DOCSLIB.ORG

Navigating the Prospective Motherhood Career Penalty: Challenges and Strategies

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Navigating the Prospective Motherhood Career Penalty: Challenges and Strategies CambridgeA Cambridge Judge BusinessJudge Business School School White Paper Discussion Paper for the Wo+Men’s Leadership Centre NAVIGATING THE PROSPECTIVE MOTHERHOOD CAREER PENALTY: CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES Sucheta Nadkarni Monique Boddington Stacey Kurtz Campkin Rasmus Pichler 4 Wo+Men’s Leadership Centre The Wo+Men’s Leadership Centre (WLC) is a centre committed to help women realise and embrace their potential in order to become successful leaders. Part of Cambridge Judge Business School, the WLC achieves meaningful impact globally, across a wide range of organisations: from large companies to small start-ups; within for-profit to non-profit sectors, from corporations to government agencies. By generating support for gender diversity in senior leadership positions, we will foster the next generation of women leaders and expand the pool of women with the requisite leadership skills. How will we achieve our mission? Impactful research – The WLC undertakes cutting-edge research to discover the challenges within the work environment and use it to generate practical solutions into the issues. Such research will enable us to make a meaningful difference in gender equality and women’s empowerment globally. Innovative programmes – research findings are used to create the basis of our women’s leadership programmes, aimed at inspiring prospective female leaders and employers. Multi-faceted approach – throughout the year, in addition to our research, we offer a wide variety of panel events, workshops and our flagship annual conference to foster thought leadership, dialogue and action. We do so to engage as many people as possible to increase the support base for gender diversity in the work environment. Inclusivity policy – The WLC is open to everyone, no matter their gender, age or position. We invite everyone to be a part of our community to help spread our message of diversity and create networks to promote open dialogue and offer successful solutions. This inclusive bottom-up platform is an important cornerstone of the WLC. www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/women Contents 1 Professor Sucheta Nadkarni | 1967-2019 2 Co-author biographies 3 Summary 5 Introduction 6 Prospective motherhood penalty 8 Survey study: sample, survey design and analysis 9 Results part 1: Stereotypes and career outcomes of the prospective motherhood penalty 10 Part 2: Five effective strategies for navigating the prospective motherhood penalty 14 Conclusions 18 Selected references 20 2 Professor Sucheta Nadkarni | 1967-2019 Professor Sucheta Nadkarni sadly passed away in October 2019 before this paper could be published. Sucheta arrived at Cambridge Judge Business School in 2014 to take up the position of Sinyi Professor of Chinese Management. Sucheta was also Head of the Strategy & International Business subject group and a Professorial Fellow of Newnham College. Sucheta achieved much in her sadly shortened life. She was a force of nature, with enormous energy and drive and a great love for her work, publishing consistently and regularly in the top journals in her field. Sucheta served as the Associate Editor of the Academy of Management Journal (2016-2019) and as the Associate Editor of the Journal of Management (2011-2016) in addition to serving on several editorial boards. Sucheta was active in projects with companies such as Boeing, Booz Allen Hamilton, Newton Asset Management and BNY Mellon in the areas of strategic change and leadership. Sucheta’s main research interests were in strategic leadership and competitive dynamics, as well as gender diversity. In addition, with great enthusiasm, Sucheta embraced the Women’s Leadership Initiative, initially as faculty lead, becoming the Director of the Wo+Men’s Leadership Centre in 2017. She established the consistently oversubscribed Executive Education Rising Women Leaders programme that focused on supporting women to aspire and achieve in their professional lives, with the goal of fostering the next generation of women leaders. In addition, Sucheta was Gender Equality Champion at the University of Cambridge (2016-2019). She was very generous in including PhD students and other colleagues in her research and mentoring her students. Sucheta won many awards for her work and undertook pioneering work on gender diversity, including the representation of women on corporate boards and in senior executive positions. Co-author biographies 3 Dr Monique Boddington Research Associate at the Entrepreneurship Centre, Cambridge Judge Business School and Interim Deputy Director, MSt in Entrepreneurship, Cambridge Judge Business School Dr Monique Boddington’s research includes the study of entrepreneurial teams, entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship and gender, and the use of sociological approaches to broaden our understanding of entrepreneurial activity. Monique leads the EVER project, which is a longitudinal qualitative study of the teams within of the teams within Accelerate Cambridge. This project aims to understand the strategic decision- making of early ventures and how teams pivot over time. She is also currently working on a project exploring the impact of gender on entrepreneurship in the gaming industry. Previously, she worked on multiple EU-funded projects looking at the impact of entrepreneurial education and remains passionate about understanding how research can improve the delivery and impact of entrepreneurship education to educate the next generation of entrepreneurs. Her original background is in archaeology having completed a BA and MA in Archaeology at the University of Nottingham and taken part in excavations across Europe. Monique has a PhD from the University of Cambridge and her thesis focused on applying philosophy to archaeology to look at the nature of knowledge creation of the past. Stacey Kurtz Campkin Head of Aldeburgh Young Musicians at Snape Maltings Stacey passionately believes that creativity and the arts can change lives and create an innovative and empathetic future. During her bachelor’s degree in music performance from Northwestern University in Chicago, she played with the Cape Philharmonic Orchestra in South Africa and was introduced to community music projects, inspiring her to pursue a career in this field. Stacey did her master’s degree in music performance at the Royal Academy of Music and started working at the Royal Opera House after graduating. After four years of working at the Royal Opera House on community outreach programmes, her interest in education drew her to Wigmore Hall to manage their Schools and Early Years programme. Stacey graduated with her MBA from Cambridge Judge Business School at the University of Cambridge in May 2019. 4 Co-author biographies Rasmus Pichler PhD candidate in Strategic Management at Cambridge Judge Business School Rasmus’s main research interests include corporate wrongdoing – corporate actions that violate social norms and harm stakeholders – and the role of businesses in society. In particular, Rasmus is interested in how the characteristics of top managers and corporate governance structures affect decision making about corporate wrongdoing. His PhD research is funded by the Economic and Social Research Council and by a Cambridge Trust Vice Chancellor’s Award. Rasmus holds an MPhil degree in Strategy, Marketing & Operations from the University of Cambridge. Prior to embarking on his PhD research, Rasmus worked in the corporate social responsibility department of a global automotive supplier and as a management consultant for clients in the technology, mobility and financial service sectors. Summary 5 Whereas the motherhood penalty has been well documented as a major workplace issue for women with children, this Discussion Paper explores the largely unaddressed phenomenon of the prospective motherhood penalty – harm to the careers of women who are seen as potential mothers. This is a vitally important issue in an era when an increasing number of women have chosen not to have children, or to do so at a later age. Based on a survey of 115 male and female middle and senior executives, the results point to a prospective motherhood penalty in the form of negative stereotypes against women viewed as mothers regardless of their motherhood status. Women without children were perceived more negatively than men without children in areas ranging from commitment to competence, with little statistical difference between women with children and without children. Similarly, women without children reported significantly higher negative career outcomes (fewer pay raises and promotions, and less challenging projects) than men without children. The Discussion Paper suggests five strategies to combat this prospective motherhood penalty: authenticity, finding a passionate niche, lifelong learning, sponsorship by a mentor, and a circle of support. 6 Introduction Academic research and insight from practitioners increasingly recognise a major factor contributing to the gender pay gap and barriers for women to rise to senior management positions: the motherhood penalty. The motherhood penalty reflects a stereotypical bias where women are penalised in the workplace for being mothers. Mothers are often perceived under this stereotype as being less competent, less hardworking and lacking commitment in the workplace. As a result, pregnant women or women with children miss out on challenging assignments, promotion, jobs and pay raises, all of which are essential for career growth and development. Relatedly, the choice to be child free is on the rise in many parts of the
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A Dissertation Entitled Mothering Academics
    A Dissertation entitled Mothering Academics: Women’s Perception of the Intersectionality of Academic Leading and Rearing Underage Children in a Midwestern Urban Community College by Crystal R. Clark Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Higher Education _________________________________________ Dave Meabon, PhD, Committee Chair _________________________________________ Ron Opp, PhD, Committee Member _________________________________________ Penny Poplin Gosetti, PhD, Committee Member _________________________________________ Colleen Quinlan, PhD, Committee Member _________________________________________ Dr. Amanda Bryant-Friedrich, Dean College of Graduate Studies The University of Toledo December 2017 Copyright 2017, Crystal R. Clark This document is copyrighted material. Under copyright law, no parts of this document may be reproduced without the expressed permission of the author. An Abstract of Mothering Academics: Women’s Perception of the Intersectionality of Academic Leading and Rearing Underage Children in a Midwestern Urban Community College by Crystal R. Clark Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Higher Education The University of Toledo December 2017 In 2011, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) acknowledged the absence of trend data to predict the representation of women in future academic leadership. This gap in the literature coupled with non-representative
    [Show full text]
  • Gender Pay Equity and Wellbeing: an Intersectional Study of Engineering and Caring Occupations
    New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations, 42(3): 29-45 Gender pay equity and wellbeing: an intersectional study of engineering and caring occupations JUDITH K PRINGLE*, SHARYN DAVIES**, LYNNE GIDDINGS*** and JUDY McGREGOR**** Abstract This article discusses the complexity of gender pay within the occupations of engineering and caring. Applying an intersectional framework, we examine the role the gender pay gap plays in the perceived wellbeing of women engineers and care workers. The salient identities (micro level) for the two groups were identified through analysis of the professional context (meso) and the socio-political environment (macro). The two participant groups were situated in different class positions. The intersections of identities revealed unexpected advantages and disadvantages for women seeking fair and decent pay, with various implications for perceived wellbeing. Key Words Pay gap, women engineers, care workers, intersectionality, wellbeing Introduction The call for ‘equal pay for equal work’ has rung out for decades, yet the gender pay gap remains. Along with early motivational theorists (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959; 2010), we argue that fair pay is foundational for wellbeing at work. While much of the previous wellbeing research have used survey responses, we explore this topic by probing deeper into participants’ experiences by using qualitative methodology. Through two linked case studies, we discuss perceptions of women professional engineers and women care workers in aged care facilities, in terms of equal pay and pay equity, respectively. While the two cases are not strictly comparable in sectoral terms, each afforded valuable information on the difficulties of achieving equal pay (engineers) and pay equity (care workers).
    [Show full text]
  • Women, Work, and Family
    NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES WOMEN, WORK, AND FAMILY Francine D. Blau Anne E. Winkler Working Paper 23644 http://www.nber.org/papers/w23644 NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 August 2017 Prepared for the Oxford Handbook of Women and the Economy, Susan L. Averett, Laura M. Argys and Saul D. Hoffman, eds, Oxford University Press (forthcoming). The authors thank Andrew Tipping for his careful research assistance. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer-reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications. © 2017 by Francine D. Blau and Anne E. Winkler. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source. Women, Work, and Family Francine D. Blau and Anne E. Winkler NBER Working Paper No. 23644 August 2017, Revised September 2017 JEL No. J1,J12,J13,J16,J22 ABSTRACT This chapter focuses on women, work, and family, with a particular focus on differences by educational attainment. First, we review long-term trends regarding family structure, participation in the labor market, and time spent in household production, including time with children. In looking at family, we focus on mothers with children. Next we examine key challenges faced by mothers as they seek to combine motherhood and paid work: workforce interruptions associated with childbearing, the impact of home and family responsibilities, and constraints posed by workplace culture.
    [Show full text]
  • Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty? Author(S): Shelley J
    Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty? Author(s): Shelley J. Correll, Stephen Benard, and In Paik Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 112, No. 5 (March 2007), pp. 1297-1339 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/511799 . Accessed: 26/03/2014 17:09 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to American Journal of Sociology. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 171.64.33.117 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 17:09:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?1 Shelley J. Correll, Stephen Benard, and In Paik Cornell University Survey research finds that mothers suffer a substantial wage penalty, although the causal mechanism producing it remains elusive. The authors employed a laboratory experiment to evaluate the hypoth- esis that status-based discrimination plays an important role and an audit study of actual employers to assess its real-world implications. In both studies, participants evaluated application materials for a pair of same-gender equally qualified job candidates who differed on parental status.
    [Show full text]
  • From Motherhood Penalties to Husband Premia: the New
    From Motherhood Penalties to Husband Premia: TheNewChallengeforGenderEqualityand Family Policy, Lessons from Norway1 Trond Petersen University of California, Berkeley Andrew M. Penner University of California, Irvine Geir Høgsnes University of Oslo Given the key role that processes occurring in the family play in cre- ating gender inequality, the family is a central focus of policies aimed at creating greater gender equality. We examine how family status affects the gender wage gap using longitudinal matched employer- employee data from Norway, 1979–96, a period with extensive expan- sion of family policies. The motherhood penalty dropped dramatically from 1979 to 1996. Among men the premia for marriage and father- hood remained constant. In 1979, the gender wage gap was primarily due to the motherhood penalty, but by 1996 husband premia were more important than motherhood penalties. INTRODUCTION By the end of the 20th century it had become abundantly clear that the pro- cesses unfolding in the family are a core, if not the core, obstacle to achieving gender equality in the workplace ðWilliams 2010Þ. For men, marriage and to 1 Parts of this article were presented at the 2007 annual meeting of the American Socio- logical Association in New York City, at the 2013 annual meeting of the Swiss Sociolog- © 2014 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0002-9602/2014/11905-0005$10.00 1434 AJS Volume 119 Number 5 (March 2014): 1434–72 Gender Equality and Family Policy some extent children have positive effects on wages and careers ðRodgers and Stratton 2010Þ. For women, the reverse is the case; there are small differ- entials for marital status but large penalties to having children ðBudig and England 2001Þ.
    [Show full text]
  • The Pregnancy Penalty: How Motherhood Drives Inequality & Poverty in New York City
    The Pregnancy Penalty: How Motherhood Drives Inequality & Poverty in New York City the work and family legal center October 2014 The Pregnancy Penalty: How Motherhood Drives Inequality & Poverty in New York City Written by Dina Bakst & Phoebe Taubman, A Better Balance Published by A Better Balance © October 2014 the work and family legal center About A Better Balance: The Work & Family Legal Center A Better Balance is a legal advocacy organization dedicated to promoting fairness in the workplace and helping workers across the economic spectrum care for their families without risking their economic security. A Better Balance hosts the Families @ Work Legal Clinic to assist low-income working New Yorkers with pregnancy and caregiver discrimination, accessing sick time and family leave, and other related issues. We are supremely grateful to the women and men we have met through our advocacy who have allowed us to share their stories. Their courage and determination in the face of adversity inspire our work. Summary of Report Despite advances in gender equality over the past 40 years, women continue to jeopardize their livelihoods simply by having children. This report names, explains and offers solutions to the pregnancy penalty: bias and inflexibility towards women in the workplace that starts when they become pregnant and snowballs into lasting economic disadvantages. Informed by the latest research and by the experiences of our hotline callers, we offer a set of proposals for New York City to address the pregnancy penalty and make progress toward the promise of opportunity and equality for all. Disclaimer: While text, citations, and data are, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, current as of the date the report was prepared, there may well be subsequent developments, including recent legislative actions, which could alter the information provided herein.
    [Show full text]
  • Law, Normative Discrimination, and the Motherhood/Caretaker Penalty
    Law, Normative Discrimination, and the Caretaker Penalty Proposal the National Science Foundation, Law & Social Science Section Catherine Albiston University of California, Berkeley Shelley Correll Cornell University (please do not cite, quote, or circulate with the authors’ permission) Ample research makes clear that there is a significant wage penalty for motherhood (Anderson, Binder and Krause 2003; Budig and England 2001; Kelly 2005; Waldfogel 1997a; Waldfogel 1997b). Mothers earn less than men, whether or not those men have children; mothers also earn less than women who do not have children. For example, Waldfogel (1997b) found that in 1991, mothers’ hourly wages were 81 percent of childless women’s wages and 73 percent of men’s wages. Other studies document similar penalties, and these penalties persist even after controlling for factors such as human capital investments, part-time employment, the mother-friendly characteristics of jobs held by mothers, and other important differences in the characteristics, skills, and behaviors of mothers and non-mothers (Anderson, Binder and Krause 2003; Budig and England 2001; Waldfogel 1997a). One author estimates the total lifetime penalty for motherhood at more than one million dollars for college-educated women (Crittenden 2001). Experimental research that holds constant worker characteristics such as qualifications and productivity confirms that wage differentials likely result from employer discrimination against mothers, rather than from differences between mothers and other workers (Correll, Benard and Paik 2007; Cuddy, Fiske and Glick 2004; Fuegen et al. 2004). For example, Cuddy et al. (2004) found that when working women become mothers they trade evaluations of perceived competence for warmth: they are perceived to be warmer but less competent that women without children.
    [Show full text]
  • The Pay Gap , the Glass Ceiling , and Pay Bias
    THE PAY GAP, THE GLASS CEILING, AND PAY BIAS: MOVING FORWARD 50 YEARS AFTER THE EQUAL PAY ACT Prepared for the ABA Section of Labor and Employment Law Annual Labor and Employment Law Conference 2013* © 2013, Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP. All rights reserved. These materials are distributed for informational purposes only and are not intended, nor should be construed as, legal advice. Table of Contents I. Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 II. The History of the EPA and Pay Bias Laws ........................................ 3 III. The Government “Crackdown” to Address the Pay Gap ..................... 5 A. A Focus on Bias .......................................................................... 5 B. The Results of the Government’s Enforcement Efforts Suggest Factors Other Than Bias Are at Play ............................ 6 IV. Understanding the Complex Factors Contributing to the Pay Gap and the Glass Ceiling ............................................................. 8 A. Studies Reflect That Women’s Decision Making Plays a Key Role and the Impact of Bias Is Unclear .......................... 8 B. Women’s Roles as Primary Caregivers Impact the Pay Gap ....13 C. “Executive Feminists” Have Sparked a New Dialogue to Further Understand Pay Disparities and Crack the Glass Ceiling ..............................................................................14 D. The “Ideal Worker” Model ........................................................17 V. Bridging the
    [Show full text]
  • The Motherhood Pay Gap: a Review of the Issues, Theory and International Evidence
    Conditions of Work and Employment Series No. 57 Inclusive Labour Markets, Labour Relations and Working Conditions Branch The motherhood pay gap: A review of the issues, theory and international evidence Damian Grimshaw and Jill Rubery University of Manchester INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE - GENEVA Copyright © International Labour Organization 2015 Publications of the International Labour Office enjoy copyright under Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. Nevertheless, short excerpts from them may be reproduced without authorization, on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation, application should be made to ILO Publications (Rights and Permissions), International Labour Office, CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, or by email: [email protected]. The International Labour Office welcomes such applications. Libraries, institutions and other users registered with reproduction rights organizations may make copies in accordance with the licences issued to them for this purpose. Visit www.ifrro.org to find the reproduction rights organization in your country. ILO Cataloguing in Publication Data Grimshaw, Damian; Rubery, Jill The motherhood pay gap : a review of the issues, theory and international evidence / Damian Grimshaw and Jill Rubery ; International Labour Office, Inclusive Labour Markets, Labour Relations and Working Conditions Branch. - Geneva: ILO, 2015 (Conditions of work and employment series ; No. 57, ISSN: 2226-8944 ; 2226-8952 (web pdf)) International Labour Office Inclusive Labour Markets,
    [Show full text]
  • Is the Glass Ceiling a Motherhood Ceiling After All?
    Master’s Programme in Economic Growth, Population, and Development Is the Glass Ceiling a Motherhood Ceiling After All? The Impact of Childbirth on Gender Gaps in the South Korean Labor Market Karolina Jennings [email protected] South Korea has the highest gender pay gap and the lowest fertility rate in the OECD (OECD Data, n.y.). Gender equity theory suggests that there is a link between high gender inequality and low fertility, as women struggle to have both a career and a family. A growing share of Korean women are voluntarily childless, referred to as the Sampo Generation, giving up dating, marriage, and children, to focus on their careers (Maybin, 2018; UN, 2013). This study quantifies to what extent women are penalized in the labor market for having children, referred to as child penalties. Testing the impact of having children on the labor market outcomes of earnings, wage rate, hours worked, and labor force participation after first births, this study confirms previous studies in the U.S. and in Europe, that also Korean women are penalized in the labor market for having children, while there is generally no child penalties for men. Initially, children reduce female earnings by 34% to never recover to pre-birth levels, and the in the long run, childbirth increases the gender pay gap by 55%. Moreover, low-and middle-skilled women and women with several children experience larger child penalties. The size of the female child penalties are decreasing over time, suggesting that the recent expansion of paid parental leave and childcare provision has an impact on gender equality and specifically on labor market outcomes of mothers.
    [Show full text]
  • The Motherhood Penalty: How Gender and Parental Status Influence Judgments of Job-Related Competence and Organizational Commitment
    University of Rhode Island DigitalCommons@URI Seminar Research Paper Series Schmidt Labor Research Center 2013 The otheM rhood Penalty: How Gender and Parental Status Influence Judgements of Job- Related Competence and Organizational Commitment Noël Burgess University of Rhode Island Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lrc_paper_series Recommended Citation Burgess, Noël, "The otheM rhood Penalty: How Gender and Parental Status Influence Judgements of Job-Related Competence and Organizational Commitment" (2013). Seminar Research Paper Series. Paper 32. http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lrc_paper_series/32http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lrc_paper_series/32 This Seminar Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Schmidt Labor Research Center at DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Seminar Research Paper Series by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Motherhood Penalty: How Gender and Parental Status Influence Judgments of Job-Related Competence and Organizational Commitment Noël Burgess University of Rhode Island The Motherhood Penalty is an ongoing problem in the United States as many women find themselves working full-time after becoming mothers. Women who become mothers are perceived as less competent, less committed, and thus less employable and/or promotable in the workplace. Unfortunately the status of “mother” has certain perceptions associated with it that are incompatible with the image of an “ideal worker.” Given this reality, the purpose of this research, which uses a literature review, is to examine the reasons for the Motherhood Penalty, the theory behind the negative perceptions of mothers, and how women and organizations can confront these realities.
    [Show full text]
  • How Sex and Motherhood Play a Role in the Unequal Pay of Women on the World Stage
    ZILBERMAN.DOCX (DO NOT DELETE) 2/7/2020 8:50 AM Pay Her More! How Sex and Motherhood Play a Role in the Unequal Pay of Women on the World Stage RAQUEL S. ZILBERMAN* TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................296 II. BACKGROUND..........................................................................................298 A. The Progression of Women’s Rights: Increasing Economic and Political Opportunities...........................................298 B. The Motherhood Penalty: Career Costs of Bearing Children ...........................................................................300 III. APPLICABLE LAW & CASE STUDIES .........................................................304 A. The United Nations ........................................................................305 B. Iceland ...........................................................................................306 1. Equal Pay for Equal Work......................................................307 a. Applicable Law ...............................................................307 b. Analysis...........................................................................307 2. Equality in the Board Room....................................................308 a. Applicable Law ...............................................................308 b. Analysis...........................................................................309 3. Paid Family Leave..................................................................309
    [Show full text]