Visual Music Masters Adriano Abbado

Visual Music Masters

Abstract Explorations: History and Contemporary Research Contents

Cover The author wishes to thank: 7 Introduction Bret Battey Luciana Abbado Pestalozza and Clonal Colonies, detail, Paolo Martelli for their invaluable I. History 2011 support; Costanza Tessarolo and Marcello Abbado for their 10 1 The Beginnings Design suggestions; Melinda Mele for 18 2 Music and Early Twentieth-Century Painting Marcello Francone her review of the original Italian 28 3 Luminous Instruments Copy Editor text; Emmanuel Gallina, 42 4 Abstract Films Maria Conconi Elisabetta Minonne, Rembert 66 5 Music and Abstract Art Layout Noppe, the Prometheus Centre, Anna Cattaneo Andreas Seegatz and Dagmar 76 6 Electronic Art Trinks for their help regarding Iconographic Research Paola Lamanna foreign language issues. II. Contemporary Developments Thank you also to the publisher Translation 90 7 Animations and Videos Skira and to all the artists and Melinda Mele 106 8 Installations organizations that have kindly contributed to the making of this 124 9 Performances book. 136 10 Language All rights reserved under international copyright Appendix conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized 142 Synesthesia in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, References including photocopying, 150 Bibliography recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, 156 Websites without permission in writing 168 Index of Names from the publisher. 175 Photo credits © Giacomo Balla, Vladimir Baranoff-Rossiné, Hans Richter, Leopold Survage, Jean Tinguely, by SIAE 2017 © Antonella Vigliani Bragaglia, by SIAE 2017 © Succession Marcel Duchamp, by SIAE 2017 © Man Ray Trust, by SIAE 2017 © 2017 Skira editore, Milano First published in Italy in 2017 by Skira Editore S.p.A. Palazzo Casati Stampa via Torino 61 20123 Milano Italy www.skira.net Introduction

The association between images and the visual and aural world, and sometimes music has a long history. It aroused the curiosity through free associations. of many artists and thinkers of the past, Thirdly, visual music can also be seen as an stimulated artistic creativity in the twentieth abstract expression that is not accompanied by century, and continues to be a topic of great sounds of any type, but set in relation to interest today. This book aims to take stock of musical concepts. the situation, now that abstract audiovisual art, The chapters that follow reflect the different having reached maturity, is enjoying a new techniques of realization and presentation of season of renewed vitality. the works, retracing the thought of the Analog and especially digital electronic protagonists and the results of their artistic technology has in fact favored the growth of research. this form of art by providing access to a wide Visual Music Masters is subdivided in two variety of new solutions, including flat screens, sections: History and Contemporary projections of colossal dimensions, Developments. The first part illustrates the stereoscopic images, spatialized sounds, real- evolution of visual music, from the early time interactivity, and much more. experiments of past centuries to the electronic There are different notions of what artworks of the 1970s. The second part offers a constitutes visual music. According to one comprehensive view of the recent expressions view, it is exclusively the simultaneous creation of audiovisual art, and ends with a chapter of abstract images and music from a common dedicated to the various aspects inherent to its source. language. According to a second view, either the There is also a scientific perspective on the music or the images are crafted first, and the link between images and music: synesthesia. other art form is created later, sometimes on This bizarre and multiform neurological the basis of specific correspondences between phenomenon is discussed in the Appendix.

7 I. History

8 9 1 The Beginnings musical notes and their symbolic black and that reflected the relations of the trumpet. Kircher had already concluded that correspondence to the animal forms found Pythagorean scale [Fig. 1.1]. if there was an analogy between sound The relationship between sound and light in the Romanesque cloisters of Sant Cugat Arcimboldo then derived a series of colors: and light, one could theorize an analogy can probably be traced back to ancient del Vallès, Girona and Ripoll, in Catalonia, from white to yellow, to green, blue, gray between notes and colors, and cosmologies and world creation myths. as observed by musicologist Marius Schneider and brown, which represented the cantus also between their respective disciplines. The idea that sound and light are the in one of his works. firmus, the intermediate voices and the higher Moreover, Kircher argued that there existed primordial elements is found in many Generally, numerous audiovisual voices. Sixteenth-century western music a harmony of colors, which in his view was traditions, as are their representations in time correspondences are found in esoteric was mostly made up by four, five or six parts much less developed than music harmony and space. symbolism, as for instance the relationships that intertwined in various ways, by on a theoretical level. In Western culture, the first associations between colors, sounds and chakras seen overlapping, imitation and changes in tempo In addition to Kircher, Castel was also between music and the visual arts arguably in Indian culture and in various Asian traditions, or rhythmic pattern, thus creating a particularly influenced by Newton’s theory of light, date back to the sixth century b.c. and to or those in the Wu Xing of Chinese culture. rich musical texture that matched with which incidentally he scarcely agreed with. Pythagoras’ studies of proportion, which were The scientific world too was influenced Arcimboldo’s chromatic conception. In his text Opticks (1730), Newton proposed actually part of a larger body of research by Pythagoras: in his text Harmonices mundi The Jesuit monk Louis-Bertrand Castel the subdivision of the spectrum into seven on the numerological unity observed in Nature (1619), Johannes Kepler proposed the idea conceived the first ocular harpsichord in 1725. colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and in various cultural expressions. that planetary orbits were elliptical in order Father Castel is a somewhat legendary figure, indigo and violet. Newton, who was not only The first thorough exposition of these to reflect the Greek master’s idea of who paved the way for the subsequent a scientist but also an alchemist, measured relationships and their application in the proportion. This concept was represented development of numerous instruments by the relative space occupied by each color creation of the world appears in Plato’s by the musical octave in the ratio 2:1, other artists [Fig. 1.2]. in the spectrum, claiming that it was Timaeus. Aristotle then mentioned the and Kepler imagined a music of the spheres Castel’s idea emerged from his proportional to the length of a vibrating string. correspondences between musical and color based on the harmony of planetary motion. observation of a similarity between sound Newton was convinced that it was necessary harmonies in De sensu et sensibilibus The Milanese painter Giuseppe and light, both of which had, according to create a color scale similar to a musical (On Sense and the Sensible), while the Arcimboldo, noted for his unusual portraits, to the beliefs of his time, a vibratory nature. scale, establishing violet as the fundamental Pythagorean parameters later re-emerged is regarded as the first to have contemplated In reality he also drew upon the ideas color, an association that was also later in Vitruvius’ De architectura (On Architecture). a relationship between sounds and brightness of Athanasius Kircher, also a Jesuit and the adopted by Castel. Newton, however, Spread in the Western world by Boethius’ in artistic terms. In fact, more than a century inventor of the magic lantern and the ear rejected a physical analogy between sound De institutione musica in the sixth century a.d., before Isaac Newton, Arcimboldo created and light. Pythagoras’ proportions represented the a precise scale of colors based on the Castel, who coined the term musica muta, divine harmony of creation present in all proportions of musical intervals. Arcimboldo’s was nonetheless conscious of the analogy’s things, and were later applied to the study of idea, documented in Figino, overo, del fine limitations, particularly regarding what music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. della pittura (Figino, or, on the Purpose concerned temporal development: he noted Vincent of Beauvais, in his Speculum maius of Painting), written by Gregorio Comanini in fact that a sound fades out, while a color (The Great Mirror, thirteenth century), which in 1608, was simple: he introduced a scale of endures over time; moreover, two or more is considered the greatest encyclopedia brightness – not of colors as others did – and sounds create a chord, while the colors in of the Middle Ages, took up the concepts subdivided it in the same way as a musical a painting usually remain distinct. In his view, of musical and color harmonies. Also from the scale. In this way he arrived at a double octave however, these incongruences could be Medieval age is the relationship between that contained the entire range from white to resolved, as a color could be made to disappear in time and two or more colors could be fused into one. Therefore the

Fig. 1.2 - Louis-Bertrand Castel, front cover of the treatise Fig. 1.1 - Arcimboldo, the scale of brightness L’optique des couleurs, 1740

10 11 advantage of an ocular harpsichord was blue and yellow were definitely part of As a result, the ocular harpsichord was Krüger observed that while analogies between to create ephemeral colors, unlike those in the scale, in order to create a chromatic scale supposed to have 144 keys. sound and light could exist, and the pleasure a painting, which typically remain static. it would have been sufficient to find the In the same year, 1734, the Jesuit monk one drew from harmony of colors and harmony The Jesuit monk extended these concepts intermediate colors between these hues. completed a first prototype that was presented in music could be similar, the phenomenon in several directions, hypothesizing a “music” In short, he was able to envision a scale to several notable people, including remained exclusively psychological [Fig. 1.3]. of smell, of taste and of touch, in this sense of twelve colors. Montesquieu. Not much is known about it, While Father Castel searched for a acting as a true precursor of a broader concept Father Castel however did not take the except that it seems that its maker opted presumed objective correspondence between of multimedia. He also claimed it could be analogy with music to its furthest possibilities; for an instrument with both musical and visual physical phenomena, Krüger emphasized possible to create a sound prism, able to he didn’t create two modes, one major capabilities. A letter written by composer the perceptual and therefore subjective subdivide a chord in its individual notes, but and one minor, as in music, but concentrated Georg Philipp Telemann in 1739 provides dimension of the similarity between sounds failed in his attempt to construct one. on a single, absolute scale. In addition, evidence as to the existence of this instrument, and colors. These different conceptions were Father Castel’s idea to design an ocular he proposed that the tonic corresponded which the German composer seems to have reflected in the approaches of subsequent harpsichord was welcomed with enthusiasm to blue, the interval of a third to yellow appreciated very much. Telemann wrote: artists, that can be summarily categorized as in the Mercure de France by a certain Rondet, and the fifth to red. The easonr for the “To have it sound a tone, one touches a key absolutists and relativists who also offered advice about how to realize it. correspondence between tonic and blue with a finger and presses it, and thereby The work of Ernst Chladni is particularly Rondet thought one could build small windows was, in his view, that blue was the a valve is opened that produces the chosen relevant in this regard. Continuing the illuminated by a light inside the harpsichord, fundamental color of the world, as tone. […] experiments that Robert Hooke had carried each featuring a small screen that lifted when demonstrated by the sky. At the same time, when the key opens out in the seventeenth century, in 1787 Chladni a key was pressed. The result could then Castel then used the different degrees the valve to produce the tone, Father Castel published the results of his research in be improved with the installation of various of brightness of each color to establish a has fitted silken threads or iron wires or Entdeckungen über die Theorie des Klanges mirrors. It is not actually clear how seriously symmetry with the various musical octaves, wooden levers, which by push or pull uncover (Discoveries on the Theory of Sound). In this Castel took the idea of constructing this so each color had twelve different hues. a colored box, or a ditto panel, or a painting, book he illustrated the objective relationship instrument, and at any rate he did not appear or a painted lantern, such that at the same between sounds and the visual patterns to want to build it in series, as would be moment when a tone is heard, a color is that formed on a metal sheet strewn with sand conceivable today. seen.”1 Apparently, a 1755 version of this and made to vibrate. Indeed, the sound In time, he started to doubt that violet instrument was equipped with colored glass frequencies created visual patterns, with was really the fundamental color of the panes illuminated by a hundred candles, the grains of sand arranging themselves on the chromatic scale, since it was obtained from while yet another version used ribbons the blending of red and blue. In 1734 he of various hues. Unfortunately there are no therefore began a series of experiments on illustrations of this instrument, but Castel’s colors that were published in the form of ingeniousness is apparent even without them. a letter to Montesquieu, who had urged him In 1743 Johann Gottlob Krüger wrote a to share his ideas with the public. document entitled De novo musices, quo oculi Considering the similarity between sounds delectantur, genere (On a New Type of Music, and colors in a very literal way, Castel observed for the Pleasure of the Eyes, 1743), in which that there was a continuum of tones between he claimed that although Castel’s instrument two sounds an octave apart, but that only was able to represent a melody with colors, twelve notes were distinguishable; colors it could not in any way provide a visual must then follow the same principle. Since red, rendering of the harmony. More importantly,

Fig. 1.3 - Johann Gottlob Krüger, project for an ocular harpsichord. Fig. 1.4 - Ernst Chladni, In Miscellanea Berolinensia, 1743. sound patterns, 1787

12 13 sheet according to specific shapes. What was Herder, who among other things observed Illustrious figures such as Denis Diderot, evidently constituted in this case, however, how different cultures used different musical Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Madame de Staël was not a relation between sound and color scales, in some cases containing many were also interested in the relation between but between sound and form [Fig. 1.4]. more than twelve notes; this of course music and visual arts. Diderot underlined Eventually other individuals, including disproved Father Castel’s absolutist approach. the differences between the various arts, Edme-Gilles Guyot, Johann Samuel Halle and Johann Leonhard Hoffmann, in his book claiming that the least precise among them, Karl von Eckartshausen, designed devices Versuch einer Geschichte der mahlerischen namely music, was the one that spoke comparable to the ocular harpsichord. Harmonie überhaupt und der Farbenharmonie most directly to the soul. Not displaying any For instance von Eckartshausen, who also insbesondere (Attempt at a History of Pictorial physical objects, it left greater room for wrote Aufschlüsse zur Magie aus geprüften Harmony and More Specifically of Color- imagination. Erfahrungen über verborgene philosophische Chromatic Harmony, 1786) offered instead a For Rousseau, on the other hand, eyes Wissenschaften und verdeckte Geheimnisse list of associations between colors and and ears had completely different functions. der Natur (Explanations Concerning Magic instrumental timbres: indigo/cello, blue/violin, He thought of music in connection with time, Derived from Documented Experiences green/human voice, yellow/clarinet, red/ and associated colors with space, and thus Relating to Occult Scientific Philosophies trumpet, pink/oboe, vermillion/flute, purple/ he was thoroughly skeptical of any relationship and Nature’s Concealed Secrets, 1788–92), horn and violet/bassoon. between the two forms of artistic expression. used cylinders containing liquid colors, Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of the more Conversely, Madame de Staël wrote in illuminated by candles and temporarily famous Charles, proposed an instrument De l’Allemagne (Germany, 1810–13) that she concealed by small brass screens, that were based on oil lamps, whose light created found the relationship between sounds, controlled by means of a keyboard. luminous compositions passing through forms and colors totally extraordinary. In 1781 the painter Philippe Jacques colored glass. In his The loves of the plants In he view, every manifestation revealed de Loutherbourg developed the Eidophusikon. (1789), Darwin also wrote that there the presence of an underlying law of creation: This was a small stage where the artist’s most existed a relation between music and painting, variety in unity and unity in variety. typical subjects, such as storms and and as a consequence it was legitimate In 1844, D.D. Jameson published a shipwrecks, painted on glass and combined to consider metaphors borrowed reciprocally document entitled Colour-Music, in which Fig. 1.5 - Frédéric Kastner, Pyrophone, 1873 with lights, music and sounds, were from the two disciplines. The reference he described the system of notation for this assembled in a sort of multimedia experience. to metaphors was entirely pertinent, and it new form of art and provided details The Eidophusikon was developed a step is remarkable that it was highlighted concerning his ideas. Jameson also conceived As the years went by, growing scientific further by Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre’s more than two centuries ago: indeed, it is a dedicated space, a darkened room whose knowledge brought the introduction of Diorama, introduced in Paris in 1822, in which one of the fundamental elements of visual walls were covered by sheets of tin. One of new technologies. In this sense one should the vision of panoramic paintings in a small music. the walls had twelve round openings with take note of the instrument developed theater was also accompanied by music Later the theater set designer Pietro glass containers filled with colored liquids, by Frédéric Kastner between 1869 and 1873 and various effects. Although they did not Gonzaga, in his La musique des yeux et corresponding to the visual chromatic scale [Fig. 1.5], a kind of gas organ called feature audiovisual correspondences or l’optique théâtrale (Music for the Eyes he adopted. Pyrophone. The Pyrophone was actually abstract visualizations, both were devices and Theater Optics, 1800), criticized Castel A projected light filtered through the slightly different from the instruments that exemplified the attraction for the blending for not having weighed thoroughly the liquids, while moving covers, controlled by previously mentioned, because it channeled of the two art forms. perceptual aspects of colors and sounds, a seven-octave keyboard, regulated the jets of gas into crystal tubes that emitted Also quite relevant were the ideas of the and suggested among other things intensity of the light emitted in proportion to both sounds and colored lights. What the philosopher of aesthetics Johann Gottfried to introduce the idea of spatial rhythm. the octave chosen. instrument did then was not to place sound

14 15 and color side by side but rather to use a gave him the impression of this color, which each fitted with a shutter that slid back physical phenomenon, that of singing flames, he related to sadness and melancholia. Bishop controlled by a key, to let the colored light to artistic ends. preferred dull, neutral colors, and chords filter through. The latter, reflecting on a white In 1893 Bainbridge Bishop published were supposed to generate colors side screen, produced a color that diffused on A Souvenir of the Color Organ, with Some by side, with edges that gradually blended. the surface of the glass. The instrument could Suggestions in Regard to the Soul of the The table below, published on Fred be used exclusively in the visual mode or with Rainbow and the Harmony of Light. Bishop Collopy’s website rhythmiclight.com, shows the addition of sounds. The creation of precise started carrying out experiments with a how the associations between tones and colors colors posed some concrete difficulties, modified organ in 1875, and had the made by various artists were largely discordant and Bishop stated that some would have remarkable intuition of considering not only [Fig. 1.6]. required to be produced ad hoc. Nonetheless, hues, but also the spatial extension of a color Satisfied with these ideas, Bishop then he was able to build three models of his in relation to the sound heard. Low sounds set out to design his instrument, benefiting instrument [Fig. 1.7]. were thus represented by colors widely from a technology that was naturally much That same year, 1893, Alexander Wallace Fig. 1.7 - Bainbridge Bishop, Fig. 1.8 - Rimington’s Colour- diffused into space, while high sounds superior than the one that was available Rimington patented his Colour-Organ modified organ Organ, 1893 corresponded to spatially concentrated colors. to Father Castel more than a century earlier. [Fig. 1.8]. Rimington, who in 1911 wrote the Sound follows the same pattern in real life: In particular, he had access to electricity, book Colour-Music: The Art of Mobile Colour, low frequencies spread into space and are even though his organ was also designed taught at Queen’s College in London and like difficult to place, while high frequencies can be to work with other types of light sources. Father Castel was convinced that Also to be noted is the design proposed perceived in space with more accuracy. Bishop thus experimented with several correspondences between light and sound by William Schooling in 1895 of an instrument Unlike other artists, in his associations prototypes. The most convincing was existed. This is quite surprising of course, based on the thermionic valve, an electronic between notes and colors Bishop also equipped with a semicircular glass pane, since scientific understanding at that time component that paved the way to the era considered the correspondences between situated above the organ and having a had advanced considerably compared of the mass-media. In his project, the electrical colors and musical keys. For instance, he diameter of about a meter and a half, on which to the eighteenth century, and included contacts of a keyboard activated vacuum related the relative minor of C, A minor, with the colors appeared. The instrument had among other things the research of Hermann tubes, creating different colors whose blue-violet, since music in the key of A minor a series of small windows with colored glass, von Helmholtz in the fields of perception, brightness could be changed by means of a physiology and physics. pedal. Rimington’s organ emitted colored lights The spread of innovative technologies through fourteen apertures located in the often resulted in the invention of new upper part of the instrument. It was about instruments for the creation of visual music, C C# D D# E F F# G G# A A# B three meters high and equipped with a five- a trend that continues today. Among Isaac Newton 1704 octave keyboard, above which was a series these instruments were the ones that Louis-Bertrand Castel 1734 of keys connected to colored discs that anticipated cinema, such as the Phantascope, George Field 1816 rotated in order to obtain various hues. the Praxinoscope, the Kinetoscope, the

D.D. Jameson 1844 The intensity of the light was regulated with Panoptikon, the Cinématographe and others, a pedal, and it was also possible to control which introduced the important Theodor Seemann 1881 the colors’ fading-in and fading-out. The light characteristic of enabling the reproduction A.W. Rimington 1893 source was created by arc lamps whose at will of something previously recorded. Bainbridge Bishop 1893 illuminating power equaled that of thirteen H. von Helmholtz 1910 hundred candles. Aleksandr Skrjabin 1911

Adrian Bernard Klein 1930

August Aeppli 1940

I.J. Belmont 1944

Steve Zieverink 2004

Fig. 1.6 - Fred Collopy, Three Centuries of Color Scales 1 Franssen 1991, 28.

16 17 2 Music and Early Twentieth-Century and architecture, which were correlated 1900), La danse (The Dance, 1910), La leçon Painting to space. Today this categorical division is de piano (The Piano Lesson, 1916), somewhat anachronistic, but keeping it Le violoniste à la fenêtre (Violin Player at Painters have expressed an attraction to in mind is useful in order to understand what the Window, 1917) and La musique (Music, music ever since the first half of the nineteenth motivated many artists of the past to search 1939). century. for new solutions in the musical realm. Philipp Otto Runge offers perhaps the most Among the first painters to be influenced Some artists were particularly involved representative case with his Die Zeiten by music was James Abbott McNeill Whistler, in this process of gravitation around music, (The Times of the Day, 1807), conceived who in the second half of the nineteenth so much that their initiatives and ideas in four parts as though these were movements century began creating paintings based on tended to overlap. One of these was of a symphony. Toward the second half musical chords or with titles clearly referring to Mikalojus Konstantinas Cˇ iurlionis, who of the nineteenth century the connection music. Some of these, namely Nocturne: claimed to be a synesthete (see Appendix), between visual arts and music became Blue and Silver – Chelsea (1871) and Nocturne: and was a painter as well as a musician, more intense, in particular with the Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge and therefore in a privileged position Impressionist movement. (1872–77 [Fig. 2.1]), provided Claude Debussy to observe the artistic panorama from both Also considerable was the influence with the inspiration to compose his three perspectives. In his paintings, which exerted by Charles Baudelaire and Arthur Nocturnes (1897–99). were sometimes organized like movements Rimbaud with their Les Fleurs du mal There are numerous examples of works of a symphony, one could often find (Flowers of Evil, 1857) and Voyelles (Vowels, that were subsequently conceived with a elements of musical structures, for example 1871), and later by Henri Bergson through musical subject in mind, for instance Henri sonatas, preludes and fugues [Fig. 2.3]. his philosophical inquiry about time. de Toulouse-Lautrec’s lithograph Miss Loïe In 1904 Adolf Hölzel, known for his In the audiovisual context, one could Fuller (1893 [Fig. 2.2]), Odilon Redon’s Komposition in Rot (Composition in Red, highlight three general paths taken by L’Art Celeste (The Celestial Art, 1894), 1905), stated: “I think that just as there painters, manifesting their growing interest Paul Gauguin’s Le violoncelliste (Portrait is counterpoint and the theory of harmony in in music. On the one hand, some artists de Upaupa Schneklud) (The Cellist music, there must be a striving in painting were interested in music as a subject for their [Portrait of Upaupa Schneklud, 1894]), or towards a definite theory concerning aesthetic Fig. 2.2 - Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Miss Loïe Fuller, 1893 works, trying to free painting from the Gustav Klimt’s Die Musik (Music, 1895). contrasts of every type and their harmonious constraints of representation. Others Later still, Henri Matisse created Intérieur balance….”1 Hölzel however was referring considered the art of sounds as a point of avec harmonium (Interior with Harmonium, to the theories of colors of Johann Wolfgang reference for pictorial composition, and von Goethe and Philipp Otto Runge and into a system of musical notes. Colors do derived from it analogies between colors therefore to the classics, and in this sense his contain counterpoint, treble and bass clef, and harmony or between colors and the thought now appears less revolutionary major and minor, just like music.”2 baroque, classical or romantic musical forms. compared to other approaches. Macke thus looked for affinities Still others were attracted to the temporal The member of the group Der Blaue Reiter between the idea of chords of notes and development of music, and by extension (The Blue Knight), August Macke, also that of chords of colors. This approach also to movement, rhythm and the process of contributed to audiovisual research. According was shared by other painters as well, who becoming, and tried to translate it visually. to him “What makes music so mysteriously followed the idea of a color harmony or Music was traditionally considered an art that lovely also has an enchanting effect in painting. rhythm, or at any rate of a chromatic manifests over time, unlike painting, sculpture But it takes superhuman power to bring colors composition with specific references to music.

Fig. 2.1 - James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Nocturne: Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge, 1872–77

18 19 The sometimes contradictory dualism intuitively and subconsciously.”3 Naturally between the reference to classical music on Hartley was neither the first nor the only artist the one hand and contemporary visual to approach music, but it is also true that research on the other continued to be one of curiously there were several others who each the recurring themes of visual music. Indeed, believed at different times to be the pioneer of many artists created works that were in some a new type of art. way related to canons, fugues, polyphonies, Vasily Vasilyevich Kandinsky made a variations and other traditional musical forms, remarkable contribution to the research on the as well as to chords and musical keys. In some connection between painting and music, both ways this is surprising, because just as painting with his artwork and, on a theoretical level, was searching for new solutions, music in that with the texts Über das Geistige in der Kunst period was trying to break away from tradition. (Concerning the Spiritual in Art, 1912) and By the 1920s, for example, Edgar Varèse had Punkt und Linie zu Fläche (Point and Line conceived extraordinary and totally innovative to Plane, 1926), in which among other things compositions, paralleling the abstract visions he translated into graphic signs the beginning of that period. of Ludwig van Beethoven’s Fünfte Sinfonie Starting in the 1910s, a large number of in C-Moll (Fifth Symphony). painters created works that increasingly placed Kandinsky also produced works for the music at the center of attention and that, theater, including Der gelbe Klang (The Yellow however original, ended up influencing each Sound, 1909), combining color, light and other. dance, and featuring music by Thomas In 1912 Marsden Hartley wrote: “I’m Alexandrovich de Hartmann. Also in the working on a new subject—have you ever context of theater, in 1928 he staged Картинки heard of anyone trying to paint music—or the с выставки — Воспоминание о Викторе equivalent of sound in color—I’m sure you’ve Гартмане, from Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky’s heard of singers talking about the colors of homonymous work (Pictures at an Exposition sounds… Well, I’m working on this, and there – A Remembrance of Viktor Hartmann, 1874), are some artists who tell me that my work must which the composer based on a real be unique… There is only one artist in Europe experience. who is working on this and he is a pure Kandinsky was also a synesthete, known theoretician…—whereas I work utterly for his matching of colors and musical

Fig. 2.4 - Vasily Kandinsky, Improvisation mit kalten Formen (Improvisation with Cold Forms), 1914

Fig. 2.3 - Mikalojus Konstantinas Cˇ iurlionis, Preliudas ir fuga (Prelude and Fugue), 1908

20 21 Kandinsky was in contact with musician and painter Arnold Schoenberg, whose music and portraits he appreciated. In 1911, after attending a concert of the Austrian composer’s atonal music, he painted Impression 3 (Konzert) (Impression 3 [Concert]) [Fig. 2.5]. Unlike other artists, Kandinsky was attracted to contemporary music, breaking the ties with the past and searching for a new artistic frontier. This artist’s greatness was also manifested in his will to radically move away from classic values and seek new horizons.

Around 1910 František Kupka, who was Fig. 2.5 - Vasily Kandinsky, Impression 3 (Konzert) undoubtedly acquainted with synesthesia, (Impression 3 [Concert] ), 1911 showed a marked interest in the application of music and dynamism to painting. He stated: “By using a form in various dimensions and arranging it according to rhythmical instruments, for instance yellow for trumpet, considerations, I will achieve a ‘symphony’ orange for viola or blue for cello [Fig. 2.4]. which develops in space as a symphony In addition, he catalogued his pictorial does in time.”5 compositions into melodic and symphonic In addition, according to Kupka “the public categories, according to their complexity, need to add to the action of the optic nerve bearing witness to the marked musicality of those of the olfactory, acoustic, and sensory his thought. ones.”6 At the same time, this artist was According to the Russian artist, the also conscious of the inherent differences universe, conceived in a metaphysical sense, between music and images, and clearly was composed of vibrations that manifested advocated a sophisticated interpretation themselves through color and sound: of the issue: “Chromatism in music and “Color, which itself affords material for musicality of color has validity only as counterpoint, and which conceals endless metaphor.”7 possibilities within itself, will give rise, in As early as 1911, the futurists Umberto combination with drawing, to that great Boccioni, Gino Severini and Luigi Russolo, the pictorial counterpoint, by means of which latter also the inventor of several noise- painting also will attain the level of generating musical instruments, created composition and thus place itself in the paintings with explicit references to music, service of the divine, as a totally pure art.”4 for example, respectively, La strada entra

Fig. 2.6 - Anton Giulio Bragaglia, Dattilografa (Typist), 1911

Fig. 2.7 - Giacomo Balla, La mano del violinista – Ritmi del violinista (The Violinist’s Hand – Violinist’s Rhythms), 1912

22 23 nella casa (The Street Enters the House), Ballerina ossessiva (The Obsessive Dancer), and La Musica (Music). Giacomo Balla painted Velocità d’automobile + luce + rumore (Speeding Car + Light + Noise, 1913), Velocità astratta + rumore (Abstract Speed + Noise, 1913–14) and Linea di velocità + forma + rumore (Line of Speed + Form + Noise, 1915), which Fig. 2.9 - Robert Delaunay, Les fenêtres sur la ville (Windows on the City), 1912 introduced the concept of noise in visual art, just as Russolo was doing in the context of music. In 1917 he made sketches for Igor The exponent of Suprematism, Kazimir from their teacher Ernest Percival Tudor-Hart Fyodorovich Stravinsky’s ballet Feu d’artifice Severinovich Malevich, also delved into a complex system of correspondences (Fireworks). the study of movement and in particular into between notes and colors. Balla also used a new solution to represent that of pictorial masses, focusing his attention In reference to the latter, Russell stated: movement, namely the repetition of the same on the dynamic forces of electromagnetic “These ‘color rhythms’ lend a painting figure in various gradations, a technique energy. atemporal dimension; they create the illusion also used by other artists that was later A truly extraordinary step was the one of the painting developing over a period employed in comic strips as well. Examples undertaken by Robert Delaunay, who in 1912 of time, like a piece of music.”8 Here then of this method, all dated 1912, include created a new type of painting, Les fenêtres is the coming together of the connection La mano del violinista – Ritmi del violinista sur la ville (Windows on the City [Fig. 2.9]): between rhythm, color, movement and music (The Violinist’s Hand – Violinist’s Rhythms a sort of scroll painting, similar to those [Fig. 2.10]. [Fig. 2.7]), Dinamismo di un cane al guinzaglio of ancient Egypt and China, which was too Black American songs, ragtime and dance (Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash) and Ragazza wide to be viewed in its entirety with one inspired Francis Picabia, as shown in works che corre sul balcone (Girl Running on a glance. In this way, the work had to be such as Negro Song I and Negro Song II Balcony). These paintings drew on the perceived sequentially, thus introducing the (1913), Music is Like Painting (1915), multiple-exposition photographs of futurist temporal dimension. Optophone I (1922) and Optophone II (1923). brothers Anton Giulio and Arturo Bragaglia, Similarly, in 1914 Duncan Grant made Picabia was also acquainted with the for instance Dattilografa (Typist, 1911 [Fig. 2.6]), a scroll painting entitled Abstract Kinetic musical avant-garde, and by association who in turn referred back in some ways to Collage Painting with Sound, measuring with the theories of Ferruccio Busoni illustrated the photographic series of Étienne-Jules 27.9 x 450.2 cm, that unfolded by means of a Marey and Eadweard Muybridge. mechanism comparable to that of a player With a similar technique, in 1912 Marcel piano. These were the first hybrids Duchamp created the famous Nu descendant between painting and film, and in fact scroll un escalier, n. 2 (Nude Descending a Staircase, paintings were later also used by some of no. 2 [Fig. 2.8]). Subsequently, in 1926, he the first creators of abstract animations. made the short filmAnémic Cinéma, bearing In 1913, Morgan Russell co-founded witness to his desire to experiment with new with Stanton MacDonald-Wright the expressive media. Synchromism movement. Both inherited

Fig. 2.8 - Marcel Duchamp, Nu descendant un escalier, n. 2 (Nude Descending a Fig. 2.10 - Morgan Russell, Staircase, no. 2), 1912 Cosmic Synchromy, 1914

24 25 in his Entwurf einer neuen Ästhetik der temporal development, movement and Tonkunst (Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music, especially rhythm. He was particularly keen 1906), a rather revolutionary text at the time. onmusical experience, and his works abound Like other artists he was interested in in musical references inherent to the structure movement and cinema, and in fact contributed of a composition. These include Im Bachschen to the realization of René Clair’s Entr’acte Stil (In the Style of Bach, 1919), Fuge in Rot (1924). Picabia also created the ballets (Fugue in Red, 1921 [Fig. 2.11]), Alter Klang Relâche (Respite, 1924), which was presented (Ancient Sound, 1925) or Polyphon gefasstes together with Entr’acte, and Cinésketch (1924), Weiss (White Framed Polyphonically, 1930). all with music by Erik Satie. Klee also produced Umsetzung der ersten In 1913 Mikhail Matyushin, who like zwei Takte des Adagio aus der Sonate in G-Dur Fig. 2.12 - Paul Klee, Umsetzung der ersten zwei Takte des Adagio aus der Sonate in G-Dur für Violine und Cembalo von J.S. Bach Cˇ iurlionis was both a painter and musician, für Violine und Cembalo von J.S. Bach (Transcription of the Opening Measures of the Adagio from J.S. Bach’s Sonata in G Major for Violin and Harpsichord), 1921–22 created a Futurist work, Победа над Солнцем (Transcription of the Opening Measures of (Victory Over the Sun), with costumes and set- the Adagio from J.S. Bach’s Sonata in G Major designs by Kazimir Severinovich Malevich, for Violin and Harpsichord, 1921–22 [Fig. 2.12]), Monde (The End of the World, 1949) by Darius in music. This trend strongly influenced other and in 1918 a Painterly-Musical Construction. a graphic representation of this musical Milhaud. Also in the theater context, artists, and contributed to the creation In 1926 Matyushin wrote, revealing a excerpt. In addition, he represented polyphony Nikolai Foregger realized Mechanical of kinetic art. remarkable scientific inclination: “Light, color, with a technique that involved juxtaposing Dances (1923), which comprised sounds of sound and tone are, in essence, not spatial various layers of transparent paint. breaking glass and struck metal, as well as the Various other painters were linked to in character. Bodies and works of art possess, Klee, who used to practice the violin before projection of avant-garde films. music in different ways in the ensuing years, in essence, neither sound nor tone; and light painting, also believed there was a connection During the first two decades of the among them Josef Albers, Stuart Davis, alone illuminates and colors the bodies on between musical performance and the practice twentieth century numerous artists manifested Roy De Maistre, Theo van Doesburg, Arthur which it falls; these then begin to reflect it. It is of painting. His skill in musically influenced a strong urge to find solutions that could Dove, Marcel Janco, Piet Mondrian, the same with tone and sound. A body which visual organization was such that Karlheinz represent movement and rhythm, as well as Georgia O’Keeffe, Miroslav Ponc, Alexander has received an impulse begins to reflect this Stockhausen and Pierre Boulez defined him to use connections, references and Mikhailovich Rodchenko, Alfred Stieglitz in its motion—it begins to sound.”9 Matyushin a genius of composition. Klee, who personally correspondences with elements originating and Sophie Täuber-Arp. also composed musical pieces using quarter- knew Béla Bartók, Paul Hindemith and tone scales, that were represented by very Arnold Schoenberg, thought that slight color variations, convinced that sound Schoenberg’s twelve-tone music was too oscillations were the same as those of color. cerebral and contrived, and that abstraction Paul Klee, who was not only a painter but was instead expressed more effectively also a violinist, expressed an interest in by the music of Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Like Duchamp and Picabia, Fernand Léger also worked in cinema: with Dudley Murphy, he wrote and directed Ballet mécanique (Mechanical Ballet, 1924). He then created theset-designs for La Patinoire (Skating Rink, 1922) by Arthur Honegger and La Fin du

1 Von Maur 1999, 38. 2 Ibid., 34. 6 Zilczer in Visual Music – 3 Ibid., 45. Synaesthesia in Art and Music 4 Zilczer in Visual Music – Since 1900, 2005, 38. Synaesthesia in Art and Music 7 Ibid., 41. Fig. 2.11 - Paul Klee, Fuge in Rot Since 1900, 2005, 32. 8 Von Maur 1999, 48. (Fugue in Red), 1921 5 Von Maur 1999, 38. 9 Ibid., 80.

26 27 3 Luminous Instruments a sound’s and a color’s vibrations. A few years correspondences was not opportune, also later, Alexander Burnett Hector conceived because the results achieved with this During the twentieth century visual music an audiovisual instrument comprised of a approach had not until then been able definitely took off, primarily following two considerable number of light bulbs to transmit the emotional content of music. paths: that of abstract cinema, which will be immersed in colored aniline totaling 40,000 W, In the following years and up until 1939, considered in the following chapter, and with which he performed various concerts Baranoff-Rossiné gave numerous concerts that of audiovisual concerts featuring in Australia. in Russia and in France, in which another instruments that were the extension of the Vladimir Baranoff-Rossiné, who created element of analogy with music was that of a color organ projects. The evolution of abstract paintings as early as 1910 and continuous reinterpretation. technology allowed for more exciting solutions was part of the Russian avant-garde, In 1919 pianist Mary Hallock-Greenewalt compared to the past which also came to introduced an original variant. In the early invented an instrument called the Sarabet, richer artistic results. 1920s he invented a particular instrument, used together with music, which consisted of There were two perspectives to audiovisual the Piano Optophonique, that “played” a disc a sliding rheostat that could control the concerts, which sometimes intersected: one of colored glass through which a ray of white reflection of seven colored lights. She too emphasized audiovisual expression, while light passed that was further modulated maintained that creating precise associations the other involved moving abstract images by prisms, lenses and mirrors. The result was between sounds and colors was not devoid of sound. According to the artists a constantly changing projection of colors, important, since personal influences were that used the latter approach, the visual accompanied by sounds [Figs. 3.1 and 3.2]. decisive and it was therefore impossible element was the music, and therefore adding Unlike the creators of color organs, to conceive a language that could be universal. music was unnecessary. Baranoff-Rossiné thought that the issue was Hallock-Greenewalt was among the first Between 1913 and 1923 the painter not to represent notes or sounds, but to invent to create hand-painted films, although these Morgan Russell designed the Kinetic-Light a different way of making art, namely of were not made to be projected but rather Machine, with which he intended to create creating moving abstract images. According to be played through the Sarabet. In addition, abstract compositions that would freely evolve to Baranoff-Rossiné, establishing arbitrary she devised a dedicated notation system. over time, without any specific In her 1945 book Nourathar. The Fine Art of correspondences. According to Russell, Light-Color Playing she related her projections had to be accompanied by slow experiences in audiovisual art, which she music that would express the gradual changes denominated nourathar, a term that combined of light. In addition, Russell maintained the Arabic nouns nour (light) and athar that the two elements, musical and visual, (essence). In this text Hallock-Greenewalt Fig. 3.2 - Vladimir Baranoff-Rossiné, Piano Optophonique, 1922–23 should not be in total synchrony but rather concluded that her art was also useful in in dialogue, an avant-garde point of view that it improved the viewer’s health alsoshared by Man Ray and Hans Richter. conditions.1 At a later date, his friend and colleague In 1920 painter Adrian Bernard Leopold Stanton MacDonald-Wright also created a Klein invented an instrument to project Synchrome Kineidoskope. colored lights. This projector was activated In 1916 Charles F. Wilcox patented by a two-octave keyboard and was based a method of musical composition based on on Klein’s own theory of colors, which was color, specifically on the elationr between illustrated in his book Colour Cinematography

Fig. 3.1 - Vladimir Baranoff- Rossiné, discs for Piano Optophonique, circa 1920–24

28 29 (1936) and founded on a logarithmic absence of a method to convert music Wilfred’s inventions made it possible subdivision of the visible spectrum. into colors. to emit white light, give it form, add color Leonard Taylor, in turn, created Not all abstract projections were and then introduce movement, and among a machine that activated twelve lights accompanied by music, and Thomas Wilfred these parameters he considered form through a keyboard with thirteen keys, can be considered the first master of this and movement as the most important. while Richard Løvstrøm patented a system art form, called lumia specifically because it His images were fascinating and developed of color-music performances. was based exclusively on light. Wilfred slowly, transforming continuously, and then Other experiments were carried out began his experiments in 1905, developing began repeating at the end of a lengthy cycle: between 1920 and 1925 by Achille Ricciardi, his instruments and modifying them several the duration of Untitled (op. 161, 1965-66 who built an instrument that emitted times. Like other artists, he also devised [Fig. 3.5]), his most extended work, was twenty- colored lights for Rome’s Teatro del Colore. his own notation system. In 1922 he two months! During the same period, Russian artist presented the Clavilux to the public in At the end of the 1950s he received a Grigory Gidoni developed a series of ideas New York [Figg. 3.3 and 3.4]. Wilfred had commission for a very large work, measuring for Световой Памятник Революции a modicum of success, and in the following 16 x 9 m, called Orientale (op. 155, 1961), (Light Monument to the Revolution), a work years replicated his performances in other that was projected outside a shopping that was never built, however. The central cities in the United States and Europe. In 1926 mall and viewed by customers from the part of the project involved a colossal globe his images accompanied a staging of Nikolay adjacent parking lot. Another commission of opaque glass containing an audience Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov’s Shéhérazade worth mentioning was one for company of up to two thousand people, this artist (1888), conducted by Leopold Stokowski. Clairol of New York, which produced hair dyes. being in fact an advocate of immersive Wilfred developed various devices, Wilfred’s op. 152 was projected in the environments. with keyboards if they were to be played live reception area of the company’s headquarters. Gidoni also wrote texts about an art of and automated if they were designed for Both commissions were very successful light that in his view should have constituted installations, in which case he set them up even though they did not have great media a new kind of artistic expression, substituting to reproduce loop compositions. These coverage. painting: Световые декорации (Light instruments featured colored discs, but were Wilfred’s most important works include Fig. 3.4 - Thomas Wilfred, Clavilux Junior, 1930 Decorations, 1920), Светокрасочность also equipped with a series of elements Lumia Suite (op. 158, 1963–64), commissioned как основа особого искусства (Colored Light that changed the trajectory of light. These by the Museum of Modern Art of New York, as the Basis of a New Art Form, 1925) and included curved glass tubes taken from and the already mentioned Untitled. Искусство Света и Цвета (The Art of Light candelabra, modified filaments omfr lamps, Lucatta (op. 162, 1967–68), which Wilfred and Color, 1930). In addition, he developed embossed and reflective aluminum surfaces completed a few months before his death, is and patented a system to control color as well as particularly indented metal a condensed version of Lumia Suite. and the flux of light, as well as a notation cylinders. In addition, they had a series of Ludwig Hirschfeld-Mack conceived a system designed specifically for these aims. wheels, gears and pulleys that rotated system to generate different shadows from Gidoni, however, did not believe in and moved the various components. the same object. In 1925 he published a text adding music to these works, due to the Wilfred, who had the support of New York’s entitled Farbenlichtspiele. Wesen-Ziele- Museum of Modern Art, founded the Art Kritiken (Colored Light-Play. Essence-Aims- Institute of Light in 1930 and in 1933 Critiques), illustrating the idea behind the even set up an ad hoc theater, with studios development of an instrument with which he and laboratories for research. created Reflektorischen Farbenlichtspiele

Fig. 3.3 - Thomas Wilfred, Clavilux Model B, 1922

30 31 (Reflecting Colors Light-Play). The device lines or undulating figures, that were projected worked with various basic colored forms that onto a background while László played the overlapped and moved in front of a light piano, interpreting his own music or that source, and were then projected onto the back of composers such as Frédéric Chopin, of a transparent screen. With this instrument Sergey Vasilyevich Rachmaninov and Hirschfeld-Mack gave numerous concerts Aleksandr Scriabin. László collaborated with in Germany and Austria, accompanied by his the artist Matthias Holl, for example on a series music. It should be noted that Kurt of watercolors that Holl made following the Schwerdtfeger, who like Hirschfeld-Mack was composer’s indications [Fig. 3.6]. a Bauhaus student, produced a work also Beginning in the mid-1920s in Europe entitled Reflektorische Farblichtspiele and especially in Germany concerts with (Reflecting Color Light-Play) and that it is not audiovisual instruments were extremely clear which of these two artists was the first popular and László became a true celebrity. to conceive a work of this kind. He conceived a new form of audiovisual art Composer, pianist, and orchestra director in which neither part was subordinated Alexander László believed there were tothe other, although his use of romantic music correspondences between chords and colors, placed him behind the avant-garde. a view that probably makes more sense In the late 1920s Leon Theremin, better than the one that sought a connection known for the electronic musical instrument between notes and colors. László invented that bears his name, introduced a device, the Sonchromatoscope (1925), an instrument called Etherophone, which created color that generated colored lights. In the 1920s effects by electrically stimulating liquids he composed several Preludes for piano inside a container. In 1932 he presented and colored lights, elaborating a specific his Whirling Watcher, which produced notation system, just as Hallock-Greenewalt stroboscopic effects by means of gas-filled had done—something that reflects these tubes. Theremin later continued his two artists’ common musical roots. Then experiments with animation artist Mary Ellen in 1926 he began collaborating with Oskar Bute. Fischinger, with whom he gave the first Zdenek Pešánek was the creator of an concerts featuring abstract films and instrument called the Spectrophone. projections of lights and slides. Other Adhering to a view that was widespread in the performances, initially without Fischinger, past but not so in our time, he thought of both were given at Düsseldorf’s GeSoLei Festival, where a dedicated dome had been built. In László’s works, a variation in the colored light would take place when changes of rhythm or key, or the introduction of a new rhythm or theme occurred. Sometimes lights were accompanied by slides portraying

Fig. 3.6 - Matthias Holl, Ein Farblichtkonzert von Alexander Fig. 3.5 - Thomas Wilfred, László (A Concert of Colored Untitled, op. 161, 1965–66 Light by Alexander László), 1925

32 33 fireworks and fountains as forms of abstract as Картинки с выставки – Воспоминание instrument for the projection of colored lights. produce shapes that were extremely fluid visual art in movement. Pešánek also worked о Викторе Гартмане (Pictures at an Exposition In the 1940s and 1950s, while making abstract or had very defined contours. The images were with kinetic sculpture, as shown in the film – A Remembrance of Viktor Hartmann, 1874) films, Fischinger focused on the creation of the prepared in advance, and could be varied Sve˘tlo Bronika Tmou (A Light Shines in by Modest Mussorgsky, L’oiseau de feu Lumigraph, with which he gave various in color and movement during the the Darkness, 1930 [Fig. 3.7]), by Otakar Vávra (The Firebird, 1910) by Igor Stravinsky performances accompanied by music. performances that Dockum held on and František Pilát. In addition, he was and Prométhée, Le Poème du Feu During the 1930s Charles Dockum, who numerous occasions starting from 1936. probably the first sculptor to use neon lights. (Prometheus, the Poem of Fire, 1910) by was acquainted with Wilfred’s work, started In addition, his composition could be recorded In 1930 Fritz Winckel described some Aleksandr Scriabin, together with improvised producing what he called Mobilcolor and reproduced ad lib. of the experiments he carried out aiming projections. Projectors, and continued to develop Up to two people, however, were needed to visualize the sound of a radio connected Charles Blanc-Gatti was yet another increasingly sophisticated versions of them to run a Mobilcolor Projector. This problem to a television set, a remarkable intuition artistinterested in the relationship between into the 1970s. Overall, he produced five was the reason why the fourth model, that was developed in various ways from sounds and colors, and in particular between models, with which he intended to create full- commissioned by New York’s Museum of Non- the1960s onward by other artists. sound frequencies and color hues. With fledged light compositions comparable to Objective Painting—which later became Soon afterwards, George Hall built an Henri Valensi, Gustave Bourgogne and Vito musical compositions [Fig. 3.8]. the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum instrument called Musichrome, featuring eight Stracquadaini he founded the Association According to Dockum “Mobilcolor and which supported Dockum in the years keys that controlled two sets of four colors. des Artistes Musicalistes. According to Blanc- projection is the art of creating patterns of light 1942–52—was rejected and left to gather During the 1930s Frederick Bentham Gatti low sounds corresponded to red upon a screen or wall which function in dust in the museum’s basements, along gave numerous concerts at London’s Strand and high sounds corresponded to violet. Time, Space, and Color. The Time function may with the works created by the artist. Today Electric Demonstration Theatre using the Light He introduced his ideas in his 1934 book exist as continuity, rhythm, interval, duration, one can naturally regret such an extreme Console. His concerts featured pieces such (Concerning Sounds and Colors). In addition, and sequence. Space functions not only in decision. Blanc-Gatti invented an instrument called a two-dimensional area, but also plastically, The Mobilcolor Projector IV could also Chromophonic Orchestra and in 1939 according to an inherent quality of light produce articulated movements working completed a film, Chromophonie, made whichgives a sense of approach or recedence witha number of images set on different with his device. into the depths of space. Color also functions planes. In 1961 Dockum, with the help A few years later, in 1942, inventor and structurally in space, as well as in harmonic of Mary Ellen Bute and Ted Nemeth, shot a performer Cecil Stokes patented the relationships, and in the creations of moods.”2 film about his works,Mobilcolor Projections, Auroratone, based on polarized light and Dockum also stated: “It is fairly easy to get from which one can get an idea of the images the effects of light passing through crystals. extravagant color effects through various he was able to generate, even though the film The crystals began to vibrate with sound, media—such as polarized light, crystals, filters, probably does not do justice to his art. and therefore there was a direct relationship oil drops on water, or prisms. But to use such The works created for the subsequent version between the music and the images obtained. effects and make them into a satisfactory of the instrument, however, endure. Stokes used the Auroratone for therapeutic art medium is my project—for controlled In the early 1960s Dockum built the ends and as a method of relaxation. aesthetic expression it is necessary Mobilcolor V, which still functions today, Subsequently, he gave numerous concerts to have complete and positive control over through which three of his compositions with Bing Crosby and other musicians the elements.”3 can still be admired. The Mobilcolor VI, in whichthe images from his instrument were The Mobilcolor Projectors were certainly projected in accompaniment to the music. complex machines, equipped with motors The aforementioned Oskar Fischinger, that ran at different speeds. At the same time in his eclectic production, also devised an they were also very versatile, as they could

Fig. 3.7 - Zdenek Pešánek, Otakar Vávra and František Pilát, Fig. 3.8 - Charles Dockum Sve˘tlo Bronika Tmou (A Light with his Mobilcolor Projector V, Shines in the Darkness), 1930 early 1960s

34 35 featuring computerized mechanisms and finally works. Also to be noted is the group including Relief méta-mécanique sonore I and able to run automatically, was unfortunately Prometheus, founded in 1962 in the city of II (Meta-Mechanical Sound Relief I and II), not completed before the death of the artist in Kazan by Bulat M. Galeyev, and still active Méta-Harmonies [Fig. 3.11], as well as 1977 [Fig. 3.9]. today. Stravinsky Fountain, crafted in 1983 with Niki A completely different but equally de Saint Phalle and inspired by the Russian extraordinary system was invented by Gordon Research on light blended in part with that composer’s Le Sacre du printemps (The Rite of Pask, who was involved in cybernetics, on kinetic art, as exemplified by some artists Spring, 1913). linguistics, mathematics and biology as well, who worked closely with light in movement Nicolas Schöffer was a unique artist, who and in 1968 took part in the famous Cybernetic and sometimes with music. Among these explored the spatial, luminous and temporal Serendipity exhibition at the Institute of artists was Frank J. Malina, an engineer and dimensions. His most famous project, Contemporary Arts in London. His Musicolour one of the co-founders of the Jet Propulsion unfortunately never realized, was Tour Lumière Machine, built in 1953, was a device that Laboratory in Pasadena (now part of NASA), Cybernétique de Paris-Ia-Défense (Cybernetic Fig. 3.9 - Plan for a temporary installation created light shows initiated by sounds. It was who starting in 1955 created numerous works Light Tower of Paris-la-Défense, 1963 with Mobile Color Projector at the Solomon predisposed to memorize the associations based on his Lumidyne System, later employed [Fig. 3.12]), a cyber-tower 52 m high that R. Guggenheim Museum, circa 1952 between sounds and visual patterns that the by other artists as well. Malina, who was a featured sixty-six rotating mirrors, one hundred performers preferred: a truly brilliant insight seminal figure in the relationship between and twenty colored light projectors, that anticipated one of the touchstones of the science and art and in 1968 founded the photoelectric cells, sensors and microphones. learning process of artificial intelligence. The journal Leonardo, later also developed the His CYSP 1 (1956) is considered the first Musicolour Machine was thus designed to Reflectodyne System [Fig. 3.10]. cybernetic sculpture, in which color, light and cooperate with musicians, rather than be set Also worth mentioning in this context is sound variation detectors modified the on specific aesthetic canons pre-established by Yaacov Agam, who used musical terms such as sculpture itself through a computer and small the artist. “counterpoint” and “polyphonic.” His works motors. In this case the sound was not emitted This instrument consisted of a microphone, were “transformable,” exhibiting an initial form by the work, but played the role of activating an amplifier and a board with filters, and the of interactivity, featured in various other movement. result of this combination went on to select the examples of kinetic art. Schöffer was a profound thinker: “Both the visual patterns. In addition, if the sound was Particularly important in the work of Agam evolution and the processes of change are repetitive, the system was intelligent enough was the notion of time, not conceived as functions of an evolution whose rhythm is to create variations. In time musicians learned duration but rather as something irreversible dictated by our need for temporal divisions”.4 to use the Musicolour Machine, making and unpredictable. Also to be noted was his He introduced the concept of micro-time, associations and reinforcing them, in other curious way of expressing himself in writing, which went hand in hand with the one of time words establishing an interactive relationship through “chords” or overlapping words, for with it. instance “nature,” “reality,” and “creation”, set Many other artists explored this art form. vertically one above the other rather than in Among these were Earl Reiback and Christian sequence as is normally done. Among his Sidenius, the latter advocating the importance many works, one particularly deserving of musical accompaniment for visual music mention is Visual Music Orchestration (1989). works despite being a pupil of Wilfred. In 1962 Best known for his kinetic sculptures, Jean Sidenius created the Theatre of Light in his Tinguely started experimenting with sound in home, where he presented his audiovisual 1955 and created several sound sculptures,

Fig. 3.10 - Frank J. Malina, Fig. 3.11 - Jean Tinguely, Kinetic Painting: Polaris, 1957 Méta-Harmonie II, 1979

36 37 granularity proposed by physicist and Nobel Paolo Carosone and his Organo Alato and his Archetron, with monitors, mirrors Prize winner Dennis Gabor. This concept (Winged Organ), designed to generate sounds and filters to generate kaleidoscopic TV became one of the fundamentals of the and lights from brainwaves; Jackie Cassen imagery; Dorothy and Mel Tanner with aesthetics of musician and architect Iannis and Rudi Stern, who contributed kinetic lumia the Lumonics Theater; Tsai Wen-Ying and his Xenakis, and later of other composers as well, visuals for Stravinsky’s The Rake’s Progress cybernetic sculptures, controlled by the such as Curtis Roads and Barry Truax. It is (1951); Lygia Clark and her works for electrical charge of the viewer’s body interesting to note here that Schöffer microphones and filters that controlled lights and voice; and Maurice S. Wetzel, with his collaborated with Xenakis as well as various in response to actions of the human body; Musicolor. Also noteworthy are recent authors of musique concrète, such as Henri Dick Cook, inventor of the Luminetic System; works like Lumia Grande (2007) by Dave Blizard Pousseur and Pierre Henry. Juan Downey, creator of electronic audio- and Jenny Martinez, and El Grande (2008) Schöffer was also among the first artists kinetic sculptures; Armando Durante and his by Louis M. Brill. All these artists contributed to apply electronics, cybernetics and industrial visualization of sound through television to audiovisual research in the context of kinetic techniques to his research, and produced screens and lights; Michael Hayden’s and art. for Télévision Française what is considered the Toronto Intersystems’ show at the Mind pioneering example of video art: Variations Excursion Centre, with its bizarre relationships A technique developed in the 1950s Luminodynamiques 1 (1961). among spaces, sounds and lights, even allowed for the projection of colored liquids Schöffer’s activity in this field was not involving the senses of smell and touch; and was used during music concerts. The first limited to kinetic sculptures but also included Milton B. Howard and his audio and kinetic artist to employ this technique was Seymour more specific works such as: Chronos 2 light sculptures made of thermo-formed Locks, who improvised with colors in a glass (Musiscope,1959–60), a visual music instrument plastic; Howard Jones and his Light Boxes, container, accompanied by jazz music in that projected images, colors and light featuring flashes and sound elements; San Francisco. Bill Hamm and Elias Romero effects; Mur Lumière (Wall of Light, 1962 Ron Kostyniuk and his Eco-Biomes, audiovisual gave similar performances, presenting [Fig. 3.13]), an artwork sponsored by Philips objects that draw impulses from organic them in art galleries, concerts and with the view of marketing it as an ambiance elements; Richard Lacroix, an artist who made underground events in California. enhancer for the home; and Lumino (1968), kinetic sculptures and musical instruments; a kind of display of abstract images in Donald Lancaster and his Colorgan; Richard I. movement conceived for domestic use, Land, who developed the Chromara, an produced by Philips and marketed in the instrument that related back to the principles Fig. 3.12 - Nicolas Schöffer, Tour Lumière Cybernetique United States under the name Dream Box. followed by Frank J. Malina and was produced de Paris-Ia-Défense (Cybernetic Light Tower of Paris-la-Défense), Schöffer also produced the gigantic show in series by Smith Laboratories—Land also first presentation of the project (never completed), 1963 Formes et Lumières (Forms and Lights), conceived a method to create images from featuring three hundred and sixty light sounds, based on band-pass filters; Clive projectors as well as stereophonic music that Latimer and his Light/Sound workshop with could give the impression that the sounds eighteen screens and multi-source emanated from the lights. synchronized sound; Charles Mattox and his Kinetic art developed remarkably starting audio-kinetic sculptures; Royal V. O’Reilly in the 1960s. In the audiovisual context and his Thyratron Colorsound Translator; there were: Nino Calos and kinetic-luminous Robert Rauschenberg and his works with lights works relating to the sound environment; and combinations of sounds; Thomas Tadlock

Fig. 3.14 - The Joshua Light Show with Frank Zappa and the Fig. 3.13 - Nicolas Schöffer, Mothers of Invention, The Mur Lumière (Wall of Light), 1976 Mineola Theater, New York, 1967

38 39 The 1960s saw a flowering of light shows New York’s Fillmore East. As in the case Works, Electric Light Garden, Five Acre Lights, together with the laser creations of Willard based on these principles that employed of Martin, The Joshua Light Show also set Head Lights, Heavy Water, Roger Hillyard, Van De Bogart, whose images were projected projectors and other devices for special to images a work of classical music, Joe’s Lights, Krishna Lights, Light & Sound on a screen measuring about 12 m x 12 m. effects, and which were seen especially during specifically Hector Berlioz’s Symphonie Dimension, Little Princess 109, Ben van Meter, In 1975 the University of Iowa Symphony the Acid Test Parties and other events such Fantastique (Fantastic Symphony, 1830). Missionary Lights, Reginald, San Francisco Orchestra proposed a version of as the San Francisco Trips Festival produced Between 1965 and 1966 D.R. Wier made Light Works, Sunburst, and Trans-Love. Aleksandr Scriabin’s Prométhée, Le Poème by Stewart Brand, and Andy Warhol’s a systematic use of chemical products to During the 1960s and 1970s, developments du Feu (Prometheus, the Poem of Fire) “happenings” in New York. create wet shows, analyzing and in technology made possible a variant of light with laser projections by Lowell Cross. For example Glenn McKay created demonstrating numerous elements and their shows, namely laser shows, in which abstract Subsequently Ivan Dryer, Elsa M. Garmire projections obtained with oils and inks mixed characteristics. The shows were held in his images obtained with laser light were and Dale Pelton organized a series of with water, but also with 16 mm film and slides, home, and unlike the vogue of the time did further modified through light modulations. shows called Laserium at the Griffith and performed during rock concerts by not have the support of music. In some instances these shows were genuine Observatory in Los Angeles [Fig. 3.15], Jimi Hendrix, The Grateful Dead and Jefferson The Avalon Ballroom, the Fillmore West abstract audiovisual experiences, but in most that were so successful that they were Airplane. For the latter band Jerry Abrams in San Francisco and the Fillmore East in cases consisted of mere visual repeated for twenty-eight years. also created visualizations for live projection. NewYork regularly organized light shows, to accompaniments to various types of music. These laser shows were free interpretations Tony Martin, who already had experience the extent that each venue’s works could These shows would be held both in the open, of the music chosen and maintained with multi-projections and events with lights, be recognized by their distinct style. Light on the occasion of art exhibits or special alive quality to them, so each performance created light shows for the bands shows were also held in the United Kingdom, events, and in planetariums that enabled was unique, even though it could be aforementioned as well as for Frank Zappa’s in particular for concerts of Pink Floyd, the audience to be immersed in an ambience replicated automatically if one chose to do Mothers of Invention, The Byrds and— Soft Machine and The Who, even though of images and sounds. so. curiously—for a staging of Claudio the most memorable event was probably In 1968 Lloyd G. Cross invented a system In 1978 the Smithsonian Institution, Monteverdi’s L’incoronazione di Poppea 14 Hour Technicolor Dream in 1967. called Sonovision that projected through in collaboration with the Massachusetts (The Coronation of Poppea, 1642). Other notable groups included alaser the pattern generated by the sound Institute of Technology, sponsored a work Dozens of groups that produced light The Amoeba Lightshow, Anathema, John on a membrane placed upon a loudspeaker. that would be seen in the sky over Washington, shows, improvising just like jazz ensembles, Andrews, Mark Boyle and Joan Hills, Joel In 1969 Carson D. Jeffries and Lowell D.C., and consisted of the projection of laser emerged in the Bay Area alone, among and Tony Brown, Brotherhood of Light, Cross gave a concert at Mills College in images onto a vapor screen set at these the North American Ibis Alchemical Crimson Madness, Crystalleum Lightshow, Oakland, California, that included electronic approximately 52 m high. The electronic Company, Holy See and Single Wing Turquoise Deadly Nightshade, The Diogenes Lantern music and colored laser projections. music was by Paul Earls, while the images Bird. The latter group performed with bands A 1971 concert by the Los Angeles were by Otto Piene, both from MIT’s Center such as Cream, Sly and the Family Stone, Philharmonic Orchestra was performed forAdvanced Visual Studies. and The Yardbirds with Jimmy Page. However, it should also be remembered for having broken away from pop concerts, developing along their autonomous expressive path starting from the late 1960s. Also very popular was The Joshua Light Show [Fig. 3.14], founded by Joshua White, who produced “wet shows”—so named because they relied on moving liquids—at

1 Peacock 1988, 404. 2 Smith, Dockum and Dockum 1979, 144. Fig. 3.15 - Ivan Dryer, 3 Ibid., 144. image from Laserium 4 Popper 1968, 136.

40 41 4 Abstract Films by its luminous power, conducting a few According to Survage “colored rhythm is not purely for technical reasons. He in fact experiments: painting directly on film, an illustration or an interpretation of a musical estimated that between one and two thousand In the early twentieth century, artists testing various types of screens, and work. It is an independent art, although images would be necessary for an animation experimented not only with audiovisual introducing supplementary lights to influence based on the same psychological principles as lasting about three minutes. He envisioned concerts but with other forms of artistic the end result. music”.1 The analogy with music was he would be able to create only the most research as well. While the performances During the period 1912–14 the painter established by the mode of succession of the important ones on his own, and that assistants with color organs were certainly important, Léopold Survage created a series of plates elements in time, and thus the similitude would complete all the others. Survage had abstract animations were also quite significant, that were however never transformed into was between musical and visual rhythm. talks with Gaumont, which had developed representing real innovation for that era a true film. Encouraged by sculptor Alexander Survage identified three basic elements in his a rudimentary process to produce colored and the beginning of an expressive trend that Archipenko, Survage presented a description art: form, rhythm and color. films, but the meetings did not arrive at a continues today. In this case as well, two of the series Rythme coloré (Colored Rhythm) According to this artist, the complexity fruitful end. distinct approaches emerged, which to Guillaume Apollinaire, who published it of the world needed to be reduced to In the second half of the 1910s Hans Richter sometimes intertwined: on the one hand in the magazine Les Soirées de Paris in 1914 geometrical figures that were set in motion and Viking Eggeling started collaborating there were creators of animations with music, [Fig. 4.2]. Apollinaire believed Survage had to reach their maximum expression. In this way on a project of kinetic abstract art, illustrated in and on the other makers of silent films invented a new form of art, namely painting each shape could come to life and evolve, a document entitled Universäle Sprache whose visual contents related more or less in movement. acquiring a form of identity, aided by the (Universal Language, 1920). Following the specifically to musical ideas. In the following years, Survage’s approach tensions generated by encountering other footsteps of Robert Delaunay’s and Duncan The first artists to create abstract became one of the pillars of audiovisual art. components. This dynamic play continued until Grant’s previous experiences, the two artists animations were the futurist brothers Arnaldo a balance was reached, only to break down made scroll paintings, for example Richter’s and Bruno Ginanni Corradini who, starting once again in order to generate new Präludium (Prelude, 1919). The scrolls in 1911, painted directly on unexposed film, transformations. To Survage color was the comprised various shapes connected in a producing works such as Accordo di Colore true soul of abstractionism, and it was specific sequence, with the last one (Color Chord); Studio di effetti tra quattro important to use several colors, as in creating reconnecting with the first to create a colori (Study on Four Colors Effects); Canto rhythm, to arouse an emotional response. continuous cycle. di primavera (Spring Chant); Les Fleurs Unfortunately Survage never had the The various drawings, which the artists (The Flowers); L’arcobaleno (The Rainbow) opportunity to put his ideas into practice, regarded as musical instruments, were and La danza (The Dance), that unfortunately have been lost [Fig. 4.1]. The interests of the Ginanni Corradini brothers ranged from painting, animation and cinema to philosophy, theosophy and literature. In the field of visual art they were the precursors of abstractionism: in 1910 they wrote Arte dell’avvenire (Art of the Future) and in 1912 Musica cromatica (Chromatic Music), theorizing a music of colors and envisioning instruments that could be used to create it. They later focused on the cinematographic medium, also attracted

Fig. 4.1 - Arnaldo Ginanni Corradini, La danza (The dance), 1912

Fig. 4.2 - Léopold Survage, a picture for the film Rythme coloré (Colored Rhythm), 1912 Fig. 4.3 - Hans Richter, Horizontal – Vertical Mass. Exhibition, Galerie Denise René, Paris

42 43 conceived to create a continual transformation (Orchestration of Color, 1932). In addition after the public presentation of Symphonie that drew the viewer’s attention in a different Richter made other non-abstract films Diagonale, in 1925. direction compared to a standard painting. in which rhythm, and therefore the somewhat In 1921 Walter Ruttmann presented The organization of the inner forms was musical reference, was always at the center in Frankfurt an abstract film, Lichtspiel Opus I instead similar to a musical orchestration of the work. Two of these, Filmstudie (Film (Light-Play Opus I), in what is considered [Fig. 4.3]. Study, 1925) and Vormittagsspuk (Ghosts the very first public screening of this type For both artists this detachment from the before Breakfast, 1928), were accompanied, of artistic genre. Unlike other films of the traditional idea of a painting led to the next respectively, by music of Darius Milhaud period, which were in black and white, logical step, namely the making of abstract and Paul Hindemith. Richter also devised the film had been colored by hand using films. Richter, who began his career as a Cubist a notation system for abstract films that a three-step technique. The music, expressly painter and in 1916 co-founded the Dada was never used but that allowed him composed by Max Butting, was performed movement with Tristan Tzara and Jean Arp, to conceive visual compositions similarly to by a string quartet in which Ruttmann played created his first abstract film, Rhythmus 21, musical compositions. the cello. between 1921 and 1923 [Fig. 4.4]. Finally, between 1944 and 1947 Richter Subsequently Ruttmann created Opus II With this medium, the single image made the filmDreams that Money Can Buy [Fig. 4.6], Opus III and Opus IV, which were disappeared into an apparently endless flux, with Max Ernst, Fernand Léger, Man Ray, widely acclaimed when they were shown and this introduced a new fundamental Marcel Duchamp and Alexander Calder, in London in 1925, although a ballet version of element, that of time. The rhythm of the film and between 1956 and 1961 he created Opus II had already been presented by the was in a certain sense imposed on the Dadascope with Marcel Duchamp, Jean Arp, dancer Valeska Gert in 1923. It is unclear what spectator, unlike the scroll paintings the two Man Ray and Tristan Tzara. techniques he used for these films, since artists made previously, which allowed On the other hand, what fascinated different documents report modified plastiline, the spectator to choose the pace of viewing. Eggeling was not rhythm but the visual form painted glass, as well as deforming mirrors. Eggeling and Richter, however, began to and its evolution over time. Raised in a family Ruttmann’s art involved forms in movement widely diverge in their interpretations, and of musicians, his artistic vocabulary was and light patterns as well as avant-garde a few years later went separate ways. undoubtedly influenced by this background. music, and this placed him on a different plane Richter opted to pursue a new solution, Eggeling worked for three years on the scroll with respect to other artists. In Berlin. Die starting again from scratch and focusing painting Horizontal Vertikal Orchester Sinfonie der Großstadt (Berlin. Symphony of on the aspect of rhythm and of the movement (Horizontal Vertical Orchestra, 1919). Between a Great City, 1927), a documentary introduced of the object. What interested him was the 1921 and 1924, he composed Symphonie by a thirty-second abstract animation, he temporal structure, and for this reason he Diagonale, a black and white animation used simple forms such as lines, squares in which complex structures, made of lines and and rectangles, which in his view represented curvilinear strokes, generated a so-called the fundamental forms since the screen was orchestration and sometimes a counterpoint rectangular. between opposites, where the various forms He continued the series with Rhythmus 23 responded to one another [Fig. 4.5]. Eggeling (1923–25), much more complex in terms of tried to devise a visual grammar and syntax movement and shape. In Rhythmus 25 (1925) based on traditional music harmony, applying he introduced color, which was also featured it to basic combinations of moving lines. in the scroll Orchestration der Farbe Eggeling passed away prematurely a few days

Fig. 4.4 - Hans Richter, frames from Rhythmus 21, 1921 Fig. 4.6 - Walter Ruttmann, Fig. 4.5 - Viking Eggeling, frames Lichtspiel Opus II (Light-Play from Symphonie Diagonale, 1924 Opus II), 1921

44 45 In addition, Fischinger developed with Béla Gaspar a technology called Gaspar Color, which he employed in Komposition in Blau (Composition in Blue, 1935), with music by Otto Nicolai [Fig. 4.10]. His short films were egularlyr screened Fig. 4.7 - Man Ray, Le Retour à la Raison (The Return to Reason), 1923 in the movie theaters in Germany, in North and South America, and even in Japan, before the feature film, as was customary at the time. instead explored rhythm from the point of view (Space Light Art), during which he projected In the 1930s, however, the Nazi regime banned of film editing. abstract films, using three adjacent screens as every form of abstract art, and Fischinger In 1923 the multitalented artist Man Ray well as slide projectors. was forced to emigrate in the United States. created Le Retour à la Raison (The Return From the end of 1926 Fischinger There he worked with Paramount Pictures to Reason [Fig. 4.7]), a film composed conceived multiscreen shows called Fieber and MGM, but never got used to Hollywood’s of “rayographs,” various kinds of textures (Fever), Vakuum (Vacuum), Macht (Power) production methods, so his collaboration and shot footage. With similar techniques he and probably R-1 ein Formspiel (R-1 A Form- with the majors was brief. He subsequently Fig. 4.9 - Oskar Fischinger, Film Studie Nr. 6 (Film Study No. 6), 1930 then produced Emak Bakia (1926), a silent film. Play). He also made black and white searched unsuccessfully for funding for Man Ray thought the road one needed to animations, creating them frame by frame an animated full-length film based on the follow in creating a work of audiovisual art was with various techniques. In this activity he symphony Z nového sveˇta (New World not to synchronize the two elements, but was helped by his wife and others, who Symphony, 1893) by Antonín Dvorˇák. to let them freely follow their course, while had the task of filling in empty shapes and Later Fischinger worked with Walt Disney maintaining a cohesion of aims. adding the shading. With this technique on the film Fantasia (1940), but it was The piano music for The Return to Fischinger made the series Film Studien a brief, one-time enterprise that left him Reason, entitled Sonata Sauvage (Wild Sonata, (Film Studies, 1929–32 [Fig. 4.9]), with disappointed. 1922–23) was composed by George Antheil, each study conceived to resolve a Instead, the Museum of Non-Objective who also collaborated with Fernand Léger visual problem—a highly fascinating series Painting in New York gave him several on Ballet Mécanique. Together with Erik Satie, that was certainly different in style from endowments that allowed him to continue who composed the music for René Clair’s the subsequent An Optical Poem (1937), his artistic work. In 1944 Fischinger proposed Entr’acte, Antheil is among the notable made for MGM, or Allegretto (1943). to the museum to build a hemispheric musicians who collaborated with artists of building designed for the screening of their day. audiovisual art, but his request was never One of the most significant figures in the realized.2 Then, on the invitation of the field of visual music is undoubtedly Oskar museum’s curator Hilla von Rebay, he created Fischinger, whose oeuvre exceeds a hundred Motion Painting No. 1 (1947), painted with minutes of film. During the early 1920s he oils on glass. This work is accompanied used a wax-cutting machine he invented by Bach’s Brandenburgische Konzerte n. 3 Fig. 4.10 - Oskar Fischinger, Komposition in Blau (Composition in Blue), 1935 to create highly original animations that are (Brandenburg Concerto No. 3, 1718) BWV still current today [Fig. 4.8]. He then gave 1048, and did not feature a tight public performances called Raumlichtkunst synchronization with the music, as Rebay

Fig. 4.8 - Oskar Fischinger, Wachs Experimente (Experiment with Wax), early 1920s

46 47 had instead asked. Motion Painting No. 1 made the abstract film Light Rhythms, fashioned African percussion, Particles in Space (1979) and won the Grand Prix at the Brussels mostly with moving lights and paper cut-outs, Tal Farlow (1980). International Experimental Film Competition. with music by Jack Ellit [Fig. 4.11]. This artist’s approach to synchronization was Noteworthy is also Fischinger’s experiment Len Lye was among the first to intervene very distinctive. In general, Lye preferred to start in stereoscopy, Stereo Film, made in 1949. directly on the film with the most varied from animated images and then searched for Fischinger sometimes built his works techniques to produce animations. Born in New music, sounds and rhythms that were on the music, synchronizing the images with Zealand, Lye conceived kinetic sculptures before appropriate, in other words that were “in tune” phonographs and later with the film’s creating films, and then finally, after about thirty with the visual part. Conversely, in other more soundtrack. In other cases, such as Swiss Trip: years, returned to work with physical objects. rare cases, he modeled his animations on Rivers and Landscapes (1934) or the This was the era of the first color films, sounds that particularly attracted him. Lye was a aforementioned Motion Painting No. 1, and the initial stages of sound film. Lye was also lover of jazz and ethnic music, and this singled the synchrony was not present, as it was of influenced by non-Western art, in particular that him out with respect to other artists who were course not present in the numerous silent films of Polynesia and Melanesia, as is apparent in his tied instead to the classical music tradition Fig. 4.11 - Francis Bruguière, #32, he made in the 1920s, for example Spirals first animation Tusalava (1929), based on motifs [Fig. 4.13]. circa 1930 (1926) or Seelische Konstruktionen from the island of Samoa. The music for two Len Lye was also a kinetic sculptor and made (Spiritual Constructions, 1927), or in the later pianos for Tusalava, by Jack Ellit, who a remarkable contribution to this field. Radio Dynamics (1942). collaborated also on other works, was According to him, however, sculpture was simply Musician Alexander László, who knew unfortunately lost. another aspect of art in motion, and thus he Fischinger, wrote him in 1935 offering Lye’s orientation toward other cultures, most never set it in contrast to cinematographic to collaborate, telling him that the music was likely a result of his origins, became research but rather saw the two as the weak element in his works because a characteristic shared by various other complementary. it was not avant-garde. Fischinger readily artists, especially from California, during the Emerging from the North American art accepted, suggesting a tapestry of sounds 1950s and 1960s. scene, Mary Ellen Bute conceived a series devoid of melody, centered on rhythm Other animations followed, among them A of works called Seeing Sound, with which and dynamics.3 Colour Box (1935), Rainbow Dance (1936), N or she aimed to visualize a series of classical music Fischinger remains one of the leading NW (1937), Trade Tattoo (1937), Colour Flight pieces by such composers as Johann Sebastian figures of this particular form of art, (1937) and Swinging the Lambeth Walk (1940), all Bach, Edvard Grieg, Franz Liszt, Darius Milhaud, and his works should be considered among somehow similar in style, and Colour Cry (1953), Nikolay Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov, Camille the most significant. As an artist, he was which showed a greater quality of control of the Saint-Saëns, Dmitry Dmitriyevich Shostakovich able to seize a sort of musical essence image. In 1957 he created All Souls Carnival, and Richard Wagner. Some of her films were Fig. 4.12 - Len Lye, Free Radicals, 1958 and translate it visually with great imagination, premiered at the Carnegie Recital Hall in New screened regularly at New York’s Radio City Hall technique and sensibility. York: Henry Brant’s music, composed starting from the 1930s. In 1927, 1930 and 1933 Georg Anschutz independently and performed live, purposely Bute employed relatively traditional organized Color-Music congresses left to chance any audiovisual synchronizations. techniques, using cardboard, cellophane in Hamburg, and around these years an Lye’s later films include the sophisticated black and other materials, as well as objects she shot increasing number of artists delved and white filmsRhythm (1957), Free Radicals through prisms or using other tactics such into this form of art. Francis Bruguière, a (1958, revised in 1979 [Fig. 4.12]) featuring as shooting out of focus or varying the film photographer from San Francisco who also worked in New York and London, in 1930

Fig. 4.13 - Len Lye, Steel Fountain, 1959 Fig. 4.14 - Mary Ellen Bute, Synchromy No. 2, 1935

48 49 speed. Some films, for instance Synchromy instruments, as early as 1932. (1965), Spheres (1969) and Synchromy (1971). (1933), Rhythm in Light (1934), Synchromy After Theremin’s precipitous departure The number of his non-abstract animations is No. 2 (1935 [Fig. 4.14]), Dada (1936) and for the USSR, Bute continued her research with even greater. Parabola (1936–38), featured an elegant play Ralph K. Potter of Bell Laboratories, who It is interesting to note that McLaren of light and shadow. In Parabola, Bute designed an electronic circuit that made it documented in detail the technique employed dispensed with a strict adherence between possible to use oscilloscopes for artistic ends. for each film. For example, in relation to sound and image, adopting instead an With this circuit Bute realized Abstronic (1952), Fiddle-de-Dee and Begone Dull Care, he approach in which the two elements entered with music by Aaron Copland and Don Gillis, described the procedure he used as follows: in dialogue. and gradually specialized in this technique, “[…] Taking absolutely clear, 35mm motion With Escape (1937), Bute started using creating a series of shapes and movements for picture celluloid and painting on it, frequently color. Her film Tarantella (1940) was based oscilloscope that were later recorded on film, on both sides with celluloid dyes, inks and on numeric ratios, including 7:2, 3:4 and 9:5:4, edited on various planes and then colored. transparent prints. Textures were achieved that defined the work’s general structure. Another phenomenal artist then appeared by using brush strokes effects, stippling, Unlike Escape, it featured a correspondence on the North American scene: Norman scratching off the paint, pressing cloths between notes and colors, and between McLaren. Of Scottish origin, McLaren moved of various textures into the paint while it octaves and luminosity, and was characterized first to London, then to the United States was still wet on the film, spraying the paint by precise geometrical figures. However, and finally to Canada, where he permanently onto the film, and frequently mixing two Bute was more interested in complementing settled and worked at the National Film chemically different types of paint, such as music with images, rather than creating Board of Canada. dyes solvent in alcohol and dyes solvent correspondences. In addition, for Tarantella His extensive artistic production included in cellulose, together; one dye would be Bute did not use already existing music many award-winning abstract and figurative painted on the film and the other dye but relied on a work she commissioned films. McLaren also created various mixed into it, while still wet, to create various to Edwin Gerschefski. This artist also advertising films and collaborated with textures and patterns in much the same way experimented with color organs, for example UNESCO, making educational films for the as mixing oil and water paints on a different Thomas Wilfred’s Clavilux, but found them rural populations of China and India. surface. […] The lengths were metrically disappointing in that it was difficult to McLaren’s contribution was truly remarkable organized to fit the music; the sound track control with any precision the forms generated. as a result of his insatiable spirit of research having been measured before the painting Other noteworthy films by Bute were Polka that led him to experiment with a wide range commenced”.4 Graph (Fun with Music) of 1947, Color of different techniques and technologies, According toMcLaren, who was acquainted Rapsodie (1948) and Mood Contrasts (1953), including the oscilloscope—used in the with Fischinger’s and Lye’s works, animations which completed the series Seeing Sound. second of his two stereoscopic films Around expressed the spirit of music, and as such In her early career, Bute collaborated is Around (1951)—and the electronic pen. they needed to flow spontaneously without with Joseph Schillinger, a musician who His first abstract films were Hand-painted too many fixed rules that could dampen devised a mathematical system of composition Abstraction (1933) and Colour Cocktail (1935), the creative rush. Begone Dull Care, made she adopted and applied to kinetic art, Fig. 4.15 - Norman McLaren, Begone Dull Care, 1949 followed by Scherzo (1939), Loops (1940), with Evelyn Lambart and featuring music and then with Leon Theremin. With the latter Dots (1940), Boogie-Doodle (1940), Hoppity by Oscar Peterson, is a true masterpiece in she premiered Perimeters of Light and Pop (1946), Fiddle-de-Dee (1947), Begone Dull which the technique of direct painting on Sound and Their Possible Synchronization, Care (1949 [Fig. 4.15]), Serenal (1959), Lines celluloid was brought to new levels a project for drawing with electronic Vertical (1960), Lines Horizontal (1962), Mosaic of excellence. For Begone Dull Care McLaren

50 51 and Peterson worked very closely and Fantasmagoria I (1938), Fantasmagoria II (1939) Similarly to Thomas Wilfred, Dwinell Grant were in constant dialogue, and this probably and Fantasmagoria III (1940). In 1944 thought that the thematic structure of abstract contributed to the work’s success. he patented an animation system to create films was comparable to that of music, and McLaren knew about potential audiovisual abstract images from music, but neither Disney for this reason he made silent films. Between mappings, but chose not to follow them. nor the television networks he contacted 1940 and 1949 Grant created various works, Ingeneral he adopted dark colors for low showed any interest. In 1946 he completed both in color and in black and white: sounds and light colors for high sounds, his most famous silent film, Glens Falls Composition No. 1: Themis (1940 [Fig. 4.16]); but felt free to disregard this principle if he Sequence (1934–46), using painting on glass Composition No. 2: Contrathemis (1941); did not find it appropriate. and other techniques such as animated clay, Abstract Experiments (1941–42); Composition This artist also experimented with an followed a year later by The Long Bodies, No. 3, Spelean Dance (1942); Stop Motion opposite approach, exemplified in Synchromy, which involved experiments with wax following Tests (1942); Color Sequence (1943); 3-D which featured a precise and univocal a method similar to Fischinger’s. Crockwell Composition No. 1 in 6 Major, Three Themes correspondence between sound and image: made an abstract film entitled 1941, on the in Variation (1945); Composition No. 4, indeed, what you see is what you hear, as newly introduced Kodachrome film, again Stereoscopic Study No. 1 (1945); and the visual part was exactly what appeared using painting on glass and various materials. Composition No. 5, Fugue (1949). in the celluloid’s optical soundtrack. However In the 1940s more artists entered the Color Sequence (1943) is probably interesting, this film certainly did not reach limelight. Starting in 1940, the painter, the most significant of these works, both the extreme emotional and creative power photographer and set designer Luigi Veronesi because it is the first film made with frames of other works, even though it was certainly created animated films whose rhythm was of pure color, that is without any kind of very consistent from a formal point of view. derived from music. variation within the frame, and also it is the first In any case, Norman McLaren can be According to Veronesi this was a logical film based on flickering, that is on the very considered one of the major historical figures phenomenon, since many of the painters fast succession of frames that generates Fig. 4.17 - James Davis, Impulses, 1959 of visual music, being an artist and of his day felt compelled to experiment with an alteration in perception. The latter experimenter who not only explored the most the new cinematographic medium to also method was later picked-up by other artists daring frontiers but also expressed himself try and overcome the constraints inherent in as well. through a wide variety of solutions. painting. To Veronesi “film allowed for a In 1948 Grant received an endowment Douglass Crockwell was a renowned rhythm that painting could not offer. […] from the Guggenheim Foundation to develop illustrator who also worked with abstract I believe that the essence of cinema is given a theory of abstract cinematographic animations. Among his early works are precisely by the rhythm with which the images composition, comparable to that of musical Simple Destiny Abstractions (1937–40), follow one another, and as a rationalist composition. He produced his films with and Cartesian, I consider the number as the stop-motion technique and using various the foundation of all, of art as well as nature. materials, including wood, paper, glass, clay, The editing rhythm of Film n. 2, for example, and wire. He completed his last work, Dream was based on Fibonacci’s number sequence”.5 Fantasies, in 1986. This artist also made paintings that were Always in the 1940s James Davis, an transpositions of fragments of music scores, abstract painter active on the East Coast of following his own system of correspondences the United States, began to explore light between notes and colors. and how it modified through prisms, plastic, and transparent objects. For several years

Fig. 4.16 - Dwinell Grant, Composition No. 1: Themis, 1940

52 53 Fig. 4.20 - James Whitney, Yantra, 1950–58

Davis created veritable concerts of light Theme (1941–43), followed by a series entitled during which he projected his numerous Five Abstract Film Exercises: Studies in Motion abstract films [Fig. 4.17]. (1943–44), featuring sounds synthesized Two other leading figures in audiovisual through a system described in the next art were the brothers John Sr. and James chapter. Their animation technique involved Whitney, who in different ways created works shooting paper cutouts placed on a light that left indelible marks on the history of box and then processing the resulting footage Fig. 4.18 - John Whitney, Catalogue, 1961 visual music. by means of an optical printer. John Whitney Sr. worked with images John Whitney Sr. continued to develop and music for about fifty years, using both increasingly complex analog devices, analog and digital instruments. His first with which he also produced graphics for experiences dated back to the early 1940s, films, including the notable Saul Bass’ title when he worked with his brother James, sequence for Alfred Hitchcock’s Vertigo (1958). a painter. A fundamental element in John’s His animation Catalogue (1961 [Fig. 4.18]) career was his non-academic musical training is an excellent illustration of the variety of in Paris, after which he began a lifetime search solutions he devised through his remarkable for a coherent idea of abstract composition creativity. inspired by the rules of Pythagorean In 1966 John Whitney Sr. began to harmonics, which he later described in his collaborate with IBM which gave him access book Digital Harmony. On the to the first digital computers. This allowed him Complementarity of Music and Visual Art to perfect his theories and be able to apply (1980). them with greater precision. The first result The brothers’ first film, which was silent, of this collaboration was Homage to Rameau was Twenty-Four Variations on an Original (1967), an obvious reference to the French

Fig. 4.19 - John Whitney, Arabesque, 1975

54 55 musician’s treatise on harmony, followed by arts than to music, and to Carl Gustav Jung, folk music collection was published in Permutations (1968), Osaka 1-2-3 (1971), Matrix esotericism and Oriental philosophies than anthology form by Folkways Records. Also I (1971), Matrix II (1971) and Matrix III (1972). to technology. A spiritual influence is apparent quite famous were his collections of Ukrainian The dot patterns that comprised Whitney’s and magnificently expressed in James Easter eggs and paper airplanes, the latter works can be compared to letters of the Whitney’s oeuvre. donated to the Smithsonian National Air alphabet that were assembled in words He presented his first works, including and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. and phrases, and then combined following Variations on a Circle (1942), in San Francisco The techniques most used by Smith the metaphor of music rather than the during the 1940s. The marvelous Yantra, were direct painting on film and stop-motion, metaphor of written and spoken language. formed by a multitude of dots and remarkably as well as collage. He created the “visual He in fact described the development made by hand, was presented in 1959 track” and then cut it to fit the music, usually of his animations as musical counterpoint. [Fig. 4.20], in a version accompanied by consisting of modern jazz. In this regard John Whitney Sr. later continued his digital electronic music by the Dutch composer it is worth mentioning that his films were adventure independently, which culminated Henk Badings. notalways finished works, but rather in the fascinating Arabesque (1975 [Fig. 4.19]), James Whitney later created Lapis were presented with live music: Smith had inspired by Islamic art and accompanied (1963–66), an animation set to the music a variable-speed projector, and with it he by traditional Persian music by Manoochehr of Ravi Shankar’s Raga Jogiya, which he also could control the rate of at which the images Sadeghi. He then delved into real-time began by hand but later finished with the help were shown. audiovisual compositions. Also stemming of the analog machine built by his brother Fig. 4.21 - Harry Everett Smith, He made numerous films, beginning in from this idea were other works directly John. No. 7: Color Study, 1950–52 the 1940s with Early Abstractions, which generated with a computer, in particular During the 1970s James Whitney made originally required dedicated screens Spirals (1987) and the twelve-part series Moon the film Dwija (1973), whose title means featuring dots and lines, and continuing for Drum (1991), influenced by Native American “twice born” or “soul” in Sanskrit, followed the following decades up to 1981 with a series ceremonial art. by what was to be a film trilogy: Wu Ming for three screens Side Phase Drift 1965, numbered from 1 to 20 [Fig. 4.21]. He was Rather than creating works based on (1977), Kang Jing Xiang (1982) and Li. presented at the Canadian Expo of 1967 and at known to work for extensive periods, audiovisual correspondences, Whitney Unfortunately he was unable to complete New York’s Museum of Modern Art, as well as even years, on a single piece. For example, was interested in visually relating the rules the last two, but Kang Jing Xiang was other venues. Noteworthy among Michael’s he made a painting inspired to Dizzy Gillespie’s and principles of musical composition. produced posthumously following his works is Binary Bit Patterns (1969), created Manteca in which every note was represented In other words, he borrowed concepts of instructions. with digital technology. by a pictorial sign. Smith created both musical harmony and visually transposed John Whitney Sr.’s three sons, Michael, In addition to being a painter, paintings and films based on music, them into authentic visual compositions, Mark, and John Jr., had the opportunity ethnomusicologist, anthropologist, linguist, and his works are interpreted as research to which he added music. However, he was to grow up in an incredibly open-minded collector, occultist and mystic, Harry Smith into conscious and unconscious mental also conscious of the dangers of such an artistic and technological environment. During was also an experimental filmmaker. A rather processes. analogy, and used it simply as a point of the 1960s they were among the first to provide bizarre figure, the son of pantheist Smith was a leading figure on the scene departure to explore the intrinsic possibilities multiscreen projections for various concerts theosophists, Smith had wide-ranging of experimental cinema of the West Coast of this type of art that, like music, offers the of the Grateful Dead, including their interests, including Buddhism, the Cabala, and a model for later artists. opportunity to impart form to time. performance at the Monterey Pop Festival and the Lummi, Samish, Seminole and Kiowa Another important visual music artist John’s younger brother James followed (1967). Important works by John Jr.’s include Native American tribes. He learned the was Jordan Belson, also belonging to the a similar path for many years, with the the animations Byjina Flores (1964) and Kiowa language and also Enochian, the so- Californian wave of those years. Belson was, difference that he was more drawn to the visual Terminal Self (1968), and the performance called language of angels. His noted American like Smith, a painter and also interested

56 57 in spiritual matters. To him, the instruments After his early works Belson became, that produced images were an extension of unlike McLaren, very reluctant to reveal the the mind, and this was witness by his attraction techniques he used. The complex images to Oriental religions, yoga, astronomy, were a continual source of shaded colors Tibetan art, the Cabala, and medieval Christian placed on different visual planes, evoking art. These were the years of the Beat an engaging world that was expressed Generation and of bebop, which were intuitively and not mediated by the intellect. particularly present in San Francisco, where Another aspect of this artist that should Belson lived. His first films, Transmutation be cited is his peculiar use of audio and (1947) and Improvisation No.1 (1948), in black visual pauses, as well as the dialogue and white, were followed by others based between images and music. Belson’s works on scroll paintings, like Mambo (1951), were neither visualizations of the music nor the Caravan (1952), Bop-Scotch (1952) and opposite, but truly independent audiovisual Mandala (1953), which was accompanied creations. He favored creating moods that by Balinese music. Belson also created were often mysterious and attractive, and did High Voltage (1959) using some of James so with great imagination in his use of both Whitney’s material. images and sounds, as well in the rhythm of Belson created and organized with the works. the musician Henry S. Jacobs the legendary Belson often composed the music for Vortex Concerts in San Francisco, a series of five his film. Later works, for example Fountain events that took place from 1957 until 1959 and of Dreams (1984) and Epilogue (2005), are met with great success. The concerts, which also accompanied by music by romantic composers comprised music by Karlheinz Stockhausen and like Franz Liszt and Sergey Rachmaninov, To¯ru Takemitsu, were held in a truly immersive and for this reason are less effective than audiovisual environment: a multitude of thepreceding ones. In any case, he created projectors and loudspeakers, together with some of the most fascinating works in the other devices, were set up inside the Morrison annals of audiovisual art. Planetarium, whose dome was about twenty During the 1950s Ben F. Laposky produced meters in diameter. The sound could be made a series of abstract electronic images called to circulate among the loudspeakers, which Oscillons using modified oscilloscopes. gave the series its title. Laposky specialized in this technique and Belson’s cosmic vision is best conveyed created elegant works that were initially in the some of the subsequent films, which are monochrome and later colored with filters, probably his most notable: firstly Allures (1961), which he displayed for the first time in his 1953 and also other equally important works such as show Oscillations. In the same years Herbert the wonderful Samadhi (1967), Meditation W. Franke, one of the first artists to explore (1958), Chakra (1972) and Light (1973 [Fig. 4.22]), digital art, also produced images with the Fig. 4.22 - Jordan Belson, Light, 1973 just to name a few. Overall, he produced more oscilloscope, sometimes in collaboration with than thirty films. Andreas Hubner.

58 59 Hy Hirsh, many of whose works have Stan Brakhage’s approach was completely In time, Brakhage perfected the been lost, was a somewhat mysterious figure different from those of earlier visual music technique of direct painting, achieving truly who worked for several years as an advertising artists. Similarly to Wilfred and Grant, in fact, spectacular results, in which each frame photographer and cameraman in the United Brakhage was attracted neither to the was often a veritable painting that stood on its States and Europe. He was a friend of Harry visualization of music nor the creation of own. He frequently repeated the same frame Smith and Jordan Belson, and influenced audiovisual compositions, but rather was an two, three or four times, reducing the by both of them. Beginning in the early 1950s advocate of abstract animation without sound, perceived speed to 12, 8 or 6 Hz, precisely he created a few abstract films using various that is of composing with light. He believed providing enough time to observe each frame, techniques, including drawing on dense music interfered with the visual flux and yet without removing the impression of oils, etching on film, optical printing, fireworks called his works “moving visual thinking” movement. This procedure contributed and electronic images generated by an or“visual music,” the latter a term that came to destabilizing the viewer, as the artist was oscilloscope. Hirsh also explored stereoscopy to encompass all audiovisual art. This linked playing at the edge of the sensation of and multi-vision, as did Dwinell Grant. back to what McLaren stated regarding hand- movement itself. In addition, Hirsh treated each film painted films that didn’t have a veritable Stan Brakhage liked asymmetry and projection as a separate event, almost as structure, namely that they were like visual unpredictability, and sometimes his films gave a performance. This explains why he constantly thought, perhaps because their rate of change the impression of not having a precise modified his films and preferred live music, was such that only thought could be compared structure: what mattered was each moment often jazz, to a predetermined soundtrack. to them. In this context it is interesting to note of perception, and each micro-sequence His abstract films included Divertissement that according to neurologist Oliver Sacks seemed to negate what had just been seen. Rococo (1951), Come Closer (1952), and other scholars the flow of consciousness A narrative film, and in general music as well, Eneri (1953), Gyromorphosis (1957), and proceeds at a sampling of about 10 Hz.6 is usually composed of elements that tend Chasse des Touches (The Chase of Active in the United States, Brakhage to create a tension that is later resolved. Brushstrokes, 1959), with music by Thelonious was influenced by the writings of Sergey Brakhage didn’t follow this principle, breaking Monk. Mikhaylovich Eisenstein, by Italian Neorealism established rules. He too, like Belson, Jules Engel also collaborated with the and also by figures such as John Cage and interpreted black as a visual pause. Disney studios for the films Fantasia and Bambi Maya Deren. His films did not require the type of viewer’s (1942). An abstract artist since the 1930s, His output was enormous, almost four involvement that is demanded of some Engel later started a course in experimental hundred films. While experimental, some contemporary interactive works, but rather animation at the California Institute of the Arts. of these were traditionally shot using a camera, needed active participation, a perceptual Beginning in the 1960s he created numerous for example Anticipation of the Night (1958) and mental attention that lead the viewer abstract films, different from each other: and Dog Star Man (1961–64). The films to concentrate on what happened on the Centipede (1967), Silence (1968), Landscape without camera were made with two specific screen. (1971), Train Landscape (1974), Rumble (1975), techniques: direct painting on film and collage. Brakhage made his first films in the 1950s, Swan (1975), Shapes and Gestures (1976), Wet While direct painting had already been and then continued for various decades Paint (1977), Celebration (1978), Mobiles (1978) successfully explored especially by Lye and to produce abstract and experimental works, and Play-Pen (1986). Engel focused on the art McLaren, the collage method, seen for including the 75-minute The Text of Light of movement not necessarily connected to instance in Mothlight (1963 [Fig. 4.23]) (1974), the series Arabics (1980–81), Nightmusic music, and in fact did not use music as a and The Garden of Earthly Delights (1981), (1986) which was originally painted on IMAX starting point. was barely investigated. film, The Dante Quartet (1987 [Fig. 4.24]),

Fig. 4.23 - Stan Brakhage, Mothlight, 1963

60 61 Delicacies of Molten Horror Synapse (1991) writing. In 1958 he designed the Invisible and Black Ice (1994) which features a very Cinema, a soundproof movie theater effective zoom effect. consisting of solid black armchairs, walls, floors He also wrote several books, among these and ceiling, and partition panels between Metaphors on Vision (1963), A Moving Picture viewers that forced them to focus their Giving and Taking Book (1971) and Telling attention on the screen. Kubelka’s work was Time: Essays of a Visionary Filmmaker (2003), notable especially for his original approach that was published posthumously. to this medium, which was referred to as More recently, Brakhage created three “metric film.” He in fact measured each part films with Phil Solomon: Elementary Phrases of a film in relation to the work’s overall (1994), Concrescence (1996), Seasons… (2002). duration, and was particularly careful to make In his turn, Solomon made several films on his every part communicate with all the other own, as for example The Secret Garden (1988) parts. For example, in Adebar (1957) the film and Psalm III: “Night of the Meek” (2002), segments were thirteen, twenty-six and fifty- characterized by a very personal style. two frames long. An entirely different method was followed After Adebar, the complexity of Kubelka’s by Peter Kubelka, an artist who created expression increased remarkably, to the point several experimental films and who expressed where he conceived segments of a single himself in the most varied ways, for example frame. According to the artist, each frame through cuisine, music, architecture and had to play an essential part in the film, and if

Fig. 4.24 - Stan Brakhage, The Dante Quartet, 1987

Fig. 4.25 - Peter Kubelka, Arnulf Rainer, 1960

62 63 it did not this would act detrimentally on the soundtrack was also by the artist, and was European and New York art avant-garde. and 3rd Degree (1982), for three screens. work. While Sergey Eisenstein gave importance composed with a synthesizer built specifically He also collaborated with Karlheinz Between 1968 and 1970 the painter to the space between each sequence, what was for the film. The warning frame informed Stockhausen, and in 1964 presented the José Antonio Sistiaga made the 75-minute … significant to Kubelka was the space between that the film could provoke epileptic seizures or autobiographical Fist Fight with music by the ere erera baleibu izik subua aruaren…, each frame. slight shocks and that therefore a doctor should German composer. Notable later works are later followed by other films, notably With Arnulf Rainer (1960 [Fig. 4.25]) this artist always be on the premises. The film was based 66 (1966), 69 (1968) and the elegant 70 (1970). Impresiones en la alta atmósfera (Impressions in reached the peak of his purist aesthetics, the on an alternation of the white and the black Another artist deserving to be mentioned High Atmosphere, 1988–89) and Han (sobre el film being composed exclusively by white and frame, causing an evident perceptual result, is Paul Sharits, who also had a musical sol) (Han [Above the Sun], 1992–…), on 70 mm black frames, and by silence andnoise (the latter from which the film drew its title. education and was fascinated by the temporal film. associated to the color white), in other words by Robert Breer was active since the 1950s pulsations found in nature. Sharits created A Jules Engel’s student, Adam K. Beckett the extremes of image and sound from the and carried out various experiments that numerous films starting from the early 1960s, was influenced by special effects and surreal point of view of the presence or absence of a translated into a series of films calledForm including: Dots 1 & 2 (1965), a work based films master Pat O’Neill and developed signal. The visual and musical elements were Phases (1952–56), in the style of Richter on white and black discs shown in rapid an original animation technique based on a kept entirely separate, but this didn’t hinder and Eggeling. During that period Breer made: succession; Ray Gun Virus (1966), with loop comprising a limited set of frames, and the existence of an overall cohesion determined Un Miracle (A Miracle, 1954); Recreation (1956), colored fields in rapid succession; Razor which was repeated, expanding and modifying by rhythm. based on a flickering of frames; Motion Pictures Blades (1965–68), also stroboscopic though not itself at each turn. Before his tragic death, A work that certainly deserves to be (1956); A Man and his Dog Out for Air (1957), entirely abstract; N:O:T:H:I:N:G (1968), centered Beckett created various abstract animations, mentioned in this regard is The Flicker (1965), by composed of transforming lines and made on the vibration of colored energy and inspired including Heavy-Light (1973), Evolution minimalist musician Tony Conrad, which with a technique he developed; and Blazes by a Tibetan mandala; of the Red Star (1973), Flesh Flows (1974), and was based on only five frames: a first frame (1961) S:TREAM:S:SECTION:S:ECTION: Sausage City (1974). of warning, two of credits, and then one Breer was in contact with Claes Oldenburg, S:S:ECTIONED (1968–70); the series Specimen Also an Engel’s student, Dennis Pies (aka white and one black frame. The film’s Nam June Paik and other members of the (1975); Tails (1976), made with various film-ends Sky David) in 1974 created two interesting that dissolve; Episodic Generation (1977); animations: Aura-Corona and Luma Nocturna. and Bad Burns (1982), created with film that was loaded incorrectly. The legendary sequence Star Gate His installations were also significant: Sound by Douglas Trumbull, seen at the end of Stanley Strip/Film Strip (1971 [Fig. 4.26]), for four screens; Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), is a Shutter Interface (1975), also for four screens; small masterpiece that symbolically embraces Declarative Mode (1976–77), for two screens; the abstract visions of an entire epoch.

1 Duplaix and Lista 2004, 146. 4 Russett and Starr 1976, 124. 2 Keefer 2009, 2. 5 Caramel and Madesani 2002, 3 Keefer and Guldemond 56 and 58. Fig. 4.26 - Paul Sharits, Sound Strip/Film Strip, 1971 2013, 136 6 Sacks 2005; Nyhus 2003, pp. 4–5.

64 65 5 Music and Abstract Art composed Il Penseroso (The Thinker)—part Conversely, Scriabin, ever since his visionary of the second of the three suites Années composition Mysterium, begun in 1903 but Just as painters and other visual artists de pèlerinage (Years of Pilgrimage), namely never completed, was oriented toward showed an interest in music, so did some Deuxième année: Italie (Second Year: Italy, multisensory expression, given by the musicians turn toward the visual arts. 1837–49)—and Hunnenschlacht (The Battle simultaneous use of the senses of touch and The number of composers who explored of the Huns, 1857) inspired, respectively, smell in addition to sounds and colors. visual experiences and ideas, however, by a work of Michelangelo and of Wilhelm Influenced by theosophy, Scriabin created in was notably smaller than that of visual artists von Kaulbach. 1910 one of the most famous audiovisual who connected to music, perhaps because Similarly, in 1874, Modest Mussorgsky works, namely Prométhée, Le Poème du Feu musicians had always worked not only composed Картинки с выставки – (Prometheus, the Poem of Fire [Fig. 5.1]) with the temporal dimension, but with the Воспоминание о Викторе Гартмане for piano and orchestra, with organ, choirs spatial one as well. (Pictures at an Exposition – A Remembrance and Clavier à Lumières or Tastiera per luce. It is also true that composers neglected of Viktor Hartmann) after he had seen an The latter was a color organ invented by the variable of the movement of sounds exhibition of works by the painter Viktor Preston S. Millar specifically for this piece. in space, probably because this was difficult Alexandrovich Hartmann. Later, Kandinsky This color organ, called Chromola, was to actualize, even though the human created a work based on the version of produced in two specimens, with special perception of a moving sound signal is Mussorgsky’s piece orchestrated by Maurice lamps expressly made by General Electric in actually very acute. This type of research only Ravel. twelve different colors, controlled by fifteen began in earnest in the twentieth century. The composers Nikolay Andreyevich keyboard keys. Aside from such observations, one can Rimsky-Korsakov and Aleksandr Scriabin The notation for Tastiera per Luce, or identify different conceptions among were instead true synesthetes who were keen simply Luce in the score, written in treble clef, musicians as well. Georg Friedrich Händel on the correspondences between tonality was subdivided into two parts. One followed can be mentioned here for his famous and color. As Sergey Rachmaninov noted, the harmony and expressed the note/color composition Music for the Royal Fireworks the two composers agreed on certain at the root of the harmony: in this case the (1749), written at a time when firework shows associations, for example D major/yellow, light was probably used to underline the were quite popular and could be considered but not others. Rimsky-Korsakov and Scriabin current tonality. The second part was slower, one of the first forms of abstraction in were certainly conscious of their peculiarity, and its correlation with the music was not movement. Richard Wagner should also in fact they participated in a series of tests as evident, with some even suggesting it be included among the pioneers, if only for his on synesthesia conducted by Leonid should be interpreted allegorically. idea of Gesamtkunstwerk or “total artwork,” Sabaneev. It is not clear what roles the colors played: which in some ways can be considered a Rimsky-Korsakov did not write some scholars suggest that they were meant Fig. 5.1 - Aleksandr Skriabin, opening bars of the score with the part for Luce, Prométhée, Le Poème du Feu concept anticipating a multimedia show. compositions that had an explicit relationship to be projected on a screen, while others (Prometheus, the Poem of Fire), 1910 As was mentioned before, several painters with images, with the exception of the ballet believe they were supposed to illuminate the were influenced by various kinds of music, Млада (Mlada, 1892), for which indications entire stage. In addition, for a long time but the opposite was also true. For example, were written concerning the stage lighting. there was a debate as to what hues Franz Liszt composed Sposalizio (The However, he was a brilliant orchestrator corresponded to the indications for Luce. Marriage, 1856) after he became acquainted with a great sense of musical “color,” and Fortunately this aspect was clarified in 1978, with Raphael’s Lo sposalizio della Vergine it isreasonable to presume that in this he was when a copy of the score with Scriabin’s (The Marriage of the Virgin, 1504). Liszt also favored by being a synesthete. annotations was found.

66 67 Prometheus, the Poem of Fire, which was lights, for which he also wrote the text Even before sound film had become a reality, premiered in Moscow in 1911 without any kind and drew sketches of the costumes and set Moholy-Nagy wrote a series of articles of projection, and then performed in New York designs. about the possibility of creating sounds using in 1915 complete with the visual part, was The correspondences between the colors celluloid film, which was a step ahead with certainly not a success, due in part to the of the lights and the timbres of the instruments respect to the idea of the phonograph being inadequate contribution of the light in The Hand of Fate are very similar to the ones used not only to record but also to produce component. It is also likely that Scriabin used by Kandinsky, with Schoenberg sound. did not have access to a Chromola while proposing the associations violin/green, Subsequently, in 1932, Moholy-Nagy he was composing the piece, and thus planned low woodwinds/violet, percussions/vermillion, demonstrated his theories with the film the parts for this instrument without being low brass/light red, trumpet/yellow. These Tönendes ABC (ABC in Sound), an able to test them directly. pairs appear in a table contained in experimental work in which he inscribed on During the same years the composer Kandinsky’s Über das Geistige in der Kunst the film’s audio track letters of the alphabet, Arnold Schoenberg participated, albeit (Concerning the Spiritual in Art, 1912) that imprints and other kinds of marks. Then marginally, in The Blue Knight group of which illustrates a scale of colors of increasing he photographed the audio track and Kandinsky was a protagonist. Schoenberg was emotional intensity. In this respect, it should projected it, thus obtaining a complete an excellent painter, and thus experienced be noted that in German the terms Klang audiovisual union. in first person the double perspective of the (sound) and Farben (colors), when combined, Walter Ruttmann, however, was the first Fig. 5.3 - The team of Oskar Fischinger at work during the production of Tönende Ornamente (Sound Ornaments), circa 1932 audiovisual realm, even though he generally form a term that means musical timbres. to create a montage of sound effects, kept the two art forms separate, with the Also during that period the Futurist artist entitled Weekend (1928). It should be exception of Die glückliche Hand (The Hand Luigi Russolo, after his artistic studies, noted that this method preceded by a few of Fate, 1910–13) for voices, orchestra and invented numerous musical instruments years musique concrète and sound recording designed to produce various kinds of noise, techniques with tape recorder. with pen and ink, and applying the result and one of these, called the Rumorarmonio, Between the late 1920s and the early 1930s on the celluloid.1 The outcome was a film he himself played to accompany silent films. other artists in Germany and in the Soviet entitled Tönende Ornamente (Sound The development of technologies Union worked with sound synthesis on Ornaments [Fig. 5.3]). Unlike Pfenninger, who for sound film then created the conditions celluloid, each independently and in many was purely interested in sound, Fischinger for a different method of obtaining sound, cases totally unaware of the research being aimed to produce a coherent audiovisual form intervening on the optical track of the carried out by others. of art. celluloid, with which it was possible to Among them was Rudolf Pfenninger, Around 1930 Arseny Mikhailovich Avraamov “animate” a film’s soundtrack. who after some experience as a also created a few soundtracks by The first artist to theorize such a synthesis documentarian and engineer created a photographing his drawings. The photographs was the painter, photographer and filmmaker series of films called Die tönende Handschrift were part of a larger system of sound synthesis László Moholy-Nagy, who in 1930 created (The Sounding Calligraphy) marking the called Welttonsystem, similar to Pfenninger’s, the device Lichtrequisit einer elektrischen celluloid with a series of separate graphic with which Avraamov aimed to go beyond Bühne (Light Prop for an Electric Stage), signs, each representing a different short the canonical twelve semitones. later on called Light-Space Modulator. sound [Fig. 5.2]. Avraamov used various types of geometric His abstract film Ein Lichtspiel schwarz weiss Oskar Fischinger carried out similar figures, including rectangles, triangles, ovals, grau (A Light-Play Black White Grey, 1930) experiments, photographing geometric and ellipses. The pitch was controlled by was created by shooting this kinetic sculpture. patterns that he drew for this purpose moving the camera forward or backward, while

Fig. 5.2 - Rudolf Pfenninger, pattern of two A’s, five vowels and the “sch” sound, circa 1932

68 69 the volume was changed by modifying functioned with optical discs and followed a out numerous experiments and perfected the exposure. Harmony and counterpoint principle that had already been partly explored their technique to the point of achieving a were obtained through multiple exposures in 1927 by Pierre Toulon with the Cellulophone. continuum between rhythm, pitch and timbre: and other more or less complex techniques. Each disc contained eighteen waveforms and a fundamental concept of contemporary Shortly thereafter, Evgeny Sholpo and the thus made it possible to produce different music. composer Georgy Mikhailovich Rimsky- timbres for each tone. Other artists then continued to generate Korsakov, the nephew of the more famous In the early 1930s Arnold Lesti and sounds with the aid of optical media. Nikolay, developed a musical instrument Frederick Sammis invented a Radio Organ In 1957 Kurt Kren created Versuch mit called Variophone [Fig. 5.4], constructing it of a Trillion Tones. Also notable was Sammis’ synthetischem Ton (Test) (Experiment with after having analyzed several sounds with Singing Keyboard (1936), which could record Synthetic Sound [Test]), scratching the film’s an oscilloscope. The Variophone worked sound waves on 35 mm film, and then activate optical track. In 1958 Yevgeny Murzin slightly differently from the preceding and play them via a keyboard. developed a synthesizer called ANS, based instruments, as it featured a series of paper Norman McLaren also created a series on five optical discs [Fig. 5.8]. Each disc discs with geometric patterns. The discs of animations in which the sound was obtained contained a hundred and forty-four tracks, rotated in synchrony with the film, and the through optical synthesis. In particular, so that one could obtain sounds formed result was a more ample availability of timbres the first works in which he intervened on the by seven hundred and twenty sinusoidal compared to the method used by Avraamov. celluloid’s optical sound were Rumba (1939), components. Around the same time, Boris Yankovsky a film never completed, Allegro (1939), Subsequently, Barry Spinello also made invented the Vibroexponator, also based on Dots (1940) and Loops (1940). a foray into the creation of “optical” sounds. drawings but in this case animated and not McLaren systematically perfected this Following his predecessors’ techniques recorded frame by frame. In his turn, Nikolai technique and further elaborated Pfenninger’s and expanding upon them, between 1967 and Voinov created the Nivotone, which apparently methods, which he knew well, finally covering 1971 he completed the films Sonata for Pen, was the most flexible instrument at the time in the drawings with grills in such a way that Brush and Ruler, Soundtrack [Fig. 5.9], and Six terms of generation of sound. he could obtain not only different timbres, Loop-Painting without using a camera or Edwin Emil Welte implemented yet another but also portamenti, glissandi, vibratos sound technology. The methods Spinello used idea with his Licht-Ton Orgel (Light-Tone and even microtones. Among the notable films were drawing directly on the celluloid and Organ, 1936 [Fig. 5.5]). This bizarre instrument made using this sound production technique manipulating the audio track with self-adhesive were Now is the Time (1951), which was acetate or tape. Spinello also established also stereoscopic, Neighbours (1952), Two that in order to obtain effective rhythms, one Bagatelles (1952), Twirligig (1952), A Phantasy had to work with multiples of two (2-4-8-16-32) (1953), and especially the aforementioned or three (3-6-12-24) frames. Synchromy (1971 [Fig. 5.6]). John Whitney Sr. and his brother James In the more strictly musical context, some invented a truly original system of sound composers emerged for their unconventional production using pendulums, whose ideas and measured themselves against the oscillations, by nature sinusoidal, were visual world in different ways. recorded onto a film’s optical track, which Olivier Messiaen was an undoubtedly generated sounds when it was reproduced unorthodox artist who, like Scriabin, had [Fig. 5.7]. The Whitney brothers carried synesthetic experiences. He was exposed to

Fig. 5.4 - Evgenij Sholpo, discs for Variophone, 1930

Fig. 5.5 - Edwin E. Welte, a disc for Licht-Ton Orgel Fig. 5.6 - Norman McLaren, (Light-Tone Organ), 1936 Synchromy, 1971

70 71 conductor or the performer than of colors that the listeners should have perceived. Although he was never a creator of visual music, the composer Edgar Varèse was interested in the spatialization of sound, a concept introduced by Charles Ives in The Unanswered Question (1906). Generally he was concerned with the idea of applying properties traditionally belonging to other art forms to music, in the same way as the visual arts were tending to migrate toward characteristics typical of music. Varèse

Fig. 5.7 - The pendulum device of the Whitney brothers conceived sounds as bodies moving through space, introducing the idea of “sounds as objects” that was later elaborated by Pierre Schaeffer in his 1966 text Traité des objets musicaux (Treatise on Musical Objects)—an numerous influences, including Surrealism important concept that is still current today. and Christianity, as well as Greek, Indian, With the architect Le Corbusier, Varèse also Indonesian and Japanese music, and designed a multimedia event for the Philips also worked with musique concrète and Pavillion at the 1958 Brussels World’s Fair. Martenot waves. In addition, he was For that occasion, the two conceived a interested in bird songs, so much so that production that included architecture, light, he considered himself as much an ornithologist music, space and color, that was named as a musician. Poème électronique (Electronic Poem In his text Traité de rythme, de couleur, [Fig. 5.10]). et d’ornithologie (Treatise on Rhythm, Color Le Corbusier, who was given carte blanche and Ornithology, 1949–92), Messiaen by Philips, actually did not play much of a role described how certain chords suggested some in the project, as the person who created colors to him (gold and brown, blue-violet, the architectonic space following cobalt blue, red, black, white, etc.). In some Le Corbusier’s concept was the architect of his compositions, for instance Catalogue and composer Iannis Xenakis. Varèse’s music, Fig. 5.9 - Barry Spinello, images for sounds of Soundtrack, d’oiseaux (Catalogue of Birds, 1956–58), made with electronic and concrete sounds, 1969 Chronochromie (1959–60), Couleurs de la Cité was not in strict relation with the images, céleste (Colors of the Celestial City, 1963), indeed it had been conceived to provide and Des canyons aux étoiles (From the a contrast with the images and stood on its Canyons to the Stars, 1971–74), he introduced own. As such, the work could not be defined indications of colors in the score, even though as an audiovisual composition, and yet the these consisted more of suggestions for the entire experience must have been memorable. Fig. 5.8 - Evgenij Murzin, graphic score for ANS, 1958

72 73 At the same time, Varèse was able to explore language, even when these developed In 2010 Persepolis was staged again, the spatial aspect of sound, since he worked autonomously and only had occasionally this time at the Los Angeles State Historic Park, with fourteen audio tracks piped through points of contact. with six listening stations, each comprising three hundred and fifty loudspeakers. In 1967 he designed and realized the space eight loudspeakers and a subwoofer, totaling From this point of view, one can claim Polytòpe de Montréal, featuring twelve 40,000 W. The installation also included fog that this work certainly contributed to hundred colored flashes (eight hundred white machines and propane flames rising toward the dialogue between music and the visual and the others red, yellow, green and blue) the sky, which was also illuminated by robot- arts. that illuminated the Polytòpe every twenty-fifth controlled lights. Xenakis, who like Varèse was fascinated of a second, and thus conferred the illusion Later, in 2012, Chris Salter presented N_ by the spatialization of sound, wrote various of movement. The project also involved Polytope: Behaviors in Light and Sound compositions in which the movement of spatialized music, which as with Bohor was After Iannis Xenakis, an installation- the interpreters as well as their position had a transmitted through loudspeakers that were performance that combines LED lights, specific elevance.r For instance Bohor (1958) disseminated throughout the space. lasers, spatialized sounds, sensors, and was written for eight spatial channels, while Another multimedia show entitled software for learning. Fig. 5.11 - Iannis Xenakis, Polytope de Cluny, 1972 in Eonta (1963) brass instruments had to be Persepolis (1971) was presented in A completely different case is that of Hans facing in different directions. In Oresteïa the homonymous archeological site. In this Jenny, who continued the experiments (1966) some players had to move on the stage, case Xenakis used fifty-nine loudspeakers, carried out in the eighteenth century by Ernst and in Terretektorh (1966) the instrumentalists ninety-two lights and two lasers. Xenakis Chladni. A follower of Rudolf Steiner, Jenny were spread out among the public, so that then performed Polytope de Cluny explored the patterns created by sound members of the audience had different sound (1972 [Fig. 5.11]) equipped with a computer on various surfaces, and in 1967 published perspectives. that controlled six hundred flashes of white the book Kymatik, later republished with Xenakis usually did not synchronize light and four hundred adjustable mirrors thetitle Cymatics [Fig. 5.12]. John Stuart Reid audiovisual events because he deemed that reflected green, red and blue laser rays. then carried on Jenny’s line of work, that the mind was able to simultaneously On this occasion he also created music starting to develop the CymaScope in 2002. follow both the visual and the musical comprising seven spatial tracks, and distributed over twelve loudspeakers to increase the sense of movement. The event lasted twenty-five minutes, a compromise between the six minutes of Polytope de Montréal and the full hour of Persepolis. Fig. 5.12 - Hans Jenny, pattern generated by a sound, circa 1967 In 1977 Xenakis created Le Diatòpe for the inauguration of the Centre Pompidou in Paris: the show comprised seven audio channels, sixteen hundred and eighty flashes, four colored lasers and four hundred programmable mirrors. The following year he presented another multimedia show entitled Polytope de Mycène, set in the archeological site of Mycenae.

Fig. 5.10 - Le Corbusier and Edgar Varèse, Poème électronique (Electronic Poem), 1958 1 Levin 2003, 51.

74 75 6 Electronic Art Another member of Fluxus, Nam June Paik, In 1964 Paik created TV Cello, followed by of lights and sounds [Fig. 6.2]. Dream House was educated in classical music and the history other works made with the cellist and was conceived as an organism in evolution, In the 1950s electronics and cybernetics of art and music. He then worked for involving TV sets [Fig. 6.1]. Time was at the based on number ratios and having a history had already become part of the world of art, Stockhausen’s Studio für elektronische Musik core of Paik’s art, and an instrument that and a life of its own. This work, initially but it was not until the 1960s that they started in Köln, and so was also familiar with the could transmit images instantaneously produced in New York, was then replicated to be widely employed, becoming a electronic school in the context of Western was perfectly consistent with his aesthetic in several countries in different ways, and thus fundamental feature of several artworks. contemporary music. vision. saw various embodiments. This was clearly made possible by the growing Paik’s influence was already evident in the Paik then shifted from performances to In the 1960s, Robert Rauschenberg met availability of analog and eventually digital show Exposition of Music – Electronic video installations, ultimately producing the engineer Billy Klüver, who had earlier technology, both to research centers and Television, held in Germany in 1963, where spectacular works, as for example The more collaborated with Jean Tinguely. Together to individuals, while the idea of a convergence visitors could modify video images with a the better (1988), a media tower comprising they developed Oracle (1965), an advanced between art and science gained ground. microphone or a magnet. Magnet TV (1965) a thousand and three monitors for the Seoul project of interactive art, consisting of It was in the 1960s that analog synthesizers also employed a magnet, while in Electronic Olympics, or Electronic Superhighway: a space whose light, sound, temperature were invented and started to be mass- Blues (1966) the audio modified the images Continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii (1995), and smells changed as a person walked produced: the Buchla, the Moog ant the VCS3. on a TV screen. With the video engineer for three hundred and thirteen monitors and through it. The appearance of audio synthesizers and Shuya Abe, Paik later developed the Paik-Abe neon lights. In addition, Rauschenberg created the emergence of electronic music prompted Video Synthesizer, one of the first instruments It should be noted that at that time the performance Open Score (Bong) (1966), artists to search for their visual equivalents, of its kind, a mixer/colorizer featuring seven artists generally disliked the term involving the participation of five hundred and the first video artworks were developed input channels that was often used with other “performance,” as it evoked the theater and volunteers whose gestures were recorded during this period. devices. traditional performances, from which they by infrared cameras and projected on three At the same time, in New York, Allan Paik’s work represents a building block wanted to distance themselves. A certain screens. The performance space was extensive Kaprow introduced artistic “happenings.” ofvideo art, and in the specific field of visual degree of ambiguity was thus created around and also comprised a tennis court on which The main idea behind these events was music of particular relevance was his this term. In addition, Fluxus artists Mimi Kanarek and Frank Stella played, to break down the barriers between artists and collaboration with cellist Charlotte Moorman. distinguished happenings from their using special rackets that emitted sounds. audiences, involving the public in the work performances. While the first were longer, The sounds of the rackets, in turn, controlled itself. more complex and especially aimed at some lights, as the video images of the tennis A pioneer in this context was Wolf Vostell, involving the public, performances were short, game were visualized on the screens. a conceptual artist who was also interested simple and followed a score, as in music. Open Score (Bong) was part of “Nine in noise. His first happening in Paris was La Monte Young, known predominantly Evenings: Theater and Engineering,” a series Theater is in the Street (1958), the first artwork as a composer of minimalist music, was of events that took place in New York City to incorporate a TV set. Vostell was in contact also active in the field of visual arts. However, and that can be reasonably considered one with the composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, his work cannot be separated from that of of the milestones in the positive blending of and in 1963 created the environment 6 TV Marian Zazeela, a New York artist working dé-coll/age. He was also part of the Fluxus especially with light. Both were part of Fluxus movement, inspired by John Cage’s ideas. In and together with other artists formed 1968, together with musician Mauricio Kagel The House of Eternal Music, and both were and other artists, Vostell founded the group influenced and fascinated by psychedelia Labor e.V., aiming to explore acoustic and and Oriental culture. Their most famous work visual events. is Dream House, an environmental installation

Fig. 6.1 - Nam June Paik, Fig. 6.2 - La Monte Young Charlotte Moorman in Concert and Marian Zazeela, for TV Cello and Videotapes, 1971 Dream House, from 1962

76 77 art and technology. Another work by environments, representing a remarkable step Bill Etra, who with Steve Rutt had produced In addition he founded the Black Gate, Rauschenberg, Mud Muse (1971), was an ahead in the development of technological art. another analog video synthesizer called an “electromedia theater” for the creation of installation consisting of a large container The Pepsi Pavilion was the result of a the Rutt/Etra Scan Processor, with which he ambient performances focusing on light, filled with water and clay that reacted collaboration between artists, architects, created audiovisual performances. sound and movement. in the presence of a sound signal. Klüver designers, composers, choreographers, Among the Vasulkas’ innumerable works, Jud Yalkut was another counterculture also collaborated with various artists, scientists and engineers aiming at a particularly relevant one was the series artist active during that period. In 1965 he including John Cage and the choreographer encapsulating the experiences of the 1960s. Violin Power (1970–78), in which the violin made Diffraction Film (1965), which was Merce Cunningham in the realization It was in this panorama that Andy Warhol was used as an instrument that controlled the originally silent but was presented with natural of the audiovisual performance Variations V created the events Exploding Plastic Inevitable real-time processing of images during and electronic sounds during various live (1965). (1966–67 [Fig. 6.3]), consisting of installations performances. Another important work events of the interdisciplinary collective USCO, Subsequently, in 1967, Rauschenberg of monitors, film and slide projections, lights, among many others was Noisefields (1974 with which Yalkut had an ongoing association. and Klüver, together with Robert Whitman and live music by Nico and the Velvet [Fig. 6.4]), in which images were first generated His most famous work was Turn, Turn, Turn Fred Waldhauer, formed Experiments in Art Underground, and other performances. and then used to pilot the variations of an (1966 [Fig. 6.5]), created with Nam June Paik and Technology (EAT), an organization that These events certainly contributed to further audio synthesizer. Also notable of those years using visual material by Nicolas Schöffer, had as an objective the collaboration between the idea of multimedia works that were are Reminiscence (1974), The Matter (1974), Julio Le Parc, USCO and Paik, and featuring artists and engineers. Also dating back to that not pre-established, unlike animations and Time/Energy/Objects (1975–76), and Orbital a version sampled and distorted by USCO period was the “expanded cinema” videos that followed a more mainstream Obsessions (1977). of the homonymous song by The Byrds. movement, which often employed multiple conception of artistic expression. This way The artist Aldo Tambellini, who had already The result was an exciting whirling of lights, screens, and used existing architecture for live of conceiving art then saw a great collaborated with Otto Piene, should be flashing forms and sudden changes. exhibitions and installations, proposing the development in the digital world, precisely mentioned especially for his video installation Us Down by the Riverside (1966) was a idea of the ephemeral and unrepeatable. thanks to the technical possibility of Black Spiral of 1969, made with Tracy Kinsel show by USCO in which Yalkut participated For the occasion of the 1970 Expo in Osaka, generating and modifying images and sounds and Hank Reinbold of Bell Laboratories. and exhibited colored and intermittent Klüver and Whitman developed the Pepsi in real time. Tambellini was particularly interested in light, images, accompanied by music of The Beatles, Pavilion: an immersive space entirely Also popular in this context were Steina seen as a manifestation of energy, and this time not distorted. Images of the famous dedicated to interactive and multimedia and Woody Vasulka, among the most active as a consequence also in the color black. English band were manipulated in Beatles artists in audiovisual art based on analog electronic technologies. The Vasulkas used audio synthesizers as a starting point: the core of their system was in particular the idea of the oscillator, that is a wave generator that could be used both for audio and video. By regulating a synthesizer’s control tension, they could in fact simultaneously modify the sound’s pitch and the image’s size. In 1971 the Vasulkas were among the founders of The Kitchen, which soon became the leading venue for electronic art in New York. Also among the founders was

Fig. 6.3 - Andy Warhol, Exploding Plastic Inevitable, 1966–67 Fig. 6.4 - Steina and Woody Vasulka, Noisefields, 1974

78 79 Electroniques (1966–69), made by Yalkut once works. electronic instruments were born, as for again with Nam June Paik. Various artists continued to create their own example the “Electronic Visualization Events” in Though not totally abstract, a work that analog electronic instruments, with which they Chicago, which comprised both analog certainly deserves to be mentioned here produced numerous works: among them was and digital electronic images. is the obsessive and hypnotic OffOn (1967), Dan Slater, who in 1966 invented the VSynth, a Another figure to emerge in the early 1970s a seminal combination of film and video video synthesizer for the production of abstract was Stephen Beck. Beck was originally made by Scott Bartlett—who had already images. an engineer, but soon became involved in worked with light shows in the San Francisco In 1969 Myron W. Krueger, with Daniel contemporary and electronic music, and then in area—with the help of Tom DeWitt, a pupil Sandin, Jerry Erdman and Richard Venezky, the visual arts. In 1970–71 he created the analog of Stan VanDerBeek and also the creator developed the audiovisual interactive Direct Video Synthesizer [Fig. 6.7], and then in of visual music works among which is Fall (1971). environment glowflow. Krueger’s ongoing 1974 the digital Beck Video Weaver. On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean it is research on interactivity later lead to Metaplay, Beck worked at San Francisco’s National noteworthy the experimentation led by Lutz another environment in which images and Center for Experiments in Television, tied to the Becker for the film Horizon (1967), with music by sound were integrated, and Psychic Space public television station KQED. Like others, he cellist Joy Hall, based on a feedback loop (1971). Then in 1974 Krueger created was influenced by Kandinsky, Fischinger, Wilfred between a tv set and a b/w camera, and then Videoplace, an immersive and interactive and the Whitney brothers, and like Sandin, Fig. 6.6 - Dan Sandin’s Image Processor colored. environment. though originally from California, worked in This was the era of the Vietnam War, For his part, Daniel Sandin created the Illinois during the late 1960s. By his own of the Summer of Love and of trips to India, Image Processor [Fig. 6.6], a modular admission, he experimented with cannabis, where Eric Siegel spent various months studying and programmable analog computer for LSD, mescaline and other mind-altering local medicine. A bizarre figure, probably the treatment of video images that followed the substances, as did many artists of that period. emblematic of those days, in 1968 Siegel built Paik-Abe Video Synthesizer. When connected to Beck was and is still today a proponent of what the Processing Chrominance Synthesizer, a camera, the Image Processor could he defines as “spiritual technology.” followed by the Electronic Video Synthesizer in manipulate the video signal in various ways. In Like Sandin, Beck was inspired by the Moog 1970, and finally by the Colorizer. In an interview Spiral PTL (1980) Sandin used it as a musical audio synthesizer, and successfully tried to build by Jud Yalkut, Siegel stated that his instruments instrument to vary the points that make up a a visual equivalent of it. A key role in his attempt could be compared to musical ones. Einstein spiral. Following this artist’s philosophy, tending was initially played by vector monitors and (1968) is perhaps the most representative of his toward an open source mentality, anyone could oscillators, as well as by color television. The build and modify one’s own synthesizer. Direct Video Synthesizer in fact was essentially a Sandin also developed other particular modified TV set, with modulators that affected technologies, including: Sayre Glove, the the electron guns of red, green and blue. The first example of Data Glove; PHSCologram, colors were generated by audio signals and a very effective auto-stereoscopic oscillators combined with external analog representation; and the legendary CAVE, mixers. The Direct Video Synthesizer thus did a virtual reality environment. not require images shot with a camera but In the 1970s Sandin began a series of rather generated images autonomously. audiovisual performances he presented According to Beck, it was difficult to around the world: it was in this context that obtain “beautiful images” from “beautiful the first real-time audiovisual concerts based on sounds.” The most interesting images in fact Fig. 6.7 - Stephen Beck, the Direct Video Synthesizer, 1971

Fig. 6.5 - Jud Yalkut, Turn, Turn, Turn, 1966

80 81 were achieved with signals that were abstract and figurative images generated via sensors to an audio synthesizer and harmonically related to the TV set’s vertical with the analog synthesizer Scan-i-mate. a video synthesizer. Wiseman then continued (60 Hz) or horizontal (15750 Hz) frequencies, at Also from that year is Thermogenesis, in to work in California as a video performer. the limit of the audio spectrum. Becks’s which the sound was produced with a Moog After working in the field of computer Illuminated Music, a performance with music synthesizer. graphics, between 1973 and 1976 Walter by Warner Jepson, was made with the Direct Later Emshwiller collaborated with Wright was artist-in-residence at the Video Synthesizer and featured projections the composer Morton Subotnick on a project Experimental Television Center, in New York on a large screen. It was considered a sort defined as a three-dimensional interactive State. At the time, this center was one of ofvisual jazz, since the artist improvised performance, involving the generation the beacons for electronic art, where David variations each time, keeping a starting of sounds and images. Emshwiller and Jones had developed the Jones Colorizer, structure fixed—a concept later picked up Subotnick then created Hungers (1987), an in response to the Paik-Abe Video Synthesizer bysome video performers during the 1990s electronic work with live performances that was much more difficult to control. and the first decade of the twenty-first century. and interactive instruments. For several Wright became a live performer of video art: Also from the same period are Cosmic Portal years Emshwiller also served as dean in his view, the possibility offered by video (1971), Methods (1972), Video Weavings (1974) of the School of Film/Video at the California tocreate images in real time, unlike cinema, and Union (1975), the latter dedicated Institute of the Arts. had to be exploited in live events. to Jordan Belson, with whom Beck Other artists also followed the line Similarly, Carol Goss worked at the collaborated. of audiovisual research in the United States Experimental Television Center starting from A remarkably original work was the video during this decade. Bill Hearn, who was 1974 and participated in live performances, sculpture Videola (1973 [Fig. 6.8]) created the curator of the Exploratorium in sometimes with Wright. This artist made wide by Don Hallock, who also worked at the San Francisco, built various synthesizers use of instruments invented by Hearn, National Center for Experiments in Television. and in the early 1970s invented the VIDIUM, Jones and Sandin, collaborating with various The sculpture consisted of a large horizontal with which one could create colored Lissajous musicians, including Paul Bley, Jaco cone made of reflective Mylar, at the small figures. Between 1972 and 1974 Ron Hays Pastorius and Sun Ra. In 1996 Goss founded extremity of which was a video monitor, organized at WGBH The Music-Image the Not Still Art Festival. whileon the opposite end was a virtual Workshop, funded by the Rockefeller The same year, in 1974, Laurie Spiegel sphere of about 3 m in diameter, displaying Foundation and the National Endowment had the idea of taking advantage of an video images. for the Arts. enormous Honeywell computer, already used Ed Emshwiller, originally an abstract Technology was also a key element by the pioneer of computer music Max Expressionist painter and an acclaimed in the work by Jim Wiseman, a pupil Mathews, to create abstract images with science-fiction illustrator, participated in of Nam June Paik who worked with Sandin, her system VAMPIRE, which she developed numerous multimedia productions at various combining the Paik-Abe Video Synthesizer with Ken Knowlton of Bell Laboratories. venues, including Lincoln Center, the Museum with the Image Processor. In 1974 Wiseman Spiegel could draw forms with a graphic of Modern Art and the Guggenheim appeared on a few programs on Chicago’s tablet and simultaneously, through other Museum in New York, and the Los Angeles WTTW-TV and presented, among other devices, modify the image’s parameters, such Film Festival. He created many experimental things, his TV Song. In this work, as the as size, color and texture, and then record films and became a point of eferencer interpreter performed some taijiquan them. The tools used for the audio, for for the Californian scene. In 1972 he movements accompanied by a tabla player, instance filters, reverbs and so on, could also completed Scape-mates, which blended his brain’s alpha waves were transmitted be used for images, and so Spiegel had her

Fig. 6.8 - Don Hallock, Videola, 1973

82 83 hands on a full-fledged audiovisual instrument. not be visualized directly and had to be selections from Tod Dockstader’s Quatermass Theoretically it would have been possible supported by film in order to be shown, and (1964). to generate images and music simultaneously, unlike analog electronic images were therefore Stan VanDerBeek was also drawn to however the machines’ physical distance hybrids. computers, and collaborated with John Cage, thwarted the realization of such a project in Among the first abstract films made with Merce Cunningham, Allan Kaprow, Claes practice. In time, Spiegel abandoned a computer, besides those of John Whitney Sr., Oldenburg and Nam June Paik. Among other improvisation and returned to composing. was the remarkable Cibernetik 5.3, made things, he designed and built the Movie- Michael Scroggins was one of the members by John Stehura between 1965 and 1969 Drome (1963–65 [Fig. 6.10]), a hemisphere of Single Wing Turquoise Bird, and like [Fig. 6.9]. The digital images and others for the screening of films, and envisioned Wiseman also studied video with Paik obtained photographically were first enderedr the use of various forms of technology in the and Abe. His interactive performances in black and white and then printed in color context of art. and abstract videos in immersive on celluloid, one for each primary color. This artist considered computers as environments were presented in some of the Stehura himself wrote the image-generating amplifiers of the human imagination, and Fig. 6.10 - Stan VanDerBeek’s Movie-Drome, 1963–65 most important international museums and program in the FORTRAN language. Initially telephone lines as a tool to create artistic venues. Study No. 6 (1983), Power Spot Stehura wanted to use the same algorithms works at a distance, maybe with the (1989), and 1921 > 1989 (1989) are his most to produce the music, but later chose participation of the public. In both cases his prominent films. vision was admirable, anticipating the of sound patterns; and Euclidean Illusions Between 1974 and 1979 Robert Watts, development of computer networks and its (1980), developed together with Richard Bob Diamond and David Behrman created implications in the field of interactivity. Weinberg while Stan VanDerBeek was artist-in- an audiovisual installation called Cloud Music. Many of VanDerBeek’s works do not residence at NASA, and featuring music by In this work, a black and white camera belong to the repertoire of Abstractionism, but Max VanDerBeek. recorded the sky, a video analyzer identified rather to that of Surrealism or Dadaism. Beginning in the late 1960s, the artist the change in brightness on six points of Beginning in the second half of the 1960s, Lillian Schwartz collaborated with various the image and the corresponding passage however, he created numerous abstract digital avant-garde musicians including Max Mathews, of clouds, and sounds were generated films, starting with Collideoscope (1968) and Jean-Claude Risset and Pierre Boulez, and by a synthesizer built specifically for the a series of eight animations called Poem was part of the organization Experiments in Art occasion. Each variation in brightness Fields (1967–69), made with Ken Knowlton. and Technology. produced a harmonic change in the music. The Poem Fields featured long sequences, Still very active today, Schwartz is a versatile In 1977 Gary Hill made Electronic which were originally in black and white and artist whose works are often seen in 3D Linguistic, a black and white video in which later colored through an optical process. and are based on a wide variety of he visualized electronic sounds in an original Other films followed, including: Man techniques—one of these, called 2D/3D pixel and often asynchronous manner. Other works and His World (1967); Moirage (1967), a study shifting, invented by her. by Hill related to language. on optical illusions; Ad Infinitum, for three Schwartz created several abstract 16 mm screens, with synthetic and microscopic videos accompanied by electronic music, During the 1960s and 1970s electronic art images; Symmetricks (1972), another electronic including: Pixillation (1970), with music developed remarkably, shifting increasingly work, in black and white, accompanied by by Gershon Kingsley and digital images, from the analog to the digital domain. Indian music and made during a residency together with more traditional techniques; Due to the technological limitations of the atMIT’s Center for Advanced Visual Studies; UFOs (1971), with music by Emmanuel Ghent; time, however, digital animations could Who Ho Ray No. 1, based on the shapes Apotheosis (1972), produced with images

Fig. 6.9 - John Stehura, Cibernetik 5.3, 1965–69

84 85 derived from medical exams and featuring of high-level programming languages—that is Kawaguchi, who was able to create particularly electronic music by F. Richard Moore; similar to natural languages—as well as easy- sophisticated and colored animations. Mutations (1972), based on music composed to-use interfaces, making the use of computers Kawaguchi’s animations introduced by Jean-Claude Risset in 1969 and made much more accessible. another innovative feature: three- with footage of growing crystals, digital images 3/78 and Two Space were created in black dimensionality. The works Growth (1982) and lasers; and Papillons (Butterflies, 1973), and white and were based on sets of points and Morphogenesis (1984) were the first made with John Chambers and based that spread in two-dimensional space in a series that continued through the years, on thevisualization of mathematical functions. according to the artist’s choreography. and constituted an initial step toward a new Among her more recent animations: Before In keeping with the Californian trend of that genre, that of 3D animation, based on the Before (2012), EXALT (2013), and The Beauty time of looking towards Oriental cultures, perspective projection of a virtual world of Excess (2013). Her award-winning films have these animations were accompanied, generated according to the rules of Euclidean been screened the world over. respectively, by traditional Japanese and space. Kawaguchi created complex abstract Also among the first artists to use Javanese music. Calculated Movements images that simulated viscous liquids computers was Larry Cuba, who in 1974 was made with a different language, called andevolving blobs. To be noted in this regard created the animation First Fig. After ZGrass, and a technique based on volumes is that the interest in organic forms and collaborating with John Whitney Sr. on rather than dots. It employed two shades the interaction between art and biology Arabesque, Cuba attracted attention with of grays along with black and white, still constitutes one of the most stimulating other animations: 3/78 (1978), Two Space astepahead compared to the early years, branches of contemporary research. (1979 [Fig. 6.11]) and Calculated Movements when only few could access a wide array A pioneer in many ways, Kawaguchi (1985), the first of which he produced with ofcolors. was also interested in the relationship with the then popular programming language Conditions were quite different when artists music, although not in an absolute sense GRASS, written by Tom DeFanti. In this regard, had access to more powerful machines, such as other artists, as witnessed by the DVD Fig. 6.12 - Yoichiro Kawaguchi, images from it is worth noting that in this period the as those in the computing centers of Luminous Visions (1998 [Fig. 6.12]), a later Luminous Visions, 1998 appearance of affordable instruments was universities, which featured millions of colors. production of psychedelic nature featuring accompanied by an increased availability A case in point is the work of Yoichiro music by Tangerine Dream.

Fig. 6.11 - Larry Cuba, Two Space, 1979

86 87 II. Contemporary Developments

88 89 7 Animations and Videos Scott Pagano’s work connects back to music videos but shows a more There are scores of visual music artists marked tendency towards visual music active today. This second section of and abstraction, as often his images the book examines a selection of the most are drawn from filmed footage and are notable ones to have emerged in recent years. then mixed or treated in such a way Artists use diverse and often interweaving that they become partly unrecognizable. forms of expression, and their numerous Notable among Pagano’s numerous works can be classified in various ways. videos are: ok.town re.work (2001); cream3 In this book artworks are grouped as (2005), with music by Speedy J + Chris animations and videos, installations, and Leibing; Colors Shifting (2006), with sounds performances. by Christopher Willits [Fig. 7.2]; Chopping Video and animation works can be further Heads (2004), in collaboration with Keep subdivided into three distinct categories: Adding and featuring music by Funkstörung; those created by visualizing music or sounds, From Brown to Green (2006), with audio those in which the images are generated by Twerk; Warm as Emerging Sunlight first and provide a basis for the composition (2010); Pororoca (2010), with music by of music, and those in which images Laura Escudé; and Funk Blaster (2011), for and music are conceived simultaneously. Koan Sound. Fig. 7.2 - Scott Pagano, Colors Shifting, 2006 Belonging to the first category is Star Pagano also created a few interactive Guitar (2001 [Fig. 7.1]), a video that installations, for example Interactive filmmaker Michel Gondry and his brother Video Wall (2010), and multichannel images Olivier created for the track of the same for concerts, such as Skrillex – Origin (2012). Ox also designed GridJam, an immersive generated starting from primary colors; name by the electronic music duo In the context of the visualization environment in which the VCO is used and finally glAmor (2002–2003), a visual ode The Chemical Brothers, a band that has always of classical music, Jack Ox started creating in real time to visualize music by Alvin Curran. to the mysterious powers of geometry. paid particular attention to visuals, as works painted on fiberglass as early as 1979. Edward Zajec, active since the 1960s, Similarly, Jean Detheux produced witnessed also by their album Further (2010). With David Britton she then invented created the series Orphics on music by numerous Impressionist-like animations In this particular video, the rhythm of the the Virtual Color Organ (VCO), which Maurice Ravel, Erik Satie, Béla Bartók with the intent of visualizing various works images follows that of the music, with a flowing employs 3D synthetic modeling by her and Claude Debussy: Sonatine (1992–94), of classical and contemporary composers, surreal landscape in which the images are and Richard Rodriguez. Her works visually Nocturne (1994–95), Gnossienne No. 5 from Franz Schubert and Maurice Ravel blended together seamlessly, highlighting the translate the music not only of classical (1996–96), Orphics 6.1 (1996–98) and Orphics to Giacinto Scelsi. Ttai (2015), based on Scelsi’s essential geometric elements of real footage. composers, but of contemporary ones 6.2 (1999–2000). Suite No 9, explores the mysterious world of Gantz Graf (2002), created for the group as well, for example Clarence Barlow. Other animations by Zajec are centered trance. Autechre, also became a cult video. on color and geometrical elements, In 2004 Curtis Roads produced the DVD The abstract solid hand-designed and for example: Chromas (1984–88), based on POINT LINE CLOUD, which includes videos choreographed by Alex Rutherford continually music by Giampaolo Coral; the series by Brian O’Reilly that visualize musics transforms in total synchronization with Composition in Red Green and Blue (1988), by Roads. O’Reilly, who partly carries on the the music, accompanied by rapid camera Composition in Red and Green (1989–90) Vasulkas’ approach and uses some of their movements. and Composition in Blue and Green (1990–91), techniques, ingeniously edited and

Fig. 7.1 - Michel and Olivier Gondry, Star Guitar, 2001

90 91 manipulated his film footage to create Half- life (1999 [Fig. 7.3]), Sculptor (2001), Volt air (2001–2003), Fluxon (2002), Nanomorphosis (2003) and Pictor alpha (2003). Roads and O’Reilly are also active as performers and more recently presented Flicker Tone Pulse (2009), a collection of seven new audiovisual works. O’Reilly also collaborates with other artists, among them Darren Moore, with whom he formed the duo Black Zenith. This duo staged performances and presented their installation mostly in Southeast Asia, Japan and Australia. Notable by Black Zenith are NOCTURNAL BLUE (2012) and Indefinite Divisibility (2013). Earlier works by O’Reilly include: octal_ hatch (2003), with synthetic sounds generated through the UPIC system invented by Iannis Xenakis; Scan Processor Studies (2006–2007), made with material created by Woody Vasulka with the Rutt/Etra Scan Processor; Weather Mechanics (2007), a multiscreen performance with the Sandin Image Processor; Spectral Strands (2007), a series of videos based on the performances of violist Garth Knox, featuring compositions by Giacinto Scelsi, Gérard Grisey, Salvatore Sciarrino, Michael Edwards and Kaija Saariaho, that partly relate back to the Vasulkas’ Violin Power; and transient (for Koji Tano) Fig. 7.4 - Jøran Rudi, When Timbre Comes Apart (2012–13), featuring sounds by Zbigniew from Routine Mapping, 1992–95 Karkowski. A somewhat similar approach was pursued by certain artists who directly visualized sound. Fig. 7.3 - Brian O’Reilly, Half-life I, 1999 Between 1992 and 1995 Jøran Rudi created When Timbre Comes Apart [Fig. 7.4], an interpretation of sound waves conceived

92 93 as an exploration of a three-dimensional space. Signal (2012), a collaborative artwork with the Another notable work by Rudi is Concrete Net filmaker Peter Byrne, the composer Elizabeth (1996–97). Kelly and the astrophysicist David Saroff, Robin Fox has also worked on the followed by Ocean (2014), with music composed visualization of sound. In Backscatter by Eremiášová, and Marimba Quartet (2014), (2004 [Fig. 7.5]), an interesting series comprising with the musician Michael Burritt. ten works, an oscilloscope reads the audio Dextro, an artist who produces images signal, generating images and sounds with a and animations through generative univocal correspondence. Fox is also a algorithms, has created numerous audiovisual performer, and in his numerous appearances works, for example Protocol I (2006–2007), works mostly with laser technology. Also worthy a collaboration with musician Martijn Tellinga of mention is his installation zero-crossing (2012). that was developed through automatized Other artists initially create images and later solutions and intuitive choices, or the more add music or sound. An example is Stephanie recent and well-known Video_64CDE Maxwell, active since the 1980s, whose notable (2014 [Fig. 7.6]), a journey into the subconscious, works include Nocturne (1999), featuring music featuring sampled sounds. In other cases, for by Greg Wilder, and terra incognita (2001), with instance 015 (2001), based on music by To¯ ru the musical contribution of Allan Schindler. In Takemitsu, Dextro modeled the images on the more recent times Maxwell created End to End music, but mostly he followed the opposite Fig. 7.6 - Dextro, Video_64CDE, 2014 (2008), a graphic score for the Open Music procedure. Ensemble, Currents (2008), with sounds by This of course is quite relevant since in Michaela Eremiášová and Jairo Duarte-López, an audiovisual work sound and image each onto Nicolas Schöffer’s sculpture Noteworthy works by Ying Tan, a long- tzzz! (2011), with music by Yuya Takeda, and bring their own independent value and Spatiodynamique 19. standing fixture on the audiovisual scene, influence: composing a piece of music and then Projecting images onto objects is a are Elements in Transformation (1997–98), creating a visual counterpart will never have the feature of many of Verlinde’s abstract inspired by Jordan Belson, with music by Jeffrey same outcome as composing with the opposite installations, in particular Iris (2005), which uses a Stolet; Rain variations (2006), for one or even process or creating a cohesive work by Lycra structure, and the already mentioned four screens, with or without music; Ebb and producing sound and image simultaneously. Altaïr (2007), in which the screen consists of a Flow (2008), a loop video featuring music by Joe Between 1992 and 2002 Hugo Verlinde sail moved by a ventilator, and has been then Jiang [Fig. 7.8]; and the more recent Haiku.7 created Derviches, a silent video that evokes the shown in various forms. Later works also present (2013), an animation conceived on music by digital harmony of John Whitney Sr.; among his an interaction with various sculptures: Léonides Michael Fiolay. audiovisual works are Aldébaran (2000 (Leonids, 2009); Univers-Îles (Universe Islands, Various animations related to music were [Fig. 7.7]), set to music by Jon Gibson, Geminga 2009); Illuminations (2010); Totalité (Totality, created by Tina Frank, who is also active (2003), Bételgeuse (2004) and Altaïr (2004), 2010); Alcyone (Halcyon, 2011); and finally Croix as a performer with COH. Some of these with music by Frédéric D. Oberland. In 2012 (Cross, 2012), followed by the generative Velinde produced Ondée and Altaïr V, installation Croix Mutable (Mutable Cross, 2013) two videos for the theater show Renaissance, to J.S. Bach’s famous chorale cantata Ich ruf zu written by Frédéric Lenoir. His Trame dir, Herr Jesu Christ (I call to You, Lord Jesus Spatiodynamique (2012) is instead projected Christ, 1732), BWV 639.

Fig. 7.5 - Robin Fox, Photosynthesis (AOR) Fig. 7.7 - Hugo Verlinde, from Backscatter, 2004 Aldébaran, 2000

94 95 tend to explore perception, for instance Chronomops (2005), a series of colored bars set in rapid sequence with music by General Magic, and Vergence (2006–10), featuring music by Florian Hecker. With sounds by COH, Frank also produced the installation Colterrain (2013). Ruth Jarman and Joe Gerhardt, who founded the group Semiconductor, are the auteurs of Brilliant Noise (2006 [Fig. 7.9]), a video created with close-up images of the sun taken mostly from astronomic observatory and satellite Fig. 7.8 - Ying Tan, Ebb and Flow, 2008 footage. For this work Semiconductor produced the sounds as well, but also invited musicians andsound artists to offer their own soundtracks— an idea proposed by other artists as well. Semiconductor also made other installations using astronomical footage, and elaborating it in a quite original and captivating way: Out of the Light (2008); Black Rain (2009), existing in both video and performance version; 20Hz (2011); and Catching the Light (2014), featuring quadrophonic audio and Alucore screens in various shapes. More recent is Earthworks (2016), a digital animation for five screens side by side and four-channel surround sound that reinterprets various types of terrestrial signals. Scott Draves’ Electric Sheep (1999 [Fig. 7.10]) follows a completely different approach. In this work, an open-source screensaver was installed on thousands of computers all over the world, with each machine collaborating in the rendering of animations that were later assembled. Electric Sheep was actually the evolution of an idea already developed in Draves’ Flame (1992), and involved about three hundred and fifty thousand participants. In this work, based on genetic principles, each sequence was like the phenotype

Fig. 7.9 - Semiconductor, Fig. 7.10 - Scott Draves, Brilliant Noise, 2006 Electric Sheep, 1999

96 97 of anartificial organism, and processes of aural-visual relationships, and using extremely mutation and crossover were employed degraded materials on the edge of being to create new sequences. With these images recognizable such as audio and video signals Draves later produced a DVD with music that interfere with one another; and Vanishing by Spool, jhno, dj vordo, mbb and Kenji Point (2010), poised between the abstract Williams, as well as installations and and the real, and centered on the relationship performances. Among Draves’ other works between order and chaos. In 2016 he also are Dreams in High Fidelity I and II (2005–2006) created the multiscreen installation Collective and Clade 1 (2009). Reality, an interactive project in collaboration Similarly, Richard Baily wrote the software with about forty people. Spore (2001–2002), a code to generate Abstraction and light are at the center abstract images that among other things of the films and installations of Joost Rekveld, was used in Steven Soderbergh’s film Solaris who approached visual music after training (2002) and Jon Amiel’s The Core (2003). as a musician and being influenced by Baily then designed a DVD with Spore images such composers as Iannis Xenakis. and ambient music by Steve Roach, and Rekveld created numerous outstanding alsocreated the video XTACISM (2005) with works using optical, electronic and John Buchanan. mechanical tools, and addressing the chromatic, temporal and perceptual aspects Other artists prefer to produce both music of artistic expression. Among his most and images, sometimes simultaneously, as important films are: #3 (1994), the first film a full-fledged audiovisual work. Among made with a personal method of composition; these today are a growing number of musicians #11 – Maray <–> Moiré (1999), probably who have started creating abstract videos and his most famous work; #37 (2009 [Fig. 7.12]), Fig. 7.11 - Joseph Hyde, Zoetrope, 1998 animations: it is likely that the practice of marking the beginning of a new approach, composing improves the skill of organizing more focused on the process of creation; images in time. and #43, featuring a vertical CinemaScope For example, Joseph Hyde’s visual music screen. works include: Songlines (1994), inspired Rekveld has also authored various by the tradition found in Australian Aboriginal installations, for example #31(RGB) (2001) culture; Zoetrope (1998 [Fig. 7.11]), exploring incollaboration with Gerard Holthuis, the connection between man and machine, #41.3 Fuji (2007) and #53 (2014), as well inwhich the sound has a leading role despite as several videos for the theater, including establishing a complex relationship with Orfeo ed Euridice (2004), [purgatorio] the images; Nekyia (2001), made with In Visione and [purgatorio] popopera, both Alaric Sumner, for speaker, singer, electro- of 2008. acoustics and video; subliminalTV, a ten-part The composer Bret Battey has been audiovideo performance project begun in 2006; producing extraordinary audiovisual works End Transmission (2009), exploring complex since the 1990s. His synthetic images

Fig. 7.12 - Joost Rekveld, #37, 2009

98 99 accompany in a consistent way digitally audiovisual works. Most notable among creating a mysterious whole; and the generated music, particularly in the animations them are: Highway 70 (1997), made with a fascinating point.line.plane: three studies Luna: Mercurius (2007), Lacus Temporis software originally meant to be used to after Kandinsky (2013 [Fig. 7.15]). (2008) and Sinus Aestum (2009), which feature produce the last animations by John Whitney In Spin (1999–2001), a three-part work no editing. In the latter cases the images Sr., whom Alves cites among his influences; for three projections and audio, Jean Piché are obtained by managing about twelve Static Cling (2000), derived from chaotic created the visuals from his own music, thousands of moving dots, a technique patterns; Aleph (2002), inspired by Islamic but only later produced the work’s real that recalls James Whitney’s Lapis. In 2011 geometric patterns; Celestial Dance (2006) soundtrack, which is not synchronized with Battey created Clonal Colonies [Fig. 7.13], for orchestra and live projections; the images—a highly unusual approach. subdivided into the movements Fresh and Breath of the Compassionate Chris Musgrave created the audiovisual Runners and Soft Strata, for ensemble, video (2009 [Fig. 7.14]), for gamelan and video software Linea, which he then used to and digital sound, obtaining the sound projection—unquestionably a bizarre make the video Mregh-u-linea (2002). algorithmically through his own software combination. Other abstract works by Musgrave are Variable Coupled Map Networks. The Five Among the many audiovisual works Span (2003) and the series Oscilloclast

(2015), a work consisting of text, music by the composer Dennis H. Miller are: (2002–2004). Fig. 7.14 - Bill Alves, Breath of the Compassionate, 2009 and moving images, is instead inspired to the Second Thoughts (2000), in three parts; Faktura The creation of his own audiovisual twelfth chapter of the ancient Chinese text (2003), exploring forms and textures of instruments is also a priority for Lance Putnam, Daodejing and composed for the a virtual environment in metamorphosis; who too has a music background and who percussionist Andrew Spencer. Circles and Rounds (2006), in four parts, wrote sScale, a program for real-time In addition, Battey created the presenting well-defined artificial objects; audiovisual exploration of harmonically installations cMatrix10 / cMatrix12 (2004–2009). White Noise (2007), in which noise is used to resonant noise, with which he produced a Also notable is his perfomance Triptych generate both the music and the images; highly original animation in 2005 [Fig. 7.16]. Unfolding (2014), with Hugi Guðmundsson. Lines of Force (2008), essentially a two- Putnam then continued his research, Bill Alves, a musician interested in dimensional animation in which various threads creating Wrapture (2007), S Phase (2009), traditional Indonesian music, microtonality develop audio-visually; and Echoing Spaces and defining a model for the real-time sound and just intonation, has also created some (2009), in which different textures evolve, synthesis of visual and aural patterns.

Fig. 7.13 - Bret Battey, Clonal Colonies, 2011 Fig. 7.15 - Dennis H. Miller, point.line.plane: three studies after Kandinsky, 2013

100 101 The musician José López-Montes Again in collaboration with Charlotte Hug, has created numerous abstract videos. López-Montes also created Estudio topofónico In Le Ton-beau de Frank (2003–2008), (Topophonic Study, 2007) and Badlands to composed for Natalia Sidler’s instrument the Skies (2008), environments with 360° Farblichtflügel or Color-light piano, color is ojections. Ius Chasma, for twelve saxophones used as the starting point for later and live video, and Juventae Chasma, for juxtapositions, contrasts, saxophone, electronic audio and interactive fusions, and transitions, resulting in feedback projections, are two performances from 2011, between the visual and the sonic parts. followed by Candor Chasma (2014), which Julias Diptychon (2004–2006), is subdivided is also for saxophones, electronic audio and into part I GEST… and part II Autoparaphrasis interactive projections. nach Átanos (Auto-Paraphrase after Átanos): In Overall (2006), Emmanuel Lefrant the first was conceived starting from a painted transparent filmstrips using Jackson sonogram interpreted as a music score, while Pollock’s dripping technique in order to the second features images obtained create images and sounds. This work continued through physical models of liquids. The music the project he started with All Over (2001), is based on cellular automata and sound although inverting the production process. granulation. The pieces Átanos (2005) and Parties visible et invisible d’un ensemble sous Último estudio para Átanos (Late Study tension (The Visible and Invisible Parts of a Body Fig. 7.17 - José López-Montes, Promenade, 2012 for Átanos, 2007) are complementary. Átanos Under Tension, 2009) was made with two strips is for piano, live electronics and video, while of celluloid, one of which was buried in the Último estudio para Átanos does not comprise ground for a time, and subjected to biochemical the live part. Both are investigations into degradation. This idea is reminiscent of installation with surround sound, based on acceleration andfriction, and which he defined algorithmic composition, micro- macro-scales, Schmelzdahin, a group founded in 1979 by Jorge Isaac’s idea and made in collaboration as simulations: accelerated lines~ and synesthesia and more. Zobeliana (2008) exists Jochen Lempert, Jochen Müller and Jürgen with Roderik de Man. In 2010 Wierckx interferenzen~. Knapp later conceived other in three versions, one of which again featuring Reble that disbanded in 1989, which had created the images for the piece Irrational animations centered on lines, areas and the Farblichtflügel, and is inspired to the produced Stadt in Flammen (City in Flames, Philosophy by composer Fred Momotenko, geometries: visibility of interim~ (2007), techniques of the Hispanic-Filipino painter 1984) with acomparable technique. Similarly, and Light and Sound Play: Black-White distorted areas~ (2008), stroboscopic Fernando Zóbel. Promenade (2012 [Fig. 7.17]), EricOstrowski’s Skull and Blackberries (2005) was Recursion, a generative audiovisual system. noise~ (2009), information of decay~ (2009), made with Charlotte Hug, has the audio obtained by placing fresh blackberries on film More recently he designed the installation voidov~ (2012), 1=~a (2013), and finally distributed over eight channels. stock and exposing it to the sun for a few days. Night Noise (2014) and conceived White the monumental prospect of doom~ (2013), In these cases sound can truly be said to have Light Black Static (2015), an audiovisual a 108-minute long piece with multichannel an “organic” origin. performance that uses immersive 4DSOUND sound by Tim Blechmann. More recent In 2006 Marcel Wierckx released the abstract technology. animations are V (2013), monolith (2015) and filmZwarte Ruis Witte Stilte (Black Noise Also in black and white are the animations laws of reflection (2016), a series of works for White Silence [Fig. 7.18]), inblack and white, by Manuel Knapp, who also authors installations various composers. a work centered on noise featuring a strong featuring highly essential and fascinating Martijn van Boven, a filmmaker also active synchronization of audiovisual elements. Also geometries. In 2005 Knapp produced two works in live cinema, created the black and white noteworthy is Fuzz (2009), an immersive 3D that rely on principles of physics such as gravity, films Interfield (2007 [Fig. 7.19]), featuring

Fig. 7.16 - Lance Putnam, sScale, 2005

102 103 a non-synchronic structure between the visual Ceramics together constitute the trilogy and aural elements, and A Thousand Scapes Noise & Matter. (2009). In the video Field Notes From a Mine (2012), instead, images and sounds are Other noteworthy artists include Rafael generated from data gathered in Africa. Balboa, Liubo Borissov, David Brody, Along a completely different vein is Stephen Callear, Chris Casady, Alison Clifford, Walzkörpersperre (2013), made in collaboration Phil Docken, Barbara Doser, Jeffers Egan, with Gert-Jan Prins, in which luminous Jim Ellis, Brian Evans, Thorsten Fleisch, beams piloted by synthetic sound are Harvey Goldman, Joe Gilmore and Paul Emery, projected onto a vertical cement wall. By van Michel Gagné, Ian Helliwell, Andrew Hill, Boven are also the performances Point Line Eytan Ipeker, Hiromi Ishii, Wilfried Jentzsch, Cube Cloud (2008), Shadow Optics (2011), and Elsa Justel, Jaroslaw Kapuscinski, Takashi On Growth and Data (2013), all in black Makino, Anne-Sarah Le Meur, Lia, Yoel and white. Lastly Black Smoking Mirror (2014), Meranda, Bonnie Mitchell, Scott Nyerges, a performance centered on the principle Simon Paine, Rey Parla, Richard Reeves, of reflection, features a flammable screen Billy Roisz, Tim Skinner, Vibeke Sorensen, marked by the combustion of a laser ray. George Stadnik, Marcelle Thirache, Shawn Black Smoking Mirror, Walzkörpersperre Towne, Chiaki Watanabe, Jennifer West, Andy and the experimental project Deep Space Willy, Amy Yoes and Dmitry Zakharov.

Fig. 7.18 - Marcel Wierckx, Zwarte Ruis Witte Stilte (Black Noise White Silence), 2006 Fig. 7.19 - Martijn van Boven, Interfield, 2007

104 105 8 Installations aka TeZ, in collaboration with Janis Pönish, SINKEN (1999), with live string orchestra; Optofonica Capsule consists of a platform FELD (FIELD, 2000 [Fig. 8.3]); RESET (2001); Once a relatively rare art form, with a capsule containing a screen and MINUS (2002); <360> (2002–2003), a work audiovisual installations are quite common a series of transducers for the emission featuring sixteen screens and sixteen today, and can be classified according of sound, and is thus devoid of traditional loudspeakers set in a circle; and LUX (2003). to different categories: some are immersive speakers. The creations by Granular~Synthesis, installations, some are similar to Other works by TeZ are: GLC# (2005), which are sometimes single-channel audiovisual sculptures, and others reinterpret a software program conceived for live cinema and sometimes multiscreen but always use the space in which they are placed. performances; CF# (2007), a collection of spatialized audio, are particularly intense In 1992 Carolina Cruz-Neira, Thomas procedural audiovisual compositions; and often feature flickering and rapid A. DeFanti and Daniel J. Sandin, continuing PV868 (2008), a work designed to generate successions of essential images, generating Myron Krueger’s research, created the first audiovisual stimuli that make moving light sequences bordering on the threshold of CAVE (cave automatic virtual environment visual patterns appear directly in the brain perception. [Fig. 8.1]), its name a clear reference to of viewers; and ANHARMONIUM (2010), Ulf Langheinrich also conceived the Plato’s allegory. The CAVE was a cube-sized also an immersive installation/performance; abstract installations SOIL (2003), WAVEFORM room with sides measuring about 3 m, and PLASM (2014), another installation with (2005), OSC (2006), HEMISPHERE (2006 with stereoscopic images projected on multichannel sound inspired by Alan Turing’s [Fig. 8.4]), ALLUVIUM (2010) and LAG (2010). thewalls and spatialized sound. The CAVE work. The latter two present stereoscopic images, became the prototype of immersive In 2014, together with Chris Salter and in while HEMISPHERE is projected on a environments designed during the following collaboration with Valérie Lamontagne, TeZ hemispheric screen placed above the years, some with domes and hemispheres devised ilinx: four visitors, wearing specially audience. Other more recent works include belonging to planetariums. In this regard, designed clothing, interface with an WAVEFORM A (2005-2012), WAVEFORM B a rather extraordinary environment is the audiovisual environment in which the (2005-2014) e NO LAND IV (2009-2014), while Allosphere of the University of California continuum between feeling, sound, vibration, others feature stereoscopic images: MUSIC III at Santa Barbara, featuring a double and vision is less and less defined. LAG (2011-2014), MUSIC II (2013-2014), LAND hemisphere. At the other extreme is the Granular~Synthesis, a duo formed by (2008-2015), NO LAND I (2008-2014), NO research on contact lenses aiming to directly Kurt Hentschläger and Ulf Langheinrich, LAND II (2005-2014) and NO LAND III (2005- generate a virtual world on the eyes.1 created various abstract immersive 2014). Langheinrich also produced KU (2010), a Exploring the concept of full-body installations, including: AREAL (1997–2004); concert for stereo imagery and organ. immersion, Char Davies created the ZEE (2008) is an immersive audiovisual interactive installations Osmose (1995) environment developed by Kurt Hentschläger and Ephémère (1998). Both works feature and comprising artificial fog, stroboscopes, a head-mounted display providing 3D pulse lights and surround sound. In this Fig. 8.2 - TeZ, Optofonica Capsule, 2007 sound and stereoscopic vision of synthetic installation the fog erases all boundaries, images produced in real time. while the lights and the sounds diffused Similarly, Optofonica Capsule in the space give the impression of a (2007 [Fig. 8.2]) is an immersive space luminescent, enveloping landscape. that envelopes the spectator in a multisensory Hentschläger also designed LICHTWERK experience. Made by Maurizio Martinucci, (LUMINOUS WORK, 2001) and NATURE04

Fig. 8.1 - Carolina Cruz-Neira, Thomas DeFanti and Daniel Sandin, CAVE, 1992

106 107 (2004), light projects to be applied on an architectural scale. Camera Musica (2000), by Gerhard Eckel, is a CAVE-like stereoscopic virtual environment with eight-channels spatial sound and a vibrating floor. In this work the music is linked to the viewers’ movements as they cross the partially transparent virtual cubes. In 2001 Eckel presented the installation LISTEN. Also of interest are the artworks by Squidsoup, for instance the stereoscopic audiovisual composition Driftnet I (2007 [Fig. 8.5]), the result of research previously seen in altzero from 1999, in which users are invited to fly by moving their arms like the wings of a bird to navigate the three- dimensional space. Freq : 2 (2006) is part musical instrument and part composition, a work in which the shadows of viewers/ participants are transformed into audible sounds. The Stealth Project (2008) Fig. 8.3 - Granular~Synthesis, FELD, 2000 and Discontinuum (2009) were both created on the 3D LED grid system NOVA, while Surface (2010) uses the Ocean of Light hardware to fashion interactive sculptures

based on light and sound. Scapes (2011) Fig. 8.5 - Squidsoup, Driftnet I, is a work in five movements with ambient 2007 music by Alexander Rishaug, in which each movement presents volumetric representations of sound using a three dimensional grid of lights. Volume 4096 (2012) features an immersive ensemble of lights as well, while Submergence (2013) isa hybrid environment where virtual and physical worlds coincide. In 2014 Squidsoup designed Wavelight and then Aeolian Light, which takes the path started with Submergence, followed in 2015 by

Fig. 8.6 - Carsten Nicolai and Marko Peljhan, polarm Fig. 8.4 - Ulf Langheinrich, HEMISPHERE, 2006 [mirrored], 2010

108 109 Enlightenment, which similarly uses a Artist Yan Breuleux and musician identify the public’s actions. A more recent multitude of bright spots. Alain Thibault created the duo PURFORM work is Flowspace 2 (2010). In 2000 Carsten Nicolai and Marko in 1997 and have authored audiovisual Peljhan presented Polar, an interactive environments in which the synchronism Not all installations are immersive, however. installation inspired by the notion of cognitive between image and sound is complete. Sometimes these works live within a space, ocean in Andrey Arsenyevich Tarkovsky’s FausTechnology (2000), with three giant screens and in this sense they can be thought film Solaris (1972), and centered on the flux and multichannel sound, aims to bring the of as audiovisual sculptures, as are other of data in which we are immersed. audience into a hypnotic, examples of audio-kinetic art. Marko Peljhan and Carsten Nicolai are trance-like state. Black Box (2003–2006) features To this group belong some of Brian Eno’s among the most prolific and renowned quadrophonic sound and four screens forming a works, for example Crystals [Fig. 8.8] authors of the audiovisual scene. On the other cube, and is a metaphor for the brain, revealing or Pictures of Venice. Known for his ambient hand, polarm [mirrored] (2010 [Fig. 8.6]) its chaotic inner workings. This was followed by music as well as for his participation in explores natural radiation and measures it White Box (2009 [Fig. 8.7]), which inverts the the band Roxy Music and collaborations with through various devices against the scope previous work’s metaphor and was presented in David Byrne, Eno made various abstract of human perception, transforming it into 2010 in an immersive version with eight video installations that reflect the ethereal quality aural and visual signals. Nicolai’s most recent projectors, and in 2014 in a participative version of his music. works include Insen Live (2006), a performance that, thanks to a videogame engine, allowed According to Eno, video is the best with Ryuichi Sakamoto; future past perfect pt. the public to interact through their cell phones. luminous instrument ever invented: 01 (sononda), a video from 2010 that Also by Breuleux are the performance La it is a pattern of light, just as a painting is appears synthetic but is actually shot in a Fabrique Numérique (The Digital Factory, 2007– a pattern of color. Through the years he natural environment and highlights the 2010) and the video series ABCD Light, made in has exhibited many Quiet Club series sculptural quality of light; as well as the 1998 and revisited in 2010, in which percussive installations (1985–2005), including: installations schatten loop (2012), centered sounds are in constant and direct relation Peacock, Cross I and II, Chevron, Egyptian, on the concept of reflection; interference with flashing lights. In 2012, Breuleux made Map I and II, Living Room, Ikebana I and II, Fig. 8.8 - Brian Eno, Crystals, 1984 room (2012), which employs a water the audiovisual composition Tempêtes (Storms), Quiet Room, Lightness, Future Light surface to visualize the subsonic frequencies a series of constantly transforming chaotic Lounge Proposal, Generative Light of two audio channels; crt mgn (2013), pictures set to a music created from the sounds Lounge #35. Also noteworthy are dedicated to Nam June Paik; and of cello player Soizic Lebrat. He later adapted his installations Neroli (1993) and The Future unicolor (2014), focusing on color the same composition toa 360° degree Will Be Like Perfume (1993). perception. projection, renaming it Nuée / Swarm. Another notable work by Eno is 77 Million Daniel Bisig, Jan Schacher (also known Paintings (2006), based on DVD and as Jasch) and Martin Neukom conceived comprising sounds and two hundred ninety-six Flowspace (2009), based on the notion images combined up to four at a time. of swarm algorithms. This work also exists in a version for This interactive installation consists of a personal computer, and a later edition dodecahedron 3.6 m in diameter with images was released in 2008. More recently, projected on its faces. with Peter Chilvers, he has created the Also featured are twenty speakers creating audiovisual apps Bloom (2008), Trope (2009), a 3D audio effect and an infrared camera to and Scape (2012).

Fig. 8.7 - Yan Breuleux, Fig. 8.9 - Paul Friedlander, White Box, 2009 The Wave Equation, 2002

110 111 Other artists have presented their original The author of this book created the artistic vision, for example Paul Friedlander installation Slabs (2010–13 [Fig. 8.11]), has interpreted installations as bizarre featuring sounds by Stefanie L. Ku, and light sculptures accompanied by music. comprising six sheets of plexiglas that His works are based on his technique emit sounds as they vibrate. The sheets are of “chromastrobic light,” which changes color printed on one side and laser-engraved faster than the eye can see, giving the on the other, generating a luminous play impression that the forms change. In 1991 through the material’s transparencies. Friedlander produced a commercial version Proximity sensors enable the public to interact of his work String Ray. In 1995 he created with the slabs and to regulate the intensity The Light Spinner, commissioned by of the sound they emit, contributing to create the Swiss science museum Technorama, an ever-changing sonic environment. and Light Wave, a work 2.5 m high. Other interactive works include: the His numerous light sculptures have been environments flussi (flows, 2002) and n-grains exhibited in dozens of different countries (2005), which explore the balance between [Fig. 8.9]. aural and visual components; the interactive In 1995 Toshio Iwai, who also designed worlds oggetti (objects, 2002) and colori the videogame Music Insects (1990), presented (colors, 2002); and the installation/game X Piano – as image media, an interactive (2005), made in collaboration with composer installation in which the viewer-participant Matteo Franceschini. In addition, Dynamics establishes the elements of a score formed by (1988) and variazioni (variations, 2000) Fig. 8.10 - Thomas McIntosh, Ondulation, 2002 dots, which in turn activates the keys of a are two audiovisual compositions that show piano, generating the projection of synthetic a visual translation of synthetic timbres. images. Also by Iwai, with Ryuichi Sakamoto, Other works, such as the installation is the performance Music Plays Images X series motion picture (2000–2003) and the Images Play Music (1997). animations WONOKROMO (2003–2004) Thomas McIntosh, with Emmanuel and KAYUPUTIH (2008–2011), are instead Madan and Mikko Hynninen, created without audio. Ondulation (2002 [Fig. 8.10]), an eminently Digital technology, however, is not the audiovisual work. Placed under a very only domain to attract artists. Evelina large basin filled with water, two speakers Domnitch and Dmitry Gelfand produced emit ethereal sounds thus modifying the liquid surface, while beams of light project the ripples of the water on a large screen behind the basin. This work by McIntosh, an extension of his earlier Finale (2001), once again presents the principles of acoustic interference with great subtlety.

Fig. 8.11 – Adriano Abbado, Slabs, 2010–13

Fig. 8.12 - Evelina Domnitch and Dmitry Gelfand, camera lucida, 2004

112 113 unique installations in which astronomy splitting, that is the chemical reaction immersed in an iron sulfate solution. Electric Robert Hodgin created Cymatics and neurology blend with physics, chemistry in which water is separated into hydrogen current is applied on the wires, forming Ferrofluid (2002), an interesting work that and computer science. In opening Coccyx and oxygen. Hydrogen bubbles emerge from growing crystals, while a piece of software brings together Chladni’s studies and the (2001), featuring twelve-channel sound, the bottom of a water-filled vessel, where reacts to this development by producing physics of nanoparticles. In 2009 he bursts of light are produced as drops of a series of electrodes excite the liquid. sounds. The idea is based on the chemical produced Solar rework, an installation phosphoric solution fall in a pool containing The formation of bubbles is accompanied computer invented by Gordon Pask in the following up on his previous work Solar (2008). sodium hypochlorite. camera lucida (2003 by the emission of sounds whose frequencies 1950s. Previously Hodgin also conceived the [Fig. 8.12]) is based on sonoluminescence: reach well beyond the audible spectrum, Also by Kirschner is Maelström (2010), automatic music visualizers Magnetosphere sound waves passing through a transparent up to 800 kHz. A white laser sheet scans inspired to Edgar Allan Poe’s short story. In this and Turbulence. In many cases, however, vessel filled with gas-infused liquid generate the surface and illuminates the trajectories of installation, magnetite particles are automatic visualizers are limited in that they light emissions, and the ultrasounds the gas bubbles. Memory Vapor (2011) and suspended in a water and glycerine solution. propose the same family of images. produced form microscopic bubbles which Photonic Wind (2013) investigate various A magnet influences the behavior of the then implode, creating this phenomenon. aspects of microphysics, while Implosion particles while the audio, designed by Els Other artists interpret installations as a In 10000 Peacock Feathers in Foamic Acid Chamber (2014) continues the research started Viaene, is produced by sounds of the way to intervene in a space and give it (2006) a laser explores the surface of soap with Camera Lucida and explores the marvels machinery that runs the apparatus. In this new meaning. Jennifer Steinkamp is a prolific bubbles creating remarkable optical of acoustic cavitation. work too Kirschner creates a fascinating artist who often explored and modified effects,accompanied by music by Francisco Chemistry also plays an important role environment that on the one hand involves the environments in which her works are López. Also worthy of mention is the in Roots (2005–2006 [Fig. 8.13]), an audiovisual growth and biological forms, and on the exhibited, sometimes using multiple performance mucilaginous omniverse sculpture by Roman Kirschner that cyclically other relies on physical properties. projections and multichannel sound sources, (2009) and the audiovisual installation repeats itself every three hours. Roots consists Also notable is the animation Still life (2009), accompanied by soundtracks conceived HYDROGENY (2010), which harnesses water of a glass tank containing copper wires made with toothpaste. by various artists.

Fig. 8.13 - Roman Kirschner, Roots, 2005–2006 Fig. 8.14 - Jennifer Steinkamp, The TV Room, 1998

114 115 Notable among her numerous audiovisual UVA (United Visual Artists) has created performance and a stand-alone sound works are: Untitled (1994), Smoke Screen numerous installations. Kabaret’s Prophecy and light sculpture. The idea of this work then (1995), SWELL (1995), Double Take (1996), (2004), was a curving LED wall used every night evolved into Conductor, in which light forms Blue Blow (1997), Happy Happy (1997), by different VJs in the eponymous London are combined with an original score by A Sailor’s Life is a Life for Me (1998), Sun Porch nightclub. The visual patterns created by Scanner, and finally culminated in Origin Cha-Cha-Cha (1998), The TV Room the wall are the club’s main light source. (2011). Momentum (2014) is an installation (1998 [Fig. 8.14]), Phase = Time (1999), Interactive Installation Prototype (2006) that UVA created especially for Barbican’s SpaceGhost (1999), Anything You Can Do combines a LED array and 3D camera exhibition space The Curve in London, (2000), Loop (2000), Stiffs (2000), X-Room that senses the gestures and motion of the transforming it in a continually evolving (2000), One saw; the other saw (2001), user, affecting the images and sounds. spatial instrument in which pendulums sin(time) (2001), and Starry Eyes (2002), Volume (2006 [Fig. 8.16]), a field of forty- project lights and shadows in the surrounding featuring a 20 m x 10 m LED screen. eight luminous, sound-emitting columns, environment. Great Animal Orchestra (2016) is Other later works, for example The Wreck was made with the musical contribution an immersive installation that celebrates the of the Dumaru (2004), Sharpie (2009), of Massive Attack and was shown for the work of Bernie Krause, who over the years has Premature (2010) or Pillow Flight (2014) do first time in 2006 in the garden of London’s recorded sounds of over fifteen thousand not feature sound. Victoria and Albert Museum. Here too, individual species. Water Pavilion (1997–2002) was conceived the work reacts to the movement of visitors. Other interesting abstract installations by Edwin van der Heide in collaboration In 2008 UVA produced Contact, a responsive by UVA are instead without sound; Among Fig. 8.15 - Edwin van der Heide, Saltwater Pavilion, with NOX, Lars Spuybroek, Oosterhuis floor surface that interacts with users, them: Canopy (2010), Always/Never (2012), 1997–2002 Associates, Victor Wentink and Arjen van generating audiovisuals forms. Chorus (2009) Fragment (2013), Grey Area (2013), der Schoot. It is an installation in which lights, comprises a series of pendulums that act Continuum (2013), Vanishing Point (2014), projections, sounds and the building inside a space emitting lights and sounds, Blueprint (2014) and Formation (2014). itself interact with each other. Subdivided into and is thus simultaneously an installation, LIFE – Fluid, Invisible, Inaudible… Freshwater Pavilion and Saltwater Pavilion a composition, and a musical instrument. (2007 [Fig. 8.17]), by Ryuichi Sakamoto [Fig. 8.15], this work features sixty Orchestrion (2011), a collaboration and Shiro Takatani, features a 3 x 3 grid of independent loudspeakers and aims to with composer Mira Calix, is a 64 cubic meter square acrylic aquariums suspended at 2.4 m achieve a sonic architecture rather than structure that is both a platform for from the ground and containing water and simply sounds set inside a space. The music has a generative nature and is therefore always different. Also notable by van der Heide are Laser/Sound Performance (2004), LSP (2012), again a laser-based performance where image and sound are equally important, and the multi-display audiovisual environment DSLE -3- (2012). In addition to producing visuals for such bands as U2, The Chemical Brothers and Massive Attack, as well as collaborating with the world of fashion, the collective

Fig. 8.16 - United Visual Artists, Volume, 2006 Fig. 8.17 - Ryuichi Sakamoto and Shiro Takatani, LIFE - Fluid, Invisible, Inaudible..., 2007

116 117 an artificial fog machine. Images projected The collaborative work by Wolfgang Bittner, from above and modulated by the kinetic Lyndsey Housden, Yoko Seyama and Jeroen patterns of the mist and the water are reflected Uyttendaele Plane Scape (2010 [Fig. 8.19]) onto the floor. Speakers are also affixed presents a forest of elastic rubber bands to the aquariums: the outcome is a continually stretched from the ceiling to the floor, evolving audiovisual space in which and focuses on the relationship between each element is at once a focal point and image, music and space. The space defined part of a harmonious whole. Takatani is also by the rubber bands also acts as a three- the author of several installations and video dimensional screen that reflects the projected performances. images. The installation is accompanied Julius Stahl is the auteur of numerous by sound piped through six speakers. Also by installations featuring very essential visual Yoko Seyama are the project Sentient and sound elements, rigorously in black Architecture (2009), again with Lyndsey and white. Among these are Skizzen Housden, and the installation Light work #6 : (Sketches, 2009), made with wires, paper, In Soil (2009), which presents images light and sounds, and Flaechen (Areas, comparable to Thomas Wilfred’s, but 2009–10 [Fig. 8.18]) and Flaechen 2 (Areas 2, featuring a sometimes irregular 2010), in which resonating walls of vertical and vibratory movement. Also by Seyama Fig. 8.19 - Wolfgang Bittner, Lyndsey Housden, wires (and paper in Flaechen 2), together with is SAIYAH _ Scene E (2014), a synesthesia- Yoko Seyama and Jeroen Uyttendaele, Plane Scape, 2010 lights, create elegant convolutions and a play evoking light performance, with music by of light and shadow. Quader (2014) is in some Benjamin Staer. ways similar, composed of eight hundred The Prayer Drums (2010 [Fig. 8.20]), andthirty-six wires on which sinus tones by Louis-Philippe Demers, Armin Purkrabek are transferred, creating a moving structure and Phillip Schulze, is a work influenced of visible waveforms. By the same author are by scenography and inspired by the prayer Holz (Wood, 2008), Feld III (Field III, 2011), wheels sometimes seen in buddhist Wellenfelder (Wavefields, 2012), Fragment monasteries, and is composed of a wall (2013), Cluster (2014), Linien (Lines, 2014), comprising more than a hundred tiles. Cluster (2016) and Feld V (Field V, 2016), eight When a tile is spun, it becomes colored and installations using resonant objects. generates a sinusoidal sound or noise; Untitled (2014), Licht I (Light I, 2016) and given the number of tiles the soundscape Licht II (Light II, 2016) are luminous objects that generated can by highly complex. highlight the relationship between sound and The system also interprets the visitors’ space. movements, while a multichannel diffuses Photogramme I (2012), Rauschen (2013), the sounds in space. Photogramme II (2014), Phonographien II Robert Seidel, auteur of the videos (2014) and Untitled (2014) are other E3 (2002), with music by Michael Engelhardt, installations in which shadows are projected and _grau (2004), featuring music by on resonating objects. Heiko Tippelt and Philipp Hirsch, has also

Fig. 8.20 - Louis-Philippe Demers, Armin Purkrabek and Phillip Schulze, The Prayer Drums, 2010

Fig. 8.18 - Julius Stahl, Fig. 8.21 - Robert Seidel, vellum, Flaechen (Areas), 2009–2010 2009

118 119 created installations. Notable among these cities overlooking Victoria Harbour, Untitled for Televisions, which reduces the are: phyletic museum (2008), a projection namely Hong Kong and Kowloon. During television set to its essential function on the façade of the Phyletic Museum A Symphony of Lights [Fig. 8.22], forty-four of emitting light and sound. Also notable of Jena, Germany, accompanied by lights skyscrapers in the two Asian cities light up, by Arford are 7 Illinois Street (2006), and sounds designed by Robag Wruhme; while a music program is piped along for one or ten video channels, and TV-IV vellum (2009), with sound by Seidel, presented the two sides of the canal, as well as broadcast (2002), a performance for two monitors. in 2009 in Seoul on multiple LED screens, one over the radio. The lights in numerous SYNCHRONATOR (2006) is a project of which more than 50 m wide, and in 2010 in skyscrapers are managed by a computer by Bas van Koolwijk and Gert-Jan Prins São Paulo in a version for three screens programmed to create animated sequences, relying on a specifically designed device suspended over the street; scrape (2011 and are accompanied by light beams, that translates audio into composite [Fig. 8.21]), shown again in Seoul and visualized lasers and sometimes fireworks. The show video signals and has been developed in on a 99 x 79 m screen, with music by Rafal comprises five separate parts, each different models. In the Synchronator Orchestra Stachowiak; and chiral (2010), withmusic by representing a specific theme. In 2014 (2012) several invited artists perform live with

Richard Eigner, presenting images projected Carsten Nicolai presented the installation Synchronator devices. Fig. 8.23 - Stanza, entropyII, 2003 onto a sculpture and a screen both made of (alpha) pulse, created with the lights Bas van Koolwijk, who collaborated hand-made Taiwan paper. Another Seidel work of the International Commerce Centre on with Evelina Domnitch and Dmitry Gelfand on a with a soundtrack by Eigner is black mirror the waterfront in Kowloon. few of their projects, has produced (2011), which also uses paper objects. The In some cases it is quite difficult to many audiovisual works, among these installation folds (2011) was inspired by the clearly differentiate between installations and FIVE2 (2004) and FDBCK/AV – silver (2005), plaster casts at the Lindenau Museum in performances. One example is Stanza’s which were later presented in a stereoscopic Altenburg, Germany, while light projections Amorphoscapes (1995–2005), a series of version and as a performance as well. onto the water of a fountain and the resulting interactive audiovisual works based on In OZONE (2003), produced in collaboration reflections and flashes are at the core generative codes and developed specifically with Derek Holzer, four television sets of advection (2013–14), presented with music for the Internet [Fig. 8.23]. Some of them exist show images obtained with generative Fig. 8.24 - skoltz_kolgen, FLÜUX/TERMINAL, 2003 by David Kamp. In grapheme (2014) light both as installations, in the form of interactive algorithms, while 100 m of copper wire loops projections and reflections of an organic touch screens, and as performances. serve asantennas, receiving the low frequency structure create a changing environment Beginning in 2003, Scott Arford created emissions from the television tubes. accompanied by the music of Heiko Tippelt. Static Room, in which the raw video signal The resulting signals are converted into digital Also related to an urban landscape generates the audio component and in audio and returned into the televisions. is the world’s largest audiovisual installation, turn the video is composed and created for UBIK (2004), made with Christian Toonk shown every evening since 2004 in the two its sound qualities. Also from 2003 is and Ronald Nijhof, and inspired by Philip

Fig. 8.22 - Wing-Chi Poon, Symphony of Lights, 2004

120 121 K. Dick’s eponymous novel, is an installation in which synchronized sound, smoke and lights interact with an historical space. The audiovisual work Unclassified(2013) is based on scans of fourteen technical data reports commissioned by NASA, and the audiovisual installation Mercury to Saturn, including Earth (2014) comprises ninety-eight flight paths from the Earth to the planets. Van Koolwijk also authored audiovisual performances, including Runaway AV (2013) and FDBCK AV – Curvilinear (2014), both conceived for a hemispherical projection, Fig. 8.26 - Ryoichi Kurokawa, rheo: 5 horizons, 2010 and Delay Line Memory (2014). The duo skoltz_kolgen, formed by Dominique T. Skoltz and Herman W. Kolgen, created various installations: FLÜUX:/TERMINAL (2013), with contributions from Takashi Makino. concrete. Notable among his works are: (2003 [Fig. 8.24]), which also exists as a Their first installation was FF Series (2002- cm: av_c (2005), Parallel Head (2008), performance, for two video and audio channels; 2004), followed by Meta_Epics (2005-2007), celeritas (2009), Rheo (2009) and rheo: EPIDERM (2004), also presented Semaphore (2008) based on the principles of 5 horizons (2010 [Fig. 8.26]). The latter is also as a performance, with images projected onto a pulsation and feedback, and 12_Series (2009- an audiovisual ensemble, featuring five circular screen; ETHER (2005), for five screens 2011 [Fig. 8.25]). screens and five speakers, but here each and ambiophonic sound; and ASKAA (2005), an In particular, 12_Series consists of element acts independently from the others. interactive audiovisual ecosystem. an ensemble of twelve screens and twelve In 2011 Kurokawa created the triptych Also by skoltz_kolgen are: ELF2B_ALPHA speakers displayed horizontally. This installation ground and the diptych syn_ n, which (2002), which explores the ethics of genetic is inspired by the principles of evolution and were presented also in concert form like modification; OVSKII (2002), which uses decentralized autonomous decision-making, Sirens (2012). They were followed by the software that manipulates and translates and implements forms of audiovisual mutation, installations orbit (2012), mol (2012), again sound sources into images; and HYALIN imitation, and recombination. While the twelve presented also in concert form, constrained (2002–2004), based on macro-photographs, machines have an identical binary DNA, each surface (2015), and unfold (2016), for three visual impurities and aural densities. has individual reactions, and can somehow be projectors and surround sound. In 2013 he also The Telcosystems group, formed by Gideon considered an artificial interpreter. The idea made the audiovisual sculpture oscillating Kiers, David Kiers and Lucas van der Velden, of imitation introduces group behaviors, continuum. has created particularly interesting videos, mutation contributes to the variety of results, performances and audiovisual installations. and recombination favors the exchange and the Other artists deserving to be mentioned Noteworthy videos are Scapetime (2006), reinterpretation among the twelve machines. here include Nicolas Bernier, Jane Cassidy, Loudthings (2008), a journey into the digital Mortals Electric (2008), Thrift (2012) and Sonia Cillari, Dienststelle, Andrés Ramírez world that uses a network of self-organizing Testfilm #2 (2015) are among their performances. Gaviria, Jon Jost, Thom Kubli, Martin Messier, algorithms, Vexed (2012), a film in which they Ryoichi Kurokawa, who is also active as Federico Muelas, Nonotak, Julian Oliver, Pietro propose their own particle theory, and deorbit a performer, creates images and music using Pirelli, Playmodes, Andrew Quinn, Fred mixed techniques, both synthetic and Szymanski, Michael Theodore and WHITEvoid.

1 Contact lenses with circuits, Fig. 8.25 - Telcosystems, lights a possible platform for 12_Series, 2009 superhuman vision, 2008.

122 123 9 Performance Among the artists active in the first a performance inspired by quantum category is Georg Friedrich Haas, who in 2006 mechanics and subatomic forces featuring Audiovisual performances have diverse wrote Hyperion, Konzert für Licht und twenty-one screens, as well as sounds origins that have merged over time, Orchester (Hyperion, Concerto for Light and multiple performers. Another audiovisual forming a varied though unique mode of and Orchestra), a composition in which light performance of his is supercodex (2014), expression, and are characterized by action plays the role of a musical instrument, similar while supersimmetry (2014) is an installation in real time by one or more performers that to silent percussion. The score indicates derived from superposition. More recently, is sometimes interactive. Digital technologies the precise moment for the visual event, but during a residency at Geneva’s CERN, Ikeda are often used to produce and modify does not describe in detail what needs to developed Micro / macro (2015), an installation images and sounds according to the need happen, leaving a large degree of freedom for three video projectors, computers, and of the moment. of interpretation. speakers. Fig. 9.2 - Moment Factory, Lights In The Sky: A first category of performances is one Ryoji Ikeda, who also creates films and Over North America, 2008 that adds a visual element to concerts, installations, produced audiovisual concerts Over the last decade, in addition to an sometimes to fill a lack of visual stimuli on exploring the invisible world of data, evident progress in image- and sound- stage, and sometimes to provide a for example datamatics (2006), reinterpreted generating technologies, there has also been supplementary component of artistic in the 2.0 version in 2008, and test pattern a remarkable evolution in video projectors, expression in real time. (2008 [Fig. 9.1]), which was also shown which are now very powerful and accessible (2008 [Fig. 9.2]). The outcome was an A second way to interpret performances is in New York’s Times Square in 2014, both to a large public. In addition, today it is unprecedented audiovisual spectacle, related to the activities of VJs and has existing as installations as well. In 2011 also possible to customize screens with featuring an ensemble of lights, projections, evolved into what is currently called live Ikeda presented the transfinite, a large-size the most varied shapes, proportions and screens, sensors, and digital instruments cinema, while still other performers follow immersive audiovisual environment, dimensions thanks to LED lights. receptive to the position, movement more independent lines of research. and the following year superposition (2012), In Speed of Sound (2005), made by and intensity of sound. Also notable in this Mark Romanek for a song by the group context is the performance ISAM (2011) Coldplay, the element of interest is a video by Amon Tobin and Tessa Farmer. wall created by V Squared Labs that appears The 1990s and the first years of the new on stage behind the band during a century were characterized by an exceptional performance. Consisting of six hundred and development of the VJ phenomenon, forty bars of LED lights, this luminous resulting in a truly international movement instrument was programmed to create a of enormous proportions. While DJs choose series of colored displays that at times and mix musical pieces, VJs do the same evoke the memory of the computer HAL 9000 with video sequences. in 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). The images can be prerecorded on digital An innovative and original approach is data media, drawn from live footage shot presented by Moment Factory, which was by cameras, downloaded from the Internet, commissioned by the industrial rock act or generated synthetically by computers, Nine Inch Nails and its leader, Trent Reznor, and are edited or mixed on the spot making an electronic set-design conceived as a each performance unique. Of course this full-fledged visual instrument for the tour is not enough to brand these performances Lights In The Sky: Over North America as artistic creations. Indeed, in some cases

Fig. 9.1 - Ryoji Ikeda, test pattern, 2008

124 125 they are just mere visual fillers, but in to sustain and highlight a visual event, Not all artists use the latest technologies, Another case in point is Bruce McClure, otherinstances they are quite exceptional functioning over time as a sort of however. Several cinematographic who since 1995 has conceived numerous in terms of the images, the concept and reinforcement. performances were conceived by Thomas performances for cinematographic projector, the interaction with the music. It should be added, however, that the Köner and Jürgen Reble as well: Alchemie using various mechanical and electronic One of the fundamental aspects is VJ phenomenon is currently on the wane, in (1992), in which a prepared film loop devices to modify the lights and sounds. the possibility of editing and manipulating some cases having lost its creative spark, decomposes during the event, and the By way of example one can mention video sequences in real time in order to and in others having merged with a different soundtrack is derived from the noise of Cut (2003), in which McClure utilized two use them immediately, which confers to the experience such as live cinema, which does the projector and the action of the chemical projectors without lenses, gel, a brass plate VJs tremendous opportunities for not relegate image production to the agents that decompose the film; Tabula and a strobe light. combinatorial creativity, and provides background, and in addition presents its work Smaragdina (1997), another audiovisual Similarly, Greg Pope, who also created the conditions for a new art form, in which in the most varied places: theaters, galleries experience in which an ensemble of colors videos and installations, conceived Light the artist manages a visual flux relating and museums, as well as less institutional continually transforms; PULSAR (1998), in Trap (2007), an original performance to the music. The navigation among images venues. which six modified projectors display images for four prepared 16 mm projectors and thus becomes the subject of the creative Live cinema auteurs, who are still from hand-painted films; ChRoma (1999), onesound artist. Light Trap begins with act, in which sometimes the abstract blends numerous, sometimes define the space in inspired by Goethe’s theory of colors, for black film projected in a dark space, with the real. More often than not, which they perform as part of the creative twenty-four modified projectors and and the hum of projectors: slowly the film’s however, the dominating factor is the dizzying process, thus including an element close quadraphonic sound; Quasar (2005 [Fig. 9.3]), emulsion is eroded by sandpaper and other rhythm of the visuals, making the type of to design and architecture. This concept with luminous elements reminiscent of galactic hand tools, allowing bursts of sound images used of less importance. In some relates back to the performances of and molecular materials, and featuring a and streams of light to pierce through the circumstances VJs prefer non-linear Claes Oldenburg, for whom the choice of quadrophonic soundscape created live; and darkness. development, manifesting their will to free location was the primary component, as Materia Obscura (2009), a journey into the An analogous procedure was used themselves from associations to cinema, reflected for example in Injun (1962), materiality of crystallizing salts and by Guy Sherwin in Abrasion Loops (2007), a video, and animation in order to create an Autobodys (1963), Washes (1964) and “chemograms,” with spatialized sound. performance for two 16 mm projectors. original expressive mode. Moviehouse (1965), set, respectively, in a Contributing factors to this new art form farmhouse, a parking lot, a swimming pool, have been the various manifestations of and a movie theater. In some instances, contemporary underground culture, from rave therefore, the context also defines the work, parties to the open source movement, and the same work can be experienced in and even the vaguely tribal spirit of clubs, different ways according to the space in which discotheques and other venues. In the it is presented. latter environments, however, the visual Rather than be labeled VJs, today element might constitute a simple manyprefer to be thought of as visualizers accompaniment that is not only less relevant or visual artists whose works relate to music than the music, but also than the dancing in different ways. Leaving labels aside, and the socializing taking place. As a result, the real-time creation and processing of the limited attention granted to the work images, which are often made possible by the public clearly influences the by digital instruments, almost always development of the visual language. A typical characterize this interpretation of visual example is the repetition of video sequences music.

Fig. 9.3 - Thomas Köner and Jürgen Reble, Quasar, 2005

126 127 Sherwin interprets the projector as a Contemporary technology is more performative instrument, bringing frequently used, however, and there are cinematographic screening closer to the innumerable examples of artworks featuring it. condition of live music. Beginning in the 1980s, Benton C Ken Jacobs also created performances Bainbridge conceived numerous videos and with projectors, however his images are live performances using optical devices, not abstract. An exception was Celestial analog and digital electronic instruments, Subway Lines/Salvaging Noise (2005), as well as software written specifically a phantasmagoric live performance, in for real-time image management, allowing collaboration with musicians John Zorn him to mix and modify video footage in real and Ikue Mori, in which Jakobs used a time, drawing from the suggestions of modified version of the magic lantern. the music and the environment, and creating In his many performances André Gonçalves absolutely captivating visual works. has often used electronic circuits, electric In 1998 with THE POOOL, a group that motors and various controlling devices. included himself and videomakers Angie Most interesting among them is for Super 8 Eng and Nancy Meli Walker, he conceived Projector and Analog Synthesizer (2009 the performances Parascape and is warm, [Fig. 9.4]), a performance-installation in which presenting the first at The Kitchen a Super 8 projector was modified so that and the latter at the Whitney Museum of the amplitude of the sound signal controls New York. both light intensity and projection speed: Noteworthy among his numerous each event is different and is based on a later performances are: NNeng (1999); destructive process of the film. live @ Test-Portal 2003; El Malogrado Fig. 9.5 - Benton C Bainbridge, Contemporal Collage (v. 2), 2014 (detail) (The Loser, 2004), for three video channels; live @ sickness (2004), made with the Rutt/ Etra Scan Processor. Since 2007, Bainbridge has been active as visual designer for Moving Paintings (2015) and the generative relationship between light and sound. In 2004, “One Step Beyond” at New York’s Museum installation Observatory / Lisa Joy (2016). Scanner collaborated with the Alter Ego of Natural History, transforming the museum’s D-Fuse is an artists’ collective founded Ensemble on a live remix of works by hall with projections, mirrors, lights and by Michael Faulkner in the mid-1990s the composer Salvatore Sciarrino. The Desert laserbeams. His more recent works are that has also produced numerous installations Music (2006 [Fig. 9.6]) accompanies the Rainbow Vomit (2010), with projections on and performances. D-Fuse released several eponymous composition by Steve Reich with a cubic structure designed by MOS, Dialed In DVDs, including D-Tonate (2003), featuring projections on double screen, while visuals (2011), with percussionist Bobby Previte; a compilation of films whose rough edits were provided for the musician Beck during Daytime (2012), with V Owen Bush and had been previously sent to musicians his Beck World Tour. Data Flow (2009) Steve Nalepa; Contemporal Collage (v. 2), worldwide, inviting them to create their is a performance exploring hidden data 2014 [Fig. 9.5]; Horizon (2014) with Sofy soundtrack. Light Turned Down (2001), on the Internet, while Particle # 2 (2010) Yuditskaya; Gems (2014); Ghost Komungobot composed in collaboration with Robin is concerned with processes of abstraction (2014), with the musician Jin Hi Kim, and Rimbaud (aka Scanner), is centered on the starting from urban landscapes.

Fig. 9.4 - André Gonçalves, for Super 8 Projector and Analog Synthesizer, 2009

128 129 Also noteworthy is the performance Tektõn concert visuals featuring a semi-circular (2010), a collaboration between D-Fuse cyclorama and a transparent projection and Labmeta inspired to the works of Vladimir screen; NALEPA 4TH OF JULY (2009); Matlin and László Moholy-Nagy, and drawing and MUSIC WITH CAMERA (2010), with from the series of audiovisual shorts Tektõn music by Karlheinz Stockhausen, Alvin Lucier – Two Zero. The performance explores the and Andy Pape. space-time qualities of light and movement, The group Otolab, formed in 2001 and was also presented as a cynetic sculpture and comprising DJs, VJs, video artists, with the titleTektõn – One Three. graphic designers and architects, produced Hans Christian Gilje, Kurt Ralske and Lukasz various multiscreen performances and Lysakowski, all artists with experience in audiovisual installations in the context the world of VJs, formed the ensemble 242. of shared research in the field of electronic art. pilots, whose work was more oriented Their works include: stare mesto (staying toward live cinema. The ensemble used their sad, 2003), a live mix of two visual sources; own custom software to generate images, Videomoog 3.0 (2004), made with the presenting them both as soloists and as a trio, instrument of the same name; op7 (2006), collaborating with various musicians, on the theme of the tunnel as a metaphor including Justin Bennett. Improvising as a of traveling; animula (2007), designed for a group, these artists subtly responded five-channel surround sound system; LCM [les and interacted with each other in a sort champs magnétiques] (LCM [the magnetic of visual conversation, with the images fields], 2009), in which two players play against being contrasted, layered, blended and each other to create their own celestial body; transformed. sole prismatico (prismatic sun, 2010), inspired The members of 242.pilots later to J.G. Ballard’s novel The Crystal World; pursued solo careers. In particular, HC Gilje orbite (orbits, 2010), an installation for Piazza has made various installations exploring Santa Brigida in San Remo; phantasmata the relationship between the audiovisual work (2011), an open composition for a variable and its environment, in other words how number of performers, lights and circuits; lights and sounds can modify the perception Megatsunami (2011), the latter a performance of space. As seen in the previous chapter, that employs various types of lights and this is a recurring theme. Lumanoise, a self-built instrument; Dystopia The VJ and software designer Johnny (2014), also employing this self-built instrument DeKam created videos, installations and exploring constantly mutating satellite and audiovisual performances. The live works by the video design studio Be Johnny, of which DeKam is creative director, include: DYAD (2001 [Fig. 9.7]), in collaboration with Jasch; PURE/DEKAM (2003), with the musician PURE; What Wall? (2005), music

Fig. 9.6 - D-Fuse, The Desert Music, 2006

Fig. 9.7 - Johnny DeKam, DYAD, 2001

130 131 and natural/urban landscapes; Bleeding installation that refers to the cinema (2012), a synesthetic and synchronic experience to create a generative performance for two screens, one of which audiovisual journey. is painted with phosphorescent pigments; Similarly, Cory Metcalf and David Stout, and Punto Zero (Zero Point, 2007–14), forming the duo NoiseFold, have proposed a performance that develops from interesting live cinema installations and initially simple to highly complex and performances featuring sensors and other structured correlations, defining a full-fledged devices. Their installations include Blue Plot sensory grammar. More recently Otolab (2004), Three Tortures: Babel, Iriscan, Death created Fields (2015 [Fig. 9.8]), exploring by Image: a Sonic Execution (2007), i I i (2008), a universe of metal spheres held together NADA (NOTHING, 2009), El Umbral by a magnetic field, and Syn (2016), an (The Threshold, 2011), and MELT (2013). imaginary journey towards a transcendental The duo’s most compelling performance Fig. 9.10 – Boris and Brecht Debackere, Rotor, 2005 state of consciousness, Resilience (2016) is probably NoiseFold 2.0 (2009–11), which and Schism (2016), which explores the rhythm continues the research they started with patterns and perceptual effects of two graphic NoiseFold 1.0 (2006–08) and Alchimia (2008). elements placed in relation to the spatialized Metcalf and Stout define it as a structure produced is then presented on a sound. “parthenogenesis machine,” because it is able multiscreen video panorama. The brothers Juha and Vesa Vehviläinen, to generate a wide array of audiovisual Also worthy of mention is their performance forming the duo Pink Twins, are the auteurs behaviors and organisms, including exotic Emanations (2012), with cellist Frances-Marie of many performances, often characterized bio-mimetic forms. NoiseFold 2.0 makes Uitti. by particularly dense textures and sound use of a complex multimedia system capable Of particular interest is the oeuvre of masses. Their works include Purple of live-mixing an indeterminate sequence Paul Prudence, who since 2007 has conceived Drain (2002), Goth (2003), Splitter (2006), of animated chapters, which are modified various live works, most of which use Pulse (2006), Goth (Smooth) (2006), Pulse by infrared sensors, microphones, pedals and generative software: ryNTH[n1] (2007), + (2007), which is now available as an app for control surfaces and which automatically dedicated to labyrinths; Structure-W (2007), Apple devices, Appetite For Construction generate sounds. Thus the artists interact anevolving architecture inspired to (2008), Module (2008), and Defenestrator with visual forms in order to forge and develop gyroscopesand anti-gravity mechanics; (2008). Among their most recent creations, the aural content of each performance. Talysis II (2007–2009), in which signal feedback Amalgamator (2012), Miracle (2012), and The constantly shifting artificial living produces symmetrical tessellations and Parametronomicon (2015-2016 [Fig. 9.9]) and hyperbolic geometry; Fast Fourier Radials Overlook (2017). (2008), a three-dimensional spectrographic The duo formed by Boris (audio) and visualization of sound; Rynth[n3] (2010), Brecht (video) Debackere have also a performance for planetarium dome created some interesting live-cinema featuring essential shapes; Parhelia (2009–10), installations and performances: Rotor about a weather event; Bioacoustic (2005 [Fig. 9.10]), which applies classic notions Phenomena (2010), in which cellular entities of film to the production of images and grow in response to sound vibrations; music, and Probe (2008), an interactive Structure-M11 (2012), derived from industrial

Fig. 9.8 - Otolab (synthetic images by Fabio Volpi), Fields, 2015 Fig. 9.9 - Pink Twins Live, 2014

132 133 sounds; Sphaerae.Acoustic.Study (2013), Other artists have no link to the world a performance for a large reverberating environment and surround sound with which a version of Hydro Acoustic Study (2010) of VJs and follow an independent course. space, electronic music and projections. one can create audiovisual events in real time. forhemispherical dome; Arc. Cyclotone (2013), For example, Randy Jones, who has been Lainhart is also the author of various a version of Cyclotone (2012) for giant screen active in this field since the 1980s. Jones animations, including Pneuma (2008), a Other relevant artists in this field include that was followed by Cyclotone II (2015); at thetime developed a device, based sequence of patterns produced with cellular Katrin Bethge, Clinker, R. Luke DuBois, Apeiron (2013), an audiovisual work for on two sticks, with which he could interact automata software. In this work the music Ellen Fellmann, Al Griffin, Max Hattler, Ryo Musion’s holographic projection system; and control audiovisual events. More recently, was improvised live with an analog synthesizer. Ikeshiro, Adam Kendall, The Light Surgeons, Quanta (2014), on the famous physics theory; Jones also worked on Jitter, a video and 3D In 2004 Andrew Garton presented Jarryd Lowder, Mia Makela, Olga Mink, ungear moi (2014), an interpretation of a piece graphics extension to the Max/MSP audiovisual performances using the Unreal Stefan Mylleager, Joshue Ott, Franz Rosati, by COH; the colorful Parhelia (2010–12), environment. Six Axioms (2007) is probably Engine developed by Epic Games in 1998, Billy Roisz, Mark Rowan-Hull, Saul Saguatti, displaying constantly evolving geometric his most representative work. one of the various software frameworks used Ben Sheppee, Kurt Laurenz Theinert, shapes; and finally Chromophore (2013 In 1996 Pete Rice presented an to create video games. This is of particular Vello Virkhaus and Visual Systeemi. [Fig. 9.11]), featuring a bidirectional interactive system for sound production interest, since video game rendering engines communication system between images called Stretchable Music, based on the permit technically complex solutions and can and sound, and its extensions Lumophore creation of two-dimensional synthetic objects, be used to step out of the typical expressive (2013), made for the planetarium in Kaluga, each representing a sound. The sounds can canons of this form of entertainment, for Russia, and Lumophore II (2015). be transformed in real time by stretching, example to create live performances, or compressing and modifying the different animations called machinima. visual shapes in various ways. Also worth noting in this context is Rez, Following the experience gathered a video game conceived with synesthetic in some of his previous works including intents by Tetsuya Mizuguchi with Yellowtail (1998) and Floccus (1998), United Game Artists, and released by Sega Golan Levin presented Audiovisual in 2001 for its platform Dreamcast and for Environment Suite (2000), a groundbreaking the Sony PlayStation 2. A high-definition set of seven interactive systems that allow version for the Microsoft Xbox was released people to create and perform abstract in 2008. animation and synthetic sound via a graphic During the early 2000s the trio S.S.S tablet, and therefore through gestures. Sensors_Sonics_Sights, formed by Cécile Levin produced the impressive performance Babiole, Laurent Dailleau and Atau Tanaka Scribble (2000 [Fig. 9.12]), in collaboration [Fig. 9.13], have created visual music in real with Gregory Shakar and Scott Gibbons, time using a theremin as well as various using this synthetic audiovisual instrument, sensors that can detect arm movements and later created other installations or the distance between the performer and interactive environments, including and an instrument. The aim was to achieve Messa di Voce (2003), which was also a three-part audiovisual conversation presented as a performance. among the members of the group. High-resolution synthetic animations Similarly, in 2010 Camille Barot and were employed by the composer Richard Kevin Carpentier conceived Immersive Music Lainhart in No Other Time (2009), Painter, providing a stereoscopic interactive

Fig. 9.12 - Golan Levin, Scott Gibbons, Gregory Shakar, Scribble, 2000 Fig. 9.11 - Paul Prudence, Chromophore [versione xCoAx], Fig. 9.13 - A performance by 2014 S.S.S Sensors_Sonics_Sights

134 135 10 Language A positive side of mappings is that they “A fuzzy logic model for compositional “[…] I do not believe in the synchronicity can establish a comprehensible code, approaches to audio-visual media” (2004), between image & sound. I agree with Man Ray As has become apparent during the course which then fosters the creation of a language points in this direction. Cádiz’s mappings that we have to avoid the complete of this book, artists of different backgrounds and the invention of intelligible artistic forms. are not as inflexible as they usually have been, synchronicity, we should find a way to let and eras have been prompted to connect One of the most typical correspondences appearing more vague thanks to the fuzzy the sound and the picture move on its own images and sounds primarily because is the one between color and musical tone logic, and therefore presenting a degree in the same direction but sovereign of the similarity between some aspects (see Figure 1.6), which also relates to what can of indeterminacy that can prove quite nevertheless. (I have tried that in 1929 in my of the visual world and the musical one. happen at a synesthetic level. There are of interesting. film Alles dreht sich [Everything Turns, In more recent times, audiovisual art was course many other possible correspondences: Contemporary works often relate events Everything Revolves] and I try that in my also†influenced by algorithmic compositions, artist Jaroslaw Kapuscinski identified eight that appear temporally or spatially coincident. new picture again.) That refers as well to that is programming, and by other aspects different categories, subdividing them into Temporal coincidence or synchrony is the spoken work as to the musical or other of learning. internal and external ones. certainly a very effective and natural sound. Of course we have to ‘influence’ the Already in the first chapter, it was shown However, specific correspondences can aggregating factor, and temporal and spatial audience that way, in showing them our how two different approaches emerged also act as a form of cage, providing coincidences acquire even more importance point, again and again. I think that early on, one more closely tied to constraints that are sometimes uninspiring. ifthey overlap. This is not surprising, ‘counterpointing’ is the way modern art, definitive correlations, and one tending These limitations can be experienced as a since certain multisensory cells in an area modern music and modern literature is toward a freer interpretation of audiovisual challenge by the artist who deliberately of the brain known as superior colliculus going. There is a lot more to say about it, art. decides to compose within well-defined respond with a stronger signal if visual and but I think I was long enough for a letter and Both methods lead to the creation of boundaries, but just as frequently they can aural stimuli take place simultaneously1. perhaps for your patience.”3 correspondences, in other words of amount to a forced restriction. In addition, Another recent study has shown that even It is clear that Richter and Man Ray, like mappings between the two worlds: fixed some types of mappings do not take into the simple viewing of a photograph activates their contemporary Morgan Russell, were well and precise in the first case, random consideration more global cognitive and the auditory cortex within a hundred and ten aware of the problem already in the early and flexible in the second. Of course it is also semantic aspects. Many approaches seen in milliseconds.2 twentieth century. possible to adopt both approaches, for the past, however curious and fascinating, Temporal coincidence is probably the most On the other hand, an artistic conception example following some rules but suffer from this underlying problem. spontaneous way to unite images and music, having no particular constraint, while allowing disregarding them under specific Today more sophisticated correlations seem but for this very reason it can be predictable. for greater expressive opportunities, can circumstances. This somewhat undermines to prevail over simple mappings between It would seem more appealing to explore the also be less comprehensible, especially if this the formal coherence of the compositional specific elements, in other words many intervening spaces between the two events, freedom becomes chaotic anarchy. In this idea, but at the same time it permits contemporary works are informed by than to rely on static synchronism, although regard, Norman McLaren stated: “A work of the inclusion of elements of fantasy that emotional likenesses or broad metaphors. there are of course notable exceptions art has to have cohesiveness and consistency, would otherwise be penalized. Current digital instruments can shift and synchrony remains a fundamental point but not so much cohesiveness and In fact, an artist might wish to break the inherent quality of rigidity that has always of reference. consistency as to become boring, and not completely from a scheme she/he previously characterized correspondences: the flexibility In this context it seems appropriate somuch non-cohesiveness as to fall apart. created, according to her/his intuition or will of a well-designed software program can to quote a letter dated 9 November 1946, It has to be organically linked, and yet must to freely choose. allow for the introduction of elements that are from Hans Richter to Frank Stauffacher, have surprises in it, that you don’t expect, In addition, there can be mappings extraneous to a preordained structure, or the organizer of the San Francisco festival Art surprises that are relevant to the whole work”.4 between single elements, between one of mappings that are more indistinct or that in Cinema, in which the artist expressed A perfect synthesis. and multiple elements, and between multiple change over time. The research done by his opinion regarding the relationship between The idea of mappings spontaneously leads and multiple elements. Rodrigo F. Cádiz, and presented in the paper music and image: one to consider metaphors. According to

136 137 George Lakoff and Mark L. Johnson (1980), conceptualize language metaphorically in this optical medium could be located metaphors are mappings between different terms of space”.6 reasonably quickly. This meant having access domains, like abstract images and music. Introduced here is the theme of the to a tool that allowed one to manage an Metaphor mappings are unidirectional, that is linearity of language in audiovisual art, in other archive of images and sounds differently A → B, but not B → A. words of a form with a beginning, a compared to the past. Negroponte proposed In a general sense, metaphors are used development, and an end. In many cases it four new types of interactive films made to bring within understandable terms events was natural and understandable for many possible by videodisc technology: that would otherwise not be so. For example, abstract audiovisual works to follow this personalized, conversational, navigational, defining a sound as “cold” (or bright, dry, approach, music being taken as a point of and synthesized [Fig. 10.1]. etc.) is useful in that it relates a sound whose reference and being an art that mostly Today it is possible to manage characteristics are difficult to describe to develops linearly. This view, however, began an enormous quantity of digital images something universally known as the cold. to be disputed, especially since the and sounds, filed on optical, magnetic The metaphor “this sound is cold” is a appearance of the first installations. and electronic media rather than on simplification, and it follows that many Sound in fact influences the perception now obsolete videodiscs, but the concept even very diverse sounds can be considered of an image in many ways, modifying the remains unchanged. Often the creators “cold.” The advantage is that communication perception of movement and speed, of installations, VJs, or live cinema performers and conceptualization are facilitated, and defining time, that is, creating a definite use this type of architecture to create indeed, the non-physical is usually temporal sequence. unforeseen audiovisual journeys in real time. conceptualized as physical, which is closer The predictability of music also influences This type of artistic expression usually does to the material world and therefore easier the perception of images. A musical not rely on linear structures, but rather to comprehend. composition is usually like a frozen memory, becomes like an exploration of a sometimes According to Lakoff and Johnson, and listening to it is akin to reliving and re- predetermined, sometimes unpredictable metaphors have been traditionally understood experiencing a memory, in a linear way. audiovisual environment. strictly in terms of language, and not as Sometimes, however, the principle of causality This does not mean, however, that these something that structures our thought and that connects one event to another disappears, types of open audiovisual forms—to use everyday activity. It is reasonable to suggest as indicated by Umberto Eco (1989) in the early Eco’s terminology—are better than traditional that words alone cannot modify the world 1960s. It is also interesting to note what ones: they are simply different, and address around us, but that changes in our Rudolf Arnheim stated in this regard: different issues. They represent modes conceptual system influence the way in “Together, the sequential and non-sequential of communication that enrich the expressive which we perceive the world. media interpret existence in its twofold possibilities, and thus add to the creative In addition, Lakoff and Johnson maintain aspect of permanence and change”.7 arsenal a greater variety. that “the experience of time is a natural The linearity or non-linearity of a work kind of experience that is understood almost is also partly tied to the work’s technological entirely in metaphorical terms”5 and that medium. In 1979 Nicholas Negroponte “we speak in linear order; in a sentence, published the paper “The Impact of Optical we say some words earlier and others later. Videodiscs on Filmmaking.” Videodiscs Since speaking is correlated with time introduced an important novelty compared and time is metaphorically conceptualized in to celluloid film and videotapes, namely terms of space, it is natural for us to the non-sequential access to frames, which on

Fig. 10.1 - Nicholas Negroponte, Different kinds of film: 1 Sekule and Blake 1985, 104. personalized, conversational, 2 When a photograph can be 1:06:42 – 1:07:22. navigational, synthetic. From The heard, 2011. 5 Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 118. Impact of Optical Videodiscs on 3 MacDonald 2006, 55. 6 Ibid., 126. Filmmaking, 1979 4 DVD CREATIVE PROCESS 1990, 7 Arnheim 1971, 308.

138 139 Appendix

140 141 Synesthesia perceived as red. In other cases a word is Today the literature is extensive, and there Emotions → colors 1.6% composed of several colors, one for each are conferences and documentaries on Emotion → flavor 0.1% Emotion → pain 0.3% Synesthesia, from the Greek sun (together) letter, even though a color might be prevalent: synesthesia, in other words the phenomenon is Emotion → smell 0.1% and aäsîhsij (sensation), can be considered the word “suitcase,” for example, can evoke recognized as real and has a much greater Emotion → temperature 0.1% one of the most bizarre neurological in an individual the colors blue and yellow, resonance than it had just twenty years ago. Emotion → touch 0.1% Flavors → colors 6.2% phenomena. It is a condition whereby because to that person the “u” is blue This does not mean, however, that it is Flavors → sounds 0.2% the stimulation of one sensory modality leads and the “i” is yellow. In addition, in some completely understood or that its mechanisms Flavors → temperatures 0.1% to involuntary and insuppressible experiences synesthetes the same word or the same have be thoroughly verified. Flavors → touch 0.1% General sounds → colors 15.2% in a different sensory modality. Since diverse number produce different perceptions There are four leading theories attempting Graphemes → colors 64.8% senses can be associated, there are of course depending on whether they are seen or heard. to explain synesthesia. The first, that of local Grapheme → flavor 0.2% various types of synesthesia, and sometimes In others, the list of the days of the week or cross-activation, suggests that synesthesia Grapheme → personification 4.6% Grapheme → touch 0.1% the same individual can experience more the months of the year induces a chromatic is due to the cross-activation of neurons Kinetics → colors 0.1% than one simultaneously. Among the different experience. in adjacent areas of the brain, especially in Kinetics → sounds 0.5% types of synesthesia, one has a direct There also exist other even more bizarre the cases of grapheme → color and sound Lexeme → flavor 0.7% Lexeme → touch 0.5% → connection with the subject of this book: forms of synesthetic associations, for instance touch. Musical notes → colors 8.8% sound → color synesthesia, also known as person → color, so that different individuals According to this hypothesis, the Musical notes → flavors 0.2% chromesthesia. are perceived with different colors, or phenomenon is related to an excess of Musical sounds → colors 20.0% Object → personification 1.7% → Synesthetic experience is completely graphemen personality, for example neuronal connections between certain areas of Orgasm → colors 2.2% different from artistic expression because it 3n → stupid, or even graphemen → character, the brain, and can have two possible causes: a Orgasm → flavor 0.1% cannot be controlled, however it is interesting as in E → king. Sometimes synesthetic genetic mutation, or a lack of synaptic pruning Pain → colors 5.6% Pain → flavor 0.1% to note that several notable artists were experience is total, so to speak: some words in specific cerebral areas, or both, in the sense Pain → smell 0.1% synesthetes, including the painters Mikalojus can go as far as to elicit sensations of flavor, that a genetic mutation might provoke a lack Pain → sound 0.2% Cˇ iurlionis, Vasily Kandinsky and David Hockney, touch, temperature and precise localization of pruning. Pruning begins around the time of Personalities → colors (“auras”) 5.6% Personalities → smells 0.3% and the musicians Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, inside the mouth, as reported by neurologist birth, in fact the prenatal brain presents Personalities → touch 0.1% Aleksandr Scriabin, Olivier Messiaen and Richard E. Cytowic (1995). Fig. II presents numerous neural interconnections, that Phonemes → colors 9.5% György Ligeti. a comprehensive list of possible associations, gradually diminish over the years. Phonemes → flavor 0.1% Phonemes → touch 0.1% Except in rare cases, synesthesia is drawn from a sample of eight hundred-eighty- The second theory, called long-range Smells → colors 7.0% unidirectional, in other words the stimulation five individuals. disinhibited feedback, suggests that Smells → flavor 0.1% of a sense provokes a reaction in another synesthesia might be caused by long-range Smells → sounds 0.5% Smells → temperatures 0.1% disinhibited feedback from a multisensory sense, but not vice versa. For example, in Synesthesia was doubted and largely Smells → touch 0.6% some synesthetic subjects seeing a letter ignored by scientific research for a nexus. Evidence of this is found especially in Sounds → flavors 6.1% or a number written in black and white considerable amount of time. It was first synesthesia induced by brain damage or Sounds → kinetics 0.7% Sounds → smells 1.6% drugs, which does not appear to be identical generates the perception of a color, but not documented in the second half of the Sounds → temperatures 0.5% the opposite [Fig. I]. nineteenth century, although the English to congenital synesthesia. Sounds → touch 4.4% This type of synesthesia is indicated as philosopher John Locke wrote about it The third hypothesis, re-entrant processing, Temperatures → colors 2.4% Temperatures → flavors 0.1% → is a sort of hybrid of the first two, which are not graphemen color and is relatively common. as early as 1690. Only in recent years, during Temperatures → sounds 0.1% In some individuals, words also elicit colors, which a proliferation of studies have been mutually exclusive. In this case pruning is Time units → colors 23.0% although they might not be congruent with the carried out, has the phenomenon been taken thought to take place only partially in non- Time units → sounds 0.1% Touch → colors 4.0% synesthetic individuals. word’s meaning, i.e. the word “blue” can be seriously. Touch → emotions 0.2% Touch → flavors 1.0% Touch → smell 0.5% Touch → sounds 0.3% Touch → temperatures 0.1% Vision → flavors 2.8% Vision → kinetics 0.1% Vision → smells 1.0% Vision → sounds 2.0% Fig. I - André Müller, Fig. II - Sean A. Day, Types Vision → temperature 0.2% 1 2 1 1 5 6 7 8 9 About my Synaesthesia…, 2006 of synesthesia, 2012 Vision → touch 1.4%

142 143 Finally, the more recent hyperbinding perception is a kind of unidirectional channel, graphically identical [Fig. IV], the colors onward. Although there seems to be a link model maintains that certain areas of the brain with a signal proceeding without interference reported are “correct,” that is, they are those with language evolution in the child, not all in charge of binding information from the from a given sense organ to consciousness. normally related by the individual with, studies agree on this point. Some researchers, various senses are hyperactive, thus producing However such is not the case, and cognitive respectively, the letters H and A [Figs. III in fact, found elements of synesthesia in the synesthesia. There is disagreement as to influences are very important. According and V]. first months of life, particularly in the first which areas of the brain are critical: some to the neuropsychologist Richard L. Gregory, Synesthesia can also be induced by brain two—a sort of primordial soup in which all the argue they are located in the parietal cortex, up to ninety percent of our perception damage or by the intake of hallucinogenic sensory modalities are unified. Later, at the while others contend they are in the limbic depends on memory. substances. Interestingly, Cytowic observes sixth month of life, synesthesia disappears only regions. For example in the case illustrated that stimulants, for instance coffee, appear to return around the first year of life. If this It is also possible that different types by Figure I, the phenomenon is undoubtedly to diminish synesthetic perception, were so, of course, language would not be of synesthesia are manifestations of different perceptual, since the initial stimulus takes while depressants seem to enhance it. relevant, but it is not easy to come to mechanisms. This hypothesis is supported place through the vision of the grapheme, that The explanation offered by Cytowic is that irrefutable conclusions. Other studies found by the fact that different regions of the brain is, the number; at the same time, it is also the first group act on the cortex while the synesthesia present up to puberty, and then are in charge of processing various signals cognitive, since chromatic experience is in second inhibit it, leaving more room for completely disappearing. deriving from the senses, which suggests most cases unrelated to the type of grapheme, the more primitive limbic system, which is in According to Ramachandran and Hubbard, the existence of multiple synesthetic which can be represented without distinction charge of more basic functions tied to synesthesia is indeed tied to language, and architectures. In the same way as the concept by Hindu-Arabic or Roman numerals. emotions. the lack of pruning allows for its insurgence of memory has been substituted by the notion In some instances, however, it clearly Synesthetic experiences vary according but nothing more, that is, it is not the only of a system of memories corresponding to appears as a cognitive phenomenon, to the individuals, with some reporting cause of this phenomenon. different regions of the brain, one could unconnected to perception. Mike J. Dixon sensations of geometric figures and others of The data regarding the incidence of suppose that there exist different mechanisms and other scholars described a case in which blurred halos. In some cases the images are synesthesia are quite discordant: Cytowic that generate different types of synesthesia. the reading of the sum “5 + 2” evoked the clearly dynamic, while in others they are estimates that it manifests once in every Vilayanur S. Ramachandran and Edward color yellow, normally associated with the undoubtedly three-dimensional. In addition, twenty-five thousand individuals, but M. Hubbard, for example, suggest that there number seven, which was conceptually there are different typologies of visual Sir Francis Galton, whose studies however is a “lower” and a “higher” synesthesia. processed. In another case, listening to “4 + 5” synesthesia: some individuals’ visual date back to the nineteenth century, believed The first, based on perceptual principles, takes elicited the sensation of the color gold, experience is external, so to speak, what they it was present in one in every two hundred. place in areas adjacent to the fusiform gyrus, corresponding in that particular circumstance see is identical with the rest of the outside According to Ramachandran, more recent which is normally in charge of recognizing to the number nine. world, while for others the sensation exists as research seems to indicate that there is one letters and processing color. The second Other experiments seem to confirm that a sort of inner awareness. The first subjects synesthete in every two thousand individuals, instead manifests in the parietal cortex and a cognitive component is involved in certain are said to be projector synesthetes, and the while others claim that the frequency is one particularly in the region of the angular gyrus, synesthetic subjects. For example, in a number second associator synesthetes. Clearly there in every twenty-three. and in ventral and lateral intra-parietal areas. large enough in size to be able to be appears to be a large number of diverse cases, In 1996 Simon Baron-Cohen and other Other studies, however, seem to provide composed by other numbers, as a 5 composed which can nonetheless be grouped under the authors have found that synesthesia is support for the hypothesis that different forms by many 3s [Fig. III], some individuals perceive general umbrella of synesthesia. more common among females than males, of synesthesia have a common substratum. the color connected to the number 5. Another element to be considered is that by a ratio of 6:1. Other research, however, Indeed, synesthesia is essentially a Only when their attention is directed to one synesthesia appears to emerge in the early does not support this data. At any rate, perceptual phenomenon, but like normal of number 3s do they perceive the color years of life: recent studies show that it is not studies on inheritance seem to demonstrate sensory experiences, it has a decisive cognitive associated to that number. Or, with the words present under three years of age, but begins that synesthesia is a dominant trait and is contribution. We are often led to believe that THE CAT, where the H and the A are to develop significantly from that stage transmitted through the X chromosome.

33333 3 Fig. III - From Vilayanur Fig. IV - From Vilayanur 3 3 3 S. Ramachandran, Edward S. Ramachandran, Edward 3 3 M. Hubbard, Synaesthesia M. Hubbard, Synaesthesia 3 – A Window Into Perception, – A Window Into Perception, 3 Thought and Language, 2001 Thought and Language, 2001 3 3 3 3 3 144 145 The extraordinary finding is that ninety-five synesthesia is a predominantly perceptual was lower compared to tuned note, and lighter percent of the individuals interviewed, phenomenon. if the frequency was higher, confirming a who were not affected by synesthesia, agreed Sound → color synesthesia seems to be certain consistency in the perceptual on the association between word and shape. a typical cross-modal expression, involving phenomenon. Ramachandran and Hubbard attribute the interaction of different cerebral sectors. Also noteworthy is the work of William this phenomenon to the correspondence As was previously mentioned, some individuals G. Collier and Timothy L. Hubbard, which between the abrupt changes in visual direction see colors of definite hues, while others see studied musical scales and modes and their Fig. V - Wolfgang Köhler, Baluba and takete, of the lines in the left-hand shape with the more complex abstract images, such as corresponding visual brightness in non- Gestalt Psychology, 1929 phonetic inflection of the sound “kiki,” as well colored globes, lines or waves. synesthetic observers. The result was that as with the sharp inflection of the tongue In 2006 Jamie Ward and some of his the descending harmonic minor mode was on the palate. One could also maintain colleagues carried out an experiment with rated as darker than the descending however that these sounds are signals various timbres and pitches. They came to the natural/melodic minor mode. In addition, At the same time, the issue might be more containing a certain degree of noise, greater conclusion that sound → color synesthesia is musical keys that started on a higher pitch complex, since synesthesia has been found to in kiki and takete, and smaller in baluba probably caused by an exaggeration of were perceived as more luminous than those skip generations. Often those manifesting and bouba: the corresponding forms would mechanisms that are normally present, rather that started on a lower pitch. The data this characteristic are left-handed and then be a representation of the noise. than by special cerebral pathways that are suggests that the rating of brightness of endowed with an excellent memory. In addition, the shapes of the letters— unique to synesthetes, which would confirm musical stimuli is influenced by more general Although the physiological component supposing they are seen—also suggests a the pruning hypothesis. aspects of pitch height, pitch distance is undeniable, it is also important to note that likeness to the drawings, as the letter “k” Other research found a correlation between between successive notes, and pitch contour, the notion of sensory modality is to some present in kiki and takete is certainly closer synesthesia and perfect pitch, even though, that is, direction of pitch movement, rather degree dependent on culture. For example, to an angular shape than to a rounded one. surprisingly enough, the individuals with this than mode or key. the Desana of Colombia generally describe Research on synesthesia received a gift often show less coherence in the choice Finally, it would be interesting to conduct smells in terms of color and temperature, considerable boost from the latest of correspondences. In addition, they associate research with sounds that do not belong as reported by Constance Classen. One technological developments, such as PET notes an octave apart with the same color, to Western scales or that are at any rate could speak here of a sort of cultural (Positron emission tomography) and especially although with different degrees of brightness, complex enough that they cannot be related synesthesia, that would probably be lost on FMRI (Functional magnetic resonance that is, the higher the sound the lighter the to the tones of any musical scale, such as Westerners. imaging). Riuma Takahashi and other color. Often in fact sound pitch is related to those that can be created using contemporary On the other hand, there seem to exist researchers carried out studies with these luminosity. technologies. An idea for the future. mappings that are almost objective, technologies on sound → color synesthesia. Another test used dyads or two-note recognized by a great majority of individuals The result of these experiments demonstrates chords, rather than single notes: in this case regardless of their culture. An example of such that the area of the brain called V4, which the individuals reported two or more colors. mappings emerged in Wolfgang Köhler’s is in primarily in charge of color vision, In yet another experiment, synesthetes famous experiment of 1929, according to becomes activated under conditions of were presented with glissandi between two which the words “baluba” and “takete” synesthesia, which would confirm notes rather than fixed tones, and they correspond, respectively, to sinuous and Ramachandran’s and Hubbard’s cross-wiring reported colors corresponding to the angular figures [Fig. V]. theory. Moreover, because the response intermediate notes. A similar result was The same experiment was repeated more in area V4 happens very rapidly, one obtained by using microtones, while slightly recently by Ramachandran and Hubbard could exclude a top-down, that is, cognitive out of tune notes were perceived as using the words “kiki” and “bouba.” [Fig. VI] process, supporting the view that somewhat darker when the sound frequency

Fig. VI - Kiki and bouba, from Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, Edward M.Hubbard, Synaesthesia – A Window Into Perception, Thought and Language, 2001

146 147 References

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160 161 • J. Ellis, • F. Galton, • A. Griffin, • A. Hölzel, • D. Kamp, • B. Krause, The Great Animal https://vimeo.com/jimellis http://galton.org/ www.hellbender.org www.staatsgalerie.de/archive_e/hoelzel.php http://davidkamp.de Orchestra, • P. Emery, • P. Gauguin, • G. Grisey, • D. Holzer, • V. V. Kandinsky, www.thegreatanimalorchestra.com http://studioseen.co.uk/ www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Gauguin http://brahms.ircam.fr/gerard- www.bernurits.com/dalibnieki/derek.html www.britannica.com/biography/Wassily- • S. L. Ku, • E. Emshwiller, • D. Gelfand, grisey • A. Honegger, Kandinsky www.stefanieku.com/ www.iotacenter.org/visualmusic/articles/ http://portablepalace.com/ • H. Guðmundsson, www.britannica.com/biography/Arthur- • J. Kapuscinski, • T. Kubli, moritz/emshwillerbio • S. Gibbons, www.hugigudmundsson.com Honegger www.jaroslawkapuscinski.com/ www.thomkubli.de/ • A. Eng, www.red-noise.com/index.html • G. F. Händel, • R. Hooke, • W. von Kaulbach, • S. Kubrick, http://angieeng.com/blog/ • G. Gidoni, http://gfhandel.org/ www.britannica.com/biography/Robert- www.britannica.com/biography/Wilhelm- www.britannica.com/biography/Stanley- • J. Engel, http://prometheus.kai.ru/gidoni_e.htm • M. Hattler, Hooke von-Kaulbach Kubrick www.jules-engel.com/jules-engel/ • H. C. Gilje, www.maxhattler.com • T. L. Hubbard, • Y. Kawaguchi, • F. Kupka, • B. Eno, http://hcgilje.wordpress.com/ • F. Hecker, http://timothyhubbard.net/ http://individuals.iii.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~yoichiro/ www.britannica.com/biography/Frantisek- http://music.hyperreal.org/artists/brian_eno/ • D. Gillespie, http://florianhecker.blogspot.it/ • C. Hug, profile/profie.html Kupka • M. Eremiášová, www.britannica.com/biography/Dizzy- • E. van der Heide, www.charlottehug.ch/ • E. Kelly, • R. Kurokawa, www.michaela-eremiasova.com/ Gillespie www.evdh.net/ • J. Hyde, www.elizabethakelly.com www.ryoichikurokawa.com/ • M. Ernst, • A. Ginanni Corradini, • I. Helliwell, www.josephhyde.co.uk/ • A. Kendall, • Labmeta, www.guggenheim.org/new-york/collections/ www.ginnacorra.it/ www.ianhelliwell.co.uk/ • M. Hynninen, www.hellbender.org http://labmeta.net/projects/ collection-online/artists/bios/1213 • B. Ginanni Corradini, • H. von Helmholtz, www.mikkohynninen.net/mikkohynninen.net/ • G. Keplero, • R. Lainhart, • L. Escudé, www.ginnacorra.it/ www.britannica.com/biography/Hermann- mikko_hynninen.html www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes- www.otownmedia.com/ www.lauraescude.com/ • J. W. von Goethe, von-Helmholtz • R. Ikeda, Kepler • G. Lakoff, • B. Etra, www.britannica.com/biography/Johann- • J. Hendrix, www.ryojiikeda.com/ • Jin Hi Kim, http://georgelakoff.com/ www.etra.com/bill/bill.html Wolfgang-von-Goethe www.jimihendrix.com/ • R. Ikeshiro, www.jinhikim.com • V. Lamontagne, • B. Evans, • H. Goldman, • K. Hentschläger, www.ryoikeshiro.com • A. Kircher, http://3lectromode.com www.brianevans.net/ http://harveygoldman.com www.kurthentschlager.com/ • E. Ipeker, www.britannica.com/biography/Athanasius- • U. Langheinrich, • T. Farmer, • A. Gonçalves, • J.G. von Herder, http://vimeo.com/eytanipeker Kircher http://ulflangheinrich.com/ www.tessafarmer.com/ www.andregoncalves.info/ www.britannica.com/biography/Johann- • J. Isaac, • R. Kirschner, • B. F. Laposky, • E. Fellmann, • O. Gondry, Gottfried-von-Herder www.visisonor.org/VisisonorORG/ www.romankirschner.net/ www.atariarchives.org/artist/sec6.php www.ellenfellmann.de/ www.director-file.com/gondry/ • A. Hill, isaac-eng.htm • P. Klee, • Le Corbusier, • O. Fischinger, • P. Gonzaga, www.ahillav.co.uk/ • H. Ishii www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Klee www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/ www.oskarfischinger.org/ www.britannica.com/topic/Gonzaga-dynasty • G. Hill, www.hiromi-ishii.de/ • G. Klimt, morpheus.aspx?sysname • T. Fleisch, • C. Goss, http://garyhill.com/ • T. Iwai, www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav- =home&syslanguage =fr-fr&sysinfos=1 http://fleischfilm.com/ www.improvart.com/goss/abstract.htm • P. Hindemith, www.ntticc.or.jp/Archive/1995/The_Museum_ Klimt • A.-S. Le Meur, • R. Fox, • Duncan Grant www.britannica.com/biography/Paul- Inside_The_Network/iwai_works/iwai_cv.html • M. Knapp, http://aslemeur.free.fr/ http://robinfox.com.au www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/duncan- Hindemith • K. Jacobs, http://knapp.klingt.org • J. Le Parc, • M. Franceschini, grant-1203/text-artist-biography • H. Hirsh, www.starspangledtodeath.com/ • K. Knowlton, www.julioleparc.org www.matteofranceschini.com • Dwinell Grant www.iotacenter.org/visualmusic/articles/ • Jefferson Airplane, www.kenknowlton.com/ • Soizic Lebrat, • T. Frank, www.michenermuseum.org/bucksartists/ moritz/hirshbio www.jeffersonairplane.com/ • G. Knox, www.soiziclebrat.eu www.tinafrank.net/ artist.php?artist=97 • A. Hitchcock, • W. Jentzsch, www.garthknox.org/ • E. Lefrant, • P. Friedlander, • Granular~Synthesis, www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred- http://wilfried-jentzsch.de/ • Koan Sound, www.lightcone.org/en/ www.paulfriedlander.com/ www.granularsynthesis.info/ns/index.php Hitchcock • J. Jost, http://koansound.com/ filmmaker-740-emmanuel-lefrant.html • D. Gabor, • Greateful Dead, • D. Hockney, www.jonjost.altervista.org • W. Köhler, • F. Léger, www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/ www.dead.net/ www.hockneypictures.com/ • C. G. Jung, /www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfgang- www.britannica.com/biography/Fernand- laureates/1971/gabor-bio.html • R. L. Gregory, • R. Hodgin, www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jung Kohler Leger • M. Gagné, www.richardgregory.org/ http://roberthodgin.com/ • E. Justel, • B. van Koolwijk, • F. Lenoir, www.gagneint.com/ • E. Grieg, • G. Holthuis, www.electrocd.com/en/bio/justel_el/ www.basvankoolwijk.com/ www.fredericlenoir.com • B. M. Galeyev, www.britannica.com/biography/Edvard- http://lightcone.org/en/ • M. Kagel, • T. Köner, • G. Levin, http://prometheus.kai.ru/ Grieg filmmaker-751-gerard-holthuis www.mauricio-kagel.com/gb/biografy.html www.koener.de/ www.flong.com/

162 163 • Lia, • Massive Attack, • C.-L. Montesquieu, • S. Nyerges, • O. Piene, • M. Ravel, www.liaworks.com/ http://massiveattack.co.uk www.britannica.com/biography/Charles- http://nyerges.com/ www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-Piene www.britannica.com/biography/Maurice-Ravel • G. Ligeti, • H. Matisse, Louis-de-Secondat-baron-de-La-Brede-et- • F. D. Oberland, • Pink Floyd, • H. von Rebay, www.britannica.com/biography/Gyorgy- www.britannica.com/biography/Henri-Matisse de-Montesquieu http://fredericdoberland.wordpress.com/ www.pinkfloyd.com/ www.guggenheim.org/new-york/ Ligeti • S. Maxwell, • C. Monteverdi, • G. O’Keeffe, • Pink Twins, collections/about-the-collection/new-york/ • The Light Surgeons, http://people.rit.edu/sampph/ www.britannica.com/biography/Claudio- www.okeeffemuseum.org/ http://pinktwins.com/ hilla-rebay-collection/1652 www.lightsurgeons.com/ • T. McIntosh, Monteverdi • B. O’Reilly, • Pitagora, • J. Reble, • F. Liszt, www.undefine.ca/en/artists/thomas- • I. Mori, http://vimeo.com/dendriform www.britannica.com/biography/Pythagoras www.filmalchemist.de/ www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Liszt mcintosh/ www.ikuemori.com/ • C. Oldenburg, • Platone, • O. Redon, • J. Locke, • N. McLaren, • MOS, www.oldenburgvanbruggen.com/ www.britannica.com/biography/Plato www.britannica.com/biography/Odilon-Redon www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke www.nfb.ca/explore-all-directors/Norman- www.mos-office.net • J. Oliver, • Playmodes, • J. Reekveld, • F. López, McLaren/ • W. A. Mozart, http://julianoliver.com/output/ http://playmodes.com/web/ www.joostrekveld.nt www.franciscolopez.net/ • J. A. McNeill Whistler, www.britannica.com/biography/Wolfgang- • C. O’Neill, • E. A. Poe, • S. Reich, • J. López-Montes, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/whis/hd_ Amadeus-Mozart www.lookoutmountainstudios.com/index.php www.britannica.com/biography/Edgar- www.stevereich.com/ www.lopezmontes.es/ whis.htm • F. Muelas, • Otolab, Allan-Poe • H. Richter, • P. J. de Louthenbourg, • N. Meli Walker, http://federicomuelas.com/wordpress_ www.otolab.net/ • J. Pollock, http://sensesofcinema.com/2009/great- www.britannica.com/biography/Philip- www.nmwdesigns.com studio/ • V. Owen Bush, www.britannica.com/biography/Jackson- directors/hans-richter/ James-de-Loutherbourg • Y. Meranda, • C. Musgrave, https://about.me/vowenbush Pollock • A. Rimbaud, • J. Lowder, http://blog.waysofseeing.org/ http://chris.musgrave.org/ • OTT J., • H. Pousseur, www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/ http://jarrydlowder.com/ • O. Messiaen, • M. P. Mussorgsky, http://superdraw.intervalstudios.com www.henripousseur.net/ 503830/Arthur-Rimbaud • A. Lucier, www.britannica.com/biography/Olivier- www.britannica.com/biography/Modest- • J. Ox, • B. Previte, • R. Rimbaud, http://alucier.web.wesleyan.edu/ Messiaen Mussorgsky www.jackox.net/ http://bobbyprevite.com/ www.britannica.com/biography/Arthur- • L. Lye, • M. Messier, • E. Muybridge, • J. Page, • G.-J. Prins, Rimbaud http://sensesofcinema.com/2007/great- www.mmessier.com www.eadweardmuybridge.co.uk/ www.jimmypage.com www.gjp.info/ • N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov, directors/lye/ • C. Metcalf, • S. Mylleager, • S. Pagano, • P. Prudence, www.britannica.com/biography/Nikolay- • S. MacDonald-Wright, http://noisefold.com www.mylleager.dk/ www.scottpagano.com www.transphormetic.com/ Rimsky-Korsakov www.britannica.com/biography/Stanton- • Michelangelo Buonarroti, • S. Nalepa, • N. J. Paik, • PURFORM, • A. Rishaug, Macdonald-Wright www.britannica.com/biography/Michelangelo http://stevenalepa.com www.paikstudios.com/ www.purform.com www.arishaug.com • A. Macke, • D. Milhaud, • N. Negroponte, • S. Paine, • A. Purkrabek, • J.-C. Risset, www.britannica.com/biography/August- www.britannica.com/biography/Darius- www.media.mit.edu/people/nicholas www.simonrpayne.co.uk www.v2.nl/archive/people/armin-purkrabek http://brahms.ircam.fr/composers/ Macke Milhaud • M. Neukom, • A. Pape, • L. J. Putnam, composer/2734/ • M. Makela, • D. H. Miller, www.domizil.ch/neukom.html www.andypape.dk/ www.mat.ucsb.edu/~l.putnam/ • S. Roach, http://i40474.wix.com/miamakela www.dennismiller.neu.edu/ • I. Newton, • R. Parla, • A. Quinn, www.steveroach.com/ • T. Makino, • O. Mink www.britannica.com/biography/Sir-Isaac- www.reyparla.com www.andrewquinn.org • C. Roads, http://makinotakashi.net http://videology.nu/ Newton • G. Pask, • S. V. Rachmaninov, http://clang.mat.ucsb.edu/home.html • K. S. Malevich, • B. Mitchell, • C. Nicolai, www.pangaro.com/pask-pdfs.html www.britannica.com/biography/Sergey- • A. M. Rodchenko, www.britannica.com/biography/Kazimir- http://immersiveinstallationart.com www.carstennicolai.de/ • J. Pastorius, Rachmaninoff www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr- Malevich • L. Moholy-Nagy, • O. Nicolai, www.jacopastorius.com/ • Raffaello Sanzio, Mikhailovich-Rodchenko • F. J. Malina, www.moholy-nagy.org/ www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-Nicolai • M. Peljhan, www.britannica.com/biography/Raphael • B. Roisz, www.fondation-langlois.org/html/e/page. • Moment Factory, • R. Nijhof, www.ladomir.net • K. Ralske, http://billyroisz.klingt.org/ php?NumPage=233 www.momentfactory.com/en www.roch.nl/ronald.html • O. Peterson, http://retnull.com/ • M. Romanek, • R. de Man, • F. Momotenko, • Nine Inch Nails, www.oscarpeterson.com/ • V. S. Ramachandran, www.markromanek.com/ www.roderikdeman.com/ www.fredmomotenko.com/ www.nin.com/ • F. Picabia, http://cbc.ucsd.edu/ramabio.html • F. Rosati, • Man Ray, • P. Mondrian, • Nonotak, www.britannica.com/biography/Francis- • A. Ramírez-Gaviria, www.franzrosati.com www.manraytrust.com/ www.mondriantrust.com/ www.nonotak.com/ Picabia www.andresramirezgaviria.com/ • J.-J. Rousseau, • E.-J. Marey, • T. Monk, • A. Noto, • J. Piché, • R. Rauschenberg, www.britannica.com/biography/Jean- www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/marey.html www.theloniousmonk.com/ www.alvanoto.com/ www.jeanpiche.com/ www.rauschenbergfoundation.org/ Jacques-Rousseau

164 165 • M. Rowan-Hull, • M. Scroggins, • G. Stadnik, • Y. Tan, • W.-Y. Tsai, • The Who, www.rowan-hull.com/ www.audiovisualizers.com/toolshak/ www.photonlightguitars.com/digitallumia.html http://art.uoregon.edu/faculty/ying- http://bermant.arts.ucla.edu/tsai.html http://thewho.com • Roxy Music, vidsynth/scroggin/scroggin.htm • B. Staern, tan • A. Turing, • M. Wierckx, www.roxymusic.co.uk/ • R. Seidel, www.benjaminstaern.se/benjaminstaern/ • Tangerine Dream, www.britannica.com/biography/Alan-Turing www.lownorth.nl/ • J. Rudi, www.2minds.de/ index.html www.tangerinedream.org/ • T. Tzara, • Williams, http://users.notam02.no/~joranru/index_e.html • Semiconductor, • J. Stahl, • M. Tanner, www.britannica.com/biography/Tristan-Tzara www.kenjiwilliams.com • A. Rutterford, www.semiconductorfilms.com/root/ http://juliusstahl.de/ www.lumonics.net/mel.htm • U2, • C. Willits, http://alexrutterford.com soundfilms.htm • Stanza, • A. A. Tarkovsky, www.u2.com/ http://christopherwillits.com/ • K. Saariaho, • G. Severini, www.stanza.co.uk/ http://sensesofcinema.com/2002/great- • F.-M. Uitti • A. Willy, www.saariaho.org/ www.britannica.com/biography/Gino- • R. Steiner, directors/tarkovsky/ www.uitti.org https://vimeo.com/andywilly • S. Saguatti, Severini www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Steiner • S. Täuber-Arp, • United Visual Artists, • I. Xenakis, www.basmati.it/ • Y. Seyama, • J. Stehura, www.britannica.com/biography/Sophie- http://uva.co.uk www.iannis-xenakis.org/ • N. de Saint Phalle, www.yokoseyama.com/ http://cyberanimation.tripod.com/index.htm Taeuber-Arp • H. Valensi, • J. Yalkut, http://nikidesaintphalle.org/ • R. Shankar, • J. Steinkamp, • Telcosystems, www.musicalisme.fr/musicalisme.fr/ http://hamsadesign.com/vidfilm/JudYalkut. • C. Saint-Saëns, www.ravishankar.org/ http://jsteinkamp.com/ www.telcosystems.net/ accueil.html html www.britannica.com/biography/Camille- • P. Sharits, • F. Stella, • G.-Ph. Telemann, • E. Varèse, • A. Yoes, Saint-Saens www.paulsharits.com/ www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_ www.britannica.com/biography/Georg- www.britannica.com/biography/Edgard- www.amyyoes.com/ • R. Sakamoto, • B. Sheppee, id=5640 Philipp-Telemann Varese • L. M. Young, www.sitesakamoto.com/ http://lightrhythmvisuals.com • A. Stieglitz, • M. Tellinga, • S. Vasulka, http://melafoundation.org/lmy.htm • C. Salter, • G. Sherwin, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/stgp/hd_ www.martijntellinga.nl/ www.vasulka.org/ • E. Zajec, http://chrissalter.com www.luxonline.org.uk/artists/guy_sherwin/ stgp.htm • Tez, • W. Vasulka, www.edwardzajec.com • D. J. Sandin, index.html • K. Stockhausen, www.tez.it/ www.vasulka.org/ • D. Zakharov, www.evl.uic.edu/dan/ • Single Wing Turquoise Bird, www.karlheinzstockhausen.org • K. L. Theinert, • H. Verlinde https://vimeo.com/dmitryzakharov • E. Satie, www.swtb.info/ • L. Stokowski, www.theinert-lichtkunst.de www.hugoverlinde.net/ • F. Zappa, www.britannica.com/biography/Erik-Satie • T. Skinner, www.stokowski.org/ • M. Theodore, • V. E. Virkhaus, www.zappa.com/flash/hammersmithodeon/ • G. Scelsi, www.timskinner.co.uk/ • D. Stout, http://michaeltheodore.info www.vsquaredlabs.com/ index.html www.scelsi.it/ • D. T. Skoltz, http://noisefold.com/david-stout/ • L. Theremin, • Visual Systeemi, • M. Zazeela, • J. Schacher, http://skoltz.com/index.php • I. F. Stravinsky, www.britannica.com/biography/Leon- www.woland.fi http://melafoundation.org/mz.htm http://jasch.ch/ • Sky David, www.britannica.com/biography/Igor- Theremin • R. Wagner, • A. Schindler, http://vimeo.com/user1605727 Stravinsky • M. Thirache, www.britannica.com/biography/Richard- http://ecmc.rochester.edu/allan/ • H. Smith, • M. Subotnick, www.lightcone.org/en/ Wagner • N. Schöffer, www.harrysmitharchives.com/ www.mortonsubotnick.com/ filmmaker-319-marcelle-thirache.html • A. Warhol, http://monoskop.org/Nicolas_Schöffer • V. Sorensen, • Sun Ra, • J. Tinguely, www.warhol.org/collection/aboutandy/ • A. Schoenberg, http://vibeke.info www.sunraarkestra.com www.britannica.com/biography/Jean- • C. Watanabe, www.schoenberg.at/index.php/en/ • D .D. Shostakovich, • L. Survage, Tinguely www.vusik.net/ • F. Schubert, www.britannica.com/biography/Dmitry- www.moma.org/collection/artist.php?artist_ • A. Tobin, • J. West, www.britannica.com/biography/Franz- Shostakovich id=5735 www.amontobin.com/ www.jweststudio.com Schubert • J. Speedy, • S. Takatani, • C. Toonk, • J. White, • P. Schulze, www.speedyj.com/ www.epidemic.net/en/art/takatani/index. www.roch.nl/christian.html www.joshualightshow.com/about www.phillipschulze.com • L. Spiegel, html • H. de Toulouse-Lautrec, • WHITEvoid, • L. F. Schwartz, http://retiary.org/ls/ • Y. Takeda, www.lautrec.info www.whitevoid.com/ http://lillian.com/ • L. Spuybroek, www.behance.net/skybase • S. Towne, • J. Whitney, • S. Sciarrino, www.nox-art-architecture.com/ • T. Takemitsu, www.shawntowne.com/ www.centerforvisualmusic.org/library/ www.salvatoresciarrino.eu • Squidsoup, www.britannica.com/biography/Toru- • B. Truax, WMJamesWRetro.htm • A. Scrjabin, http://squidsoup.org/ Takemitsu www.sfu.ca/~truax/ • J. Sr. Whitney, www.britannica.com/biography/Aleksandr- • R. Stachowiak, • A. Tambellini, • D. Trumbull, www.siggraph.org/artdesign/profile/ Scriabin www.stachy.biz/ www.aldotambellini.com/ http://douglastrumbull.com/ whitney/whitney.html

166 167 Index of Names Baudelaire, Charles 18 Burritt, Michael 94 Cross, Lloyd G. 41 Domnitch, Evelina 113, 121, 8.12 Foregger, Nikolai 27 Beatles, The 79 Bush, Owen V. 128 Cross, Lowell 41 Doser, Barbara 105 Fox, Robin 94, 7.5 The numbers in italics refer to the images Beck 129 Busoni, Ferruccio 25 Cruz-Neira, Carolina 106, 8.1 Dove, Arthur 27 Franceschini, Matteo 113 Beck, Stephen 81, 82, 6.7 Bute, Mary Ellen 33, 35, 49-51, 4.14 Crystalleum Lightshow 40 Downey, Juan 39 Frank, Tina 95, 96 Becker, Lutz 80 Butting, Max 45 Cuba, Larry 86, 6.11 Draves, Scott 96, 99, 7.10 Franke, Herbert Werner 58 242.pilots 131 Beckett, Adam K. 65 Byrds, The 40, 79 Cunningham, Merce 78, 85 Dryer, Ivan 41, 3.15 Friedlander, Paul 113, 8.9 Beethoven, Ludwig van 20 Byrne, David 111 Curran, Alvin 91 Duarte-Lopez, Jairo 94 Funkstörung 90 Abbado, Adriano 113, 8.11 Behrman, David 84 Byrne, Peter 94 Cytowic, Richard E. 142, 145 DuBois, R. Luke 135 Abe, Shuya 76 Belson, Jordan 57, 58, 60, 61, 82, Duchamp, Marcel 24, 45, 2.8 Gabor, Dennis 38 Abrams, Jerry 40 95, 4.22 Cˇ iurlionis, Mikalojus Konstantinas 19, 26, D-Fuse (Michael Faulkner and others) Durante, Armando 39 Gagné, Michel 105 Agam, Yaacov 37 Bennett, Justin 131 142, 2.3 129, 131, 9.6 Dvorˇák, Antonín 47 Galeyev, Bulat M. 37 Albers, Josef 27 Bentham, Frederick 34 Cádiz, Rodrigo F. 136, 137 Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandé 14 Galton, Francis 145 Alter Ego Ensemble 129 Bergson, Henri 18 Cage, John 61, 76, 78, 85 Dailleau, Laurent Earls, Paul 41 Garmire, Elsa M. 41 Alves, Bill 100, 7.14 Berlioz, Hector 40 Calder, Alexander 45 see S.S.S. Sensors_Sonics_Sights Eckartshausen, Karl von 14 Garton, Andrew 135 Amiel, Jon 99 Bernier, Nicolas 123 Calix, Mira 117 Darwin, Charles 14 Eckel, Gerhard 109 Gaspar, Béla 47 Amoeba Lightshow, The 40 Bethge, Katrin 135 Callear, Stephen 105 Darwin, Erasmus 14 Eco, Umberto 139 Gauguin, Paul 18 Anathema 40 Bishop, Bainbridge 16, 1.7 Calos, Nino 38 Davies, Char 106 Edwards, Michael 93 Gelfand, Dmitry 113, 121, 8.12 Andrews, John 40 Bisig, Daniel 110 Carosone, Paolo 39 Davis, James 53, 55, 4.17 Egan, Jeffers 105 General Magic 96 Anschutz, Georg 48 Bittner, Wolfgang 119, 8.19 Carpentier, Kevin 135 Davis, Stuart 27 Eggeling, Viking 43-45, 64, 4.5 Gerhardt, Joe see Semiconductor Antheil, George 46 Black Zenith (Brian O’Reilly Casady, Chris 105 Day, Sean A. Fig. II Eigner, Richard 120 Gerschefski, Edwin 50 Apollinaire, Guillaume 42 and Darren Moore) 93 Cassen, Jackie 39 De Maistre, Roy 27 Eisenstein, Sergey Mikhaylovich 61, 64 Gert, Valeska 45 Archipenko, Alexander 42 Blanc-Gatti, Charles 34 Cassidy, Jane 123 De Man, Roderick 103 Electric Light Garden 41 Ghent, Emmanuel 85 Arcimboldo, Giuseppe 10, 11, 1.1 Blechmann, Tim 103 Castel, Louis-Bertrand 11-14, 16, 17, De Staël, Madame (Necker, Anne-Louise Ellis, Jim 105 Gibbons, Scott 134, 9.12 Arford, Scott 120, 121 Bley, Paul 83 1.2 Germaine) 15 Ellitt, Jack, 49 Gibson, Jon 94 Arnheim, Rudolf 139 Blizard, Dave 39 Chambers, John 86 Deadly Nightshade 40 Emery, Paul 105 Gidoni, Grigory 30 Arp, Hans Jean 44, 45 Boccioni, Umberto 22 Chemical Brothers, The 90, 116 Debackere, Boris 132, 9.10 Emshwiller, Ed 82 Gilje, Hans Christian 131 Autechre 90 Boethius 10 Chilvers, Peter 111 Debackere, Brecht 132, 9.10 Eng, Angie see POOOL, THE Gillespie, Dizzy 57 Avraamov, Arseny Mikhailovich 69, 70 Borissov, Liubo 105 Chladni, Ernst 13, 75, 115, 1.4 Debussy, Claude 18, 91 Engel, Jules 60, 65 Gillis, Don 51 Boulez, Pierre 26, 85 Chopin, Frédéric 33 DeFanti, Thomas A. 86, 106, 8.1 Engelhardt, Michael 119 Gilmore, Joe 105 Babiole, Cécile see S.S.S. Sensors_ Bourgogne, Gustave 34 Cillari, Sonia 123 DeKam, Johnny 131, 9.7 Eno, Brian 111, 8.8 Ginanni Corradini, Arnaldo 42, 4.1 Sonics_Sights Boyle, Mark 40 Clair, René 26, 46 Delaunay, Robert 25, 43, 2.9 Erdman, Jerry 80 Ginanni Corradini, Bruno 42 Bach, Johann Sebastian 26, 49, 95 Bragaglia, Anton Giulio 24, 2.6 Clark, Lygia 39 Demers, Louis-Philippe 119, 8.20 Eremiášová, Michaela 94 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 19, Badings, Henk 56 Bragaglia, Arturo 24 Classen, Constance 146 Deren, Maya 61 Ernst, Max 45 127 Baily, Richard 99 Brakhage, Stan 61, 63, 4.24, 4.23 Clifford, Alison 105 Detheux, Jean 91 Escudé, Laura 90 Goldman, Harvey 105 Bainbridge, Benton C 128, 9.5 Brand, Stewart 40 Clinker 135 DeWitt, Tom 80 Etra, Bill 79 Gonçalves, André 128, 9.4 and see POOOL, THE Brant, Henry 49 Coldplay 125 Dextro 94, 7.6 Evans, Brian 105 Gondry, Michel 90, 7.1 Balboa, Rafael 105 Breer, Robert 64 Collier, William G. 147 Diamond, Bob 84 Gondry, Olivier 90, 7.1 Balla, Giacomo 24, 2.7 Breuleux, Yan see PURFORM Collopy, Fred 16, 1.6 Dick, Philip Kindred 122 Farmer, Tessa 125 Gonzaga, Pietro 14 Ballard, James Graham 131 Brill, Louis M. 39 Comanini, Gregorio 10 Diderot, Denis 15 Faulkner, Michael see D-Fuse Goss, Carol 83 Baranoff-Rossiné, Vladimir 28, 29, 3.1, Britton, David 90 Conrad, Tony 64 Dienststelle 123 Fellmann, Ellen 135 Grant, Duncan 25, 43 3.2 Brody, David 105 Cook, Dick 39 Diogenes Lantern Works, The 40 Fibonacci 52 Grant, Dwinell 52, 53, 60, 4.16 Barlow, Clarence 90 Brotherhood of Light 40 Copland, Aaron 51 Disney, Walt 47, 52 Fiolay, Michael 95 Granular ~ Synthesis (Kurt Hentschl.ger Baron-Cohen, Simon 145 Brown, Joel 40 Coral, Giampaolo 91 Dixon, Mike J. 144 Fischinger, Oskar 33-35, 46-48, 51, and Ulf Langheinrich) 106, 107, 8.3 Barot, Camille 135 Brown, Toni 40 Cream 40 Dj vordo 99 52, 69, 81, 4.8-4.10, 5.3 Grateful Dead 40, 56 Bartlett, Scott 80 Bruguière, Francis 48, 4.11 Crimson Madness 40 Docken, Phil 105 Five Acre Lights 41 Gregory, Richard L. 144 Bartók, Béla 26, 91 Buchanan, John 99 Crockwell, Douglass 52 Dockstader, Tod 84 Fleisch, Thorsten 105 Grieg, Edvard 49 Battey, Bret 99, 100, 7.13 Burnett Hector, Alexander 28 Crosby, Bing 34 Dockum, Charles 35, 3.8 Fluxus 76, 77 Griffin, Al 135

168 169 Grisey, Gérard 93 Honegger, Arthur 26 Kandinsky, Vasily Vasilyevich 20, 22, 66, Lakoff, George 138 Malina, Frank Joseph 37, 39, 3.10 Muller, Jochen see Schmelzdahin Guðmundsson, Hugi 100 Hooke, Robert 13 68, 81, 142, 2.4, 2.5 Lambart, Evelyn 51 Man Ray 28, 45, 46, 137, 4.7 Murphy, Dudley 26 Guyot, Edme-Gilles 14 Housden, Lyndsey 119, 8.19 Kaprow, Allan 76, 85 Lamontagne, Valérie 106 Marey, Étienne-Jules 24 Murzin, Yevgeny 71, 5.8 House of Eternal Music, The 77 Kapuscinski, Jaroslaw 105, 136 Lancaster, Donald 39 Martin, Tony 40 Musgrave, Chris 101 Haas, Georg Friedrich 124 Howard, Milton B. 39 Karkowski, Zbignew 93 Land, Richard I. 39 Martinez, Jenny 39 Mussorgsky, Modest Petrovich 20, Hall, George 34 Hubbard, Edward M. 144-146, Figs. III, Kastner, Frederick 15, 1.5 Langheinrich, Ulf 107, 8.4 Martinucci, Maurizio see TeZ 34, 66 Hall, Joy 80 IV, VI Kaulbach, Wilhelm von 66 and see Granular~ Synthesis Massive Attack 116, 117 Muybridge, Eadweard 24 Halle, Johann Samuel 14 Hubbard, Timothy L. 147 Kawaguchi, Yoichiro 86, 87, 6.12 Laposky, Ben F. 58 Mathews, Max 83, 85 Mylleager, Stefan 135 Hallock-Greenewalt, Mary 29, 33 Hubner, Andreas 58 Keep Adding 90 László, Alexander 33, 48 Matisse, Henri 18 Hallock, Don 82, 6.8 Hug, Charlotte 102 Kelly, Elizabeth 94 Latimer, Clive 39 Matlin, Vladimir 131 Nalepa, Steve 128 Hamm, Bill 39 Hyde, Joseph 99, 7.11 Kendall, Adam 135 Le Corbusier 72, 5.10 Mattox, Charles 39 Necker, Anne-Louise Germaine Händel, Georg Friedrich 66 Hynninen, Mikko 113 Kepler, Johannes 10 Le Meur, Anne-Sarah 105 Matyushin, Mikhail Vasilyevich 26 see de Staël Hartley, Marsden 20 Kiers, David see Telcosystems Le Parc, Julio 79 Maxwell, Stephanie 94 Negroponte, Nicholas 139, 10.1 Hartmann, Thomas Aleksandrovich de Ikeda, Ryoji 124, 125, 9.1 Kiers, Gideon see Telcosystems Lebrat, Soizic 110 Mbb 99 Nemeth, Ted 35 20 Ikeshiro, Ryo 135 Kim, Jin Hi 128 Lefrant, Emmanuel 102 McClure, Bruce 127 Neukom, Martin 110 Hartmann, Viktor Aleksandrovich 66 Intersystems 39 Kingsley, Gershon 85 Léger, Fernand 26, 45, 46 McIntosh, Thomas 113, 8.10 Newton, Isaac 10, 11 Hattler, Max 135 Ipeker, Eytan 105 Kinsel, Tracy 79 Leibing, Chris 90 McKay, Glenn 40 Nico (Christa Päffgen) 78 Hayden, Michael 39 Isaac, Jorge 103 Kircher, Athanasius 11 Lempert, Jochen see Schmelzdahin McLaren, Norman 51, 52, 58, 61, 70, Nicolai, Carsten 110, 120, 8.6 Hays, Ron 82 Ishii, Hiromi 105 Kirschner, Roman 114, 115, 8.13 Lenoir, Frédéric 94 137, 4.15, 5.6 Nijhof, Ronald 121 Head Lights 41 Ives, Charles 72 Klee, Ernst Paul 26, 2.11, 2.12 Lesti, Arnold 70 Meli Walker, Nancy see POOOL, THE Nine Inch Nails 125 Hearn, Bill 82, 83 Iwai, Toshio 113 Klein, Adrian Bernard Leopold 29 Levin, Golan 134, 9.12 Meranda, Yoel 105 Noisefold (Cory Metcalf Heavy Water 41 Klimt, Gustav 18 Lia 105 Messiaen, Olivier 71, 72, 142 and David Stout) 133 Hecker, Florian 96 Jacobs, Henry S. 58 Kluver, Billy 77, 78 Ligeti, György 142 Messier, Martin 123 Nonotak 123 Helliwell, Ian 105 Jacobs, Ken 128 Knapp, Manuel 103 Light & Sound Dimension 41 Metcalf, Cory see Noisefold North American Ibis Alchemical Helmholtz, Hermann von 17 Jameson, D.D. 15 Knowlton, Kenneth 83, 85 Light Surgeons, The 135 Michelangelo Buonarroti 66 Company 40 Hendrix, Jimi 40 Janco, Marcel 27 Knox, Garth 93 Liszt, Franz 49, 58, 66 Milhaud, Darius 27, 45, 49 NOX 116 Henry, Pierre 38 Jarman, Ruth see Semiconductor Koan Sound 90 Little Princess 109 41 Millar, Preston S. 67 Nyerges, Scott 105 Hentschläger, Kurt 107 Jasch see Schacher, Jan Köhler, Wolfgang 146, Fig. V Locke, John 142 Miller, Dennis H. 100, 7.15 and see Granular~Synthesis Jefferson Airplane 40 Kolgen, Herman W. see skoltz_kolgen Locks, Seymour 39 Mink, Olga 135 O’Keeffe, Georgia 27 Herder, Johann Gottfried 14 Jeffries, Carson Dunning 41 Köner, Thomas 127, 9.3 López-Montes, José 102, 7.17 Missionary Lights 41 O’Neill, Pat 65 Hill, Andrew 105 Jenny, Hans 75, 5.12 Kostyniuk, Ron 39 López, Francisco 114 Mitchell, Bonnie 105 O’Reilly, Brian 91, 93, 7.3 Hill, Gary 84 Jentzsch, Wilfried 105 Krause, Bernie 117 Los Angeles Philarmonic Orchestra Mizuguchi, Tetsuya 135 and see Black Zenith Hills, Joan 40 Jepson, Warner 82 Kren, Kurt 71 41 Moholy-Nagy, László 68, 69, 131 O’Reilly, Royal V. 39 Hillyard, Roger 41 Jhno 99 Krishna Lights 41 Loutherbourg, Philippe-Jacques de Moment Factory 125, 9.2 Oberland, Frédéric D. 94 Hindemith, Paul 26, 45 Jiang, Joe 95 Krueger, Myron W. 80, 106 14 Momotenko, Fred 103 Oldenburg, Claes Thure 64, 85, 126 Hirsch, Philipp 119 Joe’s Lights 41 Kruger, Johann Gottlob 13, 1.3 Løvstrøm, Richard 30 Mondrian, Piet 27 Oliver, Julian 123 Hirschfeld-Mack, Ludwig 31, 33 Johnson, Mark L. 138 Ku, Stefanie L. 113 Lowder, Jarryd 135 Monk, Thelonious 60 Oosterhuis Associates 116 Hirsh, Hy 60 Jones, David 83 Kubelka, Peter 63, 4.25 Lucier, Alvin 131 Montesquieu 12, 13 Open Music Ensemble 94 Hitchcock, Alfred 55 Jones, Howard 39 Kubli, Thom 123 Lye, Len 49, 51, 61, 4.12, 4.13 Monteverdi, Claudio 40 Ostrowski, Eric 102 Hockney, David 142 Jones, Randy 134 Kubrick, Stanley 65 Lysakowski, Lukasz 131 Moore, Darren see Black Zenith Otolab 131, 132, 9.8 Hodgin, Robert 115 Jost, Jon 123 Kupka, František 22 Moore, Richard F. 86 Ott, Joshue 135 Hoffmann, Johann Leonhard 14 Jung, Carl Gustav 56 Kurokawa, Ryoichi 123, 8.26 MacDonald-Wright, Stanton 25, 28 Moorman, Charlotte 76, 6.1 Ox, Jack 90 Holl, Matthias 33, 3.6 Justel, Elsa 105 Macke, August 19 Mori, Ikue 128 Holthuis, Gerard 99 Labmeta 131 Madan, Emmanuel 113 Mothers of Invention, The 40, 3.14 Pagano, Scott 90, 7.2 Holy See 40 Kagel, Mauricio 76 Labor e.V. 76 Makela, Mia 135 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 26 Page, Jimmy 40 Hölzel, Adolf 19 Kamp, David 120 Lacroix, Richard 39 Makino, Takashi 105, 123 Muelas, Federico 123 Paik, Nam June 64, 76, 77, 79, 80, Holzer, Derek 121 Kanarek, Mimi 77 Lainhart, Richard 134, 135 Malevich, Kazimir Severinovich 25, 26 Muller, André Fig. I 82, 84, 85, 110, 6.1

170 171 Paine, Simon 105 Ramachandran, Vilayanur S. 144-146, Rutt, Steve 79 Sharits, Paul 65, 4.26 Stravinsky, Igor Fyodorovich 24, 34, 39 U2 116 Pape, Andy 131 Figs. III, IV, VI Ruttmann, Walter 45, 69, 4.6 Sheppee, Ben 135 Subotnick, Morton 82 Uitti, Frances-Marie 133 Parla, Rey 105 Ramírez Gaviria, Andrés 123 Sherwin, Guy 127, 128 Sumner, Alaric 99 United Game Artists 135 Pask, Gordon 36, 115 Raphael 66 S.S.S. Sensors_Sonics_Sights Sholpo, Evgenij 70, 5.4 Sun Ra 83 United Visual Artists (UVA) 117, Pastorius, Jaco 83 Rauschenberg, Robert 39, 77, 78 (Cécile Babiole, Laurent Dailleau Shostakovich, Dmitrij Dmitrievich 49 Sunburst 41 8.16 Peljhan, Marko 110, 8.6 Ravel, Maurice 66, 91 and Atau Tanaka) 135, 9.13 Sidenius, Christian 36 Survage, Léopold 42, 43, 4.2 University of Iowa Symphony Orchestra Pelton, Dale 41 Rebay, Hilla von 47 Saariaho, Kaija 93 Sidler, Natalia 102 Szymanski, Fred 123 41 Pešánek, Zdenek 33, 34, 3.7 Reble, Jurgen 127, 9.3 Sacks, Oliver 61 Siegel, Eric 80 USCO (The Company of Us) 79 Peterson, Oscar 51 and see Schmelzdahin Sadeghi, Manoochehr 56 Single Wing Turquoise Bird 40, 84 Tadlock, Thomas 39 Uyttendaele, Jeroen 119, 8.19 Pfenninger, Rudolf 69, 70, 5.2 Redon, Odilon 18 Saguatti, Saul 135 Sistiaga, José Antonio 65 Takahashi, Riuma 146 Picabia, Francis 25, 26 Reeves, Richard 105 Saint Phalle, Niki de 37 Skinner, Tim 105 Takatani, Shiro 117, 8.17 V Squared Labs 125 Piché, Jean 101 Reginald 41 Saint-Saëns, Camille 49 Skoltz_kolgen (Dominique T. Skoltz Takeda, Yuya 94 Valensi, Henri 34 Piene, Otto 41, 79 Reiback, Earl 36 Sakamoto, Ryuichi 110, 113, 117, 8.17 and Herman W. Kolgen) 122, 8.24 Takemitsu, To–ru 58, 94 Van Boven, Martijn 103, 105, 7.19 Pies, Dennis (Sky David) 65 Reich, Steve 129 Salter, Chris 75, 106 Skoltz, Dominique T. see skoltz_kolgen Tambellini, Aldo 79 Van De Bogart, Willard 41 Pilát, František 34, 3.7 Reid, John Stuart 75 Sammis, Frederick 70 Sky David see Pies, Dennis Tan, Ying 95, 7.8 Van der Heide, Edwin 116, 8.15 Pink Floyd 40 Reinbold, Hank 79 San Francisco Light Works 41 Slater, Dan 80 Tanaka, Atau Van der Schoot, Arjen 116 Pink Twins (Juha and Vesa Vehviläinen) Rekveld, Joost 99, 7.12 Sandin, Daniel J. 80-82, 106, 6.6, 8.1 Sly and the Family Stone 40 see S.S.S. Sensors_Sonics_Sights Van der Velden, Lucas see Telcosystems 132, 9.9 Reznor, Trent 125 Saroff, David 94 Smith, Harry Everett 57, 60, 4.21 Tangerine Dream 87 Van Doesburg, Theo 27 Pirelli, Pietro 123 Ricciardi, Achille 30 Satie, Erik 26, 46, 91 Soderbergh, Steven 99 Tanner, Dorothy 39 Van Koolwijk, Bas 121, 122 Plato 10, 106 Rice, Pete 134 Scanner (Robin Rimbaud) 129 Soft Machine 40 Tanner, Mel 39 VanDerBeek, Max 85 Playmodes 123 Richter, Hans 28, 44, 45, 64, 137, 4.3, Scelsi, Giacinto 91, 93 Solomon, Phil 63 Tarkovsky, Andrey Arsenyevich 110 VanDerBeek, Stan 80, 85, 6.10 Poe, Edgar Allan 115 4.4 Schacher, Jan (Jasch) 110, 131 Sorensen, Vibeke 105 Täuber-Arp, Sophie 27 Varèse, Edgar 20, 72, 74, 5.10 Pollock, Jackson 102 Rimbaud, Arthur 18 Schaeffer, Pierre 72 Speedy J 90 Taylor, Leonard 30 Vasulka, Steina 78, 79, 91, 6.4 Ponc, Miroslav 27 Rimbaud, Robin see Scanner Schillinger, Joseph 50 Spencer, Andrew 100 Telcosystems (Gideon and David Kiers, Vasulka, Woody 78, 79, 91, 93, 6.4 Pönish, Janis 106 Rimington, Alexander Wallace 17, 1.8 Schindler, Allan 94 Spiegel, Laurie 83, 84 Lucas van der Velden) 122, 8.25 Vávra, Otakar 34, 3.7 Poon, Wing-Chi 8.22 Rimsky-Korsakov, Georgy Mikhailovich Schmelzdahin (Jochen Lempert, Jochen Spinello, Barry 71, 5.9 Telemann, Georg Philipp 13 Vehviläinen, Juha see Pink Twins POOOL, THE (Benton C Bainbridge, 70 Muller and Jurgen Reble) 102 Spuybroek, Lars 116 Tellinga, Martijn 94 Vehviläinen, Vesa see Pink Twins Angie Eng and Nancy Meli Walker) Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolay Andreyevich Schneider, Marius 10 Squidsoup 109, 8.5 TeZ (Maurizio Martinucci) 106, 8.2 Velvet Underground, The 78 128 30, 49, 66, 70, 142 Schoenberg, Arnold 22, 26, 68 Stachowiak, Rafal 120 Theinert, Kurt Laurenz 135 Venezky, Richard 80 Pope, Greg 127 Rishaug, Alexander 109 Schöffer, Nicolas 37, 38, 79, 95, 3.12, Stadnik, George 105 Theodore, Michael 123 Verlinde, Hugo 94, 95, 7.7 Potter, Ralph K. 51 Risset, Jean-Claude 85, 86 3.13 Staer, Benjamin 119 Theremin, Leon 33, 50, 51 Veronesi, Luigi 52 Pousseur, Henri 38 Roach, Steve 99 Schooling, William 17 Stahl, Julius 118, 8.18 Thibault, Alain see PURFORM Viaene, Els 115 Previte, Bobby 128 Roads, Curtis 38, 91 Schubert, Franz 91 Stanza 120, 8.23 Thirache, Marcelle 105 Vincent of Beauvais 10 Prins, Gert-Jan 105, 121 Rodchenko, Alexander Mikhailovich 27 Schulze, Phillip 119, 8.20 Stauffacher, Frank 137 Tinguely, Jean 37, 77, 3.11 Virkhaus, Vello 135 Prudence, Paul 133, 9.11 Rodriguez, Richard 90 Schwartz, Lillian 85 Stehura, John 84, 6.9 Tippelt, Heiko 119, 120 Visual Systeemi 135 PURE 131 Roisz, Billy 105, 135 Schwerdtfeger, Kurt 33 Steiner, Rudolf 75 Tobin, Amon 125 Vitruvius 10 PURFORM (Yan Breuleux and Alain Romanek, Mark 125 Sciarrino, Salvatore 93, 129 Steinkamp, Jennifer 115, 8.14 Toonk, Christian 121 Voinov, Nikolaij 70 Thibault) 110, 8.7 Romero, Elias 39 Scriabin, Aleksandr 33, 34, 41, 66-68, Stella, Frank 77 Toulon, Pierre 70 Vostell, Wolf 76 Purkrabek, Armin 119, 8.20 Rosati, Franz 135 71, 142, 5.1 Stern, Rudi 39 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de 18, 2.2 Putnam, Lance 101, 7.16 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 15 Scroggins, Michael 84 Stieglitz, Alfred 27 Towne, Shawn 105 Wagner, Richard 49, 66 Pythagoras 10 Rowan-Hull, Mark 135 Seidel, Robert 119, 120, 8.21 Stockhausen, Karlheinz 26, 58, 65, Trans-Love 41 Waldhauer, Fred 78 Roxy Music 111 Semiconductor (Ruth Jarman 76, 131 Truax, Barry 38 Ward, Jamie 147 Quinn, Andrew 123 Rudi, Jøran 93, 94, 7.4 and Joe Gerhardt) 96, 7.9 Stokes, Cecil 34 Trumbull, Douglas 65 Warhol, Andy 40, 78, 6.3 Runge, Philipp Otto 18, 19 Severini, Gino 22 Stokowski, Leopold 30 Tudor-Hart, Ernest Percival 25 Watanabe, Chiaki 105 Rachmaninov, Sergey Vasilyevich 33, Russell, Morgan 28, 137, 2.10 Seyama, Yoko 119, 8.19 Stolet, Jeffrey 95 Turing, Alan 106 Watts, Robert 84 58, 66 Russolo, Luigi 22, 24, 68 Shakar, Gregory 134, 9.12 Stout, David see Noisefold Tzara, Tristan 44, 45 Weinberg, Richard 85 Ralske, Kurt 131 Rutherford, Alex 90 Shankar, Ravi 56 Stracquadaini, Vito 34 Welte, Edwin Emil 70, 5.5

172 173 Wen-Ying, Tsai 39 Photo Credits Martijn van Boven: fig. 7.19 Wentink, Victor 116 The graphic Artwork by Charlotte Hug, West, Jennifer 105 © 1979 Larry Cuba: fig. 6.11 called Son-Icons: fig. 7.17 Wetzel, Maurice S. 39 © 2006 Pink Twins: fig. 9.9 Courtesy Center for Visual Music: fig. 4.10 Whistler, James Abbott McNeill 18, 2.1 © 2015 Benton C. Bainbridge: fig. 9.5 Courtesy of Breitkopf & Härtel, Wiesbaden White, Joshua 40 © 2015 Walter Gorgosilits / Dextro.org – – Leipzig: fig. 3.6 WHITEvoid 123 http://Dextro.org: fig. 7.6 Evelina Domnitch and Dmitry Gelfand: Whitman, Robert 78 © 2016. Image copyright The Metropolitan fig. 8.12 Whitney, James 55, 56, 58, 70, 81, Museum of Art / Art Resource / Scala, HEMISPHERE by Ulf Langheinrich © Tibor 100, 4.20, 5.7 Firenze: fig. 2.6 Bozi: fig. 8.4 Whitney, John Jr. 56 © Boris & Brecht Debackere: fig. 9.10 Photo Bret Battey 2011: fig. 7.13 and cover Whitney, John Sr. 55, 56, 70, 81, 84, © Center for Visual Music: figg. 4.8, 4.9, 4.22 Photo by Paul Friedlander / 86, 94, 100, 4.18, 4.19, 5.7 © Johnny DeKam & Jasch: fig. 9.7 paulfriedlander.com: fig. 8.9 Whitney, Mark 56 © Scott Draves: fig. 7.10 Photo by Moment Factory. Production Whitney, Michael 56, 57 © Fischinger Trust, courtesy Center designer: Roy Bennet: fig. 9.2 Who, The 40 for Visual Music: fig. 5.3 Photo courtesy Studio Edwin Wier, D.R. 40 © Robin Fox: fig. 7.5 van der Heide: fig. 8.15 Wierckx, Marcel 102, 103 © Joseph Hyde 1998: fig. 7.11 Photograph by Don Hallock: fig. 6.8 Wilcox, Charles F. 28 © Ryoji Ikeda: fig. 9.1 Roman Kirschner: fig. 8.13 Wilder, Greg 94 © Thomas McIntosh: fig. 8.10 Stills Collection, Nga Taonga, Sound Wilfred, Thomas 30, 31, 36, 50, 52, © Brian O’Reilly: fig. 7.3 & Vision: fig. 4.12 60, 81, 118, 3.3-3.5 © Otolab 2015. Foto: Fabio Volpi (a.k.a. Marcel Wierckx © 2006: fig. 7.18 Williams, Kenji 99 Dies_): fig 9.8 Willits, Christopher 90 © Paul Prudence: fig. 9.11 Willy, Andy 105 © Jürgen Rebl: fig. 9.3 Winckel, Fritz 34 © Joost Rekveld / filmstad Producties, Wiseman, Jim 82-84 2009: fig. 7.12 Wright, Walter 83 © Jøran Rudi: fig. 7.4 Wruhme, Robag 120 © Robert Seidel / www.robertseidel.com: fig. 8.21 Xenakis, Iannis 38, 72, 74, 93, 99, © Semiconductor: Ruth Jarman and 5.11 Joe Gerhardt: fig. 7.9 © Yoko Seyama, Lyndsey Housden, Yalkut, Jud 79, 80, 6.5 Jeroen Uyttendaele and Wolfgang Bittner Yankovskij, Boris 70 as author: fig. 8.19 Yardbirds, The 40 © The Paul Sharits Estate: fig. 4.26 Yoes, Amy 105 © The Estate of Peter Moore/VAGA, NYC. Young, La Monte 77, 6.2 Barbara Wise Collection, New York: fig. 6.1 Yuditskaya, Sofy 128 © Granular Synthesis: fig. 8.3 © Julius Stahl: fig. 8.18 Zajec, Edward 91 © Stanza: fig. 8.23 Zakharov, Dmitry 105 © Sue Tallon, San Francisco courtesy Zappa, Frank Vincent 40, 3.14 Greengrassi Gallery, London: fig. 8.14 Zazeela, Marian 77, 6.2 Zóbel, Fernando 102 Zorn, John 128

174 175