Gewalthaltige Videospiele Christian Happ, André Melzer & Georges Steffgen Einlei

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Gewalthaltige Videospiele Christian Happ, André Melzer & Georges Steffgen Einlei Happ, C., Melzer, A. & Steffgen, G. (2014). Gewalthaltige Videospiele. In T. Porsch & S. Pieschl (Hrsg.), Neue Medien und deren Schatten. Mediennutzung, Medienwirkung und Medienkompetenz (S. 191-218). Göttingen: Hogrefe. Gewalthaltige Videospiele Christian Happ, André Melzer & Georges Steffgen Einleitung und Hintergrund Elektronische Spiele, auch in ihrer gewalthaltigen Variante, sind heute soziale Realität; ihre Nutzung ist weder auf eine bestimmte Altersspanne noch auf ein Geschlecht begrenzt. Während die viele Stunden umfassende Kampagne in einem Abenteuerspiel auf dem heimischen PC oder der Spielkonsole genossen werden kann, bieten moderne Smartphones oder Tablet-PCs unterwegs schnellen elektronischen Spielspaß. Wenig überraschend stellt die Gesamtheit der Videospiele (stationäre Spielautomaten, PCs, Spielkonsolen, Smartphones; siehe Williams, Yee, & Caplan, 2008) inzwischen einen erheblichen Wirtschaftsfaktor dar. So betrug der Gesamtumsatz im zweitgrößten europäischen Computer- und Videospielmarkt Deutschland im Jahr 2011 insgesamt 1,57 Mrd. Euro. Ein zentraler Motor sind dabei die speziell auf Spiele ausgerichteten Konsolen von Nintendo© (Wii), Microsoft© (XBox360) und Sony© (Playstation®3), deren Anteil am Gesamtumsatz allein 866 Mio. Euro beträgt (bIU, 2012). Da die visuelle Ausgabe der Spielhandlung auf einem Monitor zentrales Element elektronischer Spiele ist, und der begriff„video game“ im anglo-amerikanischen Sprachraum allgemeiner Oberbegriff für Computerspiele jeglicher Art ist, wird der begriff Videospiele in diesem beitrag als Synonym für Computerspiele und alle anderen Formen elektronischer Spiele verwendet. Mit der ökonomischen und sozialen bedeutung der Videospiele stellen sich zahlreiche Fragen nach den Folgen der Nutzung dargestellter Gewalt und Aggression in Videospielen, die nicht nur in den Medien zum Teil überaus emotional diskutiert werden: - Wie viel Gewalt steckt in Spielen, und wie wird diese dargestellt? - Welche Wirkungen haben gewalthaltige Spiele auf das Denken, Fühlen und Verhalten? - Welche Nutzer gewalthaltiger Spiele sind besonders gefährdet? —1 — Happ, C., Melzer, A. & Steffgen, G. (2014). Gewalthaltige Videospiele. In T. Porsch & S. Pieschl (Hrsg.), Neue Medien und deren Schatten. Mediennutzung, Medienwirkung und Medienkompetenz (S. 191-218). Göttingen: Hogrefe. - Was können Eltern tun, um möglichen negativen Folgen gewalthaltiger Spiele entgegenzuwirken? Häufig wird die Debatte über die Folgen der Videospielnutzung auf die sogenannten „Killerspiele“ reduziert. Ihr Konsum wird nicht nur hinsichtlich ihrer negativen Folgen für die Spieler selbst, sondern auch für deren Umwelt betrachtet. Diese Spiele werden als Auslöser und Anleitung für schwere Gewalttaten an Schulen mitverantwortlich gemacht. Viele der Spielenthusiasten (Gamer) fühlen sich durch diese Beschuldigungen stigmatisiert. Ihrer Ansicht nach dienen gewalthaltige Computerspiele – wie alle Videospiele – lediglich der Unterhaltung ohne negative Folgen. Sie reagieren ihrerseits mit der Argumentation, die ins Feld geführten wissenschaftlichen belege seien methodisch zweifelhaft oder Ausdruck einer Voreingenommenheit gegenüber dem Unterhaltungsmedium (vergleiche Kapitel 4 aus diesem band). Dieses Spannungsfeld aufgreifend soll in diesem Kapitel eine empirisch-fundierte Analyse der aktuellen wissenschaftlichen befundlage dargelegt werden. Neben den Effekten, die gewalthaltige Inhalte in Videospielen auf Nutzer haben, werden Erklärungsansätze zur Wirkung von Gewalt in Videospielen aufgeführt. Abschließend werden Möglichkeiten der Prävention potentiell schädigender Einflussprozesse von Videospielen aufgezeigt. Definitionen und geschichtliche Entwicklung Die meisten Studien zur Nutzung und Wirkung gewalthaltiger Videospiele konzentrieren sich auf Aggression und aggressives Verhalten von Spielern als Kriterium oder Zielvariable. baron und Richardson (1994) definieren aggressives Verhalten als jede Handlung, die mit der Absicht ausgeführt wird, eine andere Person in irgendeiner Art und Weise zu schädigen oder zu verletzen, wobei diese Person bestrebt ist, dieser Handlung zu entgehen. Diese Definition beinhaltet eine Zielgerichtetheit der Handlung (Anderson & bushman, 1997) und schließt zugleich verschiedene Formen von Aggression ein (Anderson & bushman, 2002a). Darunter sind sowohl körperliche als auch verbale und direkte sowie indirekte Aggression zu verstehen. Diese Definition beinhaltet keine prosoziale, der Gesellschaft dienliche Variante von Aggression (z.b. —2 — Happ, C., Melzer, A. & Steffgen, G. (2014). Gewalthaltige Videospiele. In T. Porsch & S. Pieschl (Hrsg.), Neue Medien und deren Schatten. Mediennutzung, Medienwirkung und Medienkompetenz (S. 191-218). Göttingen: Hogrefe. eingesetzt bei der Gesetzeswahrung; Ferguson, 2010). Der begriff Gewalt wird manchmal zwar synonym zu Aggression gebraucht, häufiger aber dazu benutzt, extremere Formen meist physischer Aggression zu beschreiben (Anderson et al., 2007). Da jedoch keine eindeutigen klinischen Grenzwerte vorliegen, ist eine Objektivierung und Standardisierung der Gewaltmessung nur schwer möglich (Ferguson, 2010). Zahlreiche befunde der Medienwirkungsforschung weisen seit langem darauf hin, dass die Darstellung von Gewalt in Film, Fernsehen und Videospielen negative Auswirkungen auf das Sozialverhalten haben kann. bereits in den 1920er und 30er Jahren durchgeführte wissenschaftliche Studien zu Gangsterfilmen zeigen, dass durch Nachahmung dieser Filme strafbares Verhalten (z.b. gewalttätiges oder delinquentes Verhalten) bei jungen Erwachsenen auftreten kann (Jacobs, 1997). In den 1950er Jahren wurde die Gewaltdarstellung in Comicheften als Ursache für die hohe Kriminalität der Jugend gesehen (Wertham, 1954) und in den USA wurde ab 1960 die zunehmende Anzahl an gewalttätigen Übergriffen dem gewalthaltigen Fernsehprogramm zugeschrieben (Jensen, 2001). Anzunehmen ist jedoch, dass diese Entwicklung eher mit sozialen Umständen (z.b. Einkommen, familiären Verhältnissen, Freundeskreis) zu erklären ist (Anderson, Gentile, & buckley, 2007). Die ersten Videospiele sowie die ersten Forschungsarbeiten auf diesem Gebiet entstanden in den 1970er Jahren. 1972 kam mit „Magnavox Odyssey“ die erste Spielkonsole auf den Markt, von der 100.000 Stück im ersten Jahr verkauft wurden (Fraser, Padilla-Walker, Coyne, Nelson, & Stockdale, 2012). bereits die ersten Gewaltakte in den frühen Spielen, zum beispiel das Überfahren von Strichen ähnelnder Fußgänger im Spiel „Maze Death Race (Personal Software Services, 1982)“, wurden kritisch hinterfragt (New York Times, 1976). Während damals vorrangig an Münzautomaten in Spielhallen, den sogenannten Arcade-Spielen, gespielt wurde, war es ab den 1980er Jahren durch Spielsysteme von Atari© und Nintendo© erstmals möglich, allein oder mit Freunden zuhause zu spielen. Dies bedeutete vor allem, dass es keine zeitlichen beschränkungen der Spielzeit mehr gab. Entsprechend hatte das Nintendo Entertainment System© 1985 mit Spieltiteln großen Erfolg, die zum Teil heute noch erfolgreich fortgeführt werden (z.b. „Super Mario bros. [Nintendo, 1985]“, —3 — Happ, C., Melzer, A. & Steffgen, G. (2014). Gewalthaltige Videospiele. In T. Porsch & S. Pieschl (Hrsg.), Neue Medien und deren Schatten. Mediennutzung, Medienwirkung und Medienkompetenz (S. 191-218). Göttingen: Hogrefe. „The Legend of Zelda [Nintendo, 1986]“, „Final Fantasy [Square Enix, 1987]“), auch wenn die damalige Technologie der Grafik in keiner Weise mit den heutzutage weit realistischeren Darstellungen vergleichbar ist (Funk, 2002; Sherry, 2001). Diese ersten Konsolenspiele erwiesen sich zudem als weitestgehend gewaltfrei (Anderson et al., 2007; siehe Kasten 1). Kasten 1: Videospielgewalt in den 1980er Jahren „Lode Runner (Brøderbund, 1983)“ ist ein Computerspiel aus dem Jahr 1983 und gilt als Klassiker unter den Plattform-Spielen. Die Spielfigur muss darin Schätze einsammeln, während sie von zwei bis fünf Gegnern verfolgt wird. Die eigene Spielfigur stirbt, wenn ein Gegner das Symbol der eigenen Spielfigur erreicht. „This was 1980s video-game violence.“ (Waddington, 2007, S. 121). Erst ab den 1990ern waren die beliebtesten Spiele jene, in denen gekämpft wurde (z.b. „Street Fighter [Capcom, 1987“] und „Mortal Kombat“ [Midway Game, 1992]). 1992 erschien mit „Wolfenstein 3D (id Software)“ der erste „Shooter“ für den heimischen PC. bei diesem Spieltyp steht das Erleben einer permanenten bedrohung, der Schutz der eigenen Figur und das Ausschalten angreifender gegnerischer Spielfiguren als Spielkonzept im Vordergrund (siehe www.usk.de). Komplexität der Wirkungsfrage gewalthaltiger Videospiele Aktuell wird die Frage nach der Wirkung gewalthaltiger Videospiele nicht zuletzt durch eine Reihe extremer Gewalttaten an Schulen intensiv diskutiert. Die Vorfälle an der Columbine High School in den USA im Jahr 1999 erlangten auch dadurch berühmtheit, dass die beiden Täter nachweislich unter anderem gewalthaltige Titel wie „Doom (id Software, 1993)“ oder „Wolfenstein 3D“ intensiv spielten (Anderson & Dill, 2000). Auch in Deutschland wurden die Mordanschläge an einer Erfurter Schule im Jahr 2002 mit dem Konsum des PC-Spiels „Counter-Strike (EA-Games, 2000)“ in Verbindung gebracht. In der aktuellen Forschungslandschaft zur Wirkung gewalthaltiger Videospiele finden —4 — Happ, C., Melzer, A. & Steffgen, G. (2014). Gewalthaltige Videospiele. In T. Porsch & S. Pieschl (Hrsg.), Neue Medien und deren Schatten. Mediennutzung, Medienwirkung und Medienkompetenz (S. 191-218). Göttingen: Hogrefe. sich sowohl belege für einen deutlich aggressionssteigernden
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