Lessons learned and unlearned, the theory and practice of employing airpower in small wars, the RAF, 1910 – 2010. Author: Mark Buckley, B. Hums., MA Qualification sought: PhD Institution: Maynooth University Faculty: Department of History Head of Department: Dr. Jacinta Prunty Supervisor of Research: Dr. Ian Speller i Table of Contents List of Figures............................................................................................................... iii List of Maps ................................................................................................................... iv List of Photographs ....................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................ vii A Note on Abbreviations / Naming Conventions ................................................. vii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... viii Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1 – Theoretical Review and Methodology ........................................... 30 Chapter 2 – Interwar Air Control ........................................................................ 103 Chapter 3 – Post War Colonial Security ............................................................ 204 Chapter 4 – Airpower in Contemporary & Future Small Wars ................... 276 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 318 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 332 ii List of Figures Figure 1 - Organisational Learning Process ............................................................ 24 Figure 2 - Air Force control ................................................................................... 48 Figure 3 - John Boyd: The OODA Loop ................................................................ 55 Figure 4 – John Warden: Five-Ring Model ............................................................ 57 Figure 5 - The Evolution of Airpower Theory ........................................................ 61 Figure 6 – Zabernardi’s Impossible Trilemma of Counterinsurgency ..................... 69 Figure 7 - David Kilcullen, Three Pillars of Counterinsurgency ............................. 70 Figure 8 - Peter Senge's Five Disciplines ............................................................... 81 Figure 9 - Argote's theoretical framework for organisational learning .................... 85 Figure 10 - Davidson's organisational learning cycle .............................................. 93 Figure 11 - RAF operations by type in Aden, 1919-41 ......................................... 154 Figure 12 - Cost of Securing Iraq, 1921-8 ............................................................ 194 Figure 13 - Loss of life during the Emergency, 1948-56....................................... 223 Figure 14 – Number of Troops transported by helicopter in Malaya, 1950-60 ...... 224 Figure 15 – No. of Psychological Operations in Malaya, 1948-58 ........................ 228 Figure 16 - Casevac operations in Malaya, 1948-60 ............................................. 263 Figure 17 – Troop transport by helicopters, Malaya, 1950-60 .............................. 266 Figure 18 - Helicopter operations by load type in Malaya, 1950-60...................... 268 Figure 19 – MRLA strength and incidents, 1948-56 ............................................. 272 Figure 20 - Summary of the roles of airpower, and their associated missions ....... 292 iii List of Maps Map 1 – Map of Malay Peninsula, 1949 ............................................................... 213 Map 2 – Kenya, Areas of Operations ................................................................... 247 iv List of Photographs Photo 1 - Some RAF Force Z planes in Somaliland, 1920 .................................... 123 Photo 2 - Bombs explode NW of Tale Fort, 1920 ................................................. 126 Photo 3 - Z Force DH9 being operated in the air ambulance role, 1920 ................ 127 Photo 4 - Aerial view of RAF Hinaidi Aerodrome, Mesopotamia c. 1923 - 1924. 139 Photo 5 - Bristol M1Cs in Mesopotamia, 1919. .................................................... 144 Photo 6 - RAF armoured car in the Iraqi desert. ND, interwar period. .................. 145 Photo 7 – Casualty evacuation in Iraq. ND, interwar period. ................................ 147 Photo 8 - British reinforcements boarding a Vickers Victoria, ND ....................... 160 Photo 9 - RAF plane dropping message, ND, between 1934-9 ............................. 163 Photo 10 - Westland Wapiti Mark IIA aircraft in India, ND, early 1930s ............. 171 Photo 11 – Bombs exploding on the village of Kulala, ND, possibly 1932 ........... 173 Photo 12 - RAF Vickers Victoria transport aircraft, ND ....................................... 174 Photo 13 – An armoured car signals an aircraft .................................................... 186 Photo 14 – Avro Lincoln of No 1 Squadron, RAAF, August 1950 ....................... 221 Photo 15 - Air mobility in Malaya, ND ................................................................ 226 Photo 16 - Scottish Aviation Pioneer in Malaya, ND ............................................ 227 Photo 17 – Malayan Propaganda Leaflets ............................................................ 230 Photo 18 - Leaflet drop in Malaya, ND ................................................................ 231 Photo 19 – Loudspeaker Dakota, ND ................................................................... 233 Photo 20 – Sir Evelyn Baring ............................................................................... 241 Photo 21 – KPRAW Pilots, 1954 ......................................................................... 245 Photo 22 – Supplying Infantry Patrols.................................................................. 249 Photo 23 – Bristol Sycamore in Kenya, ND ......................................................... 250 Photo 24 - Kikuyu Reserve and Aberdare Forest Outpost, 1954 ........................... 252 v Photo 25 – Harvards in Kenya ............................................................................. 253 Photo 27 – Auster 6 Loud Hailing Aircraft, Kenya............................................... 258 Photo 28 - Casevac in Malaya, ND ...................................................................... 265 Photo 29 - Aerial resupply in Malaya, ND ........................................................... 267 Photo 30 - RAF Tornado in Afghanistan, 2010 .................................................... 280 Photo 31 - US Army soldier with captured Islamic State flag in Iraq, 2010 .......... 285 Photo 32 - 903 EAW Tornado during counter-Daesh operations .......................... 286 Photo 33 - SA-14 launch tube and missile ............................................................ 294 Photo 34- Voyager Refueling a C-130 Hercules ................................................... 300 Photo 35 - Sentinel landing .................................................................................. 302 Photo 36 - Troops boarding a Chinook Helicopter ............................................... 308 Photo 37 - OV-10 Bronco .................................................................................... 313 vi List of Tables Table 1 - British Somaliland Expeditionary Force, January 1920 ......................... 124 Table 2 - RAF approach to colonial operations in the inter war period ................. 176 Table 3 - Aden, Strike Sorties from Khormaksar, March 1965 ............................. 238 Table 4 - Kenya, Sortie Numbers by Aircraft Type, 1954..................................... 243 Table 5 - Air Operations Order, 19 February 1954 ............................................... 254 A Note on Abbreviations / Naming Conventions Within the footnotes a number of abbreviations are used for efficiency, these are explained below: • HC Deb – House of Commons debate • HL Deb – House of Lords debate • IWM – Imperial War Museum • RAF Hendon – The RAF Museum and Archives, Hendon • TNA – The National Archives, Kew In the early 1920s Mesopotamia became Iraq, for the avoidance of doubt the territory is referred to as Iraq throughout the text. vii Acknowledgements I wish to offer my sincere gratitude to the Irish Research Council, whose overwhelming support has enabled me to pursue this research for the last four years. I am also indebted to my PhD supervisor, Dr. Ian Speller, whose unwavering support, advice and guidance has helped me to complete this project, and I hope, deliver a piece of research worthy of the qualification of PhD. To all my lecturers, tutors and fellow doctorate students in Maynooth University I would like to offer my thanks, without such a support network, this type of venture would undoubtedly fail. I would also like to thank several people who have at times provided advice, guidance and insight into my research and writing. To Dr. John Cullen, Maynooth University, my thanks for your advice and guidance related to organisational learning. To Dr. Stuart Griffin, Senior Lecturer in the Defence Studies Department at the Joint Services Command and Staff College,