sign in sign up
<<
Home , Cluster reduction, Phonological development

Children’s speech acquisition Sharynne McLeod, Ph.D., Charles Sturt University, Australia ([email protected]) This compilation of data on typical speech development for English speaking children is designed to be used by speech-language pathologists. It is organised according to children’s ages to reflect a typical developmental sequence. However, it should be noted that rates of development vary among typically developing children. Where possible, data from more than one study is presented under each heading at each age to allow for comparison and to encourage consideration of diversity and individuality. Authors Year Country No. of Age of Sample type Data collection method children children Anthony, Bogle, Ingram & McIsaac 1971 UK 510 3;0-6;0 SW Cross-sectional Arlt & Goodban 1976 USA 240 3;0-5;5 Single word (SW) Cross-sectional Chirlian & Sharpley 1982 Australia 1357 2;6-9;0 Single word (SW) Cross-sectional Dodd 1995 UK & Australia 5 1;8 – 3;0 Longitudinal Dodd, Holm, Hua & Crosbie 2003 UK 684 3;0-6;11 SW Cross-sectional Donegan 2002 UK & USA - - - Compilation Dyson 1988 USA 20 2;0-3;3 CS Cross-sectional & longitudinal Flipsen 2006a, b USA 320 3;1-8;10 CS Cross-sectional Grunwell 1987 UK - - - Compilation Haelsig & Madison 1986 USA 50 2;10-5;2 SW Cross-sectional James 2001 Australia 354 3;0-7;11 SW Cross-sectional James, McCormack & Butcher 1999 Australia 240 5;0-7;11 SW Cross-sectional James, van Doorn, McLeod 2001 Australia 354 3;0-7;11 SW Cross-sectional James, van Doorn, McLeod 2002 Australia 354 3;0-7;11 SW Cross-sectional Kehoe 1997 USA 18 1;10 - 2;10 SW Cross-sectional Kehoe 2001 USA - 1;6 – 2;10 - Compilation Kilminster & Laird 1978 Australia 1756 3;0-9;0 SW Cross-sectional Lowe, Knutson & Monson 1985 USA 1048 2;7 – 4;6 SW Cross-sectional McGlaughlin & Grayson 2003 UK 297 0;1-1;0 Crying Cross-sectional McLeod, van Doorn & Reed 2001a Australia - - - Compilation McLeod, van Doorn & Reed 2001b Australia 16 2;0 – 3;4 CS Longitudinal McLeod, van Doorn & Reed 2002 Australia 16 2;0 – 3;4 CS Longitudinal Oller, Eilers, Neal, Schwartz 1999 USA 3400 0;10-1;0 CS; Parent report Cross-sectional & longitudinal Otomo & Stoel-Gammon 1992 USA 6 1;10 – 2;6 SW Longitudinal Paynter & Petty 1974 USA 90 2;0-2;6 SW Cross-sectional Pollock 2002 USA (Memphis) 162 1;6 – 6;10 SW & CS Cross-sectional Pollock & Berni 2003 USA (Memphis) 165 1;6 – 6;10 SW & CS Cross-sectional Porter & Hodson 2001 USA 520 2;6-8;0 SW Cross-sectional Prather, Hedrick & Kern 1975 USA 147 2;0-4;0 SW Cross-sectional Preisser, Hodson & Paden 1988 USA 60 1;6-2;5 SW Cross-sectional Robb & Bleile 1994 USA 7 0;8-2;1 CS Longitudinal Robb & Gillon 2007 New Zealand & USA 20 3;1-3;5 (NZ) CS Cross-sectional 2;11-3;5 (US) Robbins & Klee 1987 USA 90 2;6-6;11 SW Cross-sectional Roberts, Burchinal & Footoo 1990 USA 145 2;6-8;0 SW Cross-sectional & longitudinal Roulstone, Loader, Northstone, 2002 UK 1127 2;1 SW; Parent report Single age group Beveridge & ALSPAC team Selby, Robb & Gilbert 2000 USA 4 1;3-3;0 CS Longitudinal Shriberg 1993 USA - - - Compilation Smit 1993b USA 997 3;0-9;0 SW Cross-sectional Smit 1993a USA 997 3;0-9;0 SW Cross-sectional Smit, Hand, Frelinger, Bernthal & Bird 1990 USA 997 3;0-9;0 SW Cross-sectional Snow 1994 USA 9 1;0-1;8 CS Longitudinal Stoel-Gammon 1985 USA 34 1;3-2;0 CS Longitudinal Stoel-Gammon 1987 USA 33 2;0 CS Cross-sectional Stokes 2005 USA 40 2;1 CS Single age group Templin 1957 USA 480 3;0-8;0 SW Cross-sectional Ttofari Eecen, Reilly & Eadie 2007 Australia 1734 1;0 Parent report Single age group Waring, Fisher & Aitken 2001 Australia 299 3;5 – 7;11 SW Cross-sectional Watson & Scukanec 1997a, b USA 12 2;0-3;0 CS Longitudinal Wells, Peppé & Goulandris 2004 UK 120 5;6 - 13;9 Test of Cross-sectional GLOSSARY. Acquired sounds: The age at which a certain percentage (often 75%) of children have acquired a in initial, medial and final position in single words. Phonetic inventory: Repertoire of sounds a child can produce, regardless of the adult target. shape: Structure of a syllable within a word. C = ; V = This summary can be freely distributed. The source is pp. 385-405 of McLeod, S. (2009). Speech sound acquisition. In J. E. Bernthal, N. W. Bankson & P. Flipsen Jnr (Eds.), Articulation and phonological disorders: Speech sound disorders in children (6th ed., pp. 63-120 + 385-405). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

0;0 – 1;0 year

“The interaction between infants and their caregivers lays so many foundations for later learning” (McLaughlin, 1998, p. 192)

ORAL MECHANISM 0;2-0;3 = primitive articulation stage: gooing 0;9 = 5 in initial position (typically 0;4-0;5= expansion stage: full , / d, m, n, h, w /); 2 consonants in final Infant cf. adults Oral space is smaller. Lower jaw smaller raspberries, marginal position (typically / m, h/) and retracted. Sucking pads are present, (Oller, Eilers, Neal & Schwartz, 1999) 0;10 = 6 consonants in initial position teeth emerge. Tongue large compared to BABBLING (typically / b, d, t, m, n, h /); 4 size of oral cavity and therefore has more consonants in final position (typically t, “Late onset of canonical babbling may be a restricted movement. (Moves with jaw) m, h, s /) predictor of disorders… [ie.] smaller Nose breather. Epiglottis and soft palate 0;11 = 4 consonants in initial position are in approximation as a protective production vocabularies at 18, 24 & 36 (typically / d, m, n, h /); 2 consonants in mechanism. Newborns breathe/swallow at months” final position (typically /m, h/) same time. Larynx is higher in newborn (Oller, Eilers, Neal & Schwartz, 1999, p. 223) Eustachian tube lies in horizontal position. 1;0 = 5 consonants in initial position (typically 31-50 weeks = reduplicated babbling: series (More vertical in adults) / b, d, g, m, h/); 2 consonants in final of consonant and vowel-like elements position (typically /m, h/)(Robb & Bleile, 1994) PERCEPTION (Mitchell, 1997; Stark, 1979) Vowels 0;6+ = canonical stage: well-formed “By at least 2 days of age, the neonate has “Low, non-rounded vowels are favoured in canonical , reduplicated sequences an ability to discriminate language specific the first year. Front-back vowel differences (e.g., [babababa]) (Oller et al., 1999) acoustic distinctions…The 12 month old appear later than height differences” human has developed the capacity to “The sounds babbled most frequently are (Donegan, 2002) categorise only those which are produced more accurately by English- in its native language” (Ruben, 1997, p. 203) learning 2-year-olds, and appear more often PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES CRYING in the languages of the world, than other Present sounds.” (Locke, 2002, p. 249). All phonological processes (Grunwell, 1987) Mean amount of crying /24 hours 1-3 months = 90 mins, mostly in the evening PHONETIC INVENTORY SYLLABLE STRUCTURE 4-6 months = 64.7 mins, mostly afternoon Consonants Primarily mono-syllabic utterances 7-9 months = 60.5 mins, afternoon/evening Nasal, , , approximant, labial, (Bauman-Waengler, 2000, p. 99) 10-12 months = 86.4 mins, mostly evening lingual (Grunwell, 1981) Other studies show decrease at 10+ months 1;0 = Mean 4.4 consonants; median 4; range (McGlaughlin & Grayson, 2003) 0-16 (Ttofari-Eecen et al., 2007) 0;10 – 1;0 = Begin with falling contour only. VOCALISATION 1;0 = /m, d, b, n/ most frequently reported Flat or level contour, usually accompanied 0-6 weeks = reflexive vocalisations: cry, fuss consonants in inventory by variations such as falsettos or variations 6-16 weeks = coo and laughter: vowel-like (Ttofari-Eecen et al., 2007) in duration of loudness (Marcos, 1987 16-30 weeks = syllable-like vocalisations 0;8 = 5 consonants in initial position (typically adapted by Bauman-Waengler, 2000) (Stark, Bernstein, & Demorest, 1983) / d, t, k, m, h /); 3 consonants in final 0-0;2 = phonation, quasivowels & glottals position (typically / t, m, h/)

1;0 – 2;0 years

“…from 18 to 24 months…the largest growth within the phonological system takes place…also…the child’s expressive vocabulary has at least tripled” (Bauman-Waengler, 2000, p. 107)

ORAL MECHANISM PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES SYLLABLE STRUCTURE Deciduous teeth continue to emerge Present ? INTELLIGIBILITY Final consonant deletion, cluster reduction, PROSODY of velars, stopping, gliding, context 2;0 = 26-50% intelligible (Weiss, 1982) sensitive voicing (Grunwell, 1987) Young children acquire skills that control ACQUIRED SOUNDS intonation earlier than final syllable timing Declining skills (Snow, 1994). Consonants (females) , 1;1 – 1;3 = Rising contour. High falling 2;0 = /m, n, h, g/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) (Grunwell, 1987) contour that begins with a high pitch and Consonants (males) drops to a lower one 2;0 = /m, n/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) PHONETIC INVENTORY prior to 1;6 = high rising and high rising- Consonants (all children) “First words show individual variation in falling contour 2;0 = / h, w/ (Paynter & Petty, 1974) consonants used; phonetic variability in around 1;6 = falling-rising contour. Rising- 2;0 = /m, n, , h, p/ N pronunciations” (Grunwell, 1987) falling contour (Marcos, 1987 adapted by (Prather, Hedrick, & Kern, 1975) Consonants Bauman-Waengler, 2000) Consonant clusters /m, p, b, w, n, t, d/ (Grunwell, 1987) ? 1;0 = 5 consonants in initial position (typically METALINGUISTIC SKILLS Vowels / b, d, g, m, h/); 2 consonants in final 1;6-2;0 = monitor own utterances: repair ? position (typically /m, h/) spontaneously, adjust speech to different 1;6 = 6 consonants in initial position (typically PERCENT CORRECT listeners, practice sounds, words, sentences / b, d, m, n, h, w /); 3 consonants in final (Clark, adapted by Owens, 1996, p. 386) Consonants position (typically / t, h, s /)

2;0 = 69.2 (range 53-91) 2;0 = 10 consonants in initial position (Watson & Scukanec, 1997b) (typically / b, d, p, t, k, m, n, h, s, w /); 4 Consonant clusters consonants in final position (typically / t, ? k, n, s/) (Robb & Bleile, 1994) Vowels (USA -nonrhotic) 1;0 – Mean = 4.4 consonants; median = 4; 1;6-1;11 = 82% (range = 69-96) range 0-16 (Pollock & Berni, 2003) 1;0 – /m, d, b, n/ most frequently reported COMMON MISMATCHES consonants in inventory (Ttofari-Eecen et al., 2007) Consonants Vowels (USA) ? 1;3 = /I, U, √, A/ Consonant clusters 1;6 = / , u, , , , , / ? i U √ ç A Q 1;9 = /i,I , u, E, o, √, ç, A/ 2;0 = /i, I, u, E, e, o, ç, A, Q/ (Selby, Robb & Gilbert, 2000)

2;0 – 3;0 years

“Unlike toddlers, preschoolers develop more freedom of movement and therefore, soon become trailblazers in every sense of the word” (McLaughlin, 1998, p. 271

ORAL MECHANISM Consonants (males) Consonant clusters ≤3;0 & 3;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g/ 2;0-3;4 = 29.5% (mean); 0.0 - 79.1% (range) During first 3 years of life: (Smit, et al., 1990) in conversational speech Oral space enlarges. Growth of lower jaw + (McLeod, van Doorn & Reed, 2001b) other bony structures. Disappearance of 2;0 = /m, n/ 2;6 = + / , d/ Vowels (UK) sucking pads. Increased muscle and N 3;0-3;11 = 97.39% (Dodd et al., 2003) “skilled” tongue movement. (Tongue 3;0 = + / p, b, h, w, k, g/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) Vowels (USA - nonrhotic) movement become dissociated from jaw 3;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, j, g, Z/ 2;0-2;5 = 92.4% (range = 78-100) movement. Important for feeding & speech) (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) 2;6-2;11 = 93.9% (range = 78-100) Lowering & more sophisticated movement of Consonants (all children) (Pollock, 2002; Pollock & Berni, 2003) larynx. Separation of epiglottis & soft palate. 2;0 = /h, w/ Vowels (USA - rhotic) DDK (2;6 – 2;11) 2;6 = + /p, b, t, m/ (Paynter & Petty, 1974) 2;0-2;5 = 37.5% (range = 0-87) /p√/= 3.7 per second; /t√/ = 3.7 per second 2;0 = /m, n, , h, p/ N 2;6-2;11 = 62.5% (range = 0-100) /k / = 3.65 per second; patticake = 1.26/sec √ 2;4 = +/ j, d, k, f/ (Pollock, 2002) (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 2;8 = +/ w, b, t/ PERCENT ERROR Maximum phonation time 3;0 = +/g, s/ 2;6 – 2;11 = 5.55sec (Robbins & Klee, 1987) (Prather, Hedrick, & Kern, 1975) Consonants 2;7 = mean error rate for velars = 31% INTELLIGIBILITY 3;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, h, f, w / 2;7 = mean error rate for = 38% (Arlt & Goodban, 1976) 2;1 = “…children were mostly intelligible to 2;7 = mean error rate for liquids = 57% 3;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, , f, v, s, z, h, w, l, their parents with 12.7% parents finding their N (Roulstone et al., 2002) child difficult to understand and only 2.1% of j / (Dodd et al., 2003) Consonant clusters parents reporting that they could rarely Consonant clusters 2;7 = mean error rate 72% (Roulstone et al., 2002) understand their child” “Two-year-old children can produce COMMON MISMATCHES (Roulstone et al., 2002, p. 264) consonant clusters, but these may not be of 3;0 = 95.68% (88.89–100.00) the same form as the ambient language” Consonants (>15%) % of words that could be reliably understood (McLeod, van Doorn & Reed, 2001a) N → n; j→ O; l→ w; r→ w; v→b; T→f; by the transcriber (Flipsen, 2006b) Vowels D→ d; s→ dentalised; z→d; S→ s; tS→ t/d; 2;0 = 26-50% intelligible “The literature on vowel development Z→d (Smit, 1993a) 2;6 = 51-70% intelligible suggests that vowels are acquired early, Consonant clusters (>15%) 3;0 = 71-80% intelligible (Weiss, 1982) both in production and perception. There is pr→p, pw; br→b, bw; tr→t, tw; dr→d, dw; 3;0 = 73% (50-80%) intelligible judged by considerable variability in their production, kr→k, kw; gr→g, gw; fr→f, fw; Tr→f, Tw; three unfamiliar listeners. The children who but most studies suggest that vowel sw→w; sm→m; sn→n; sp→p, b; st→t, d; used more complex sentences were more production is reasonably accurate by age 3, sk→k, skw→k, t, kw, gw; spl→p, b, pl, pw; difficult to understand (Vihman, 1988) although some studies call this into spr→p, pw, pr, sp; str→t, d, st, tw, sw; question.” (Donegan, 2002, p. 2) skr→k, w, kw, gw, fw (Smit, 1993b) ACQUIRED SOUNDS 1;10-2;6= / , / mastered early, / / next, i A e, Q PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES Consonants (females) /I, E/ least accurate Present ≤3;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, f/ (Otomo & Stoel-Gammon, 1992) Cluster reduction, fronting of velars, fronting 3;0 = + / s/ (Smit, et al., 1990) PERCENT CORRECT /S/, stopping /v, T, D, tS, dZ/, gliding, 2;0 = /m, n, h, g/ Consonants context sensitive voicing (Grunwell, 1987) 2;6 = + / p, N, w, t, d, k/ PCC = 70% (Stoel-Gammon, 1987) Most prevalent = cluster reduction & liquid 3;0 = + / j, f/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) 2;0 = 69.2% (range 53-91) deviations (gliding) (Preisser et al., 1988) 3;0 = /h, , p, m, w, b, n, d, t, k, , f/ N Z 2;3 = 69.9% (range 51-91) 2;0 = final consonant deletion, liquid (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) 2;6 = 75.1% (range 61-94) simplification, later stopping, cluster 2;9 = 82.1% (range 63-96) reduction, vowelisation 3;0 = 86.2% (range 73-99) 3;0 = later stopping, cluster simplification (Watson & Scukanec, 1997b) (Watson & Scukanec, 1997b) 3;0-3;11 = 82.11% (Dodd et al., 2003)

2;7-3;0 = 23% fronting 2;6 = /pw, bw, -nd, -ts/ PROSODY (Lowe, Knutson & Monson, 1985) 2;9 = /pw, bw, bl, -nd, -ts, -nt, -nz/ “Significantly greater number of Declining 3;0 = /st, sp, pl, -nd, -ts, -nt, -nz, -st, -Mk/ errors in SWS words (S = strong; W = Final consonant deletion (Grunwell, 1987) (Watson & Scukanec, 1997b) weak). Tendency for greater number of Affrication, depalatisation, gliding, stress errors in SWSW words. Stress errors 2;0 = /fw, -ts (-Nk)/ meathesis, prevocalic voicing, vowel were more frequent in imitated than 2;5 = /(fw), (bw), -ts, (-ps), (ntS), (Nk)// changes (James, 2001) spontaneous productions.” (Kehoe, 1997) 2;9 = /(fw), (kw), (-ps), (-ts), (-nts), (- k)/ “An analysis of children’s truncation error PHONETIC INVENTORY N (Dyson, 1988) syllable deletion patterns revealed the Consonants (word-initial) following robust findings: 2;0 = predominantly word-initial consonant (a) Stressed and word-final unstressed 9-10 consonants (Stoel-Gammon, 1987) clusters containing /w/ (e.g., [bw, kw]) syllables are preserved more frequently than 2;0 = /p, b, t, d, k, m, n, s, f, h, w, j/ 3;0 = range of word-initial clusters nonfinal unstressed syllables, 2;3 = /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, s, f, h, w, j, l/ predominantly containing /l/, /w/ or /s/. (b) word-internal unstressed syllables with 2;6 = /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, s, f, h, t , w, j, l/ S Common word-final clusters contained obstruent onsets are preserved more 2;9 = /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, s, f, h, t , w, j, l/ frequently than word-internal syllables with S nasals (e.g., [-nd, -nt, -Nk]). 3;0 = /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, s, f, h, t , w, j, l/ sonorant onsets, S, D (McLeod, van Doorn & Reed, 2001b) (c) unstressed syllables with non-reduced (Watson & Scukanec, 1997b) Vowels vowels are preserved more frequently than /m, p, b, w, n, t, d, (N), (k), (g), h/ 2;0 = /i, I, u, E, e, o, ç, A, Q/ unstressed syllables with reduced vowels, (d) right-sided stressed syllables are (Grunwell, 1987) 3;0 = / , , u, , , e, o, , , , , / i I U E √ ç Œ A Q preserved more frequently than left-sided 2;0, 2;5, 2;9 = /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s, h, m, n, w, (Selby, Robb & Gilbert, 2000) stressed syllables. j, l/ (Dyson, 1988) SYLLABLE STRUCTURE An analysis of children’s stress patterns Consonants (word-final) revealed that children made greater Syllable shapes 5-6 final consonants (Stoel-Gammon, 1987) numbers of stress errors in target words with CV, CVC, CVCV, CVCVC irregular stress.” (Kehoe, 2001, p. 284) 2;0 = /p, t, k, m, n, s, z/ (Stoel-Gammon, 1987) METALINGUISTIC SKILLS 2;3 = /p, t, d, m, n, s, z/ CV, VC, CVC, 2-syllable (Shriberg, 1993) 2;6, 2;9, 3;0 = /p, t, d, k, m, n, s, z, l, r/ 1;6-2;0 = monitor own utterances: repair Monosyllabic words - V, CV, VC, CVC, (Watson & Scukanec, 1997b) spontaneously, adjust speech to different CCVC, CVCC, CCVCC, listeners, practice sounds, words, sentences 2;0 = /p, t, d, k, tS, /, f, s, S, m, n/ CCVCCC, CCCCVC (Clark, adapted by Owens, 1996, p. 386) 2;5 = /p, t, d, k, tS, /, f, s, S, m, n, N, ‘/ Polysyllabic words - V, CV, VC, CVC, CCVC

2;9 = /p, t, k, , f, s, , m, n, / (Dyson, 1988) / S ‘ (Dodd, 1995; Watson & Skucanec, 1997) Consonant clusters “A few clusters” (Stoel-Gammon, 1987)

3;0 – 4;0 years

“A client 3 years of age or older who is unintelligible is a candidate for treatment” (Bernthal & Bankson, 1998, p. 272)

ORAL MECHANISM Consonants (all children) Vowels (USA - rhotic) 3;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, , h, f, w / 3;0-3;5 = 79.2% (range = 4-100) 3 yrs = adult-like swallow N 3;6 = + /v/ 3;6-3;11 = 76.5% (range = 4-100) DDK (3;0 – 3;5/ 3;6 – 3;11) 4;0 = + / s, z, , t , d , l/ (Pollock, 2002) /p√/= 4.66/ 4.81 per second Z S Z (Arlt & Goodban, 1976) COMMON MISMATCHES /t√/ = 4.56/ 4.78 per second 3;0 = /m, n, , h, p, j, d, k, f, w, b, t, g, s/ /k√/ = 3.82/ 4.83 per second N Consonants (>15%) → n; r→ w; v→b; →f; → d; s→ patticake = 1.36/ 1.75 per second 3;4 = +/l, r/ N T D (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 3;8 = +/S, tS/ dentalised (Smit, 1993a) Maximum phonation time 4;0 = +/D, Z/ (Prather, Hedrick, & Kern, 1975) Consonant clusters (>15%) pr→pw; br→bw; tr→tw; dr→dw; kr→kw; /a/ = 5.51/ 7.79sec (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 3;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, f, v, s, z, h, w, gr→gw; fr→fw; Tr→fr; st→Tt; INTELLIGIBILITY l, j / skw→Tkw; spl→ Tpl, spw; spr→ Tpr, spw; 3;0 = 95.68% (88.89–100.00) 3;6 = +/tS/ str→ Ttr, stw; skr→ Tkr, skw (Smit, 1993b) 4;0 = 96.82% (88.42–100.00) 4;0 = +/Z, dZ/ (Dodd et al., 2003) PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES % of words that could be reliably understood Consonant clusters by the transcriber (Flipsen, 2006b) 3;6 (males & females)= /tw, kw/ Present 3;0 = 71-80% intelligible (Weiss, 1982) 4;0 (females) = /tw, kw, pl, bl, kl/ Stopping /v, T, D/, fronting /S, tS, dZ/, 3;0 = 73% (50-80%) intelligible judged by 4;0 (males) = /tw, kw/ (Smit, et al., 1990) gliding, (Grunwell, 1987) three unfamiliar listeners (Vihman, 1988) 4;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, 3;0-3;6 Gliding of liquids, weak syllable “A client 3 years of age or older who is pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr/ (Templin, 1957) deletion, glottal replacement, alveolar & unintelligible is a candidate for treatment” 4;0 = /kw/ (Anthony et al., 1971) labial , cluster reduction, (Bernthal & Bankson, 1998, p. 272) Vowels stopping, vocalization, final consonant ACQUIRED SOUNDS Paradigmatic production (ie production of deletion (Haelsig & Madison, 1986) “3-year-olds had acquired all major phoneme individual vowels) is generally mastered by 3 3;0-3;11 gliding, deaffrication, cluster classes, except liquids…sibilant lisps were years. However, syntagmatic production reduction, fronting, weak syllable deletion, still common until the age of 7 years” (production of vowels in context such as (stopping – only used by 3;0-3;5) (Porter & Hodson, 2001, p.165) polysyllabic words) takes up to at least 6 (Dodd et al., 2003) Declining Consonants (females) years (James, van Doorn & McLeod, 2001) 3;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s/ PERCENT CORRECT Cluster reduction (Grunwell, 1987) 3;6 = + / j / Backing, cluster reduction, deaffrication, final Consonants consonant deletion, final devoicing, initial 4;0 = +/ v, D, S, tS/ (Smit, et al., 1990) 3;0-3;11 = 76.77% in monosyllabic words consonant deletion, labial assimilation, 3;0 = / m, n, h, g, p, , w, t, d, k, j, f/ 3;0-3;11 = 76.41% in polysyllabic words N palatalisation, stopping, unstressed syllable (James, van Doorn & McLeod, 2002) 3;6 = + / b, S, tS, s/ deletion, fricative simplification (James, 2001) 3;5-3;11 = 85.2% 4;0 = + /l, Z, dZ/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) PHONETIC INVENTORY 3;0 = /h, , p, m, w, b, n, d, t, k, , f/ N Z 3;0-3;11 = 82.11% (Dodd et al., 2003) 3;6 = +/ j, g, l / Consonants Consonant clusters 4;0 = + / / (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) /m, p, b, w, n, t, d, N, k, g, h, f, w, s, (l), j, h/ S, tS, dZ 3;5-3;11 = 86.4%(Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) (Grunwell, 1987) Consonants (males) Vowels (Australian) 3;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g/ 3;0-3;11 = 94.9% in monosyllabic words initial = /p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s, h, m, n, w, j, l, r/; final = /p, t, d, k, , f, v, s, z, , m, n, , r, / 3;6 = + / j, f / 3;0-3;11 = 88.28% in polysyllabic words / S N ‘ 4;0 = +/ dZ / (Smit, et al., 1990) (James, van Doorn & McLeod, 2001) (Dyson, 1988) 3;0 = / m, n, N, d, p, b, h, w, k, g/ Vowels (UK) 3;6 = + /j, t, f, l, S, tS, dZ/ 3;0-3;11 = 97.39% (Dodd et al., 2003) 4;0 = + /s/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) Vowels (USA - nonrhotic) 3;0-3;5 = 97.3% (range = 89-100) 3;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, j, g, Z/ 3;6-3;11 = 97.2% (range = 91-100) 3;6 = + / k, f / (Pollock, 2002; Pollock & Berni, 2003) 4;0 = as above (Kilminster & Laird, 1978)

Consonant clusters SYLLABLE STRUCTURE Stress “…after 2 years of age, deletion of stressed 3;3 = /-ts, (fw), (kw), (tr), (sp), (st), (sn), (sl), CV, VC, CVC, Cn_ or _Cn, 2-syllable (bw), (-ps), (-ns), (-nt ), (- k)/ (Dyson, 1988) syllables is relatively infrequent, and after 3 S N (Shriberg, 1993) years of age, deletion of unstressed Obstruent + approximant used, /s/ clusters Average number of syllables/words syllables is less frequent” (Kehoe, 2001,291) may occur (Grunwell, 1987) 3;0 = 1.26 3;0 = range of word-initial clusters 4;0 = 1.27 (Flipsen, 2006a) predominantly containing /l/, /w/ or /s/. PROSODY Emerging skills (Dodd & Gillon, 2001) Common word-final clusters contained “The majority of 4-year-old children… will not nasals (e.g., [-nd, -nt, -Nk]). Speaking rate exhibit phonological awareness other than New Zealand = 182 syllables per minute; (McLeod, van Doorn & Reed, 2001b) syllable segmentation and the emergence of 7.15 phones per second Vowels rhyme awareness” (Dodd & Gillon, 2001,142) USA = 208 syllables per minute; 8.17 N.Zealand /i, e, u, o, Å, I, E, Q, ´, √, ç, U/ phones per second (Robb & Gillon, 2007) USA /i, e, u, o, Å, I, E, Q, ´, √, ç, U, Œ’, ‘/ (Robb & Gillon, 2007)

4;0 – 5;0 years

“Five-year-old children are producing long, complex sentences…and maintaining a topic for several turns. In a few short years, children move much closer to the adult level of linguistic and communicative competence.” (James, 1990, p. 74)

ORAL MECHANISM 4;6 = + /S/ Vowels (Australian) 4;0-4;11 = 95.2% in monosyllabic words DDK (4;0 – 4;5/ 4;6 – 4;11) 5;0 = + /T, D, r / (Arlt & Goodban, 1976) 4;0-4;11 = 92.08% in polysyllabic words /p√/= 4.89/ 4.64 per second 4;0 = /m, n, N, h, p, j, d, k, f, w, b, t, g, s, l, r, (James van Doorn & McLeod, 2001) /t / = 4.77/ 4.46 per second , t , / √ S S, D Z Vowels (USA - nonrhotic) /k / = 4.58/ 4.29 per second √ >4;0 = +/v, T, z, dZ/ 4;0-4;5 = 98% (range = 91-100) patticake = 1.56/ 1.33 per second (Prather, Hedrick, & Kern, 1975) 4;6-4;11 = 99% (range = 94-100) (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 4;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, f, v, s, z, h, w, l, (Pollock, 2002; Pollock & Berni, 2003) Maximum phonation time j, tS, Z, dZ/ Vowels (USA - rhotic) /a/ = 8.01/ 9.22sec (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 5;0 = +/S/ (Dodd et al., 2003) 4;0-4;5 = 90.1% (range = 37-100) INTELLIGIBILITY Consonant clusters (all children) 4;6-4;11 = 86.8% (0-100) (Pollock, 2002) “A client 3 years of age or older who is 4;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, COMMON MISMATCHES unintelligible is a candidate for treatment” pr, br, tr, dr, kr/ Consonants (>15%) (Bernthal & Bankson, 1998, p. 272) 4;6 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, T→f; s→ dentalised (Smit, 1993a) 3;0 = 95.68% (88.89–100.00) pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr/ Consonant clusters (>15%) 4;0 = 96.82% (88.42–100.00) 5;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, pr→pw; br→bw; tr→tw; dr→dw; kr→kw; 5;0 = 98.05% (89.84–100.00) fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, str/ (Templin, 1957) gr→gw; fr→fw; Tr→fr; st→Tt; % of words reliably understood by the 4;0 = /kw/ skw→Tkw; spl→ Tpl, spw; spr→ Tpr, spw; transcriber (Flipsen, 2006b) 4;6 = +/kr, fl/ str→ Ttr, stw; skr→ Tkr, skw (Smit, 1993b) 4;0 = 93% (73-100%) intelligible in 5;0 = +/gl, tr, kl, br/ (Anthony et al., 1971) PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES conversational speech with unfamiliar Consonant clusters (females) listeners (Gordon-Brannan, 1993 cited in 4;0 = /tw, kw, pl, bl, kl/ Present Gordon-Brannan, 1994). 4;6 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sw, pl, bl, kl, gl, fl, kr, /T/ -> [N], /D/ -> [d, v], palatisation of ACQUIRED SOUNDS skw/ /S, tS, dZ/, gliding (Grunwell, 1987) 5;0 = same as for 4;6 (Smit, et al., 1990) Consonants (females) 4;0-4;6 Weak syllable deletion, vocalization, Consonant clusters (males) 4;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s, j, v, gliding of liquids (20% criterion) 4;0 = /tw, kw/ D, S, tS/ (Haelsig & Madison, 1986) 4;6 = /tw, kw, gl/ 4;6 = + /dZ, l/ 5;0 = + /z/ (Smit, et al., 1990) 4;0-4;11 Gliding, deaffrication, cluster 5;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sn, bl, gl, dr/ reduction (3 element clusters only) 4;0 = / m, n, h, g, p, N, w, t, d, k, j, f, b, S, tS, (Smit et al., 1990) (Dodd et al., 2003) s, / Vowels l, Z, dZ Declining Paradigmatic production (ie production of 5;0 = + /r, v / (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) Cluster reduction (Grunwell, 1987) 4;0 = /h, , p, m, w, b, n, d, t, k, , f, j, g, l, individual vowels) is generally mastered by 3 N Z years. However syntagmatic production Depalatalisation, gliding, glottal replacement S, tS, dZ/ (production of vowels in context such as (James, 2001) 4;6 = + /s, z/ 5;0 = + /r/ (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) polysyllabic words) takes up to at least 6 PHONETIC INVENTORY Consonants (males) years of age. Consonants 4;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, j, f , / (James, van Doorn & McLeod, 2001) dZ /m, p, b, w, n, t, d, , k, g, h, f, v, w, s, z, PERCENT CORRECT N 4;6 = + v, z/ 5;0 =+ /s, S, tS/ (Smit, et al., 1990) S, tS, dZ, l, r, j, h/ (Grunwell, 1987) 4;0 = / m, n, , d, p, b, h, w, k, g, j, t, f, l, Consonants N Consonant clusters 4;0-4;11 = 83.97% in monosyllabic words S, tS, dZ, s/ obstruent + approximant; /s/ clusters (may 4;0-4;11 = 82.45% in polysyllabic words 4;6 = + / / 5;0 = + /r/ (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) be “immature”) (Grunwell, 1987) Z (James van Doorn & McLeod, 2002) 4;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, j, g, Z, k, f / 4;0-4;11 = 88.5% (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) SYLLABLE STRUCTURE 4;6 = /t, l, S, tS, dZ/ 4;0-5;5 = 90.37% (Dodd et al., 2003) CV, VC, CVC, Cn_, _Cn, Cn_Cn, 2-syllable, 5;0 = /r/ (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) Consonant clusters 3-syllable (Shriberg, 1993) Consonants (all children) 4;0-4;11 = 88.1% (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) Average number of syllables/words 4;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, h, f, w, v, s, Vowels (UK) 4;0 = 1.27; 5;0 = 1.29 (Flipsen, 2006a) z, Z, tS, dZ, l/ 4;0-5;5 = 98.93% (Dodd et al., 2003)

5;0 – 6;0 years “By the time children enter school, their phonological development has progressed considerably” (Bauman-Waengler, 2000, p. 118) ORAL MECHANISM 5;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, f, v, s, z, h, w, l, 5;0-5;11 = 94.3% in polysyllabic words DDK (5;0 – 5;5/ 5;6 – 5;11) j, tS, Z, dZ, S/ (James van Doorn & McLeod, 2001) /p√/= 4.76/ 5.09 per second 6;0 = +/r/ (Dodd et al., 2003) Vowels (USA -nonrhotic) 5;0-5;5 = 99% (range = 98-100) /t√/ = 4.82/ 5.22 per second Consonant clusters (all children) 5;6-5;11 = 99% (range = 98-100) /k√/ = 4.56/ 4.91 per second 5;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, (Pollock, 2002; Pollock & Berni, 2003) patticake = 1.58/ 1.65 per second fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, str/ Vowels (USA - rhotic) (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 6;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, skw, str/ 5;0-5;5 = 88.2% (range = 0-100) Maximum phonation time 5;6-5;11 = 80.31% (range = 0-100) /a/ = 8.06/ 9.42sec (Robbins & Klee, 1987) (Templin, 1957) (Pollock, 2002) INTELLIGIBILITY 5;0 = /kw, kr, fl, gl, tr, kl, br/ 5;6 = +/sl/ COMMON MISMATCHES 5;0 = 98.05% (89.84–100.00) >5;6 = +/ r, sm, st, str, sp/ 6;0 = 98.43% (91.67–100.00) T Consonants (>15%) % of words that could be reliably understood (Anthony et al., 1971) Nil (Smit, 1993a) by the transcriber (Flipsen, 2006b) Consonant clusters (females) Consonant clusters (>15%) > 5;6 = pr→pw; br→bw; tr→tw; dr→dw; Intelligible (Gordon-Brannan, 1994) 5;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sw, pl, bl, kl, gl, fl, kr, skw/ kr→kw; gr→gw; skw→Tkw; spl→ Tpl, ACQUIRED SOUNDS 5;6 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sw, pl, bl, kl, spw; spr→ Tpr, spw; str→ Ttr, stw; Consonants gl, fl, kr, skw/ skr→ Tkr, skw (Smit, 1993b) “By age 5, /l/ was acquired (93.4%) and /r/ 6;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sw, sl, pl, bl, PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES was almost at criterion (84.8%). By age 6, all kl, gl, fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, skw, spl/ of the phonological deviation means, (Smit, et al., 1990) Declining including liquids, were less than 5%.” Consonant clusters (males) Deaffrication, , , fricative simplification (v/ ) (James, 2001) (Porter & Hodson, 2001, p. 169) 5;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sn, bl, gl, dr/ D Consonants (females) 5;6 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, fl, pr, tr, 5;0-5;11 Gliding (Dodd et al., 2003) 5;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s, j, v, kr, gr, fr, dr/ SYLLABLE STRUCTURE D, S, tS, dZ, l , z/ 6;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sn, sw, pl, bl, kl, gl, CV, VC, CVC, Cn_, _Cn, Cv_Cn, 2 syllable, 5;6 = + /N, T/ fl, pr, br, tr, kr, gr, fr, dr/ (Smit, et al., 1990) 3+ syllable (Shriberg, 1993) 6;0 = + /r/ (Smit, et al., 1990) Vowels Average number of syllables/words 5;0 = / m, n, h, g, p, , w, t, d, k, j, f, b, , t , Paradigmatic production (ie production of N S S 5;0 = 1.29 s, r, v/ individual vowels) is generally mastered by 3 l, Z, dZ 6;0 = 1.30 (Flipsen, 2006a) years. However syntagmatic production No more at 5;6 or 6;0 (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) PHONETIC INVENTORY (production of vowels in context such as 5;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, t, k, Z, f, j, g, l, Consonants polysyllabic words) takes up to at least 6 , s, z, r/ /m, p, b, w, n, t, d, , k, g, h, f, v, w, s, S, tS, dZ years of age. (James et al., 2001) N T, D, z, , l, r, j, h/ (Grunwell, 1987) 5;6 = + / v/ (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) PERCENT CORRECT S, Z, tS, dZ Consonants (males) PROSODY 5;0 = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, j, f , Consonants 5;0-5;11 = 89.54% in monosyllabic words “The ability to produce intonation functionally dZ, v, z, s, S, tS/ 5;0-5;11 = 88.36% in polysyllabic words is largely established in five-year-olds though 5;6 = /D, r/ (James van Doorn & McLeod, 2002) some specific functional contrasts are not 6;0 = /N, T, z, l/ (Smit, et al., 1990) 5;0-5;11 = 93.4% (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) mastered until C.A. 8;7” 5;0 = / m, n, N, d, p, b, h, w, k, g, j, t, f, l, (Wells, Peppé & Goulandris, 2004, p. 749) 4;0-5;5 = 90.37% , r/ S, tS, dZ, s, Z 5;6-7;0 = 95.86% (Dodd et al., 2003) PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS No more at 5;6 or 6;0 (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) Consonant clusters 5;0 – 5;5 = syllable segmentation, rhyme 5;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, j, g, Z, k, f, t, l, 5;0-5;11 = 94.9% (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) awareness, alliteration awareness, phoneme S, tS, dZ, r/ Vowels (UK) isolation (+ letter knowledge, UK) No more 5;6 or 6;0 (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) 4;0-5;5 = 98.93% (Dodd et al., 2003) 5;6 – 5;11 = phoneme segmentation (Dodd Consonants (all children) 5;6-7;0 = 99.19% (Dodd et al., 2003) & Gillon, 2001) 5;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, h, f, w, v, s, Vowels (Australian) 5;0-5;11 = 94.8% in monosyllabic words z, Z, tS, dZ, l, S, T, D, r /(Arlt & Goodban, 1976)

6;0+ years “As time goes on, it becomes more difficult to clearly number the individual developments. Major changes may be less specific…” (McLaughlin, 1998, p. 353) ORAL MECHANISM >6;6 = +/T, D/ (Dodd et al., 2003) 7;0-7;11 = 95.10% in monosyllabic words 6 yrs = skull reaches adult size Consonant clusters (all children) 7;0-7;11 = 95.44% in polysyllabic words 6 yrs = permanent teeth emerge 6;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, pl, bl, kl, gl, (James van Doorn & McLeod, 2001) 7-10yrs = lower face “growth spurt” fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, skw, str/ Vowels (USA - nonrhotic) 9-13 = tongue and lips “growth spurt” 7;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sw, sl, pl, bl, 6;0-6;5 = 98.5% (range = 94-100) Mandible + tongue + lips continue to grow kl, gl, fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, Tr, skw, 6;6-6;10 = 99.2% (range = n/a) until 16 yrs (girls) and 18 yrs (boys) spl, spr, str, skr/ (Templin, 1957) (Pollock, 2002; Pollock & Berni, 2003) Vowels (USA - rhotic) (Bauman-Waengler, 2000) 6;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, f, v, s, z, h, w, l, 6;0-6;5 = 80.3% (range = 0-100) DDK (6;0 – 6;5/ 6;6 – 6;11) j, tS, Z, dZ, S, r/ 6;6-6;10 = 77.2% (range = 2-100) /p√/= 5.36/ 5.51 / sec /t√/ = 5.32/ 5.37 /sec >6;6 = +/ , / (Dodd et al., 2003) T D (Pollock, 2002) /k√/ = 4.94/ 4.85 /sec patticake = 1.61/ 1.64 Consonant clusters (females) COMMON MISMATCHES (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 6;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sw, sl, pl, bl, Maximum phonation time kl, gl, fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, skw, spl/ Consonants (>15%) /a/ = 10.99/11.47sec (Robbins & Klee, 1987) 7;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sw, sl, pl, bl, Nil (Smit, 1993a) INTELLIGIBILITY kl, gl, fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, Tr, skw, Consonant clusters (>15%) tr→tw; skw→ kw; spl→ pl; spr→ pr, 6;0 = 98.43% (91.67–100.00) spl/ T T T 7;0 = 99.51% (97.36–100.00) 8;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sw, sl, pl, bl, spw; str→Ttr, stw; skr→Tkr, skw 8;0 = 99.01% (197.07–100.00) kl, gl, fl, pr, br, tr, dr, kr, gr, fr, Tr, skw, (Smit, 1993b) % of words that could be reliably understood spl, spr, str, skr/ (Smit, et al., 1990) SYLLABLE STRUCTURE by the transcriber (Flipsen, 2006b) Consonant clusters (males) All (Shriberg, 1993) Intelligible (Gordon-Brannan, 1994). 6;0 = /tw, kw, sp, st, sk, sn, sw, pl, bl, kl, gl, Average number of syllables/words ACQUIRED SOUNDS fl, pr, br, tr, kr, gr, fr, dr/ 6;0 = 1.30. 7;0 = 1.32. 8;0 = 1.33 (Flipsen, 2006a) 7;0 = + / sm, sl, r, skw, spl/ Consonants (females) T PHONETIC INVENTORY 6;0 = ALL = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, f, s, j, 8;0 = + / spr, str, skr/ (Smit, et al., 1990) ALL - /m, p, b, w, n, t, d, , k, g, h, f, v, v, D, S, tS, dZ, l , z, N, T, r/ (Smit, et al., 1990) Vowels N T, D, Paradigmatic production (ie production of w, s, z, S, Z, tS, dZ, l, r, j, h/ (Grunwell,1987) 6;0 = / m, n, h, g, p, N, w, t, d, k, j, f, b, S, tS, individual vowels) is generally mastered by 3 PROSODY s, l, Z, dZ r, v/ years. However syntagmatic production 7;6 = + / / (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) Intonation production continues to be T, D (production of vowels in context such as mastered until 8;7. Intonation 6;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, t, k, Z, f, j, g, l, polysyllabic words) takes up to at least 6 comprehension continues to develop up to S, tS, dZ, s, z, r, v/ years of age. (James et al., 2001) 10;10 (Wells, Peppé & Goulandris, 2004) 7;6 = + / / (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) T, D PERCENT CORRECT PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS Consonants (males) Consonants Established skills (Australia) 6;0 = / m, n, N, d, p, b, h, w, k, g, j, t, f, l, 6;0-6;11 = 93.74% in monosyllabic words 6;0 – 6;5 = syllable segmentation, rhyme , r/ S, tS, dZ, s, Z 6;0-6;11 = 90.76% in polysyllabic words awareness, alliteration awareness, phoneme 7;6 = +/ / 8;0 = + / / D T 7;0-7;11 = 93.93% in monosyllabic words isolation 9;0 = + /v/ (/z/ not achieved) 7;0-7;11 = 90.99% in polysyllabic words 6;6 – 6;11 = phoneme segmentation (Chirlian & Sharpley, 1982) (James van Doorn & McLeod, 2002) (Dodd & Gillon, 2001) 6;0 = ALL = /m, n, h, w, p, b, t, d, k, g, j, f , 6;0-6;11 = 95.1% Established skills (UK) dZ, v, z, s, S, tS, D, r, N, T, z, l/ 7;0-7;11 = 98.4% (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) 6;0 – 6;11 = syllable segmentation, rhyme (Smit, et al., 1990) 5;6-7;0 = 95.86% (Dodd et al., 2003) awareness, alliteration awareness, phoneme 6;0 = /h, N, p, m, w, b, n, d, j, g, Z, k, f, t, l, Consonant clusters isolation, letter knowledge, phoneme S, tS, dZ, r/ 6;0-6;11 = 96.6% segmentation (Dodd & Gillon, 2001) 7;0-7;11 = 98.3% (Waring, Fisher, Atkin, 2001) 6;6 = + /s, z, v/ (/T, D/ not achieved by 9;0) Vowels (UK) (Kilminster & Laird, 1978) 5;6-7;0 = 99.19% (Dodd et al., 2003) Consonants (all children) Vowels (Australian) 6;0 = / p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, N, f, v, s, z, h, w, l, 6;0-6;11 = 95.39% in monosyllabic words j, t , , d , , r/ S Z Z S 6;0-6;11 = 94.86% in polysyllabic words