The Hilltop Review

Volume 10 Issue 1 Fall Article 14

December 2017

Green : The Deinstitutionalization of

A A. Bouverette 3906173 Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation Bouverette, A A. 3906173 (2017) "Green Burials: The Deinstitutionalization of Death," The Hilltop Review: Vol. 10 : Iss. 1 , Article 14. Available at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/hilltopreview/vol10/iss1/14

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Hilltop Review by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact wmu- [email protected]. THE HILLTOP REVIEW

GREEN BURIALS: THE DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION OF DEATH

A.A. Bouverette Western Michigan University

Historical Perspectives of of human loss experienced within such a Throughout the last 200 years, there has short period changed the trajectory of burial been a significant change in American practices within the United States (Mitford, practices. Pre-civil war preparation 1998). Laderman (1996) states, “Such excess of the dead was an intimate experience of violence and human destruction during performed by family members. Only the the contest was heretofore unknown in closest individuals to the deceased would the history of the republic, and under participate in the “laying out” of the body, circumstances the symbolism constructed washing and dressing or wrapping with a around the dead began to demonstrate shroud (Gonzales, 2009). It was uncommon significant changes” (p. 94). Death was for cosmetic work to be performed and pervasive on the battlefield, and many men minimal to no preservative measures were were not given funeral rites or disposed of in taken. The body would usually be kept an inappropriate societal context. Soldiers in the home, under constant supervision were partially buried in unmarked or for 1-3 days, and burial options included combined in large pits of 30 men or more. inhumation or entombment (Davies, 2005). It was reported that battles would have to Laderman (1996) states that in pre-civil war move location or be temporarily halted society, it was abnormal to consider other because of the decay present in combat burial options than the two mentioned conditions (Laderman, 1996). above, modern disposal methods would be Soldiers buried in unmarked graves in viewed as “…impractical or inconceivable to unknown locations with no formal systems the majority of the population. Indeed, any for identifying rank (the later developed procedure that accelerated the destruction dog tag) were unable to be located by of the body and threatened its supposed relatives. Newspaper coverage of battlefield integrity after death provoked outrage and conditions exposed American families to the horror…” (p.36). Attitudes regarding the reality of decay and many began to search preparation of the dead changed drastically more intensely for family members (Davies, when the United States faced the crisis of 2005). The desire to bring family members union succession. home for burial in northern increased. During the Civil War, over 600,000 American Field medical practitioners were consulted citizens perished. The unparalleled amount and practical means for transporting bodies over long distances developed. Initially,

48 THE HILLTOP REVIEW methods included submerging religious underpinnings was transformed bodies in ice, preserving with whiskey or into mainstream “embalming culture” stuffing bodies with sawdust, lime and (Gonzales, 2009). The practice of personally charcoal (Laderman, 1996). preparing a loved one for the , allowing Although once perceived as a temporary for natural , transitioned measure during war time, the practice of into a segregated medicalized practice that chemical embalming with substances such introduced hazardous chemicals into the as “arsenic, zinc chloride, bichloride of (Spellman,2014). mercury, salts of alumina, sugar of lead and Modern Funeral Practices a host of salts, alkalies and acids” became After 1900, mortality rates dramatically the “American” way of burial (Laderman, fell, and death became more associated 1996, p.113). The embalming of President with old age. Preparation and disposal Abraham Lincoln and funeral train of bodies became a secularized practice extending over several states displaying run by privatized businesses (Spellman, the body to the American public was a 2014). Preparation of the dead integrated defining moment in the acceptance and preservative and cosmetic procedures normalization of the practice (Mitford, to create the “magic” of the funeral 1998). It became associated with high production. Morticians were careful to social status, and demand for embalming present the living as “sleeping” or “just like increased among wealthy classes. Trickling they once were” in attempt to temporarily down from affluence, it became accessible present falsified versions of the dead for for middle class families and eventually the world of the living (Gonzales, 2009). became a federally regulated practice for Spellman (2014) notes during this time, all citizens. The medicalization of body “Death professionals were even careful to preservation for the health profession was emphasize the quasi-religious function of born and the role of the “undertaker” was their specialized services, allowing friends formalized (Davies, 1996). and family the necessary time to separate In addition to the process of chemical themselves from the cosmetically enhanced embalming, it is important to recognize physical remains of the departed” (p.189). the effect the Civil War had on the creation Modern funeral practices completely of private and government- remove death care from the public regulated burial grounds. The high death sector, and small mortuary businesses toll of the Civil War created industrialized have become commercialized funeral burial space, including the Gettysburg companies. Many Americans are not aware National (Davies, 2005). Concepts of alternative burial practices devoid of like the purchasing of grave plots, post mortuary intervention. Once a person mortem documentation and regulations for dies, it is assumed a will bodily remains within public cemeteries be notified and have the body removed was developed as a result of the Civil War from the home in an organized, quick, and period. Within the scope of five years, discrete manner (Gonzales, 2009). Davies burial rituals and methods of body disposal (2005) notes that funeral directors tend were dramatically altered. The historical to be traditional in matters of customary method of with ecological and behavior. In times of intense bereavement,

49 THE HILLTOP REVIEW it is much easier to follow a prescribed What was initially conceived as a temporary pattern of behavior. If a person did not have measure during wartime crisis is now a burial plan, it may be hard for family an established industry that represents to make alternative decisions with short a cultural practice of bereavement. notice. It is uncommon for beavered to Societal views segregating death from change a funeral pattern unless they have a the public sphere and acceptance of body strong or special reason for doing so. Family perseveration as a medical trade are noted members may be left with limited options as main features for normalization of body in terms of pricing and funeral packages preservation (Feagan, 2007). The long-term depending on geographic region and are environmental effects are immeasurable, “at the mercy” of the mortuary business but approximations for current resources (Mitford, 1998). have been formulated. Gonzales (2009) Families understand all burial arrangements states, “It is estimated that in each year, will be coordinated as part of the ascribed 827,060 gallons of for professional package. This may include embalming, 30 million feet of hardwood lead-coated steel casket inserts, adjustable and 90,272 tons of steel for caskets, 14,000 innerspring mattresses, color-matched tons of steel and 1,636,000 tons of reinforced casket linings and coordination of funeral concrete for vaults are buried in cemeteries fashion (Mitford, 1996). The transition from across the United States” (p.2). Burying preservation to cosmetic enhancement, preserved human remains in hardwood Foltyn (1996) argues, is now evolving into “perma-sealed” caskets with anti-leak restoration of the body presenting the technology is a societal indicator of dualistic dead devoid of illness, mutilation, and views separating flesh from earth. The disfigurement. The commodification of failure to accept death and the necessity modern allows morticians to offer of products that physically inhibit the premium packages that can camouflage fulfillment of “ashes to ashes” are reflective wounds, replicate lost limbs, attach severed of cultural norms (Gonzales, 2009). heads, and even chemically adjust skin The green death movement challenges tone if it was affected by the dying process modern funeral practices, and what Davies (Mitford, 1996). Trade language in the (2005) identifies as the “cosmetic-casket- funeral industry has adapted to emotionally concrete-complex.” Green or natural disconnect families from “death rhetoric.” burial, also referred to as the green death Some of the terms include casket, not , movement, is the practice of burying the funeral director, not undertaker, coach, not dead without any chemically preservative hearse, and cremains, not ashes (Mitford, measures. Bodies are disposed of in 1996). Davies (2005) argues that, over time, biodegradable containers, or ecopods, funeral directors reduced family ties to the constructed from cardboard, wood, wicker, body and death allowing for higher levels of and other natural materials (“Green acceptance in mortuary practices. Burial Council”, n.d.) Davies (2005) states Green Death Movement current burial practices “…Seek to express preservation of the dead even though, in In response to mainstream death culture, practice, it really leads to the inevitable some have begun to question the desirability corruption of the body within its casket of embalming and of disposal.

50 THE HILLTOP REVIEW rather than contact with the earth” (p.75). nitrogen until it becomes brittle. The body Conventional burial methods do not allow is shaken producing powdered “premains” organic matter to return to the planet (Gonzales, 2009). The process does not and encapsulation of the corpse in sealed emit harmful toxins or have negative containers promotes rot of the body environmental effects, but is not yet (Gonzales, 2009). Mitford (1996) argues that available in the United States the docility of American attitudes towards Theology of Death and New Age Spirituality “conventional” burial is because they do not know what invasive procedures take Laderman (1996) asserts the theology place behind the “formaldehyde curtain.” of death and symbolic nature of burial During natural burials, the body is not shifted with the invention of embalming altered or augmented in any way, however, and medicalization of the “death work.” He modern forms of preparing a argues that the secularization of western include incisions draining bodily fluids and society during the post-enlightenment replacing with cavity fluid, and in some period contributed to the cultural cases, removal of organs (Mitford, 1996). separation of the human body with nature. The Christian church began to lose its “Green” body disposal is not limited to position within funeral proceedings as the traditional natural burial context. Americans became more exposed to is generally discussed as an scientific methodology and medicalized alternative practice to traditional burial practices. The breakdown of the theological and is promoted as a sustainable practice, understanding of the natural world and however, ecologically, the process its relation to mortality was a result of this emits harmful toxins. Although it can cultural shift (Laderman, 1996). Embalming be considered as less environmentally and public burial spaces, once conceived damaging than the traditional burial of as abnormal and sacrilegious, are now process, it releases greenhouse gases and preferred by some religious populations as a vaporizes (Feagan, preservative measure. Christian populations 2007). Also, the process of cremation does view the integrity and intactness of the not allow the body to integrate back into body as ideal, because it preserves the the ecosystem, feeding biological life. physical human form for Christ’s return, Other green methods include eternal, or uniting the eternal spiritual being with “memorial,” reefs that combine a loved its corporeal shell (Davies, 2005). Today, one’s ashes with non-toxic materials to Christian ideology is still followed in the replicate and sustain deteriorating oceanic basic constructions of gravesites with reef habitats (Gonzales, 2009). Although bodies facing east, towards Jerusalem, the environmental issue of cremation was symbolically waiting for the return of Christ discussed above, this method is included (Davies. 2005). Dogmatic religious aspects because of its restorative purpose as an of judgment and alternative burial option. Another method conflict with the New Age’s decentralized of green disposal includes the process “grab bag” spirituality. Incorporating of . This is marketed as an aspects of mysticism, eastern philosophy, alternative to cremation and is a process neo-paganism and Native American in which the body is frozen with liquid traditions with other esoteric beliefs sculpts

51 THE HILLTOP REVIEW a variegated belief in the ambiguity of the disseminated in American culture, but afterlife experience for many New Agers. we do think of sustainability within the Early New Age concepts include interpretive context of our bodies. Feagan (2007) states definitions of death that diverted from body disposal is the ultimate ecological Christian theology. This was reflected contribution that ensures “ecological in transcendentalism and spiritualism, ”. Natural burial ideologically describing an uncertain destiny of the embodies the concern for the destiny of soul and presenting death as a spiritual the planet and its application represents transition. Transcendentalists pronounced a an extension of the practices Americans holistic concept of body-earth integration of are implementing in everyday life. The death within the “Gospel of nature” (Davies, purpose of green burials is to emphasize the 2005). Defining features of the New Age that “intrinsic relationship between the human contribute to the discussion of green burial’s body and the world as a natural system eco-spirituality include “new science,” within which the ongoingness of life is referencing interconnection among life and grounded in the successive life and death of ecological philosophy, addressing a total the individual, animals, plants, indeed, of planetary state and human’s responsibility all things” (Davies, 2005, p. 87). Contributing within it (York, 1995). The New Age to the mass of living organisms allows paradigm represents the shift in world view personal values to be reflected not only in from the authority of the church and will of lifestyle but also in “death-style” (Gonzales, God to monistic spirituality and the destiny 2009). of humanity (Feagan, 2007). New Age beliefs emphasizing holistic Hanegraff (1998) states that our society is views of humanity as a planetary in planetary crises due to the Newtonian/ culture incorporates not only ecological Cartesian paradigm that deeply influences relatedness, but biological and spiritual thinking and permeates our way of life. The relationships as well. Spangler (1984) ecological crisis the earth is facing is based advocates increased accountability for on “fundamentally flawed” presuppositions treatment of the earth based on chemists of the duality between humans and nature. James Lovelock’s Gaia theory. The Gaian Transition in the way we are thinking about model suggests that the earth is a single, humanity and the interconnectedness of self-regulating organism without separate life and death within a holistic framework or detached biological systems. Lovelock philosophically aligns the New Age with (1979) proposes we “revision” our view of the green burial movement. Hanegraff the planet as a complex entity of interacting (1998) argues that a new perspective of an systems. The New Age must view the integrated ecological world view reflects earth as “Gaiamorphic” and transcend the transformative humanistic restoration anthropomorphic views (Spangler, 1984). of the earth. The ecological framing Detaching from the human-planetary of our identity and concern for future binary, he suggests we no longer “act upon” generations is reflective in mainstream the world but “with the earth”. Spangler practices of recycling, energy reduction (1984) states, “The image of Gaia restores us and land conservancy (Davies, 2005). to being part of an Earth community, first Being conscientious of waste disposal is among equals perhaps, but only because of

52 THE HILLTOP REVIEW our potentially great ability to understand and promoted active (Spellman, and serve the whole” (p.48). 2014). The negative formulation of this Although some philosophers categorize conviction is deeply rooted in a western paganism separately from the New Age medicalized society which aims to combat movement, Hanegraff (1998) incorporates death. Alternatively, hospice philosophy Neopagan beliefs into the new paradigm, is a personal decision only employed as they are ideologically compatible when the individual no longer wants life- with terminological differences. Pagan sustaining measures and recognizes his beliefs grounded in as the or her own mortality. It encourages self- “ever-turning wheel” of death view the determination and autonomy in medical decomposition of the body as the organic decisions (Davies, 2005). Interdisciplinary balance of planetary wellbeing (York, 1995). hospice practitioners address physical, Starhawk (1997) presents the integration of psychological, and spiritual systems of our physical bodies within the Pagan context the patient and do not impose values of karma. She asserts the consequences of or preferences on patients and families the way in which we treat the earth inspires (Spellman, 2014). Comparing burial choices Pagans to consider the long-term view of the with individualized hospice care represents planet’s future. From a Pagan perspective, holistic values that honor the way in which decomposing, or being ingested by other a person desires to die. Spellman (2014) entities, is fundamental to the spirituality if explains that the goal of hospice is to return reincarnation (York, 1995). the power to the dying individual, stating, “What marketers declared as appropriate Deinstitutionalized Death in Life in terms of the funeral, what the medical From a bereavement perspective, the and psychological communities define as reintroducing of death back into the familial ‘normal ’, what culture endorsed in sphere could be societally beneficial terms of the proper disposal of the body-all and demystify the “funeral production” of these efforts to classify, bureaucratize (Gonzales, 2009). Institutionalized death and rationalize death were challenged as practices are not limited to postmodern examples of arbitrary power in Western procedures. Choices regarding quality of life society” (p.194). and patient surroundings are other forms With medical advancements, ethical of a medically controlled dying process. issues regarding artificial biological What Davies (2005) coins as “supervised preservation prolonging life is frequently death” in a hospital environment may debated in palliative care. Davies (2005) not reflect personal preferences of states, “Though life support machines terminally ill patients. During the 1960s, may perpetuate the existence of human the development of hospice philosophy as bodies, for the great mass of people the a holistic medical treatment for chronic difference between life and death is stark illnesses began to emerge. Initially, social and obvious” (p. 61). Health care directives resistance to hospice services was rooted in and “Do Not Resuscitate” (DNR) orders are the lack of understanding of non-curative used extensively within hospice services to philosophy. Opponents of hospice stated guide patients in determining personalized that services accelerated death by not medical treatments. Funeral planning implementing life-prolonging measures

53 THE HILLTOP REVIEW and preferences are discussed in an open unembalmed bodies, within regional and manner and encourage patients to make even state-wide proximity. Another option accommodations that best fit with their is burying the deceased on personal land, “death style” (Spellman, 2014). Hospice is but requires special permits for the zoning a therapeutic approach that does not view of inhumation and transportation of a dead the dying as a “set of body parts” but as an body and is only allowed in some states integrated person. Hospice deviates from (Feagan, 2007). Currently in the United the institutionalized medical complex and States, there are 51 operating green burial returns a sense of agency to the individual cemeteries, three of which are in Michigan (Davies, 2005). (“Green Burial Council”, n.d.). Other The resistance and misinformation of facets of the green burial industry include the hospice movement as an individual companies producing biodegradable grave or “different” practice parallels choices products and “green-certified” morticians of alternative burial selection. After aiding families in planning natural burials. regulations allowing death in the home as On average, the cost for green burials is a standardized palliative practice changed, significantly less than traditional burial attitudes regarding non-curative death that often amounts to thousands of dollars shifted within the medical field (Spellman, (Gonzales, 2009). 2014). In relation to the green burial Conclusion movement, there is notable resistance Participants in the green death movement of deinstitutionalized burials from death include not only environmentalists, but benefiting industries. Although not those who are seeking to spiritually reunite originally conceived to economically injure their body with the earth. Although green the mortuary market, it fundamentally burials represent an eco-spiritual practice, threatens the livelihood of embalming the movement is ultimately about death practice. The funeral industry is a business, (Feagan, 2007). Medical discussions about and selling products for the afterlife death and funeral planning are increasing is like any other form of merchandise with the intervention of hospice social (Gonzales, 2009). Morticians have become workers and medical directives available in responsible for many tasks as a “coordinator hospitals and other social services settings. of services” that expands beyond the However, societally, the subject is avoided original preservative purpose. Funeral in conversation and considered taboo. directors exploiting the vulnerability of Although some discuss “final arrangements” the bereaved have been criticized for using with family, an overwhelming number of selling strategies to tack on additional and patients neither have burials plans, nor unnecessary funeral options (Mitford, have discussed preferences with loved 1996). From the green burial perspective, ones (Spellman, 2014). The lack of end- the entire concept of mortuary practice is of-life planning or consideration of the unnecessary, costly, and unstainable. “ethos of disposal” ultimately represents the tendency to deny death in western Another practical implication includes society. Culturally, we are addressing not having a natural cemetery or hybrid “ethos of waste,” but are failing to recognize space, allowing both embalmed and our bodies as decomposable matter.

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Gonzales (2009) presents an alternative of the unenviability of death and cultural image of current burial practices stating norms surrounding death work (Walter, “…Cemeteries serving as quiet beacons 1993). The state of the world ultimately of eternal rest becomes one of the quasi reflects the dominant culture. The New Age landfills of chemically processed human movement represents a spiritual shift in remains. Being able to look at the body in the ways we think about ourselves and the this way would be difficult for some and world. Conversations and consideration even insulting or sacrilegious for others” of our death and disposal will ultimately (p. 44). From this perspective, the modern integrate more sustainable burial practices funeral concept is presented as unnatural, into our ecological conscious. unsustainable, and slightly macabre. As adequate burial space decreases, with the acknowledgement of the need for improved land conservancy, concern for natural resources increases. We are forced, as evidenced by the green burial movement, to question the practical means in which we dispose of human remains. The movement challenges the perceived need to remove dead from the public sphere and create a private medicalized practice (Feagan, 2007). To address the growing interest in alternative funeral practices, morticians will need to change and expand services to meet the demand for human-centric approaches of death. This may include practitioners becoming green certified, developing hybrid cemeteries and adapting to different forms of disposal. Changes in federal regulations and state laws regarding disposal practices may be altered to accommodate ecological and spiritual needs of the public (Mitford, 1996). Some developments within the field include “do it yourself” death books, including Caring for Your Own Dead and New Natural Death Book, with detailed instruction and resources for green burial methods and procedures. Mitford (1996) explains the “true American tradition” is a burial practice without mortuary intervention. Breaking the trend of mechanical and impersonal journeys to the grave will depend on societal acceptance

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