Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Sustainable airport environments: A review of practices

in airports

∗

Isabella de Castro Carvalho , Maria Lúcia Calijuri, Paula Peixoto Assemany,

Marcos Dornelas Freitas Machado e Silva, Ronan Fernandes Moreira Neto,

Aníbal da Fonseca Santiago, Mauro Henrique Batalha de Souza

Federal University of Vic¸ osa, Department of Civil Engineering, Environmental Research Group, P.H. Rolfs, s/n, Campus Universitário, Vic¸ osa, MG 36570-000, Brazil

a

r t a b

i s

c l e i n f o t r a c t

Article history: Airports consume significant amounts of water to maintain their infrastructure. Given the increasing

Received 30 October 2012

worldwide demand for this type of transport and the current situation of water scarcity in many regions

Received in revised form 19 February 2013

of the planet, efforts should be made to assess water consumption profiles as well as alternatives for

Accepted 20 February 2013

its efficient use. In airport complexes, most of the water is used to meet non-potable demands, making

them potential environments for implementing conservation practices aimed at reducing these demands

Keywords:

– such as water metering and installation of water saving fixtures – and also for searching for alternative

Airport

sources, such as rainwater and treated greywater or domestic sewage effluent. This review presents

Water consumption

information regarding water consumption in globally important airports in order to provide a basis for

Efficient water use

Rainwater studies that guide policies and decision-making toward a sustainable management of these environments

Wastewater reuse during the planning and execution of construction, expansion and modernization projects. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 28

2. Water consumption in large airports ...... 28

3. Water consumption in Brazil ...... 30

4. Main attitudes related to the efficient use of water: experience of major airports ...... 31

4.1. Water consumption metering ...... 31

4.2. Water saving sanitary fixtures ...... 32

4.3. Water reuse ...... 32

4.3.1. Rainwater use ...... 32

4.3.2. Greywater reuse ...... 33

4.3.3. Seawater reuse...... 34

4.3.4. Sewage effluent reuse ...... 34

4.4. Other measures ...... 34

4.4.1. Landscape management ...... 34

4.4.2. Air conditioning systems ...... 34

5. Final considerations ...... 35

References...... 35

∗

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 31 38993098; fax: +55 31 38993093.

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (I.C. Carvalho), [email protected] (M.L. Calijuri), paula [email protected] (P.P. Assemany),

[email protected] (M.D.F.M.e. Silva), [email protected] (R.F. Moreira Neto), [email protected] (A.F. Santiago), [email protected]

(M.H.B. de Souza).

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.02.016

28 I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36

1. Introduction 157 countries surpassed the five billion mark for the first time, an

increase of 6.6% compared to 2009. Global domestic traffic jumped

The high demand for drinking water resulting from population by 5.8% while international traffic increased by 7.7%. Air cargo traffic

increase, droughts and unpredictable climatic patterns is becom- also hit a record: a total of 91 million tons with 15% growth com-

ing an alarming reality in many parts of the world (Bates et al., pared to 2009. Table 1 shows the number of passengers by region

2008; Wiek and Larson, 2012). Increasing concerns regarding the in 2010 and the percentage of variation related to 2009.

consequences of climate change also emphasize the need for water Following the trends by region, we can observe that the emerg-

resources management planning in order to guarantee that current ing markets led the growth. The Latin America-Caribbean region,

and future demands will be met to the desired level of satisfac- supported by substantial development in Brazil, presented with a

tion (Babel and Shinde, 2011; Iglesias et al., 2011; Quevauviller, 13.2% increase over 2009. The Middle East and Asia-Pacific regions

2011; Schlüter et al., 2010). Within this context, the concept of also presented significant growth. The lowest percentages were

“water conservation” involves the controlled and efficient use of observed for the mature markets of North America (2.5%) and

this resource as well as reuse measures. Conserving water implies Europe (4.3%).

acting in a systemic manner in the management of supply and These figures highlight the urgency of facing the airport capacity

demand (Brooks, 2006; Hespanhol and Gonc¸ alves, 2004). challenge. Airport operators worldwide are focusing on the need to

Urban water management efforts are usually focused on provide the passenger a positive, seamless travel experience, and on

demand policies that try to encourage the rational use of this planning new capacity to meet the expected doubling of passengers

resource in order to reduce losses and waste. Demand manage- in the next 15–20 years. More than ever, governments and airline

ment is one of the most relevant issues worldwide (Arbués et al., partners will need to work closely with airports to ensure that the

2010; Fadlelmawla, 2009; Zhong and Mol, 2010), focusing on reduc- required capacity is added in a safe, secure, efficient and sustainable

ing consumption related to water end-uses by, for instance, using manner (ACI, 2011).

water-saving sanitary fixtures. The objective is to minimize the Table 2 presents the passenger traffic data for the main air-

need for and sewage treatment, both of which are ports in the world, as well as the population equivalent (PE)

associated with high costs and can be environmentally and socially for these enterprises in terms of water consumption. Data were

detrimental (Willis et al., 2011). Supply management is related to extracted from the annual reports provided by the operators of

the search for alternative water sources such as reuse of rainwater, these airports and, in order to calculate the PE, a consumption of

wastewater and greywater, among others (Ghisi and Ferreira, 2007; 200 L/(person day) and only the total amount of potable water used

Hurlimann, 2011; Kahinda and Taigbenu, 2011; Ryan et al., 2009). in the airport were considered.

Airports are potential environments for implementing policies The first ten airports listed in Table 2 were among the 30 largest

and technologies aimed at conserving water because of their large in terms of passenger traffic in 2010 (ACI, 2011). The other airports

consumption, mostly for non-potable purposes such as water cool- also had significant passenger traffic in 2010 but, most importantly,

ing systems, fire control, cleaning and washing of vehicles, runways they provide annual data regarding their operations as well as social

and aircrafts (Moreira Neto et al., 2012). Worldwide, many airports and environmental responsibility actions.

are employing initiatives to promote the efficient use of water (ADR, These airports, such as the Paris-CDG, presented, in 2010, a

2009; Fraport AG, 2010; HKIA, 2011; MAG, 2007; NIAC, 2011; SYD, water consumption equivalent to that of cities with a population

2009a, 2009b). However, those which implement this concept most of 31 thousand people, providing an example of the great amount

strongly are usually those that are facing water scarcity. Bolder of water necessary for these airports to maintain their activities.

alternatives, such as wastewater reuse and rainwater use for toilet Passenger traffic in the Atlanta International Airport, in 2010, sur-

flushing, both of which need greater intervention in airport infra- passed 89 million but the airport consumed an amount of water

structure, are usually implemented only in the construction of new equivalent to a city of 13 thousand people, possibly as a result of

terminals or in scarcity situations. its greater effort in rationalizing its use of water.

The main purposes of this review are to collect information Fig. 1 shows the annual water consumption of some of the main

regarding water consumption in airport complexes and present airports in the world, as well as the water consumption per passen-

the conservation practices that they currently adopt, as well as ger, calculated by dividing the total potable water consumption by

information pertinent to the future development of policies and the number of passengers transported in the same year. Informa-

programs which aim at using water rationally in these environ- tion regarding the number of passengers and water consumption

ments. was obtained for the year 2010 for all airports, except for Fiumi-

cino in Rome, which published its latest environmental report in

2009. The index “L/passenger” was used in many of the airport

2. Water consumption in large airports

annual reports studied in order to quickly and simply organize data

and enable consumption to be compared between them. However,

According to the Airports Council International (ACI, 2011), the

it is well known that water demand is a complex and non-linear

number of passengers registered in 2010 in 1318 airports from

Table 1

Air passenger and air cargo traffic in 2010.

Regions defined by ACI No of % of change Total % of change No of

a b

passengers compared to 2009 cargo compared to 2009 airports

Africa 155,979,778 9.5 1,715,838 1.9 154

Asia-Pacific 1,294,834,546 11.3 31,856,866 18.5 172

Europe 1,466,758,533 4.3 17,920,309 15.5 454

Latin America-Caribbean 403,676,303 13.2 4,665,694 14.3 263

Middle-East 206,622,059 12.0 5,881,214 13.7 53

North America 1,509,836,075 2.5 28,709,087 13.2 222

ACI 5,037,707,294 6.6 90,749,008 15.3 1318

Adapted from ACI (2011).

a

Total passengers: total passengers enplaned and deplaned, passengers in transit counted once.

b

Total cargo: loaded and unloaded freight and mail in metric tons.

I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36 29

Table 2

Passenger traffic in important airports worldwide and population equivalent (PE) of these enterprises in terms of water consumption for 2010.

Airports Abr. No of passengers PE (thousand Reference

(millions) people)a

1 Atlanta International Airport ATL 89.3 13.0 DOA Atlanta (2010)

2 London-Heathrow Airport LHR 65.9 25.4 LHR (2010)

3 Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport CDG 58.2 31.4 ADP (2010)

4 Frankfurt Airport FRA 53.0 12.4 Fraport AG (2010)

5 Madrid-Barajas Airport MAD 49.8 15.8 MAD (2010)

6 Amsterdam Airport AMS 45.2 17.0 Schiphol Group (2011)

7 San Francisco Airport SFO 39.3 24.7 SFIA (2011)

8 Rome-Fiumicino Airport FCO 36.2 15.6 ADR (2009)

9 Sydney Airport SYD 36.0 14.2 SYD (2010)

10 Munich Airport MUC 34.7 13.1 MUC (2010)

11 Narita Airport NRT 32.9 23.8 NIAC (2011)

12 Toronto Airport YYZ 31.8 12.7 GTAA (2010)

13 Paris-Orly Airport ORY 25.2 6.55 ADP (2010)

14 Zurich Airport ZRH 22.9 7.27 ZIA (2010)

15 Manchester Airport MAN 18.3 12.4 MAG (2011)

16 Brussels Airport BRU 17.2 3.56 BAC (2010)

17 Portugal-Lisbon Airport LIS 14.1 7.84 ANA (2010)

18 Portugal-Porto Airport OPO 5.27 1.25 ANA (2010)

a

Calculated using total water consumption provided by the airports annual environmental reports for 2010, except for Rome-Fiumicino, which had information only for

2009.

function of climatic, institutional and management variables (Babel water saving sanitary fixtures, whereas the actions of Lisbon and

and Shinde, 2011). This index will therefore be used in this review, Manchester toward the rational use of water are still incipient.

but not without taking into account that it is necessary to iden- Madrid Airport, however, despite its low consumption index, has

tify the variables inside an airport environment that have a greater not implemented any significant actions to reduce consumption,

influence on water consumption before any statement can be made nor does it use alternative water sources, which provides another

regarding the efforts of airports in implementing water conserva- example of the fact that the index “L/passenger” does not necessar-

tion practices. ily reflect conservation actions or the best management of water

Major differences can be highlighted between the amounts of resources in a specific airport.

water consumed in the airports shown in Fig. 1. Airports with large Fig. 2 shows some of the main water sources used in airports that

passenger traffic numbers, such as the airports of Atlanta, Frankfurt have adopted conservation practices and that present the results of

and Madrid, show lower consumption than those with a smaller these initiatives in their annual reports.

number of passengers, such as Narita, Rome-Fiumicino and San Airports such as Fiumicino, Sydney and Frankfurt are promi-

Francisco airports. This shows that the relationship between water nent because of the volume of recycled water they use, as is

consumption and the number of passengers is not always direct Narita for its use of greywater. However, most airports have not

and proportional. Atlanta, despite having the highest passenger integrated the implementation of conservation measures. Some

traffic, is not the largest water consumer, with an index of only airports act to reduce demand mainly through the management

11 L/passenger. This airport has integrated actions for the efficient and monitoring of consumption, whereas others focus their actions

use of water into its practices, such as the adequate management on the search for alternative water sources in response to increas-

of vegetated areas, use of water saving sanitary fixtures and air- ing demands. The objective should be to integrate such measures

cooling systems that do not use water cooling towers. Lisbon and given water availability will not keep pace with airport expansion

Manchester airports have a lower total water consumption, but or the expected growth over the next years. It is also important to

have indices of 43 and 50 L/passenger, respectively. The airports highlight that many countries have considered methodologies for

of Frankfurt, Madrid and Amsterdam have greater total water con- introducing tariffs for water, previously considered a free resource

sumption and passenger traffic, but present indices of only 22, 24 (Fadlelmawla, 2009; Zhong and Mol, 2010). According to Zhong

and 27 L/passenger. Frankfurt and Amsterdam use rainwater and and Mol (2010), water pricing systems such as these have many

Fig. 1. Annual water consumption in important airports worldwide.

30 I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36

Fig. 2. Water sources in airports.

objectives: to cover increasing costs, protect scarce resources and largest consumption. In other words, for the Brazilian as well as for

introduce an economic motivation for promoting the efficient use of the international scenario, relating water consumption to the num-

water. Airports should adopt such reforms and consider water con- ber of passengers transported is not a sufficient measure to assess

servation measures not only as environmentally responsible but the efficiency of the water resource management models used by an

also as an economic advantage. airport. As mentioned earlier in this section, Galeão occupies fourth

position in terms of number of passengers but has the highest value

3. Water consumption in Brazil for L/passenger, immediately followed by Guarulhos Airport (GRU).

However, despite these high indices compared to other airports

According to the Brazilian Airport Infrastructure Enterprise with similar large passenger throughput, Galeão has already signif-

(Infraero) 10 of the most important airports in Brazil accounted icantly reduced its water consumption after implementing systems

for 67% of the air passenger traffic in 2010. Together, these airports for reusing sewage effluent and using rainwater to meet the water

consumed over 3.5 million cubic meters of water, which equals 73% demands of the air conditioning system. In 2001, this airport con-

3

of the total consumption registered for the 66 Brazilian airports sumed about 150,000 m of water per month. In 2010, despite the

under Infraero’s administration. increase of 106% in the number of passengers compared to 2001,

3

Figs. 3 and 4 show that it is not possible to consider there to be the monthly water consumption had reduced to 99,200 m .

an explicit relationship between the number of passengers trans- It is important to highlight that a high index of L/passenger

ported and the water consumption in each respective airport, either does not implicate there to be bad or inefficient management of

in Brazil or for international airports. water resources, because other characteristics intrinsic to airport

Fig. 3 shows, for instance, that Galeão Airport (GIG) represents environments, such as category (international or domestic flights),

25% of the total water consumption but occupies fourth position number of flights and amount of cargo transported, among others,

in terms of the number of passengers transported. As for Confins influence the pattern of water consumption and are not revealed

Airport (CNF), the consumption of 4.5% is similar to that for the from the relationship between consumption and the number of

airports of Brasília (BSB) and Congonhas (CGH), at 4.2 and 3.3%, passengers. However, this relationship can be used as an initial step

respectively; however, the passenger movement at Confins in 2010 in identifying excessive consumption and where water conserva-

was half of that of the other two airports. tion measures are necessary.

Fig. 4 shows water consumption and the index of liters per pas- Airports with a similar annual passenger movement, in the

senger for the same 10 airports. It highlights that the airport with range of five to six million passengers per year, such as the airports

the greatest passenger movement does not always also have the of Porto Alegre (POA), Salvador (SSA), Fortaleza (FOR) and Recife

Fig. 3. Operational movements in 10 of the largest airports in Brazil and their respective contribution to total water consumption in 2010.

I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36 31

Fig. 4. Total water consumption and consumption per passenger in the 10 Brazilian airports with greatest passenger traffic.

(REC), present indices of 23, 23, 29 and 24 L/passenger, respec- the efficient use of water resources. In the following sections we

tively. However, Manaus Airport (MAO) transported two million present the most relevant actions these airports have carried out.

passengers in 2010 and had an index of 82 L/passenger.

Fig. 5 presents passenger traffic and the L/passenger index for

the main international airports and for Brazilian airports with large

4.1. Water consumption metering

passenger movement.

Rome Airport possesses an average consumption index and is

A program for the rational use of water begins with a systematic

notable for the large amount of water it recycles (approximately

evaluation of the activities and sectors in which water is used. Any

3

1700,000 m in 2010, according to ADR, 2009), as shown in Fig. 2.

such evaluation must be continuous if the control of water con-

In Brazil, Galeão Airport presents a high consumption index but

sumption that is necessary for the identification of leaks and losses

is the only one in the country which implements sewage effluent

is to be achieved. Water metering across the entire distribution net

reuse and rainwater use.

is essential and an important stage of this analysis.

Thus, we highlight the necessity of studying water consumption

Concerns regarding control of water use are experienced in

in airport environments, taking into account these peculiarities in

many airports. At Toronto Pearson International Airport, baseline

order to obtain information that is related to such consumption, so

data has been collected and individual meters installed for all food

as to guide actions relating to water resource as well as policies that

and beverage franchises in order to reduce the amount of potable

promote its preservation, rational use and the search for alterna-

water used at the airport (GTAA, 2006).

tive sources. In Brazil, such studies have an even greater urgency,

Initiatives such as leak control and monitoring of demand

because most airports are undergoing renovations and are expand-

are also widely employed. Actions to reduce water use and to

ing to accommodate two important international sporting events,

require best practices regarding water efficiency measures have

the FIFA World Cup in 2014 and the Olympic Games in 2016.

been adopted at Sydney Airport. Among these initiatives, a com-

plete leak detection program and a sophisticated real-time water

demand monitoring system have been developed (SYD, 2009a). A

4. Main attitudes related to the efficient use of water: monitoring program for water use and for regularly checking for

experience of major airports leaks has been instigated at London Heathrow International Air-

port (LHR, 2010). There is also an ongoing leak detection program

As mentioned in Sections 3 and 4, airports with a large cir- at Manchester Airport to ensure any leaks are quickly detected and

culation of people have implemented actions aimed at achieving repaired (MAG, 2007).

Fig. 5. Passenger traffic and L/passenger index for the most important airports worldwide.

32 I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36

At Paris Airports, meshed distribution networks of drinking Galeão to improve its water management system, including the

water are monitored constantly, and operating data are delivered replacement of the water mains, networks and distribution lines

to an information technology center using fiber-optic cables. Alerts that created a high risk of leaks, as well as the substitution of flow

are routed automatically to an emergency phone that enables a control valves and the installation of float switches in the stor-

rapid reaction in the event of a leak, and water quality is constantly age centers. Storage units and pumping stations with structural

controlled (ADP, 2010). problems were renovated (Pizzato and Alves, 2010). However, even

Confins Airport, the seventh largest airport in Brazil with pas- though great efforts have been made, there is still much to accom-

senger traffic of 7.1 million in 2010, is implementing a model plish in this airport because it presents high consumption indices in

consumption management system that has been operational since comparison to international airports of the same size, as discussed

the end of 2012. The consumption of 48 metering points will be in Section 3.

monitored continuously and a software using data from these

points will make it possible to assess if consumption is as expected 4.3. Water reuse

and to identify abnormal patterns and leaks. A report is generated

with a consumption diagnosis, making it easier to adopt specific Water reuse measures are usually motivated by scarcity, and

policies and measures to reduce consumption. also by increasingly stringent environmental restrictions. The new

technologies developed for wastewater treatment enable reuse;

4.2. Water saving sanitary fixtures however, its effective use depends largely on the economic advan-

tages that will be realized as water prices increase (Casani et al.,

Major airports have adopted programs to replace their con- 2005).

ventional sanitary fixtures by water saving equipment and have It is difficult to measure the real economic value of water reuse

achieved significant reductions in water consumption. Atlanta Air- because the benefits are embedded in protection of surface water

port replaced, in 2007, 630 toilets that used 6.05 L per flush by resources, local economic development, public health protection

new ones that used 4.84 L. Additionally, around 1200 urinals that and maintaining current water sources for longer, among other

used 3.8 L per flush were replaced by ones using 1.9 L (DOA Atlanta, aspects (Anderson, 2003). Economic costs cannot be evaluated

2009). without also considering social and environmental costs and bene-

Fort Lauderdale Hollywood International Airport (Florida, EUA) fits. Water reuse is not only an environmentally correct alternative

had 21,876,444 passengers in 2010 (BCAD, 2010). According to the but also a rational and smart way of using raw material.

3

CDA (2010), this airport consumed approximately 246,000 m of The achievement of good results depends on the commitment

water from October 2005 to September 2006. The installation of of professionals who have been trained to develop and adopt

water saving sanitary fixtures in the bathrooms cost $234,000,00 adequate concepts and technologies for efficient treatment and

3

and saved 163,000 m of potable water after one year, representing environmental sustainability. According to Urkiaga et al. (2008),

savings of $281,000.00 and a return on the investment within 10 however reuse is employed it is critical to observe the basic prin-

months. ciples that should guide such practice: the preservation of users’

In Frankfurt Airport, the use of flow limitation equipment on heath, consistent compliance with quality requirements related to

faucets has helped to save thousands of cubic meters of water every the intended use and protection of the material and equipment

year, and the installation of waterless urinals has saved approx- incorporated into reuse systems, as well as their operational costs.

imately 4.2 million liters of drinking water each year. The cost Airports present limitations and potentialities, as well as other

savings amount to approximately D 33,000 each year (Fraport AG, industrial typologies. The airlines of 190 Member States of the Inter-

2011). national Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) carried approximately

Dubai International Airport has installed sensor-operated wash 2.5 billion passengers in 2010, showing an increase of about 8.7%

basin faucets in all toilets and, although no greywater systems are over 2009 (ICAO, 2010). According to the World Health Organiza-

used, they have been installed and some are half-flush systems. tion (WHO, 2009), this indicates there is a potential for commercial

In addition, a standard automatic 1.6 IG flush has been installed in air transport to spread communicable diseases. Thus, the imple-

the bathrooms, as has a dual flushing mechanism 3.0/6.0 L to reduce mentation of water reuse in airports should be strictly monitored

water wastage through manual flushing from toilets (DCA Dubai, in order to minimize the associated risks.

2004). Frankfurt Airport has since 2001 maintained its potable water

Other important airports, such as Amsterdam, São Francisco, volume at the same level, despite increasing passenger numbers.

Fiumicino, Sydney, Toronto, Narita, Manchester and London- The concept behind the potable water supply in the airport area

Heathrow, have had equipment installed in order to save water is that potable water consumption should be reduced by using

and encourage water conservation. Taps with water saving nozzles service water instead. The service water share in the total water

(aerators) that are able to optimize the flushing process, low-flow consumption has risen to 18% over the past ten years. In the same

restroom fixtures, automatic-shutoff valves, automatic ballcocks period, potable water consumption per traffic unit has declined by

3

and urinals are very common in toilet areas and are a requirement over 20%. In 2010, potable water consumption was 1.46 million m ,

in the design of any new buildings at these airports (ADR, 2009; which equates to 19 liters per passenger; the service water volume

3

LHR, 2010; MAG, 2007; NIAC, 2011; Schiphol Group, 2011; SFIA, amounted to 319,000 m (Fraport AG, 2010). Fiumicino Airport also

2011; SYD, 2009a; GTAA, 2006). reuses water and consumes more reuse water than potable water.

The airports of Recife and Galeão stand out in the Brazilian Fig. 6 shows the history of potable and reuse water consumption in

context. In Recife, toilets have been installed using a technology order to compare Fiumicino and Frankfurt airports.

similar to that employed in aircraft in which flushing is operated Experiences with rational use of water in airports, such as using

under vacuum, significantly reducing water consumption. The vac- rainwater, greywater, seawater and reusing wastewater are pre-

uum system reduces total consumption at the airport by 30%. The sented in Sections 4.3.1–4.3.4.

3

estimated monthly consumption is 21,400 m , much less than the

3

30,600 m that would be used by a conventional system. The latter 4.3.1. Rainwater use

consumes an average of 10 L per flush whereas the consumption Rainwater harvesting is a technique adopted globally and which

of the vacuum system corresponds to 1.2 L per flush (Infraero, per- is becoming increasingly useful in the current context of the qual-

sonal communication). Many actions have been implemented at itative and quantitative scarcity of water resources. Rainwater can

I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36 33

Fig. 6. Annual potable water consumption and reuse water in the airports of Fiumicino and Frankfurt (ADR, 2009 and Fraport AG, 2010).

be used in domestic, industrial and agricultural activities, among Some buildings at Brussels International Airport are fitted with

3

others, providing a significant reduction in costs by using a non- six rainwater collectors, each of 10 m . The rainwater is used for

traditional water source (Aladenola and Adeboye, 2010). flushing toilets and cleaning purposes (BAC, 2010).

Airport environments, because of impermeabilization of the soil, According to the Schiphol Group, the Amsterdam Airport col-

contain a large amount of superficially drained water, which rep- lects rain and drain water for reuse as rinse water (Schiphol Group,

resents great potential for storage during the rainy period and 2011).

3

use for non-potable activities. This potential, however, depends Heathrow and Zurich Airports collect 59 and 10 thousand m ,

on the region where the airport is located and on the technolo- respectively, of rainwater each year. A rainwater harvesting scheme

gies available for treating this water. Deicing salt applications at London-Heathrow Airport has the potential to reuse around 85%

are common in cold climate regions and, according to Dai et al. of the rainfall which, together with the use of borehole water, pro-

(2012), these chemicals have negative effects on the environment vides Terminal 5 with 70% of its non-potable water needs. This

(surface water, groundwater, plants and animals) that should be rainwater harvesting scheme is the biggest of its kind in Europe

taken into account when selecting a rainwater treatment technol- (LHR, 2010). Zurich Airport uses rainwater to supply technical

ogy. Additionally, eliminating pollutants from roads and runways installations and also for toilet flushing (ZIA, 2010). At Manchester

can be very expensive; a comprehensive study of the available Airport, there is a current review of opportunities for harvest-

technologies and their economic feasibility must therefore be ing rainwater from roofs and hard surfaces for non-potable uses,

undertaken. including use in road sweepers and for fire training (MAG, 2007).

Fraport AG operates two rainwater treatment facilities, located Rainwater is one of the alternative water supplies employed

in Cargo City South and at Terminal 2 at Frankfurt International at Galeão Airport. In 2009, the company responsible for water

Airport. At times of low rainfall, treated water from the River Main resources management in the airport implemented rainwater har-

3

is fed in to the system. This service water is fed via separate sup- vesting from the rooftops. The 1500 m collected every month is

ply networks to sprinkler systems, toilet cisterns and systems for treated and combined with treated sewage effluent for reuse in

watering landscaped areas. In Cargo City South, the service water cooling systems (Pizzato and Alves, 2010).

is supplied throughout, and the terminals are also supplied with

service water. The same system is still undergoing further expan- 4.3.2. Greywater reuse

sion in Terminal 1 and neighboring office buildings. Fraport AG Greywater consists of the effluent from lavatories, showers,

operates a storm water network with a length of approximately kitchen sinks and washing machines (Hernández Leal et al., 2011;

200 km, 23 rainwater containment basins with a storage volume of Liu et al., 2010; Ottoson and Stenstrom, 2003) and does not receive

3

100,000 m and 47 light liquid separators (Fraport AG, 2010). any contribution from sewage. This is related to the concept of

Orly and Charles de Gaulle Airports in Paris have, since 1996 effluent segregation at source, which makes treatment and reuse

and 1999, respectively, been equipped with a rainwater treatment easier. Effluent such as this presents a lower pollutant concen-

D

plant. In 2005, the construction cost Orly 740,000 and Charles tration in comparison with domestic sewage and only represents

D

de Gaulle 900,000. At Orly, rainwater is used to supply the air a small fraction of the effluent generated in a building; it is one

conditioning system and heating network, and a small part is used of the main alternatives for reducing potable water consumption

3

for fire control, saving 70,000 m /year of potable water (ADP, 2010). (Gilboa and Friedler, 2008). Li et al. (2009) review some greywater

The Maintenance Division of the Department of Aviation in treatment technologies, including physical, chemical and biological

3

Atlanta Airport has installed three 11.37 m water cisterns, which processes, which are usually preceded by a solid–liquid separation

capture water runoff from the roof. The water collected from the step (septic tank, filter bags, screen and filters) as a pre-treatment,

cisterns is used to irrigate the xeriscaped as well as other areas. followed by a disinfection step as post-treatment. According to the

During the hotter months (May until August), the Maintenance authors, the physical processes alone are not sufficient to guarantee

3

Division uses approximately 36.37 m of harvested rainwater per an adequate reduction in the organics, nutrients and surfactants.

month (DOA Atlanta, 2009). Chemical processes can however efficiently remove the suspended

In Narita, rainwater treatment facilities produce greywater from solids, organic materials and surfactants in low strength greywa-

rainwater that is pumped up from the holding ponds for use as chil- ter. The combination of aerobic biological processes with physical

ling water and auxiliary supplies to the central heating and cooling filtration and disinfection is considered to be the most economical

plants. The airport also began to use recycled water for flushing in and feasible solution for greywater recycling. Hernández Leal et al.

the passenger terminal toilets in April 2010 (NIAC, 2011). (2011) state that anaerobic methods are an interesting alternative,

34 I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36

given the low cost and potential for energy production. The authors Dubai Airport has an online oil-water separator system and

highlight the applicability of such systems to greywater treatment, a wastewater treatment plant, operated by a technician on site.

since the low nutrient levels can limit the efficiency of some aerobic The recycled water is used for washing vehicles and within the

systems. engineering works. All the vehicles operated by the Engineer-

Of the airports which use greywater as an alternative source of ing Services Division are cleaned using recycled water and all

water, we can highlight the airports of Hong Kong in China, Narita drainage re-enters the wastewater treatment plant. This plant cur-

3

in Japan and Fiumicino in Italy. Hong Kong Airport has a treatment rently treats 80 m of sewage on a daily basis. The Department of

system that treats greywater collected from aircraft catering facili- Civil Aviation of Dubai, which is located in the airport complex,

ties and terminal building kitchens together with water runoff from has investigated the consumption rates for , finding that

3 2

aircraft washing activities. Treated water is re-used for irrigation. 960,000 m /month of water is used for irrigation in 85,000 m land-

3

In 2010 the treatment plant processed 1.4 million m of greywater, scaping projects. In order to minimize these consumption rates, the

meeting all of the airport’s landscape irrigation needs. In the near airport implemented sewage effluent use for irrigation (DCA Dubai,

future, the airport plans to install a new membrane biological reac- 2004).

tor in the plant to enhance the quality of the treated water (HKIA, The actual water savings made by Kingsford Smith Airport, in

2011). Sydney, Australia, fluctuate according to demand and, in 2009, the

3

Greywater from the passenger terminal restaurants of Narita water treatment plant saved an average of 350 m of fresh potable

Airport is treated at the kitchen wastewater treatment facility and water each day. In 2010 and 2011, this increased to an average

3

is used as flushing water in the passenger terminal toilets (NIAC, of 580 m per day and is expected to increase up to a maximum

3

2011). of 1000 m per day over the next 20 years. The water treatment

At Fiumicino Airport in Rome, greywater derived from Terminal plant processes raw sewage from the International Terminal and

restaurants and from the company responsible for preparing the its surroundings, including the multi-story car park, Ulm Building

food served in the aircraft is collected and, after physical processes (Sydney Airport’s Corporate Office) and the Customs House. The

to separate out the grease, is treated together with domestic sewage treatment plant produces two streams of recycled water. One com-

using an activated sludge biological system for reuse in non-potable prises recycled water that is piped to the International Terminal to

activities (ADR, 2009). be used for toilet flushing. There are 526 toilets and 212 urinals con-

nected to this system, that will all be flushed using recycled water.

The other stream comprises reverse osmosis water that is piped to

4.3.3. Seawater reuse

the Central Services Building and used in air-conditioning cooling

A further alternative source is saline water. Although it is rich in

towers (SYD, 2009b).

substances that are not desirable for reuse purposes, such as sodium

In Brazil, Galeão has a sewage effluent reuse system. The effluent

chloride, this water has become attractive to airports situated near 3 −1

is mixed with 8 m h of rainwater or with well water in order

the coast, after proper treatment.

to achieve the maximum production efficiency for reuse, which is

Seawater supplies 41% of the water demand of Hong Kong 3 −1

3 20 m h . The mixture is pre-treated by coagulation, filtration in

Airport, representing approximately 380,000 m /d. A small part

3 3 sand filters, filtration with activated carbon and then separated by

(300 m /d) is used for aircraft lavatory waste, about 7300 m /d is

membranes (reverse osmosis), which results in an excellent water

used for toilet flushing and the rest is used in the cooling system.

quality suitable for supplying the cooling towers with all necessary

The savings generated by the introduction of the seawater supply

security requirements (Pizzato and Alves, 2010).

is $500,000/year (HKIA, 2011).

4.4. Other measures

4.3.4. Sewage effluent reuse

Wastewater and sewage effluent reuse have recently been con- 4.4.1. Landscape management

sidered as potential options to manage increasing water stress. Airport complexes usually have large landscaped areas that play

Options for reuse depend on the quality of the effluent produced an esthetic role as well as protect soil and minimize the carriage of

after sewage treatment (Megdal, 2006). from sediments into drainage channels. Maintaining areas such as these

domestic sewage is used frequently in many applications such as use water, so their management must be based on the premise of

irrigation, toilet flushing, cleaning, industrial reuse and environ- the efficient use of this resource.

mental enhancement (Chang et al., 2007; Chiou et al., 2007; Jimenez Atlanta Airport has a rigorous planning program for their land-

and Chavez, 2003; Jimenez et al., 2001). Because of the potential risk scaped areas, named “Xeriscape Landscaping”. The plants meet the

to health due to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, reuse requirements for low water demand (xerophilous plants are usually

of treated sewage needs careful evaluation (Jamwal and Mittal, selected). Areas where landscape is particularly important esthet-

2010) and is highly dependent on the treatment technology used. ically are prioritized (DOA Atlanta, 2009). According to the CDA

Currently, there is a global increase in the reuse of treated (2010), the choice of species should be of those with the lowest

domestic sewage, mostly in countries facing water shortages and growth rate, which tolerate droughts and which do not attract birds

that have implemented an expensive potable water use fee. Fol- or other animals.

lowing this global trend, airports are increasingly adopting similar

practices. At Fiumicino, sanitary, kitchen and restaurant effluent 4.4.2. Air conditioning systems

are treated by activated sludge and ultraviolet disinfection before Air cooling systems ensure the comfort of passengers and

being reused in landscape irrigation, air conditioning systems and employees but consume large amounts of water. The use of recycled

fire control (ADR, 2009). water in such systems, or more efficient heat exchangers, is essen-

Qingdao Airport in China, which transported 8.2 million pas- tial if water consumption in airports is to be reduced.

sengers in 2008, uses membrane bioreactors to treat its effluent. At Atlanta Airport, after steam-powered refrigerators were

According to Liu et al. (2007), the system cost $800,000, has the replaced by electric chillers, the need for water to generate steam

3 2

capacity to treat 1000 m /d and occupies an area of 10,000 m . The was eliminated, and water consumption in the boilers was there-

treated effluent is reused in the maintenance of the airport com- fore reduced (DOA Atlanta, 2009).

plex: 30% for afforestation, 40% for irrigation of green areas, 20% for A water treatment system was installed in Amsterdam Inter-

the fire control system and 10% is discharged. national Airport for supplying water to the cooling towers on the

I.C. Carvalho et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 74 (2013) 27–36 35

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