Vulnerability and Resilience of Traditional Societies to Volcanic Disasters
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I Hazard responses in the pre-industrial era: vulnerability and resilience of traditional societies to volcanic disasters HEATHER SANGSTER Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirement of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy 2013 Department of Geography and Planning School of Environmental Sciences University of Liverpool Liverpool, UK II CONTENTS ___________________________________________________________________________ CONTENTS Page TITLE PAGE I CONTENTS II LIST OF FIGURES VI LIST OF TABLES VIII PREFACE X ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XII DECLARATION XIII ABSTRACT XIV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION: VOLCANOES, SOCIETY AND PEOPLE ........................ 1 1.2 THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH ..................................... 3 1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS ........................................................................ 4 CHAPTER 2: DISASTER AND HAZARD RESEARCH 6 2.1 SOCIAL THEORY AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS: DEFINING A 6 FRAMEWORK.................................................................................................... 2.2 DOMINANTS AND RADICALS: FROM GILBERT F. WHITE TO 7 KENNETH HEWITT........................................................................................... 2.2.1 Human ecology and the dominant paradigm ............................................. 7 2.2.2 The critical backlash of the 1980s and 1990s ............................................ 15 2.3 VOLCANOES AND PEOPLE: AN EVOLVING FRAMEWORK OF 18 STUDY................................................................................................................. 2.3.1 The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) and 18 the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR).......................... 2.3.2 Summary: Contemporary research agendas .............................................. 22 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 23 3.1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………... 23 III 3.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT VOLCANO AND VOLCANO-RELATED 23 HAZARDS .......................................................................................................... 3.2.1 Direct volcano hazards ………………………………………………….. 26 3.2.2 Indirect volcano-related hazards ………………………………………... 26 3.3 TYPES OF ERUPTION ……………………………………………………… 26 3.4 EXPLANATION FOR THE CHOICE OF CASE STUDIES ………………… 27 3.5 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION AND VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS 29 3.5.1 An historical approach to volcanic hazard assessment …………………. 29 3.5.1.1 Sources of historical data ………………………………………. 30 3.5.1.2 Reliability of historical data ……………………………………. 33 3.5.2 A framework for vulnerability and resilience analysis in volcanic 33 environments ……………………………………………………………. 3.5.2.1 Interviews ………………………………………………………. 36 3.5.3 Field Observations ………………………………………………………. 37 3.6 CRITERIA FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE TWO 37 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES ……………………………………… 3.7 SUMMARY …………………………………………………………………… 37 CHAPTER 4: MOUNT ETNA (SICILY, ITALY) 38 4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 38 4.1.1 Etna and the Etna region ........................................................................... 38 4.1.2 Human responses to Etnean eruptions ...................................................... 43 4.2 RESPONDING TO EMERGENCIES DURING THE LONG NINETEENTH 46 CENTURY .......................................................................................................... 4.2.1 Family coping strategies ............................................................................ 46 4.2.2 Mutual support .......................................................................................... 50 4.2.3 The role of the State in responding to emergencies .................................. 51 4.3 EXTENDING THE HISTORICAL RECORD ................................................... 56 4.3.1 Eruptions from the classical period to 1792/3 ........................................... 56 4.3.1.1 Pre-Industrial responses to Etnean eruptions from the classical 56 period to 1792/3 .......................................................................... 4.3.1.2 The 1669 Eruption ........................................................................ 62 4.3.2 Post – 1669: Changing styles of activity ................................................... 66 4.3.2.1 Pre-Industrial responses in the 1928 eruption ............................. 66 4.4 CONCLUSIONS: THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE-INDUSTRIAL LOSS 70 BEARING ........................................................................................................... IV CHAPTER 5: MOUNT VESUVIUS (ITALY) 75 5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 75 5.1.1 The geology of Mount Vesuvius ............................................................... 76 5.1.2 A summary of the volcanic history of Vesuvius ....................................... 77 5.2 HUMAN RESPONSES TO THE ERUPTIONS OF VESUVIUS ...................... 80 5.2.1 The 1906 Eruption ..................................................................................... 80 5.2.1.1 Traditional responses ................................................................... 81 5.2.1.2 State-sponsored responses ........................................................... 82 5.2.2 The 1944 Eruption .................................................................................... 84 5.2.2.1 Traditional response .................................................................... 85 5.2.2.2 State-sponsored responses ........................................................... 86 5.3 CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………… 88 CHAPTER 6: THE ISLANDS OF SÃO MIGUEL AND FAIAL (THE AZORES, 89 PORTUGAL) 6.1 INTRODUCTION: THE HAZARDOUS AZORES ........................................... 89 6.2 HAZARD VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE IN THE AZORES ........... 95 6.3 CATEGORIES OF HAZARD VULNERABILITY ON SÃO MIGUEL AND 95 FAIAL .................................................................................................................. 6.3.1 Locational vulnerability ............................................................................. 95 6.3.1.1 Size and position ........................................................................... 95 6.3.1.2 Distribution of population and settlement .................................... 97 6.3.1.3 Evacuation plans ........................................................................... 100 6.3.2 Building vulnerability ................................................................................ 105 6.3.3 Demographic and economic vulnerability ................................................. 109 6.3.3.1 Demographic vulnerability ........................................................... 109 6.3.3.2 Economic vulnerability ................................................................. 112 6.3.4 Social and cultural vulnerability ................................................................ 114 6.3.5 Behavioural vulnerability .......................................................................... 115 6.3.6 Educational and informational vulnerability ............................................. 116 6.4 CONCLUSIONS: MOVING FORWARD .......................................................... 117 CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: MOVING FORWARD 119 7.1 INTRODUCTION: MEETING THE RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 119 7.2 EVALUATION OF MAJOR THEMES: KEY CONCLUSIONS ...................... 119 V 7.2.1 Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy: Human adjustments and responses .................. 119 7.2.2 Mount Vesuvius, Italy: Looking to the future ........................................... 120 7.2.3 The Islands of São Miguel and Faial, the Azores, Portugal: Volcano and 122 Volcano-related hazard vulnerability and resilience ................................. 7.3 EVALUATION OF COMMON THEMES: KEY CONCLUSIONS ................. 122 7.4 REVIEW OF THE METHODOLOGIES: HISTORICAL 123 RECONSTRUCTION AND VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE ANALYSIS ……………………………………………………………………. 7.5 FUTURE WORK ……………………………………………………………… 123 7.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS ………………………………………………….. 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY 125 APPENDIX 1 163 APPENDIX 2 173 APPENDIX 3 206 APPENDIX 4 231 APPENDIX 5 233 APPENDIX 6 244 VI FIGURES ___________________________________________________________________________ LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 2.1 The nature of human responses and adjustments to volcanic hazards 9 under the dominant approach. Figure 2.2 The process of marginalization and its relationship to natural 17 disasters. Figure 3.1 Timeframes over which different historical source materials are 31 available Figure 4.1 Location of Mount Etna and its main settlements. 39 Figure 4.2 The contrast between the intensive and extensive agricultural areas. 42 Figure 4.3 Evolution of the 1669 lava field at March 12, 14, 17, 25 and 29; April 63 4, 16 and 23 and at the end of the eruption, with the location of the main settlements and localities at the time of the eruption. Figure 4.4 Maps showing the destruction and reconstruction of Mascali: (a) 67 Mascali before 1928 eruption; (b) lava engulfing Mascali 6-7 November 1928; (c) the final stages of the eruption 7-11 November; and (d) ‘New Mascali’ (note the ‘grid iron’ street plan and the prominence given to public buildings). Figure 4.5 A procession with the statue of S. Leonardo. 69 Figure 4.6 An inhabitant of Mascali who temporarily stored his possessions on 69 the street, before the destruction of his home. Local inhabitants were greatly assisted