countries were represented.

1867 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Austrian Museum of Applied Arts purchases the minbar from the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo.

1867 Italy Economy And Trade

Law on the abolition of religious bodies: the real estate properties of 25,000 religious bodies are auctioned.

1867 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Around 60 per cent of men and 80 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate because they are unable to write. Date Country Theme

1867 Italy Political Context

Uprising in Rome demanding unification with Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi leads an expedition of volunteers that enters the Papal States and tries to seize Rome. Roman rebels are defeated and executed. Garibaldi is defeated by Papal troops backed by a French expeditionary corps (France protects the Papal States).

1867 Italy Travelling

The Società Geografica Italiana is founded. In 1869-70, it organises an exploratory expedition to East Africa, in 1875 to Tunisia and in 1876 to Ethiopia. Many other journeys to Africa, and also to Central Asia, South America and Papua follow. Such travels generally combined scientific purposes and political agendas.

1867 United Kingdom International Exhibitions

The Paris Exhibition is the major international exhibition of the century. In the aftermath of the Crimean War (1854–56), when France, Britain and Turkey ally against Russia, there is a boost of friendship with and interest in the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan visits the Paris Exhibition and then continues to London where he was made a Knight of the Garter.

1867 United Kingdom Political Context

The 1850s and 1860s sees close political, commercial and cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire and Britain. The zenith of this relationship is the state visit of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz to France and then Britain. The Prince of Wales then reciprocates with a visit to Constantinople, Damascus and Jerusalem in 1869.

1867 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

The Austrian-Hungarian compromise creates a dual-monarchy that has common ministries only for foreign affairs, defence and public finance.

1867 Egypt Travelling

Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Paris and then London, where he is received by Queen Victoria and welcomed by the Lord Mayor. He attends a British Royal Navy fleet review alongside the Ottoman Sultan.

1867 Spain Rediscovering The Past

Foundation of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional in Madrid following the European movement to create national museums holding the remains of a country's past in tandem with the development of archaeology as a discipline. The museum covers prehistory to modern times, and from its opening in 1871 Spanish Moorish objects are displayed in its Medieval galleries.

1867 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

Febo Moniz published by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Subtitled "Romance Histórico Português do Século XVI", the action takes place in Lisbon in Date Country Theme 1580. The protagonist is the prosecutor Febo Moniz, the sole representative of the state to protest against the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as King of Portugal.

1867 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The opening of the Lisbon Astronomical Observatory, Portugal’s national observatory, which has legal responsibility for national timekeeping. It is located in the Tapada da Ajuda, a green area in the west of Lisbon.

1867 Portugal Economy And Trade

First phylloxera disease reaches the Portugal countryside. Porto wine and Portuguese wine production in general is reduced dramatically. This disease causes economic, financial and social distress and leads to the abandonment of vineyard farms. The loss of revenues and unemployment increases emigration, especially to Brazil.

1867 - 1880 Portugal Economy And Trade

Phylloxera Commission created by the government in order to protect vineyards from the disease. To combat the disease demands new methods of planting and production. New organisations of wine producers claim from central government the preservation of regional varieties as well as the definition and defence of Port and Douro wine “Denominação de Origem Controlada”.

1867 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the “Exposition Universelle” in Paris, the Portugal Pavilion employs a neo- Manueline architectural style. The exoticism is a symbol of the Portuguese Empire built by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries.

1867 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of the poet António Nobre (1867–1900). Só, written during his exile in Paris (1892), is the only work published in his lifetime. The nostalgia of this work, a landmark of the symbolist movement, is tempered by a certain self- irony, alternating a symbolist refined vocabulary with a more colloquial one. He influenced the work of the main Portuguese modernists.

1867 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

July: The first Portuguese major Civil Code is entrusted to António Luís Seabra (1798–1895), the first methodical code maker in Portugal. It is intended to meet the liberal need to regulate the juridical system as happened with French Napoleonic Code. One of its main concerns is the regulation of civil marriage. The Code will remain in force for nearly a century.

1867 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Foundling wheels for babies left anonymously to be cared for were used between the 15th and the 19th century. From 1867 they are gradually abolished and replaced by asylums for orphans, foundlings and abandoned older children. Organised childcare is promoted from 1870 through the foundation of childcare centres and public support for families. Date Country Theme

1867 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Premiere of the opera Roméo et Juliet by Charles-François Gounod.

1867 - 1885 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

King Ludwig II of Bavaria sets in motion the building of his second palace, Linderhof (1869–85), the smallest of the large palaces he had built, and the only one he lived to see completed. The king’s penchant for the so called Moorish style can be seen in several elements, such as the Moorish Kiosk (1867) and the Moroccan House (1878). The King’s House on the Schachen (1869–72), built with a Turkish Hall by Georg von Dollmann, further attests to Ludwig’s admiration for the “Oriental” style.

1867 Turkey International Exhibitions

The Ottoman Empire participates in the International Exhibition in Paris. The Ottoman pavilions are designed in #stanbul by a self-taught French architect named Léon Parvillée in collaboration with the Italian architect Barborini. Sultan Abdülaziz travels to Paris at the invitation of Emperor Napoleon III to attend the opening of the World Exhibition.

1867 Turkey Travelling

Sultan Abdülaziz makes state visits to European powers.

1867 Turkey Political Context

8 June: The Egyptian governor receives from the Sublime Porte the title of “khedive,” which provides him legislative independence.

1867 Austria Travelling

Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz visits Vienna on 18 July.

1868 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

29 April: the Romanian Philharmonic Society is founded by conductor Eduard Wachmann with the aim of organising a permanent symphony orchestra. The inaugural concert takes place in the same year on 15 December.

1868 Lebanon Rediscovering The Past

Luigi Palma di Cesnola, the American Consul in Cyprus, gives a collection of Cyprian pottery to the Syrian Protestant College (now the American University) in Beirut. This event is the first step towards the foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University.

1868 Lebanon Travelling

Foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut after Luigi Palma di Cesnola gives a collection of Cypriot pottery to the newly formed university. Date Country Theme

1868 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The railway across the Brenner Pass (via the Alps) opens.

1868 Austria Migrations

Michael Latos is born in Croatia (Austrian Empire) in 1828. He later deserts the Austrian army and flees to the Ottoman Empire, where he makes a military career as Omar Pasha and becomes Minister of War in 1868.

1868 - 1883 Italy Migrations

Different circular letters by the Minister of Interior place obstacles on migration: migrants are supposed to have work contracts or to prove they have enough funding to repatriate. Such circular letters have only limited effect. Landowners put pressure on government to discourage migration.

1868 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Gualberta Alaide Beccari (a feminist with republican ideas, much influenced by Mazzini) founds the periodical La donna, which campaigns for women’s rights. La donna’s main contributor is Anna Maria Mozzoni, who since 1865 had campaigned against “marital authorisation” and for women’s right to vote.

1868 - 1874 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the Abdeen Palace in Cairo begins in 1868 and inauguration takes place some six years later.

1868 - 1886 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

A Law School is established during Isma‘il Pasha’s era in 1868. Known then as the School of Management and Languages, the two schools separate in 1882 and remain as such until July 1886. That year, it becomes the School of Law with two departments, primary and high.

1868 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The “Generation of ‘68” writers begin to publish after the 1868 revolution; the group is named by one of its members, Leopoldo Alas, known as Clarín. Their characteristics are middle-class consciousness and a realist style. Authors in this group include Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, José María Pereda, Benito Pérez Galdós and Emilia Pardo Bazán.

1868 Spain Political Context

Carlist wars, economic crisis (1866–68) and disgruntlement with Queen Isabel II and the government explode in the September revolution known as La Gloriosa. The revolution is followed by six years of democratic government under Amadeo I, from the Italian Saboya family, (1870–73) and then under the first Spanish Republic (1873–74), causing the 3rd Carlist war.

1868 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

The birth of José Viana da Motta (d. 1948). Pianist, composer, conductor and pedagogue, he studied piano and composition in Berlin and performed in concerts around the world. He was professor of Piano at the Conservatory of Geneva and Director of the Conservatório Nacional de Lisboa, maintaining his concert career alongside teaching.

1868 - 1886 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Ludwig II (r. 1864–86) had several palaces built during his reign. The most famous among these are Neuschwanenstein (1868–92, still in construction when Ludwig died), Neues Schloss Herrenchiemsee (1878–86, built along the lines of Versailles, but never completed), and Linderhof (1869–85), the only palace the king lived to see completed.

1868 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

29 June: Nam#k Kemal and Ziya Pa#a publish oppositional weekly newspaper in London, where they had fled to.

1869 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past

The opening of the Suez Canal sparks a second burst of British popular interest in ancient Egypt.

1869 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Timi#oara is the first city in Romania to use horse-drawn trams for public transportation. In Bucharest they are introduced in 1871.

1869 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Opening of the new State Opera House in Vienna.

1869 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria attends the opening of the Suez Canal on 17 November.

1869 Austria Travelling

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria visits Jerusalem.

After 1869 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Banyan (Hindu) merchants from British India increase their commercial, shipping and banking activities throughout the Trucial Coast, particularly within the pearling sector. Soon the Banyan becomes the main financiers, controlling all processes involving the preparation and pricing of pearls for export to Europe.

1869 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The railway line from the Thesion district in central Athens to the Port of Piraeus opens. Date Country Theme

1869 - 1878 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Under French direction the Suez Canal opens in 1869, improving the route to India. Britain then acquires a financial interest in the Canal in 1875. When in 1878 Cyprus becomes part of the British Empire, another fuelling station on the imperial route to India is achieved.

1869 United Kingdom Political Context

Built largely with French expertise and capital, the Suez Canal shortens the journey to India. The British government secures a major financial interest in the Canal in 1876, and its security becomes a major British interest for the following century.

1869 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Khedive Isma‘il commissions a French company to construct the first bridge across the River Nile in Cairo, the Qasr al-Nil Bridge.

1869 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

The Opera House is inaugurated in November 1869 with Verdi’s Opera Rigoletto. In attendance, seated in the Royal loge, are Khedive Isma‘il Pasha, Empress Eugénie and her husband Napoleon III, and François Joseph I of Austria.

1869 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

With completion of the Suez Canal a number of dignitaries and high-profile personalities arrive in Egypt for the inauguration, including Empress Eugénie of France.

1869 Egypt Travelling

Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Britain.

1869 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Installation of the first public telephone line in Romania (in Bucharest between the Minister of Internal Affairs and the Central Post Office).

1870 - 1875 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past

Academic interest and geopolitical concerns combine to stimulate the state-of- the-art mapping of Palestine. There is strong interest in the lands of the Bible. In addition, following the opening of the Suez Canal, threats to British routes to India loom from the north, first from Russia and then from the Ottoman Empire and Germany.

1870 France Cities And Urban Spaces

From 1870, the suburbs appear around major French cities such as Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille.

1870 France Political Context Date Country Theme

The Third Republic had a difficult start: the Treaty of Versailles with Prussia granting Alsace and Lorraine to the German Empire, and repression of the Commune. After a period known as the “Moral Order”, the Opportunist (1879–98) or Radical Republic (1898–1914) set up a large number of reforms in all areas, which include among others: a law on primary education (1881–2); a law on freedom of the press (1881); the restoration of the law on divorce (1884); a law allowing Trades Unions (1884); and a law on the separation of Church and State (1905).

1870 France Travelling

From 1870 onwards, as the peripheries around the big French cities like Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille start growing, they develop into a real suburban belt around the city.

1870 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Renewal and urban modernisation of Rome starts with the opening of a long road linking Porta Pia (where the Italian army broke into the city in 1870) to the Quirinale Palace, residence of the King (formerly a papal palace). The headquarters of some ministries are located along this road.

1870 Lebanon Political Context

Ottomans appoint Rustam Pasha as mutasarrif (governor). He is an equally firm and economical administrator.

1870 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Publication of Joao de Deus’s Cartilha Maternal, a beginner’s reading book that was to be in use for a long time. João de Deus was a follower of Maria Montessori’s pedagogical theories and founded in Portugal the “Escola Nova” movement.

1870 France Political Context

The Franco-Prussian War: France's defeat to Prussia results in the abdication of Napoleon III. Proclamation of the Third Republic.

1870 Germany Economy And Trade

The Deutsche Bank is founded by Georg von Siemens.

1870 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Fire in Beyo#lu (#stanbul) destroys about 3,000 houses; 80 people are killed. After that incident using brick and stone to build houses becomes obligatory.

1870 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Ahmed Mithat Efendi (1844–1912), who introduced the novel from the Ottoman community begins to publish Letaif-I Rivayat (Finest Stories), which includes long stories and novellas. Date Country Theme

1871 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Alexandru Odobescu sends an archaeological questionnaire to teachers all over the country, who have to return information about archaeological discoveries or vestiges of antique monuments existing in the areas where they live or work.

1871 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Fréjus Rail Tunnel under Alps, between Italy and France, inaugurated (12.8 km long).

1871 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

24 December: first world performance of the new opera by Verdi, Aida, set in ancient Egypt, at the Khedivial Opera House in Cairo.

1871 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Nikolaos Politis publishes the first volume of his pioneering work on Greek folklore, Study of the Life of Modern Greeks: Modern Greek Mythology.

1871 - 1877 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

Jezira Bridge is constructed in 1871 and opens to traffic in 1877. The intention is to link the districts of Dokki and Bulaq al-Dakrur with Zamalek. Construction requires redirection of the Nile bed.

1871 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giuseppe Verdi’s Egyptian-themed Aida premiers in Cairo on 24 December.

1871 Spain Rediscovering The Past

Voyage of the frigate Arapiles to the Near East. The ship was commissioned by the Spanish government to travel to the Near East with Spanish archaeologists and curators to document ancient monuments and buy antiquities. It sailed from Naples to Greece, Istanbul, Rhodes, Cyprus, Lebanon and Egypt and brought back drawings, notes and artworks to be kept in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Madrid.

1871 France Political Context

When the people of Paris refuse to accept defeat and take up arms the Versailles- based government resist and harshly repress the "Commune".

1871 Germany Political Context

The German Empire, a union of sovereign states and free cities, is established under Prussian leadership.

1871 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

Berlin becomes the imperial capital.

From 1871 Germany Economy And Trade

The capital market is enlivened by France’s payment of 5 million French francs, paid to Germany as compensation following the war between the two countries (1870–1).

1871 Turkey Economy And Trade

Ottoman railway policy is formulated by the decree of Sultan Abdülaziz to establish a main line between #stanbul and Baghdad, with secondary lines to the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts.

1871 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822–90) begins excavations in Troy.

1872 - 1874 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces

The city of Tunis benefits from the first installation of public street lighting. An English company builds a gasometer and installs the pipelines necessary to supply gas for street lighting of the city’s main arteries.

1872 Austria Economy And Trade

Foundation of the Austrian Agricultural University in Vienna.

1872 United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Italian composer Verdi is commissioned by the Egyptian Khedive to compose the opera Aida for celebrations to mark the opening of the Suez Canal. Later Verdi is also commissioned to compose the Egyptian National Anthem.

1872 - 1874 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

O Desterrado (The Outcast), a sculpture by António Soares dos Reis (1847–89) is an idealised self-portrait. It conveys the collective feelings of his contemporary intellectuals and the feelings of loneliness and longing common to those who had left their homeland. The sculptor’s romantic sensibility enabled him to shape feelings and psychological tensions in the marble.

1872 France Fine And Applied Arts

Impression, Sunrise by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet.

1872 - 1879 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

As a consequence of the Kulturkampf the influence of the Catholic Church is limited in Germany.

1873 - 1877 Tunisia Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

Khayr al-Din undertakes reform of the Tunisian economy.

1873 - 1877 Tunisia Political Context

The regency of Khayr al-Din, the Grand Vizier reformer, who reorganises institutions and the economy. His major cultural works are the creation of Sadiki College and major reform of the Zaytuna Mosque.

1873 Romania International Exhibitions

Two Romanians are members of the international jury of the Vienna International Exposition: agronomist and economist P.S. Aurelian and doctor Carol Davila.

1873 Romania Travelling

The first tourism organisation from Romania, called the Alpine Association of Transylvania, is founded in Bra#ov.

1873 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of a new water-supply pipeline from the Alps to Vienna.

1873 Austria International Exhibitions

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria opens the Weltausstellung, Vienna’s World Trade Fair.

1873 Austria International Exhibitions

A copy of the decoration from the Tomb of Khnumhotep is exhibited in the Egyptian Pavilion of the World Trade Fair.

1873 Austria International Exhibitions

At the World Trade Fair in Vienna, the Austrian Museum of Applied Art purchases a pair of jugs from Tunisia for the museum.

1873 Austria Rediscovering The Past

The Austrian archaeologist Alexander Conze organizes excavations in Samothrace.

1873 Greece Economy And Trade

Foundation of the Greek Stock Market.

1873 Spain Economy And Trade

Development of the Minas de Riotinto (Huelva, Andalucía). Bought by a British company, the mines bring important economic progress to this region. The dangerous chemicals used in metal extraction spark the first environmental protest Date Country Theme by mine workers. (The first fooball match took place in this mine, thanks to the British engineers.)

1873 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)

The first railway in Macedonia runs from Thessalonica via Skopje to Belgrade. Its construction, financed with foreign investments, began in 1871 and the track to Skopje is finished in 1873. The Skopje–Mitrovica line is completed in 1878. In 1888 it is connected to Serbian railways at the border crossing Zibevche near Vranje.

1873 Republic of Macedonia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century (FYROM)

Construction of the first railway station in Macedonia in Skopje.

1873 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

A primary school building to be built in wood attracts the attention of visitors to the Portuguese stand at the “Weltausstellung” (world exposition) in Vienna.

1873 Germany Rediscovering The Past

The development of Classical Archaeology is strongly influenced by Heinrich Schliemann in the second half of the 18th century when for example he finds the “Gold of Troy”.

1873 Germany Economy And Trade

The Krupp Corporation is the largest industrial concern in Europe.

1873 - 1880 Germany Economy And Trade

The economic crash known as the Gründerkrise sees companies and banks shut down and a rise in unemployment and social dissatisfaction.

1873 - 1878 Germany International Exhibitions

The Moorish Kiosk, built for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1878, was subsequently bought for Linderhof Palace Park by Ludwig II. The Moroccan House, which was actually built in Morocco for the International Exhibition in Vienna in 1873 and acquired by a private individual after the king’s death, was bought by the German state in 1980 and reconstructed in the Palace Park in 1998.

1873 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Levi Strauss, a German citizen in exile in America, requests the patent for blue Jeans.

1873 Lebanon Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

Beirut Water Works factory is founded, providing water for daily use by the Lebanese people, taking water from Nahr al-Kalb and distributing it through an extensive water network.

1873 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

First art exhibition in #stanbul, organised by #eker Ahmed Pa#a.

1873 Turkey International Exhibitions

Ottoman participates in Vienna World Exhibition with a faithful full-scale replica of the Sultan Ahmed Fountain near Hagia Sophia in #stanbul. Ottoman artisans crafted the details of the façade panels, and the most of the materials were brought from Turkey.

1873 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

Heinrich Schliemann finds what he calls “Priam’s Treasure” in Troy.

1873 Turkey Political Context

1 April: Nam#k Kemal’s play Vatan Yahud Silistre arouses patriotic sentiments in #stanbul.

1874 Romania Rediscovering The Past

18 April: decree for the founding of the Commission of Public Monuments to record the public monuments on Romanian territory and to ensure their conservation.

1874 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

Issue of the first sanitation law in the United Principalities. The sanitation system is organised hierarchically and a Superior Medical Council, with a consultative role, is created.

1874 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Joseph Strauss composes the opera Die Fledermaus.

1874 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The first Emirati historian Abdullah Saleh al-Mutawa’ is born in Sharjah.

1874 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

Kasper von Zumbusch (1830–1915) begins work on a monument to Empress Maria Theresia, situated on Maria-Theresien-Platz at the Ringstrasse in Vienna.

1874 Egypt Migrations Date Country Theme

Khedive Isma‘il attempts to reduce slave trading and extends Egypt’s rule in Africa. Managing to annex Darfur in 1874, he is prevented from further expansion into Ethiopia when his army is defeated by the Emperor Yohannes IV.

1874 - 1885 Spain Political Context

Restoration of the monarchy. A military uprising under General Martínez Campos in Sagunto against the Republic returns the throne to the Bourbon Dynasty, with Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) as King.

1874 Republic of Macedonia Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion (FYROM)

Beginnings of the Macedonian amateur theatre in Veles initiated by educator and playwright Jordan Hadzi Konstantinov-Dzinot (1821–82). Professional theatres open in the late 19th century. Vojadan Chernodrinski (1875–1951) is considered one of the founders of the Macedonian theatre. The premiere for his best-known play, the tragedy Macedonian Bloody Wedding was held in Sofia, Bulgaria, on 7 November 1900.

1874 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

“Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a large scale”, Rudolf Virchow stated in defence of public health and the building of hospitals in Berlin (i.e. Friedrichshain (1874), Moabit (1875, now closed) and Am Urban (1890); even parks and playgrounds were important to improve city life for the proletariat, Virchow continued.

1874 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of the residential blocks of Akaretler (Istanbul) by the architect Agob Balian. They are built for the elite staff of the nearby Dolmabahçe Palace.

1875 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past

The Saint Louis Museum in Carthage is founded in the former seminary of the White Fathers.

1875 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes

The creation of Sadiki College based on a modern concept of education: the school separates from the mosque and a distinction is made between educational structures and those of the religious life.

1875 France Rediscovering The Past

Creation of the French School of Rome (excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum).

1875 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as a transshipment centre for traffic to Date Country Theme and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.

1875 Lebanon Reforms And Social Changes

Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities, which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent years including, in 1883, a Faculty of Medicine.

1875 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Edmund Count Széchényi establishes Turkey’s first fire brigade in Istanbul.

1875 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as a transshipment centre for traffic to and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.

1875 - 1887 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

Lingah, on the Persian littoral of the Gulf, serves as a conduit for the Trucial Coast’s imports from British India, including cloth, coffee, flour and rice. It is governed as a free port under Qawasim administration.

1875 Greece Rediscovering The Past

Excavations begin at Olympia under the German archaeologist Ernst Curtius; they continue under German leadership until World War II.

1875 Austria Migrations

Gustav Mahler (1860–1911) is born in Kališt# in Bohemia; he emigrates from there to Vienna in 1875.

1875 - 1878 Serbia Political Context

During the 1875 Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion against Ottoman authority, the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro provide the insurgents with moral, material and military support, which leads to the first Serbo-Turkish War in 1876. Having been a long time in preparation, the rebellion is widespread and raises questions not only about Serbia but also about the East, thus becoming an event of European importance. Its outcome is the convocation of the Berlin Congress (1878), at which both Serbia and Montenegro gain independence, and Austria- Hungary takes over Bosnia-Herzegovina.

1875 - 1876 Egypt Economy And Trade

In December 1875 Stephen Cave and John Stokes are sent by the British Government to inquire into the finances of Egypt. Their report, published in Date Country Theme April 1876, advises that in view of the perceived “waste and extravagance” it is necessary for foreign powers to interfere to restore credit.

1875 Egypt Migrations

The Egyptian Geographic Society is established by a decree of Khedive Isma‘il Pasha on 19 May 1875. Its first president is the German botanist, traveller and ethnologist Georg August Schweinfurth.

1875 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

The Dictionary of Three Languages by Gjorgji Pulevski (d. 1893) is published in Belgrade. It shows the political context and coexistence of Macedonians, Albanians and Turks in the territory of Macedonia. It gives words in Macedonian, Albanian and Turkish in three columns. Pulevski was also the author of the Dictionary of Four Languages.

1875 - 1876 Portugal Economy And Trade

In 1875 the French government convenes the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre that proclaims the Metre Convention. Portugal receives the tenth copies of the metric and kilogram standards.

1875 Portugal Travelling

Aware that Portuguese empirical knowledge of Central Africa was being overtaken by other countries, the “Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa” is founded to "promote and assist the study and progress of geography and related sciences in Portugal". To raise awareness of the colonial Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia was also a goal.

1875 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Opening of the Palais Garnier.

1875 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities, which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent years.

1875 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of the novel Taa##uk-u Talat ve Fitnat (The Romance of Talat and Fitnat) by #emseddin Sami (1850–1904). This book is considered to be the starting point of the Ottoman novel.

1876 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

19 February: birth of the great Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncu#i, author of sculptures such as Mademoiselle Pogany, The Kiss, Bird in Space, and The Date Country Theme Endless Column. His works are today exhibited in museums in France, the USA and Romania.

1876 Romania Reforms And Social Changes

Foundation of the Romanian Red Cross.

1876 Italy Rediscovering The Past

In Rome, Luigi Pigorini founds the National Prehistoric Ethnographic Museum, enriching with new acquisitions the ethnographic and prehistoric collection previously belonging to the Kircher Museum, founded in the 17th century.

1876 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

Following the curtailment of academic freedom in the university, a group of professors expelled from Madrid University introduces in Spain a new education system under the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution for Education), a secular private project that would modernise all levels of the education system between 1876 and 1936. This initiative was to have an important impact on some of the most important Spanish intellectuals.

1876 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

In 1870, after attending universities in Edinburgh and London, Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) immigrates to Canada before becoming professor of vocal physiology at Boston. There, in pursuit of a device to help the deaf, Bell invented the telephone, which he patented in February 1876 only days ahead of other rivals. It was not until 10 March 1876 that the famous words “Mr Watson, come here; I want you” were transmitted by telephone. He formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877.

1876 Portugal Political Context

Partido Histórico and Partido Reformista merge into the Partido Progressista in September. Power alternation with the Partido Regenerador framed rotativism. They were able to carry out some urgent reforms but in the end the system soon degenerated into political conformism.

1876 - 1881 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

The "Urban General Improvements Plan for Lisbon" (Commission of 1876–81) designs wide, straight roads – modern boulevards – to define orthogonal blocks for buildings, with roundabouts, pavements, vegetation and street furniture namely at Avenida 24 de Julho, Avenida da Liberdade and covering the area from Picoas to Campo Grande.

1876 Portugal International Exhibitions

“Centennial International Exhibition” Philadelphia, USA. Support for visitors and accommodation of the Portuguese Commissariat were the main purposes of a stylish and exotic Portugal Pavilion.

1876 France Fine And Applied Arts Date Country Theme

Dance at Le moulin de la Galette by the Impressionist painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir.

1876 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Robert Koch discovers bacteriology.

1876 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

By 1876 Beirut has increased 10–12 times its size in 1841. Eleven districts are added and Danish acting Consul Julius Loyvted draws the new map and presents it to Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II. Banks, quarantine office, quays, railway office, telegraph, post office, police stations and offices for foreign agencies are all established in the existing city centre.

1876 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces

The construction of Dolmabahçe Mosque by Agob Balian.

1876 Turkey Political Context

23 December: Promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution.

1877 - 1881 Romania Political Context

After Parliament declares Romania’s independence (May 1877), Romania participates alongside Russia in the Russian-Ottoman war. The Congress of Berlin (1878) recognises the independence of Romania, which receives the greater part of Dobruja, but cedes the south of Bessarabia to Russia. In March 1881 Romania is proclaimed a kingdom. Prince Carol and his wife Elizabeth are crowned as King and Queen of Romania in May in Bucharest.

1877 - 1882 Romania Fine And Applied Arts

Ion Georgescu, considered to be the first Romanian modern sculptor, studies in Paris, where he exhibits his first works.

1877 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Austrian glass manufacture Lobmayr produces glass cups in the Oriental Style.

1877 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

The “Coppino Law” makes elementary schools mandatory and free of charge.

1877 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

The Viennese Stock Market is completed to a design by Theophil Hansen.

1877 Austria Migrations Date Country Theme

Karl Krauss (1874–1936) is born in Ji#ín in Bohemia; he emigrates from Bohemia to Vienna in 1877, where his famous journal Die Fackel (The Torch) is published in 1898.

1877 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Yaqub Sanu‘ founds the satirical magazine Abu Naddara early in this year. It has immediate and wide appeal to both the literate and the illiterate, who find someone to read it to them.

1877 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Ponte Dona Maria Pia, a bridge over the Douro River, completes the Lisbon–Porto railway line. Designed by Gustave Eiffel and Théophile Seyrig, the bridge keeps the beauty of the Douro unchanged. It was built where the banks are closer. It was named after the Queen.

1877 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of Teixeira de Pascoaes (d. 1952). This poet was the main representative of the aesthetic and doctrinal movement called “saudosismo”, a form of existentialism, and a leader of the movement Renascença Portuguesa. In 1910 he launched in Porto the magazine A Águia, the main resource of the “saudosismo” movement .

1877 Portugal Travelling

Hermenegildo Capelo, Roberto Ivens and Serpa Pinto appointed to organise an expedition to southern Africa. After a briefing by Silva Porto in Bié, they chose separate itineraries. Capelo and Ivens focus on the Kwanza and Kuangu rivers and on the Yaka people. Serpa Pinto picks the Zambezi River and eventually reaches the Transvaal.

1877 - 1878 Turkey Migrations

Mass Balkan migration. After the Russo-Turkish War (called the ’93 War by Turks) between 1 and 1.5 million people are driven from the Balkans to the Ottoman heartlands.

1877 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

German archaeologist Carl Humann (1839–96) begins excavating Pergamon. He would later conduct excavations in Zincirli (1888) and Magnesia (1892).

1877 Turkey Political Context

19 March: Opening of the parliament.

1878 - 1881 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces

The Iliou Melathron is designed by architect Ernst Ziller as the residence of the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann and his family.

1878 United Kingdom Political Context Date Country Theme

Uprisings in the Balkan Ottoman territories lead to disproportionate reprisals. Popular protests in Britain oppose support for the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the Crimean War, Britain provides no military aid to the Ottomans in their war with Russia. Diplomatic support is rewarded however, with Britain’s occupation of Cyprus confirmed at the Congress of Berlin.

1878 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Opening of Lisbon Botanical Garden. During the 19th century Portugal aspires to reach the level of economic and social “progress” of other European countries in, for example, education and teaching. Natural History Museum and the Lisbon Botanical Garden were important institutions for scientific research and the exchange and circulation of ideas and natural knowledge.

1878 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

28 September: The first electric lighting on the terrace of the Citadel of Cascais to celebrate the 15th birthday of future King Carlos I (ruling from 1889). A ball commemorates the electric lighting premiere. The daily press celebrate the occasion, saying that the electric light turned the entrance and the royal residence balconies into “a clear and luminous day’’.

1878 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the Paris “Exposition Universelle”, the Portuguese Pavilion sets up a sophisticated, emblematic scenario, portraying the monasteries of Batalha and Jerónimos, two of the magnificent symbols of the 15th and 16th Portuguese Discoveries.

1878 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The anti-Socialist laws known as Sozialistengesetz prohibit socialist organisations, meetings and publications.

1878 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

The Law School is opened.

1878 Turkey Political Context

3 March: Russo-Turco Treaty of St Stefano defines Bulgaria, which includes present-day Bulgaria, present-day Macedonia and northern Greece.

1878 Turkey Political Context

13 March: Abdülhamid II dissolves parliament.

1878 Austria Political Context

In June the signatories at the Congress of Berlin grant Austria the right to occupy and fully administer Bosnia and Herzegovina for an undetermined period.

1879 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

18–20 January: the National Theatre of Bucharest premieres the comedy A Stormy Night by Ion Luca Caragiale, the greatest Romanian playwright. It is Caragiale’s first staged play and is a great public success.

1879 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Creation of the telephone network in France.

1879 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade

A British-enforced Treaty is signed to ensure the mutual surrender of fraudulently absconding debtors in the pearling industry. It is signed by the Trucial Sheikhs in the presence of Haji Abdul Rahman, the Residency Agent at Sharjah, and Haji Abdul al-Qasimi, the Residency Munshi who had been deputed from Bushire to convey the directives of the British Resident.

1879 Austria Fine And Applied Arts

Hans Makart (1840–84) designs the “Makart Parade” to celebrate the Silver wedding anniversary of the Imperial couple, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Empress Elisabeth (“Sisi”).

1879 - 1882 Egypt Political Context

The ’Urabi Revolution, led by Colonel Ahmed ’Urabi, erupts in February 1879 and continues until 1882. It is the first revolution of the modern age in Egypt.

1879 Spain Rediscovering The Past

Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola and his daughter discover the cave paintings of Altamira. De Sautuola and Juan Vilanova y Piera in an 1880 publication identify them as Palaeolithic, meeting scepticism and ridicule until the discovery of similar paintings elsewhere results in recognition of their findings in 1902. Famous for drawings and polychrome paintings of animals and human hands the cave is now a national museum and World Heritage site.

1879 - 1888 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

Pablo Iglesias founds the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE – Spanish Socialist Party) in 1879; under his leadership the socialists institute the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT – General Workers' Union) in 1888, with liberals in power. At the same time the anarchist movement creates associations that later will become trade unions.

1879 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

11 October: The labour association Voz do Operário is founded in Lisbon by Custódio Gomes and Custódio Braz Pacheco, two factory workers in the tobacco industry, to defend the rights of the workers more disrespected and threatened than ever by the tobacco industry crisis of 1879.

1879 Germany Economy And Trade Date Country Theme

The German Empire moves from a free-trade system to protective duty.

1879 Germany International Exhibitions

The Great Industrial Exposition is held at the Lehrter Bahnhof in Berlin, where one of main attractions is the first electric locomotive from Siemens & Halske.

1879 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

4 May: Judicial reform extends the administrative authority of Ministry of Justice over mixed courts.

1880 - 1890 Tunisia Fine And Applied Arts

It was the era of eclecticism. The French Protectorate builds the regency’s infrastructure in the European classical tradition, constructing monuments in the impressive Greco-Roman style.

1880 Romania Economy And Trade

29 April: promulgation of the law for the founding of the National Bank of Romania.

1880 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Grigore Tocilescu’s book Dacia before the Romans is awarded the grand prize of the Academic Society, for the best work on the history of Dacia before the Roman conquest.

1880 France Rediscovering The Past

Excavations of French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero (1846–1916) in Egypt.

1880 Lebanon Migrations

A small number of Lebanese people emigrate to the USA, the first of a wave of migration abroad.

1880 - 1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Italy is hit by the international agricultural crisis and annual per capita income decreases.

1880 - 1887 Italy Migrations

As a consequence of agricultural crisis, mass migration starts.

1880 - 1889 Italy Migrations

Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 37,000; USA 24,000; Argentina 39,000; Brazil 22,000.

1880 Italy Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

Anna Maria Mozzoni and Paolina Schiff (an academic) found the League for the Promotion of Women’s Interests, the first feminist organisation in Italy.

1880s United Kingdom Migrations

European Zionism initiates a small migration, mostly from Russia – especially after the pogroms – to Palestine. Among the Jewish community in Palestine are ancestors of Jewish migrants from the 15th and 16th centuries who fled the Iberian Peninsula after their expulsion by Ferdinand and Isabella.

1880 Morocco Political Context

The intention of the 1880 Madrid Conference, reflected in the agreements signed by Morocco under the reign of Mulay al-Hasan I and the countries of Europe, is to enhance the benefits of reform in Morocco and to provide a legal and regulatory framework for Mulay al-Hasan I. Following these agreements, the European countries won the right to own land and assets throughout Morocco. The agreements were the result of globalisation of Moroccan business.

1880s onwards Spain Travelling

Travelling to North Africa, Egypt or the Turkish Empire becomes part of the leisure travels of wealthy families of Spain.

1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

Celebration of the third centenary of the death of Luís de Camões. His poetry is considered the epitome of Portuguese literature both for The Lusiads, the epic national poem in which Vasco da Gama tells the history of Portugal to the Samorim (king) of Calcutta upon his arrival in India in 1498, and for his love sonnets.

1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

The 11th International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology is held in Lisbon. This important conference gives international recognition to the dynamism that Portuguese archaeology has demonstrated since 1850.

1880 Portugal Rediscovering The Past

The remains of the poet Luís de Camões and the explorer Vasco da Gama are moved to the Jerónimos Monastery. Vasco da Gama and Luís de Camões (north and south side respectively), the two main representatives of the 16th-century The Lusiads epic poem, are honored and rest beside members of the Avis dynasty buried in Jerónimos.

1880 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

3 October: Barbadinhos steam pumping station is inaugurated. The water from the Alviela Canal starts to be pumped thus increasing the water supply to Lisbon.

1880 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Publication of the novella O Mandarim (The Mandarin) by Eça de Queirós (Queiroz) (1845–1900).

1880 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Soirées de Médan, a collection of short stories by Guy de Maupassant, Émile Zola, etc., is considered to be the Naturalist manifesto.

1880 Germany Travelling

The dome of Cologne is completed (construction began in 1248). It is the tallest church building in the world at the time.

1881 - 1883 Tunisia Political Context

At the metropolitan palace, Muhammad Sadiq Bey signs the treaty imposed by the French Protectorate known as the Treaty of Bardo (or Treaty of Kasser al-Sa‘id). This is followed by the Convention of Marsa in 1883. The Regency of Tunis passes from Ottoman suzerainty to French domination.

1881 - 1884 Tunisia Political Context

Tunisians put up stiff resistance to French occupation without any external support. The Sublime Porte, itself threatened by the Western powers, limits the show of protest against the French occupation.

1881 France International Exhibitions

The Paris-based International Exhibition of Electricity presents the telephone and light bulbs.

1881 France Reforms And Social Changes

The (Jules) Ferry Law establishes free, compulsory and secular primary education for all French children.

1881 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

Designs for a telephone network in Vienna.

1881 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Construction of the telephone network in Vienna.

1881 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Italian telephone services run by private companies start operating.

1881 Italy International Exhibitions

The first Italian National Industrial Exhibition is held in Milan. Date Country Theme

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

At La Scala Theatre in Milan, premiere of Excelsior, mimic ballet by Luigi Manzotti, music by Romualdo Marenco. Through 11 allegorical scenes glorifying 19th- century scientific and industrial progress (steam-engine, electric light, telegraph, Suez Canal, Fréjus Rail Tunnel, etc.), it celebrates the triumph of Light over Obscurantism.

1881 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Giovanni Verga (1840–1922) publishes the novel I malavoglia (published in English as The House by the Medlar-Tree), which describes the life of a family of Sicilian fishermen. Verga was the most important author of the Italian realist school known as verismo.

1881 United Kingdom Economy And Trade

When the Ottoman Empire is declared bankrupt, an Ottoman Public Debt Commission is established made up of an international body – mainly British, French and German – to manage the Empire’s finances. This becomes a form of veiled European control of Turkey’s economy. This followed a similar imposition of financial control over Egypt’s finances.

1881 Austria Economy And Trade

The Osterreichische-Alpine Montan-Gesellschaft is founded to mine the rich iron resources of north-west Styria.

1881 Spain Fine And Applied Arts

Birth of Pablo Picasso in Málaga. In Spain Picasso’s birth date would be established as the boundary between works of art in the Academic style and the avant-garde style.

1881 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Portugal Contemporâneo, by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Detailed analysis of the events between 1826 and 1868, it is considered the most clear-sighted study of Portugal in the 19th century. The author makes a general criticism of Portuguese liberalism, presented as a historical account.

1881 Portugal Travelling

With a thorough knowledge of the African hinterland, António da Silva Porto appeals to the Sociedade de Geografia to sponsor a plan for the scientific and commercial exploitation of Africa. The remote hinterland was about to be discovered by explorers and Africa’s boundaries defined by the colonial powers.

1881 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Werner von Siemens develops the tram. Date Country Theme

1881 Austria Political Context

The alliance of the three Emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria recognise the Habsburg Empire’s predominance in the western Balkans. In June, Austria reaches an agreement with King Milan I of Serbia, whereby Austria promises to support an eventual Serbian expansion in the south, while Serbia agrees to exclude any agreement with other powers without Austria’s prior approval.

1882 Tunisia Migrations

Inauguration of the new Catholic Cathedral in Tunis, designed in the monumental Greco-Roman style, in line with the image France intends to convey in the early days of its protectorate over the regency.

1882 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past

The Alaoui Museum is founded in the bey’s palace in Bardo, in a wing of the complex formerly used to host the bey’s harem.

1882 - 1888 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

Swiss engineers Carl Culmann and Arnold Burkly-Ziegler are contracted to develop a water supply network for Bucharest.

1882 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

In Bucharest the first electric generators are installed and used to illuminate some important buildings of the city (the Royal Palace, the Cotroceni Palace, the National Theatre), Victory Avenue and Ci#migiu Park.

1882 Romania Rediscovering The Past

Grigore Tocilescu begins to research the remains of the Roman town Tropaeum Traiani (modern Adamclisi in Dobruja).

1882 - 1884 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

On the occasion of the 1884 General Exhibition of Turin, construction of the Rocca (castle) and the Borgo Medievale (medieval village) in Parco del Valentino (Valentino Park) in order to promote appreciation for 15th-century Piedmont architecture. In 1884, the Municipality of Turin buys part of this area, where it will later locate the Civic Museums.

1882 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Gotthard Rail Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland opens (14.9 km). The construction work had started in 1872.

1882 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Brera Picture Gallery, originally created by Maria Teresa of Austria in 1776, becomes an independent museum. Date Country Theme

1882 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

In order to fight malaria, Parliament approves a law on drainage of swamps. Malaria plagues about one-third of Italian territory, where 10 per cent of the population lives.

1882 Italy Political Context

Electoral reform: the right to vote is extended to 7 per cent of the Italian population, by lowering the age limit (from 25 to 21) and the level of income required.

1882 Italy Political Context

The Triple Alliance formed (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary).

1882 Italy Travelling

The municipality of Cervia (on the Adriatic Sea) builds a bathing establishment explicitly intended for the middle class: previously a prerogative of the elite, beach tourism starts to become a more widely practised activity.

1882 United Kingdom Reforms And Social Changes

With the British occupation of Egypt comes growth in European-imported ideas and fashions. Egypt becomes a significant tourist destination for wealthier Europeans. English and French –especially French – become commonly used languages.

1882 United Kingdom Political Context

Britain also acquires indirect control over Egypt, with an occupying army and control over Egyptian finances and administration. Egyptian tourism flourishes and with it a superficial economic development – an affluent class, construction of railways and building projects. However, European cultural influences in Egypt are mostly French.

1882 Serbia Political Context

The first king of Serbia in the modern age is Milan Obrenovi#, Prince (1822–82) and King (1882–89). From the start of his independent reign, Knez Milan works to build up the military, and sides with Russia in his foreign policy. He declares war on Turkey in 1876, but it ends in Serbia’s defeat due to poorly prepared diplomatic policy. The signing of the Treaty of San Stefano (made between the two countries after the Russo-Turkish War) is followed by an about-face in Knez Milan’s policy as he turns more and more to Austria-Hungary. A decision by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 grants Serbia independence, while the Secret Convention (between Serbia and Austria-Hungary) binds Austria-Hungary into declaring Serbia a kingdom in 1882.

1882 Egypt Political Context

Britain occupies Egypt.

1882 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

Madrid has two "extensions": the first had been designed by the Marquis of Salamanca in 1860; the second, in 1882, is a modern design by Arturo Soria known as “Ciudad Lineal” (linear city), a plan for an elongated urban formation. The city will consist of a series of functionally specialised parallel sectors.

1882 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The concession for telephone lines is signed and they are first installed in Lisbon and Porto. The first telephone list of Lisbon is published with 22 numbers located around 1.5 km from the telephone exchange. Public telephone cabins were installed and opened from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. though always available to firemen, police and doctors.

1882 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

White Houses of Capri by naturalist painter António Carvalho da Silva Porto (1850– 93) represents the new interest in travelling and other cultures.

1882 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes

Inauguration of the first public kindergarten in Lisbon and Porto by followers of the Froebel method. The pupils, aged from 3 to 7 years, are divided into four age groups, each with a classroom; the plan includes a games room, toilets, offices and a refectory. The method respected the learning rhythm of the children and created didactic tools.

1882 France Fine And Applied Arts

The Thinker by the sculptor Auguste Rodin.

1882 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Robert Koch discovers the cause of tuberculosis.

1882 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Birth of #brahim Çall# (d. 1960). He was a prominent painter who was sent to Paris between 1910 and 1914 where he studied in the workshop of Fernand Cormon.

1882 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

28 September: Bayezid Kütüphânesi, the first public library in #stanbul is founded.

1883 (18 October) - 1883 (30 Romania Political Context October)

30 October: by signing a treaty with Austro-Hungary, to which Germany adheres the same day and Italy in 1888, Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance.

1883 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

6 June: the death of Romanian composer Ciprian Porumbescu, at the age of only 29. One of the melodies he composed will be adopted for Albania’s national anthem in 1912.

1883 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

A credit-fuelled “construction fever” explodes in Rome and in the other urban centres.

1883 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

In Milan, the first thermoelectric power station in Europe is inaugurated.

1883 Italy Fine And Applied Arts

Inauguration of the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, in the Exhibition Palace by Pio Piacentini. It is intended to focus on “national” art.

1883 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Czech writer Frank Kafka is born in Prague; he dies in Klosterneuburg, Austria, in 1924.

1883 Egypt Travelling

Arriving in Egypt as diplomatic agent and Consul-General of Britain, Sir Evelyn Baring’s (Lord Cromer’s) first task is to demand that Khedive Muhammad Tawfiq should abandon Sudan. Tawfiq consents reluctantly, but having done so he then does everything he can to ensure success of the policy that Baring has been sent to carry out.

1883 Portugal Travelling

A Commission of Cartography is created to prepare an atlas of all Portuguese colonies and map three expeditions to Africa. The first expedition (1884–85), undertaken by Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo, starts in Moçâmedes in Angola (in present-day Namibia) aiming to reach to the east coast. The expedition members would face risks from hunger, cold, harsh nature, the wildlife and the tsetse fly.

1883 - 1889 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initiates German social laws and the basic system for a modern social state.

1883 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Opening of the School of Fine Arts (Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) by Osman Hamdi Bey. It consists of sections for painting, sculpture and architecture.

1883 Turkey Rediscovering The Past Date Country Theme

Osman Hamdi Bey, Ottoman administrator and archaeologist excavates in Nemrud. Publication of his book Le Tumulus de Nemroud-Dagh.

1883 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Nam#k Kemal writes Renan Müdafanamesi (Critique of Renan), a book on Islam and science.

1883 Austria Political Context

In October, the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef concludes a secret alliance with the Hohenzollern King of Romania, Carol I, against Russia.

1884 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces

12 October: Timi#oara is the first European city where electric street lighting is introduced not only on some streets, but also across the entire city. An electric plant is built and 731 incandescent lamps with coal filament installed, covering an area of 10 km2.

1884 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The inauguration of the first railway line (Buz#u–M#r##e#ti) designed and built by Romanian engineers.

1884 France Reforms And Social Changes

Unionism (“workers’ and employers professional associations”) becomes legal in France.

1884 - 1885 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First experiments of electric street lighting in Turin and Milan.

1884 Italy International Exhibitions

The General Italian Exhibition in Turin attracts 3 million visitors.

1884 - 1885 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Cholera epidemic causes 7,000 deaths in Naples and 2,500 in Palermo (out of a total 21,000 deaths). The government starts programmes of urban renewal in Naples and other towns (the most effective tool to prevent new epidemics).

1884 Serbia Political Context

The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.

1884 Serbia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade. Date Country Theme

1884 - 1885 Portugal Political Context

Berlin Conference called by Portugal to regulate European colonisation and convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The Portuguese government presents the "Pink Map”, a project uniting the colonies of Angola and Mozambique through the corridor of land that separates them. The proposal is rejected by England although endorsed by the majority of countries.

1884 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Estacio Pharmacy in Porto founded in 1883 starts to produce the first pills for medication. The preparation of manipulated medicines in the apothecaries of the Catholic monasteries and convents (Boticas de Convento) is replaced by the production of medicines by laboratory pharmacies.

1884 - 1888 Portugal Travelling

The Muatiânvua Expedition to Angolan’s Lunda territory led by Major Henrique de Carvalho provides exceptional scientific data on meteorology, zoology, ethnography and linguistics and photographic records. This second great expedition aims to counter the diversion of trade from Malanje to Zaire implemented by other colonial countries.

1884 - 1890 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gottlieb Daimler develops the petrol engine and Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine.

1884 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The goal in founding the Society for German Colonization was to acquire colonial territories overseas.

1884 - 1885 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Germany establishes protectorates in south-west Africa, Cameroon, Togo, East Africa and New Guinea.

1884 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes

7 May: An industrial school for girls is opened in #stanbul.

1885 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

8 May: The renowned Romanian soprano Hariclea Darclée makes her debut at the Paris Opéra, as Marguerite in Charles Gounod’s Faust.

1885 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

After the 1884–85 cholera epidemic hits Naples (the fourth cholera epidemic hitting the city since 1835), the government starts a redevelopment plan to clear Naples of slums and improve its sewerage and water systems. Similar renewal plans will be extended to other cities. Date Country Theme

1885 Egypt Economy And Trade

Alexandria’s Futures Market is one of the oldest in the world. The first recorded local cotton transaction takes place in 1885 in Café de l’Europe on the Place des Consuls, later renamed Muhammad ‘Ali Square. It is here that cotton merchants meet and cut deals based on supply and demand for the long staple, Karnak and Menuf, or the short to medium staple, Ashmuni, Giza and Zagora. Over the years, deals extend to cottonseed varieties such as Hull, Afifi and Sakellaridis.

1885 - 1889 Egypt Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The singer Salama Hijazi turns to acting with the Kirdahi and al-Haddad troupes. Through his contributions, many musical theatre troupes emerge such as Aziz Eed, Naguib al-Rihani and ‘Ali al-Kassar. As one of the first artists to travel abroad, Hijazi achieves worldwide acclaim for his musical and theatrical works. Warmly welcomed in Italy, Syria and Tunisia, he is granted awards of appreciation by many international governments. Hijazi’s statue stands at the Museum of Napoli.

1885 Spain Political Context

Death of King Alfonso XII. Alfonso XIII born posthumously. Pacto de El Pardo: agreement between liberals and conservatives to rule the country by turns. Regency of Queen María Cristina until 1902 when King Alfonso XIII comes of age.

1885 Republic of Macedonia Fine And Applied Arts (FYROM)

The earliest portrait in Macedonian art that is not part of religious depiction, a portrait of a child is painted by Dimitar Andonov of Papradishte (1859–1954). Dimitar Andonov was one of the last Macedonian “zographs” (icon painters) and the founder of Macedonian profane art.

1885 Portugal Fine And Applied Arts

O Grupo Do Leão painted by Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro is a landmark in 19th- century painting both for its quality and for its subject matter. The depicted group of artists in the Leão beer house were linked to the Portuguese Naturalist and Realist painting movement. This work became famous and marked the beginning of a period of great artistic activity.

1885 Portugal International Exhibitions

“Exposition Universelle”, Antwerp. Sponsored by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa and Banco Nacional Ultramarino, the Portuguese Pavilion reflects a strong Islamic influence.

1885 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The birth of Guilhermina Suggia (d. 1950). This great Portuguese cellist was a pupil of Pablo Casals, with whom she lived for some years. The two were considered the world’s greatest cellists. She played as a soloist with prestigious orchestras. She devoted the last years of her life to teaching but continued to give concerts.

1885 Portugal Travelling Date Country Theme

21 June: the expedition of Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo reaches Quelimane, Mozambique, after 14 months. Throughout their 8,300 km expedition across the African hinterland, Ivens wrote and drew sketches and maps, while Capelo collected specimens of plants, rocks and animals. The constant desertions and sickness and death of the bearers increased the danger and uncertainty.

1885 Portugal Travelling

20 September: After their return to Lisbon a triumphal reception was offered to Capelo and Ivens by several Portuguese associations. During the solemn session organised by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa (SGL) at the Teatro Real de S. Carlos, following their lectures, the explorers receive the SGL gold medal from King Luís I.

1885 - 1887 Portugal Travelling

The third great expedition, undertaken by Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso, aims to establish a trade corridor between the eastern region of lakes, and the coast of Mozambique. Major Serpa Pinto fell ill and was replaced by Augusto Cardoso who reached Quelimane after a journey of 2,500 km lasting 20 months, during which some agreements were signed with African chiefs.

1885 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Part of the Old Serail in Zahlé is used to house the local prison, with severe overcrowding. The prison was moved to a better location in 2009. Still known as the Old Serail, the restored monument today serves as the Town Hall and houses the offices of the municipality and a museum illustrating Zahlé’s history.

1886 Tunisia Travelling

Muhammad Sadiq Bey on a visit to Algiers is received by Napoleon III.

1886 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 9 from working in factories and mines and those under the age of 12 from working at night.

1886 Greece Fine And Applied Arts

Nikolaos Gyzis, one of Greece’s most important 19th-century painters, becomes professor at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.

1886 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces

Completion of the construction of Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon. Engineer Frederico Ressano Garcia (1847–1911) followed Joseph Pezarat’s plans. Inspired by Haussmann’s Parisian boulevards, Avenida da Liberdade is testimony to the economic boom of the Fontismo period, with new residential areas built for investment and profit.

1886 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

Opening of D. Luís I road bridge over the Douro River in Porto. At the time this iconic bridge held the record for the longest iron arch in the world (180 m.) It was a huge advance for the urban traffic network since it allowed a road connection between Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia over the Douro.

1886 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Augusto Hilário (1864–96), the quintessential fado singer of Coimbra, enrols at the University of Coimbra and became a symbol of “Coimbra Serenade”. "Fado Hilário" is his best known work as a composer and writer.

1886 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler invent the modern automobile.

Since 1886 Germany Travelling

Seven weeks after the death of King Ludwig II in 1886, Neuschwanstein Castle – built in order that the king could withdraw from public life – opened to the public.

1886 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

26 February: Mihri Mü#fik Han#m, one of the first female painters of renown, is born.

1887 France Travelling

The birth of the French Riviera, originally frequented by wealthy English patrons.

1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Adoption of a protectionist policy aimed at boosting industrial development.

1887 Italy Economy And Trade

Federation of Italian Cooperatives is funded (from 1893 known as the League of Cooperatives).

1887 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

After long silence, Verdi composes a new opera on a text by Arrigo Boito: Othello, based on Shakespeare’s tragedy. In Othello, Verdi adopts a more fluent narrative structure that goes beyond the traditional division into separate units (arias, duets, concertatos, choirs).

1887 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces

El-Hakaneia Palace on Manshieh Square in Alexandria is designed by Alfonso Maniscalco in the Beaux-Arts tradition. Constructed as the seat of the “Mixed Tribunals” the building is still used as a courthouse today.

1887 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Date Country Theme

Publication of A Relíquia (The Relic) by Eça de Queirós. The novel criticises the hypocrisy of the Portuguese society.

1887 Portugal Travelling

The Naval Academy is founded for teaching and research on Portuguese tropical medicine. Its purpose is to provide access to tropical medicine for general medical students and as a specialty for naval doctors. The Academy had a small laboratory for some diagnostic tests.

1887 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Emil Berliner invents the phonograph.

1887 Lebanon Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The foundation, under Wassa Pasha’s rule, of the port of Beirut on the eastern part of the Saint George Bay on Beirut’s northern Mediterranean cost, west of Beirut River. It is one of the largest and busiest ports on the eastern Mediterranean.

1887 Turkey Rediscovering The Past

Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Saida.

1888 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

Austria’s Legislation is passed for the mandatory insurance of workers (employees).

1888 - 1889 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces

Construction of Piazza Esedra (now Piazza della Repubblica) in Rome, designed by Gaetano Koch. The newly built palaces with porticos around the square are opposite the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) and connect the area of Termini railway station to via Nazionale, providing an attractive entrance to the city.

1888 - 1890 Italy Economy And Trade

Tariff war with France.

1888 Italy Migrations

The first law on migration introduces measures aimed at preventing a married woman from migrating without her husband’s consent; at preventing men to migrate to avoid military service; and at granting migrants some protection against abuses.

1888 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

First comprehensive law on health services.

1888 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

The Burgtheater (National Theatre) moves from its former residence at the Hofburg (Imperial Castle) to purpose-built premises at the Ringstrasse.

1888 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Building of a submarine (aparato de profundidades) designed by a naval officer, Isaac Peral. The boat (22 x 2.87 metres) is driven by electric engines and has a periscope and three torpedos. In spite of a successful test, the Spanish Navy decides not to put the prototype into production.

1888 Spain International Exhibitions

The Barcelona Universal Exhibition held in the Parc de la Ciutadella from April to December attracts exhibitors from 22 countries and more than two million visitors. The park displays monuments in the Modernismo/Modernisme and Neo-Mudéjar styles.

1888 Republic of Macedonia Migrations (FYROM)

A movement to awaken national awareness leads to the establishment of many independent associations of Macedonian emigrants, such as the Macedonian Literary Society established by Gjorgji Pulevski in Sofia in 1888.

1888 Portugal International Exhibitions

Portuguese Industrial Exhibition in Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon.

1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Publication of Os Maias by Eça de Queirós. A mature romance and perhaps his best known. Focused on the saga of the Maia family through three generations, it debates the issue of the country’s destiny, in the context of the Constitutionalist ennobled bourgeoisie, whose good intentions end up capsizing.

1888 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Birth of Fernando Pessoa (d. 1935) is the classic author of Portuguese modernism. His books are published under different names, which he called heteronyms (not pseudonyms), each one corresponding to a cycle of experimental attitudes, which unfold in contradictions.

1888 Portugal Travelling

The neo-Manueline Palace of Bussaco, modelled on the Manueline Belém Tower of Lisbon is commissioned by King Carlos I as a royal retreat. It combines the architectural fashion of castle romanticism (German Burgenromantik) with the neo- Manueline gothic style that evokes the Portuguese Discoveries.

1888 Germany Rediscovering The Past

Julius Stinde writes Frau Buchholz im Orient. He has already documented the cities of Cairo, Jerusalem, Athens, and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey). Date Country Theme

1888 Turkey Economy And Trade

The Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankas#) is founded as the first state-funded bank of the empire.

1888 Turkey Travelling

12 August: Direct rail connection is established between Paris and #stanbul.

1889 Romania International Exhibitions

The two Romanian pavilions at the International Exposition in Paris – a restaurant and a pavilion for wine tasting – are built by architect Ion Mincu, who uses elements of traditional rustic Romanian architecture.

1889 France International Exhibitions

The Exposition universelle of 1889 in Paris is the tenth registered World Fair held from 6 May to 31 October. It commemorates the French Revolution on the occasion of its centenary. The Eiffel Tower is built for this Expo.

1889 France Political Context

The World Fair in Paris showcases the development of the latest industrial processes, and the Eiffel Tower is constructed for it.

1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Establishment of the National Roman Museum, in the stunning structure of the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of Diocletian) in Rome.

1889 Italy Rediscovering The Past

Establishment of the Museum of the pre-Roman Antiquities of Latium in the 16th- century Villa Giulia, in Rome. The museum would be later renamed the National Etruscan Museum.

1889 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Founding of the first commercial unit for electricity in Athens. The Royal Palace was the first building in the capital to benefit from electric lighting.

1889 Austria Cities And Urban Spaces

The Deutsche Volkstheater (German People’s Theatre) opens in Vienna.

1889 Austria Reforms And Social Changes

The Social Democratic Party is founded during the Hainfeld Congress.

1889 Portugal Political Context Date Country Theme

10 October: Coronation of King Carlos I (28 September 1863 – 1 February 1908) Despite the King’s attempt to reform the political system, the growing urban influence of the Republican Party and the people´s discontent were fostered by cash payments made to the Royal House.

1889 Portugal International Exhibitions

At the Paris “Exposition Universelle” Bordalo Pinheiro’s (1846–1905) famous ceramics decorating the interior of the Portuguese Pavilion are a main attraction for the cosmopolitan visitor.

1889 France Fine And Applied Arts

The inauguration of the Eiffel Tower and the use of iron in architectural structures.

1889 Turkey International Exhibitions

Although the Ottoman government does not participate in the 1889 Paris Exhibition, the architecture of the Sultan Ahmed Fountain (from the Vienna Exhibition in 1873) is recycled in the exhibition in the Pavilion of Turkish Tobacco.

1890 France Reforms And Social Changes

On 1 May, Labour Day is celebrated for the first time.

1890 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The Cavalleria rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.

1890 Italy Reforms And Social Changes

For the first time, trade unions organise celebrations for May Day as the International Worker’s Day.

1890 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes

The Alexandria Sporting Club is built; it is one of the oldest clubs in Egypt.

1890 Spain Reforms And Social Changes

Suffrage established for men aged 25 years and above. Although the 1812 Constitution had theoretically established “universal” suffrage for men, during most of the 19th century it had been limited to men above a certain economic level. It was not until 1931, under the Second Republic, that the suffrage became truly universal, including women.

1890 Portugal Cities And Urban Spaces Date Country Theme

The railway station of Rossio (Lisbon) designed by the Portuguese architect José Luís Monteiro, begun in 1886 and inaugurated on 23 November of 1890. Located in the historical centre, the Rossio station follows the neo-Manueline architectural style and is an important building of the 19th-century late Romantic style.

1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Emperor Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck; and so begins the era of the emperor’s personal regiment.

1890 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces

Khan Antun Bey Square evolves after the construction of the great Ottoman jetty and quays from 1890 that changes the design of the urban area.

1890 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

16 September: Sailing frigate Ertu#rul sinks while returning from a goodwill voyage to Japan off the coast of Oshima in a typhoon that kills all but 69 of its 609 crew.

1890 Turkey Fine And Applied Arts

Müfide Kadri is born (d. 1912). One of the early female painters, she took private classes from Osman Hamdi Bey.