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Japanese Artists in the United States, 1895-1955

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Japanese Artists in the United States, 1895-1955 Art across Borders: Japanese Artists in the United States, 1895-1955 Ramona Handel-Bajema Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree for Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2012 ©2012 Ramona Bajema All Rights Reserved Ramona Handel-Bajema ABSTRACT Art across Borders: Japanese Artists in the United States, 1895-1955 From the 1880s to the early 1920s, hundreds of artists left Japan for the United States. The length of their stays varied from several months to several decades. Some had studied art in Tokyo, but others became interested in art after working in California. Some became successful in the American art world, some in the Japanese art world, and some in both. They used oil paints on canvas, sumi ink on silk, and Leica cameras. They created images of Buddhist deities, labor protests, farmers harvesting rice, cabaret dancers, and the K.K.K. They saw themselves and were seen by others as Japanese nationals, but whether what they created should be called Japanese art proved a difficult and personal question. The case of Japanese artists in the United States during the first half of the twentieth century demonstrates that there is a national art – a Japanese art and an American art – but that the category is not fixed. A painting can be classified in the 1910s as Japanese, but the same painting can be included in a show of American art a few decades later. An artist can proclaim himself to be American, but can then be exhibited as a Japanese artist after his death. National constructions of art and artists serve the art market’s purpose of selling a work. Categories set along national lines also reinforce the state’s projection of a distinct, homogeneous culture to the international community. For non-Western artists, assigning themselves with a national aesthetic allows for easy identification. But for modern Japanese artists like Kuniyoshi Yasuo, Ishigaki Eitarô, and Shimizu Toshi and others, national categories often posed barriers to creativity and to their success in the art world. Shimizu Toshi was awarded for painting a night scene of Yokohama, but his award was rescinded because he was Japanese. Savvy artists like Yoshida Hiroshi and Obata Chiura worked within national aesthetic categories to better market his work. Kuniyoshi Yasuo remained enigmatic, willing to fall into any category that a critic or dealer might determine they should be cast in, while Ishigaki Eitarô associated himself with international leftist politics that precluded notions of Japanese art. Exploring their histories brings several themes to the fore. First, any attempt to use a single, or hyphenated, national category to describe them or their art is problematic and misleading. An artist’s “Japaneseness” was not a fixed characteristic: at different points in his career, he might be classified as Japanese, American, or even a proletarian artist.1 Artists could sometimes choose to align themselves with one national culture or eschew both, but the denizens of the art world – critics, museum and gallery curators, schools, and other artists – as well as the public nearly always ascribed a national, or at best hybrid, aesthetic character to their work. During the 1910s and 1920s, when Japanese art had fallen out of fashion and modernism was the vanguard, Japanese artists were freer to transcend the preconceptions of what had become by then conventionally defined as a “Japanese aesthetic,” which was based in good part on the works of Japanaiserie of earlier years. Artists of many nationalities strove to be “modern” by consciously rejecting “tradition,” which for Japanese artists meant the styles and techniques of traditional Japanese painting. Many of the artists from Japan who wanted to make modern art had little practice in traditional art in any case, since they had received their artistic training in the United States. Indeed, it was their American mentors who taught them what Japanese art was supposed to look like. Modern art did not just set itself against the artistic conventions of the past; it also sought to comment on, and intervene in, the rapidly changing ways of modern life. Japanese artists in New York and Los Angeles joined their colleagues in turning to city streets and everyday life for their subjects, rather than reflecting on a safely imagined past. Portraying the streets they walked, in the techniques they learned in American art schools, came more naturally to them than making a woodblock print of a geisha strolling in a Kyoto garden. They used oils to paint flappers they saw on Fourteenth Street, but had no experience with woodblock printing, geisha, or the gardens of Kyoto. Table of Contents Introduction Page v Chapter 1: The First Wave of Japanese Artists Page 1 i. Defining Tradition ii. Yôga and Nihonga iii. Yôga in the United States: Takahashi Katsuzô iv. Watercolors and Yoshida Hiroshi v. Nihonga in the United States: Aoki Toshi: Wisteria and Peonies Obata Chiura “Mother Earth” 1912 vi. Nakayama Iwata: First-Wave Photographer Chapter 2: The Second Wave of Japanese Artists Page 44 i. The Struggle: We Work by Day, Art Class by Night ii. New York: To Be an Artist Is a Wonderful Thing The Beginnings of American Modernism, Art Students League, Japanese Artist Groups in New York Kuniyoshi: We Knew How to Play in Those Days Chapter 3: Japanese Artists in the American Metropolis Page 87 i. New York: The Center of Art Activity Ishigaki’s “City Street” Shimizu’s “Chinatown” ii. California: San Francisco and Los Angeles 1910-1931 Kira Hiromu’s “The Thinker” Chapter 4: Leftist Politics and Art in the 1930s Page 111 i. The Politicization of Ishigaki Eitarô Ishigaki Eitarô and Katayama Sen – Socialist Study Group in New York Painting the Class Struggle ii. The Art of Protest: Painting the Global Crisis, 1929-1939 International Left: The John Reed Club, The ACA Gallery, and the American Artists’ Congress Noda Hideo Kiro “The Way Home” Ishigaki’s Harlem Courthouse Mural Sino-Japanese War: 1937-1945 iii. Photography - “Great Weapon for Ideology Formation” Natori Yônosuke’s America (1937) i Chapter 5: Sojourning Artists Return to Japan Page 155 i. Yoshida Hiroshi and the Japanese Market for Woodblocks ii. Obata Chiura’s Yosemite Series iii. Nakayama Iwata: Ambassador of the Western Avant-Garde iv. Kuniyoshi Yasuo’s Trip to a “Foreign Land” v. Shimizu Toshi in Tochigi Prefecture Chapter 6: World War II Page 193 i. World War II in Japan Shimizu Toshi Nakayama Iwata ii. World War II in New York Kuniyoshi Yasuo Ishigaki Eitarô iii. West Coast Internment - The Camps Obata Chiura, Hibi Matsusaburô, and Miyatake Tôyô Conclusion Page 224 i. Postwar: Kuniyoshi Yasuo and Ishigaki Eitarô ii. Defeated Japan: Shimizu Toshi and Nakayama Iwata iii. Postwar Legacies Bibliography Page 250 ii Acknowledgements Many historians who have been fortunate enough to work with Carol Gluck have been quick to recognize her guidance in the first sentence of their acknowledgements. I am no exception. I have been a fan of her scholarship since my first days as a U.C. Berkeley undergraduate studying Japanese history and have been unduly honored to call her my advisor during my years at Columbia. My appreciation for her constant support, tireless rigor, and unending inspiration is boundless. I have been one of the lucky ones to be mentored by a dream team. Harry Harootunian has given me a treasured commodity – his time – as well as challenged my intellect beyond what I thought myself capable of. I am grateful for the guidance of Kim Brandt, Marilyn Ivy, Rebecca Karl, Naoyuki Uemori, and other scholars of East Asia that insisted that my ideas need not be regionally or nationally bounded. All of my mentors, including Gregory Pflugfelder and Henry Smith, encouraged me to be a historian that used more than the written word as text. Other professors at Columbia University like Mae Ngai, Mark Mazower, Partha Chaterjee, and Gregory Mann also demonstrated a scholar of Japan can thrive beyond departmental borders. I am grateful to the art historians, curators, and artists who welcomed a historian to address artists and visual culture. Alexandra Munroe has been a source of inspiration since I was a teenager and I was honored to have her read my dissertation and serve on my committee. Jonathan Reynolds, Frish Brandt, and Karen Sinsheimer helped my writing about art. Iizawa Kôtaro was also very generous with his time and guidance. Artists, writers, actors, and musicians have blessed me throughout my life with their encouragement: Lydia Lunch, Robert Englund, Richard Montoya, Henry Rollins, bell hooks, Eva Garcia, and many others have demanded that I be rigorous in my work. My gratitude to my colleagues - Adam Bronson, Nate Shockey, Andrew Liu, Max Ward, Chelsea Szendi-Schieder, Phil Kaffen, and Timothy Yang – is tremendous. They have been my intellectual and political comrades and this thesis would not exist without their questions, challenges, and humor. With the kind support of a fellowship from the Japan Society of the Promotion of Sciences, I was able to complete my year of research at Waseda University. I am thankful to my colleagues, who welcomed me into their seminar with open arms: Uechi Satoko, Sano Tanomori, Matsusaka Hiroaki, Dexter Thomas Jr., Shirai Satoshi, Andrew Gebert, and Shigeta Shinji. My mother, Jane Handel, has had the greatest role in this process: inspiring curiosity about the world, supporting me while I study, and inspiring me to heights that I would not imagine on my own. First to read everything I have written, I am blessed by her friendship and wisdom. iii Dedication I dedicate this work to my mother, Jane Handel. iv Art Across Borders: Japanese Artists in the United States, 1890-1955 Introduction From the 1880s to the early 1920s, hundreds of artists left Japan for the United States.
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