3 Gamma-Ray Detectors
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Crystal Growth in Fused Solvent Systems
SPACE DIVISION CRYSTAL GROWTH IN FUSED SOLVENT SYSTEMS BY D.R. ULRICH, B.A. NOVAL, K.E. SPEAR, W.B. WHITE AND E.C. HENRY (NASA-CR-120570) CRYSTAL GROWTH IN FUSED N75-14847 SOLVENT SYSTEMS Final Report (General Electric Co.) 174 p HC $6.25 CSCL 20B Unclas G3/25 06436 CONTRACT NAS 8-28114 CONTROL NUMBER DCN-1-1-50-13670-(IF) Eul I-o PREPARED FOR THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA 35812 GENERAL * ELECTRIC CRYSTAL GROWTH IN FUSED SOLVENT SYSTEMS D. R. Ulrich, B. A. Noval, K. E. Spear, W. B. White and E. C. Henry FINAL REPORT November 1974 Contract NAS 8-28114 Control Number DCN-1-1-50-13670-(1F) Prepared for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Marshall Space Flight Center Huntsville, Alabama 35812 Prepared by General Electric Company Space Division Space Sciences Laboratory P. O. Box 8555 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19101 This report was prepared by the Space Sciences Laboratory of the General Electric Company under Contract NAS 8-28114, "Study of Crystal Growth in Fused Solvent Systems, " for the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES viii FOREWORD xi SUMMARY xiii I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. BISMUTH GERMANATE 11 A. Solvent Criteria 12 B. Solvent Development 13 1. Bi203 *2B 2 03 Glass Solvent 13 2. Biz Q XAl203 (Z-x) B 203 Glass Solvent 17 C. Crystal Growth Studies 29 1. Crystal Growth Experiments 29 2. Crystal Perfection 32 3. -
ZEPLIN I—The UKDM Single Phase Xenon Experiment at Boulby Neil Spooner∗ Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Sheffield, Hounsfield Road, Sheffield, S3 7RH, UK
ZEPLIN I—The UKDM Single Phase Xenon Experiment at Boulby Neil Spooner∗ Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Sheffield, Hounsfield Road, Sheffield, S3 7RH, UK I briefly review the ZEPLIN I liquid xenon detector of the UKDM collaboration. 1. ZEPLIN I Detector The ZEPLIN I detector is a single phase, 3.6 kg fiducial mass, liquid xenon scintillation detector built by the UKDM Collaboration (RAL-Sheffield-ICSTM) and running at the Boulby underground site (see Figure 1). The target mass is housed in a Cu-101 copper vessel, shaped to maximise light collection, which provides a uniform temperature environment through the use of a cryo- liquid jacket. The fiducial volume of xenon is surrounded bya5mmPTFE reflector, giving diffuse scattering of the 175 nm scintillation photons to maximise light collection. This volume is viewed through 3 mm silica windows by three quartz windowed photomultipliers through optically isolated Œturrets¹ of liquid xenon. These act both as light guides and passive shielding for the X-ray emission from the photomultipliers. The novel use of the xenon turrets arose from experience with NaI detectors where solid high-grade silica is used for light guides and shields. However, the extensive use of such material for liquid xenon is precluded due to the absorption of the 175 nm photons. Scintillation light produced in the turret regions is seen predominantly by the nearest photomultiplier which allows the rejection of the photomultiplier X-ray events and the definition of a fiducial volume through a comparison of the light seen by each tube. Purification of the xenon is performed using Oxysorb ion exchange columns with additional purification by vacuum pumping on frozen xenon and subsequent fractionation of the xenon gas. -
Muon Decay 1
Muon Decay 1 LIFETIME OF THE MUON Introduction Muons are unstable particles; otherwise, they are rather like electrons but with much higher masses, approximately 105 MeV. Radioactive nuclear decays do not release enough energy to produce them; however, they are readily available in the laboratory as the dominant component of the cosmic ray flux at the earth’s surface. There are two types of muons, with opposite charge, and they decay into electrons or positrons and two neutrinos according to the rules + + µ → e νe ν¯µ − − µ → e ν¯e νµ . The muon decay is a radioactiveprocess which follows the usual exponential law for the probability of survival for a given time t. Be sure that you understand the basis for this law. The goal of the experiment is to measure the muon lifetime which is roughly 2 µs. With care you can make the measurement with an accuracy of a few percent or better. In order to achieve this goal in a conceptually simple way, we look only at those muons that happen to come to rest inside our detector. That is, we first capture a muon and then measure the elapsed time until it decays. Muons are rather penetrating particles, they can easily go through meters of concrete. Nevertheless, a small fraction of the muons will be slowed down and stopped in the detector. As shown in Figure 1, the apparatus consists of two types of detectors. There is a tank filled with liquid scintillator (a big metal box) viewed by two photomultiplier tubes (Left and Right) and two plastic scintillation counters (flat panels wrapped in black tape), each viewed by a photomul- tiplier tube (Top and Bottom). -
7. Gamma and X-Ray Interactions in Matter
Photon interactions in matter Gamma- and X-Ray • Compton effect • Photoelectric effect Interactions in Matter • Pair production • Rayleigh (coherent) scattering Chapter 7 • Photonuclear interactions F.A. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Kinematics Physics and Radiation Dosimetry Interaction cross sections Energy-transfer cross sections Mass attenuation coefficients 1 2 Compton interaction A.H. Compton • Inelastic photon scattering by an electron • Arthur Holly Compton (September 10, 1892 – March 15, 1962) • Main assumption: the electron struck by the • Received Nobel prize in physics 1927 for incoming photon is unbound and stationary his discovery of the Compton effect – The largest contribution from binding is under • Was a key figure in the Manhattan Project, condition of high Z, low energy and creation of first nuclear reactor, which went critical in December 1942 – Under these conditions photoelectric effect is dominant Born and buried in • Consider two aspects: kinematics and cross Wooster, OH http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Compton sections http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=22551 3 4 Compton interaction: Kinematics Compton interaction: Kinematics • An earlier theory of -ray scattering by Thomson, based on observations only at low energies, predicted that the scattered photon should always have the same energy as the incident one, regardless of h or • The failure of the Thomson theory to describe high-energy photon scattering necessitated the • Inelastic collision • After the collision the electron departs -
3 Gamma-Ray Detectors
3 Gamma-Ray Detectors Hastings A Smith,Jr., and Marcia Lucas S.1 INTRODUCTION In order for a gamma ray to be detected, it must interact with matteu that interaction must be recorded. Fortunately, the electromagnetic nature of gamma-ray photons allows them to interact strongly with the charged electrons in the atoms of all matter. The key process by which a gamma ray is detected is ionization, where it gives up part or all of its energy to an electron. The ionized electrons collide with other atoms and liberate many more electrons. The liberated charge is collected, either directly (as with a proportional counter or a solid-state semiconductor detector) or indirectly (as with a scintillation detector), in order to register the presence of the gamma ray and measure its energy. The final result is an electrical pulse whose voltage is proportional to the energy deposited in the detecting medhtm. In this chapter, we will present some general information on types of’ gamma-ray detectors that are used in nondestructive assay (NDA) of nuclear materials. The elec- tronic instrumentation associated with gamma-ray detection is discussed in Chapter 4. More in-depth treatments of the design and operation of gamma-ray detectors can be found in Refs. 1 and 2. 3.2 TYPES OF DETECTORS Many different detectors have been used to register the gamma ray and its eneqgy. In NDA, it is usually necessary to measure not only the amount of radiation emanating from a sample but also its energy spectrum. Thus, the detectors of most use in NDA applications are those whose signal outputs are proportional to the energy deposited by the gamma ray in the sensitive volume of the detector. -
Improving the Scintillation Performance of Ksr2i5:Ce3+ Through Exploration of Activator Concentration and Growth Conditions
University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Masters Theses Graduate School 5-2019 Improving the Scintillation Performance of KSr2I5:Ce3+ through Exploration of Activator Concentration and Growth Conditions Eleanor Paige Comer University of Tennessee, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes Recommended Citation Comer, Eleanor Paige, "Improving the Scintillation Performance of KSr2I5:Ce3+ through Exploration of Activator Concentration and Growth Conditions. " Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 2019. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_gradthes/5414 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To the Graduate Council: I am submitting herewith a thesis written by Eleanor Paige Comer entitled "Improving the Scintillation Performance of KSr2I5:Ce3+ through Exploration of Activator Concentration and Growth Conditions." I have examined the final electronic copy of this thesis for form and content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree of Master of Science, with a major in Nuclear Engineering. Charles L. Melcher, Major Professor We have read this thesis and recommend its acceptance: Mariya Zhuravleva, Eric Lukosi Accepted for the Council: Dixie L. Thompson Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School (Original signatures are on file with official studentecor r ds.) Improving the Scintillation Performance of KSr2I5:Ce3+ through Exploration of Activator Concentration and Growth Conditions A Thesis Presented for the Master of Science Degree The University of Tennessee, Knoxville Eleanor Paige Comer May 2019 Copyright © 2019 by Eleanor P. -
1. Gamma-Ray Detectors for Nondestructive Analysis P
1. GAMMA-RAY DETECTORS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE ANALYSIS P. A. Russo and D. T. Vo I. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW Gamma rays are used for nondestructive quantitative analysis of nuclear material. Knowledge of both the energy of the gamma ray and its rate of emission from the unknown mass of nuclear material is required to interpret most measurements of nuclear material quantities. Therefore, detection of gamma rays for nondestructive analysis of nuclear materials requires both spectroscopy capability and knowledge of absolute specific detector response. Some techniques nondestructively quantify attributes other than nuclear material mass, but all rely on the ability to distinguish elements or isotopes and measure the relative or absolute yields of their corresponding radiation signatures. All require spectroscopy and most require high resolution. Therefore, detection of gamma rays for quantitative nondestructive analysis (NDA) of the mass or of other attributes of nuclear materials requires spectroscopy. A previous book on gamma-ray detectors for NDA1 provided generic descriptions of three detector categories: inorganic scintillation detectors, semiconductor detectors, and gas-filled detectors. This report described relevant detector properties, corresponding spectral characteristics, and guidelines for choosing detectors for NDA. The current report focuses on significant new advances in detector technology in these categories. Emphasis here is given to those detectors that have been developed at least to the stage of commercial prototypes. The type of NDA application – fixed installation in a count room, portable measurements, or fixed installation in a processing line or other active facility (storage, shipping/receiving, etc.) – influences the choice of an appropriate detector. Some prototype gamma-ray detection techniques applied to new NDA approaches may revolutionize how nuclear materials are quantified in the future. -
Photon Cross Sections, Attenuation Coefficients, and Energy Absorption Coefficients from 10 Kev to 100 Gev*
1 of Stanaaros National Bureau Mmin. Bids- r'' Library. Ml gEP 2 5 1969 NSRDS-NBS 29 . A111D1 ^67174 tioton Cross Sections, i NBS Attenuation Coefficients, and & TECH RTC. 1 NATL INST OF STANDARDS _nergy Absorption Coefficients From 10 keV to 100 GeV U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS T X J ". j NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 1 The National Bureau of Standards was established by an act of Congress March 3, 1901. Today, in addition to serving as the Nation’s central measurement laboratory, the Bureau is a principal focal point in the Federal Government for assuring maximum application of the physical and engineering sciences to the advancement of technology in industry and commerce. To this end the Bureau conducts research and provides central national services in four broad program areas. These are: (1) basic measurements and standards, (2) materials measurements and standards, (3) technological measurements and standards, and (4) transfer of technology. The Bureau comprises the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, the Institute for Applied Technology, the Center for Radiation Research, the Center for Computer Sciences and Technology, and the Office for Information Programs. THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United States of a complete and consistent system of physical measurement; coordinates that system with measurement systems of other nations; and furnishes essential services leading to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation’s scientific community, industry, and com- merce. The Institute consists of an Office of Measurement Services and the following technical divisions: Applied Mathematics—Electricity—Metrology—Mechanics—Heat—Atomic and Molec- ular Physics—Radio Physics -—Radio Engineering -—Time and Frequency -—Astro- physics -—Cryogenics. -
Chapter 30: Quantum Physics ( ) ( )( ( )( ) ( )( ( )( )
Chapter 30: Quantum Physics 9. The tungsten filament in a standard light bulb can be considered a blackbody radiator. Use Wien’s Displacement Law (equation 30-1) to find the peak frequency of the radiation from the tungsten filament. −− 10 1 1 1. (a) Solve Eq. 30-1 fTpeak =×⋅(5.88 10 s K ) for the peak frequency: =×⋅(5.88 1010 s−− 1 K 1 )( 2850 K) =× 1.68 1014 Hz 2. (b) Because the peak frequency is that of infrared electromagnetic radiation, the light bulb radiates more energy in the infrared than the visible part of the spectrum. 10. The image shows two oxygen atoms oscillating back and forth, similar to a mass on a spring. The image also shows the evenly spaced energy levels of the oscillation. Use equation 13-11 to calculate the period of oscillation for the two atoms. Calculate the frequency, using equation 13-1, from the inverse of the period. Multiply the period by Planck’s constant to calculate the spacing of the energy levels. m 1. (a) Set the frequency T = 2π k equal to the inverse of the period: 1 1k 1 1215 N/m f = = = =4.792 × 1013 Hz Tm22ππ1.340× 10−26 kg 2. (b) Multiply the frequency by Planck’s constant: E==×⋅ hf (6.63 10−−34 J s)(4.792 × 1013 Hz) =× 3.18 1020 J 19. The light from a flashlight can be considered as the emission of many photons of the same frequency. The power output is equal to the number of photons emitted per second multiplied by the energy of each photon. -
3 Large Photocathode Photodetectors Using Photon Amplification
Large Photocathode Photodetectors Using Photon Amplification and Phase-Space Compression Alex Carrio1, Joseph Dowling1, Kevin Greener1, Sean McGuiness1, Victor Podrasky1, John Sullivan1, David R Winn1*, 2 2 Burak Bilki , Yasar Onel 1. Department of Physics, Fairfield University, Fairfield, CT 06824 USA 2. Department of Astronomy & Physics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA *Corresponding – [email protected] Abstract: We describe a simple technique to both amplify incident photons and compress their angular x area phase space. These Optical Compressor Amplifier Tubes (OCA Tube) use techniques analogous to image intensifiers, using vacuum photocathodes to detect photons as converted to photoelectrons, amplify the photons via photoelectron bombardment of fast scintillators, and compress the optical phase space onto optical fibers, so that small, high gain photodetectors, like miniature PMT or SiPM, can be used to detect photons from large areas, at comparatively low cost. The properties of and benefits of OCA tubes are described. Introduction: Photomultiplier tubes (PMT) and SiPM are ubiquitous in particle detection apparatus and experiments. Their virtues are the ability to generate detectable signals from one photon, at high speed. In general, PMT gain-bandwidth is still unmatched. Experiments planned for high energy physics, particle astrophysics, intensity frontier and intermediate energy and nuclear physics anticipate the need for: a) Large areas of photocathode for non-accelerator experiments such as for nucleon decay, neutrino oscillations, or large underwater or ice detectors for astrophysical phenomena. b) Cosmic gamma ray telescopes and cosmic ray detectors, both terrestrial, and in satellites, which need to operate at low power, low mass, remotely, and over long times. -
DRC-2016-012921.Pdf
CLN-SRT-011 R1.0 Page 2 of 33 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3 Sources of Radiation .................................................................................................................. 3 Radiation: Particle vs Electromagnetic ....................................................................................... 5 Ionizing and non- ionizing radiation ............................................................................................ 8 Radioactive Decay ....................................................................................................................10 Interaction of Radiation with Matter ...........................................................................................15 Radiation Detection and Measurement .....................................................................................17 Biological Effects of Radiation ...................................................................................................18 Radiation quantities and units ...................................................................................................18 Biological effects .......................................................................................................................20 Effects of Radiation by Biological Organization .........................................................................20 Mechanisms of biological damage ............................................................................................21 -
Toxicological Profile for Zinc
TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR ZINC U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry August 2005 ZINC ii DISCLAIMER The use of company or product name(s) is for identification only and does not imply endorsement by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. ZINC iii UPDATE STATEMENT A Toxicological Profile for Zinc, Draft for Public Comment was released in September 2003. This edition supersedes any previously released draft or final profile. Toxicological profiles are revised and republished as necessary. For information regarding the update status of previously released profiles, contact ATSDR at: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Division of Toxicology/Toxicology Information Branch 1600 Clifton Road NE Mailstop F-32 Atlanta, Georgia 30333 ZINC vi *Legislative Background The toxicological profiles are developed in response to the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 (Public law 99-499) which amended the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA or Superfund). This public law directed ATSDR to prepare toxicological profiles for hazardous substances most commonly found at facilities on the CERCLA National Priorities List and that pose the most significant potential threat to human health, as determined by ATSDR and the EPA. The availability of the revised priority list of 275 hazardous substances was announced in the Federal Register on November 17, 1997 (62 FR 61332). For prior versions of the list of substances, see Federal Register notices dated April 29, 1996 (61 FR 18744); April 17, 1987 (52 FR 12866); October 20, 1988 (53 FR 41280); October 26, 1989 (54 FR 43619); October 17, 1990 (55 FR 42067); October 17, 1991 (56 FR 52166); October 28, 1992 (57 FR 48801); and February 28, 1994 (59 FR 9486).