Der Vietnamkrieg Im Fotoessay

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Der Vietnamkrieg Im Fotoessay II. Der Vietnamkrieg im Life-Magazin Life und der Fotoessay sind in der Mediengeschichtsschreibung heute untrennbar miteinander verknüpft. Wie kaum ein anderes Magazin prägte es das Bild des Fotoessays in der Zeit des Zweiten Weltkriegs und danach.299 Für ein besseres Verständnis der einzelnen zu untersuchenden Essays ist es wichtig, den Essay als Produkt einer Zusammenarbeit verschiedener Mitarbeiter der Zeitschrift zu ver- stehen, sowie teilweise als Sprachrohr politischer und wirtschaftlicher Interessen. Deshalb wird zunächst die Gründung und Ausrichtung des Magazins in Augen- schein genommen. Da die Entstehungsgeschichten für die analysierten Fotoes- says nicht im Einzelnen rekonstruiert werden können, sollen nachfolgend die Entstehungszusammenhänge für Fotoessays in der Life-Redaktion offengelegt werden, um anschließend auf die Essays mit den Fotografien von Larry Burrows einen genaueren Blick werfen zu können. Hierbei wird besonderes Augenmerk auf das Verhältnis von Fotograf und Redaktion gelegt: Wie sah eine Zusammen- arbeit aus und wie groß war die Beteiligung des Fotografen am Endergebnis? In- wieweit kann der Fotograf als Autor für die Essays benannt werden? 299 Sally Stein diskutiert die Rolle von Life in der Geschichtsschreibung kritisch und sieht Look ähnlich stark: Stein 2007 – Mainstream-Differenzen. Doch die starke Re- zeption von Life in der Mediengeschichtsschreibung bedingt auch eine starke Rezep- tion der Fotoessays von Life und den dort publizierten Fotografien. 77 1. Entstehung von Life und redaktionelle Prozesse des Fotoessays Das Magazin Life300 aus dem Verlagshaus Time Inc. wurde als US-amerikani- sches Bildermagazin für eine große Leserschaft geplant. Der Verleger und Leiter von Time Inc., Henry Luce, der mit Fortune und dem Time Magazine bereits zwei Magazine verlegte, begann mit den ersten Planungen für ein Bildmagazin im Jahre 1934. Das erste Layout orientierte sich am Beispiel der Berliner Illu- strierten und dem Fotoessay der deutschen Illustrierten der 1930er-Jahre.301 Deutsche Redakteure hatten sich jedoch auf kurze, zwei- bis dreiseitige Bilderge- schichten beschränkt. Bei Life sollten die Bilder das Kernstück werden, denkbar erschienen Bildergeschichten bis zu zehn Seiten zu einem Thema.302 Der Fo- toessay sollte jeweils einen bestimmten Gesichtspunkt herausstellen, eine mora- lische Komponente enthalten und auf eine überraschende Wende hinauslaufen.303 Sequenzen sollten effektiv mit Überschriften kombiniert werden und so das Ver- ständnis der Lesenden in eine bestimmte Richtung führen.304 Es sollte eine sub- jektive Sicht auf das Geschehen hervorgehoben und kein allgemeiner the- matischer Überblick geliefert werden.305 300 Wesentliche Informationen zur Geschichte von Life lieferte die offizielle Geschichte von Time Inc. Prendergast, Curtis und Colvin, Geoffrey: The World of Time Inc. The Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise. Volume Three: 1960–1980. 3. Bde. New York 1986; Elson, Robert T.: Time Inc. The Intimate History of a Publishing En- terprise, Volume Two: 1941–1960. 3. Bde. New York 1973; Elson, Robert T.: Time Inc. The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise, Volume One: 1923–1941. 3. Bde. New York 1968. Da das Archiv von Time Inc. nicht allgemein für Wissen- schaftler geöffnet ist, dient diese von Time Inc. abgesegnete Arbeit für zahlreiche Veröffentlichungen als wesentliche Quelle. Außerdem publizierten ehemalige Life- Mitarbeiter Darstellungen: Loudon Wainwright publizierte 1986 eine eigene Ge- schichte des Magazins, die sich aus seinen Erfahrungen und Kontakten speist, aber nicht offiziell genehmigt wurde. Wainwright, Loudon: The Great American Maga- zine. An Inside History of Life. New York 1986. 301 Siehe zur Emigration vieler Fotojournalisten und Redakteure nach der Ernennung von Hitler zum Reichskannzler 1933, Gidal 1972 (wie Anm. 257), S. 29 f. Kurt Korff und Kurt Szafranski waren bei den Anfängen von Life beteiligt, Alfred Eisenstaedt einer der ersten Fotografen. 302 Vgl. Willumson 1992 (wie Anm. 249), S. 15. 303 Vgl. Wainwright 1986 (wie Anm. 300), S. 99–104. 304 Vgl. Abbott 2010 – Engaged Observers (wie Anm. 118), S. 2. 305 Vgl. Abbott 2010 – Engaged Observers, S. 2. Dieser Anspruch steht im starken Wi- derspruch zur gängigen Praxis bei Life, bei der die Fotografen an der eigentlichen Er- stellung des Essays nicht beteiligt waren und das gedruckte Ergebnis in erster Linie ein Produkt der Redakteure war. Jedoch lässt sich zeigen, dass die Beteiligung des 78 1. Entstehung von Life und redaktionelle Prozesse In einer ersten Ankündigung von Life wurde die Programmatik formuliert und einige Grundideen des Fotojournalismus ausgedrückt. Man sollte in Life das Weltgeschehen im Foto beobachten, darüber staunen und etwas lernen können. Man wollte die Betrachtenden unterhalten und belehren: „To see life; to see the world; to eyewitness great events; to watch the faces of the poor and the gestures of the proud; […] to see and take pleasure in seeing; to see and be amazed; to see and be instructed.“306 Life sollte von Anfang an kein reines Nachrichten- und Featuremagazin sein, sondern die Kamera sollte immer auch ein Kommentator der Geschehnisse sein. „Actually, as Life has learned in its first months, the camera is not merely a re- porter. It can also be a commentator. It can comment as it reports. It can interpret as it presents. […] A photographer has his style as an essayist has his. He will sel- ect his subjects with equal individuality.“307 Nachdem Life als großformatiges Bildmagazin am 2. November 1936 auf den Markt kam, wurde es vom Publikum sofort sehr gut angenommen. In den ersten zwei Jahren konnten nicht so viele Magazine geliefert werden, wie nachgefragt wurden. Das Magazin hatte eine Auflage von 500.000 bei der Gründung, drei Monate später produzierte man bereits doppelt so viele Abdrucke. 1938 war man bei 2.000.000 gedruckten Exemplaren und bis 1968 wuchs die Gesamtzahl bis auf 8.500.000.308 Trotz dieser hohen Verkaufszahlen hatte das Magazin hohe Druckkosten und war stark abhängig von den Werbeeinnahmen.309 Life erreichte mit einer Leserschaft von über 5.000.000 in den 1940er- und 1950er-Jahren mehr Menschen als andere Magazine wie Look, Saturday Evening Post und Colliers, weshalb es bei den Werbekunden sehr beliebt war. Auch war die Seite mit 10,5 mal 14 Zoll sehr groß. Die Werber nutzten teil- weise Fotografien, die kaum von den Fotoessays zu unterscheiden waren. Das Layout der Werbung passte sich dem Design des Fotoessays mit mehreren Fotos Fotografen je nach Art des Essays unterschiedlich stark war. Siehe Punkt III.1 „Au- torschaft der Fotoessays“ in dieser Arbeit. 306 Zitiert nach Edey u. Sullivan 1978 (wie Anm. 249), S. 4. 307 Luce, Henry: The Camera as Essayist, in: Life, 2 (17), 26.4.1937, S. 62–63. Dies ist die Außendarstellung. Wie folgend ausgeführt, wurde den Fotografen im Produkti- onsprozess sehr viel weniger Raum eingeräumt. Die Auswahl und die Entscheidung über das Layout traf der zuständige Redakteur. 308 Vgl. zu den Auflagezahlen Dewitz (Hg.) 2001 – Kiosk, S. 318; Erika Lee Doss (Hg.): Looking at Life Magazine. Washington 2001, S. 2 f. 309 Vgl. Kozol 1994 (wie Anm. 65), S. 35. 79 II. Der Vietnamkrieg im Life-Magazin und Überschriften an. Für Werbekunden war das Magazin interessant, wie Wen- dy Kozol in einer Analyse herausstellt: „Needless to say, advertisers liked the strategy of emulating photo-essays and competing for audiences’ attention by creating designs that blurred the line be- tween editorial content and ads, turning the product into a type of news that gai- ned legitimacy by visual association.“310 Auch wenn die Redakteure die Layouts der Essays nicht speziell nach Anzeigen planten, mit denen sie kombiniert wurden, beeinflusste die Nähe zu den Werbe- anzeigen dennoch die Rezeption des Materials. Diese Werbeanzeigen erzeugten eine Mittelklassewelt, deren Probleme darin bestanden, für welches Produkt man sich entscheiden sollte.311 Es wird somit deutlich, dass das Magazin trotz einer großen Leserschaft stark abhängig von den Werbeeinnahmen war und sich in sei- ner Ausrichtung den Werbekunden anpasste: Es sollte ein positives Magazin sein, das sich für Dinge ausspricht und nicht dagegen. Es sollte sich mit dem all- täglichen Leben und historischen Ereignissen gleichermaßen beschäftigen. Inhal- tlich konzentrierte man sich in den ersten Jahren besonders auf US-amerikani- sche Themen. In einem Vermerk für seine Mitarbeiter notierte Luce 1948: „If we can bring together in one magazine a feeling for all the little „human“ prob- lems and all the little episodes of human life together with an awareness and intel- ligent disclosure of the ‚great historic‘ forces–that surely will be a very great achievement.“312 Eine Studie aus dem Jahr 1957 ermittelte die typischen Life-Lesenden als gut ausgebildete und gut verdienende Bürger, zu gleichen Teilen männlich und weib- lich.313 Für den Erfolg des Magazins waren verschiedene Faktoren verantwort- lich: zum einen die bewegte und emotionale Berichterstattung über den Zweiten Weltkrieg und der Fokus auf die Unterhaltung wie Sport, Liebe und Humor, zum anderen die konservative, regierungstreue Linie des Herausgebers.314 Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg war Life auch aufgrund seiner offensiven Nachrichtentech- niken so beliebt. Das redaktionelle Budget des leitenden Redakteurs belief sich auf zehn Millionen US-Dollar, was dem doppeltem Budget der Saturday Evening Post und dem vierfachen von Look entsprach. Dementsprechend arbeiteten be- 310 Kozol 1994 (wie Anm. 65), S. 36. 311 Vgl. und siehe für genauere
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