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Home , Baharlu (ethnic group), Bakhtiari dialect, Greater Iran, Lurs, Nakhichevan Khanate

CHAPTER II (2)

MuCti-etfinicity or ^tfinic (Diversity and MuCticuCturaCism in -A Perspective 48 Chapter II (2) Multi-ethnicity or Ethnic Diversity and Multiculturalism in Iran- A Perspective

During its history Iran has always been a multi-ethnic and multicultural country and now is an ethnically diverse state, with forming the majority of the population.The aim in this chapter, explore, briefly, in ancient Iran's situation geographically and politically and introduce the ancient Iranian ethnicities, then explain ethnic and religious diversity in multicultural contemporary Iran.

I. and Ancient Ethnicities in Iran's History

I.I. Greater Iran The terms "Iran" as the designation for the civilization and "Iranian" as the name for the inhabitants occupying the large plateau located between the Caspian Sea and the have been in continual use for more than twenty-five hundred years. Modern Iran is apart of "Greater Iran" that was consisting areas from Euphrates in the west to Indus River and Jaxartes- Syrdarya - in the east and from , Caspian sea and in the north to Persian gulf and Gulf of in the south which includes the modern nations Iran and some other modem nations in the region.'The modem nations of Iran, , , , , , , eastem part of and are a part of greater Iran, surrounding regions which is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations. In Persian, Greater Iran -or Iran-e Bozorg- is called "Iranzamin", which means "The Land of Iran". "Iranzamin" was in the mythical times 49 opposed to the "Turanzamin" the Land of "", which was located in the upper part of . In other words, Greater Iran refers to the regions that roughly correspond to the regions that the two Persian Empires, i.e. Achaemenid and Sassanid Empires ruled in ancient times.^ Richard Nelson Frye, defines Greater Iran as including "much of the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Central Asia, with cultural influences extending to China, western India, and the Semitic speaking world". According to Frye, "Iran means all lands and peoples where were and are spoken, and where in the past, multi-faceted Iranian cultures existed"."* The Cambridge refers to the "historical and cultural" entity of "Greater Iran" as "areas of Iran, parts of Afghanistan, and Chinese and Soviet Central Asia".^ The greater Iran has one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, covering thousands of years, from the ancient civilization on the . Later many changes occurred in the boundaries and areas where Iranians lived but the languages and culture remained the dominant medium in many parts of the Greater Iran. Traditionally, and until recent times, ethnicity has never been a defining separating criteria in these regions.This region until now, has significant Iranian cultural influence. Eveiy above mentioned area was a part of gi^eater Iran in which the ancient Iranian ethnicities were lived. With the separation of the lands whole or a branches of those ethnicities separated from grater Iran. For instance two Iranian ancient ethnicities Baluch and , divided between the new nation-states in the region. Four external events or elements plus internal elements broke down the greater Iran and separated much area from the country. First important external event was Muslim Arab invasion in seventh century that ends the great Sasanid Empire. Second was expansion policy of "Tsarist " to the south and "Persian Gulf and third was appearance of great "", neighboring Iran, and the forth was "Britain"'s interferences in Iran's affair. 50

After Arabs Muslim invasion, Iran, with much troubles could in periods of time restore its past great territories and government. With Imperial Russia continuously advancing south in the course of two wars against Iran , and the treaties of "Gulistan"^ and 'Turkmenchay"^ in the western frontiers, plus weakness of "Qajar kings" in Iran, many Central Asian "" began losing hope for any support from Persia against the "Tsarist" armies.^ The Russian armies from 1849-1973 occupied the "Aral" coast ,"" ,"", "", "" and "Amudarya" and wrested from 's control what is today "", "Republic of Azerbaijan", and "". Then lost much of his claim to western Afghanistan following the "Anglo-Iranian war" of 1856-1857. Also by the , Iran had to cede all the Khanates of the South Caucasus, which included , Khanate, , Ganja khanate, Shaki Khanate, Quba Khanate, and parts of the Talysh Khanate. (Darband) was also lost to Russia. These Khanates comprise what is today the Republic of Azerbaijan. By the treaty of Turkmanchay, Iran was forced to cede and the Mughan regions to Russia, as well as Erivan Khanate. These territories roughly constitute the modem-day Republic of Azerbaijan and Republic of Armenia. With appearance of Ottomans Empire, and it's continous clashes with Iran, the governments in Iran not only couldn't restore their power in Iraq, but also, lose a part of and some part in the north west and south west borders and with Britain's interferences, Iran lost Afghanistan, a part of "Balochistan" and "" and some other Islands of Persian gulf. The last territory that separated from Iran was the Island of Bahrain, in the Persian Gulf in 1971, during the rule of Mohammad , Pahlavi, and after that no changes happened to Iranian borders. However, in this great land and important part of the world, during its history, Iranian ethnicities and people have lived. Migrations and wars bring others to this land, from other parts of the world, but, all assimilated to Iranian 51 nation and culture. Some parts of the land separated, but many its people kept some characteristic and criteria of Iranian nation and culture, although some assimilated to other cultures and nations. Some Iranians migrated to other countries, like "Zoroastrians" migrations to India, but now are living by Iranian ancient culture in all over the world.

I.II. Ancient Ethnicities in Iran Discussing Iranian ancient ethnicities is very difficult due to some factors. First the great extent of Ancient Iran, second changing the borders of the country during its history, and third wars ,migrations and other elements of changing the population of the areas. Meanwhile, with focus on Iranian plateau, mentioning the ancient ethnicities that existed in this area is possible. Pre-Islamic Persia was a multinational empire with as the dominant . The Arab invasion in the seventh century AD resulted in the spread of Islam. In the preceding centuries peoples of various Turkic and Mongol backgrounds settled in the area. The written history of the area begins in about 3200 BC with early ''Elamite civilization" and The early people who lived in Iran were "Elaimids" , who established " Empire" ,situated in the southwestern corner of the Persian plateau, adjacent to "", in the area of the 'Tlam" and "Khuzestan" provinces of present Iran.^ The Eilamid, later were absorbed into Migrant "" of Iran. "^ It is believed that Aryans were first migrant people who came to Iran, from the north of the land. According to this idea About 6,500 years ago, successive waves of people were migrating into a land which is now called "Iran" and northern Iraq. The word "" has roots in world that Iranians called themselves by "Ayria", meaning free, noble and steady. The word Iran is derived from this very root, Iran is meaning the land of the Aryans. Some believes that Aryans did not come from north, but they were native Iranians, and the migration of Aryans to Iran is created by European 52

Historian."However the arrival of the Aryan people on the Iranian plateau marked the beginning of the Iranian civilization. Aryans in Iran were divided in three separated ethnicities, included: "Persians", "" and "Parthian". Persians settled in the south of Iran, especially the present "Pars province" ,and Medes in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran, and roughly the areas of present day "Kurdistan", "Hamedan", then Tehran, "Azerbaijan", and "", and Parthian located in the East especially "Khurasan" provinces.'"^ The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, and established the first Iranian empire, 728-550 BC , the largest of its day until established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenian Empire 648-330 BC. Westerners referred to the state as Persia until ,March 1935, when Iranian government, formally asked the international community to call the country by its native name, Iran, which means Land of the Aryans. Persia or Iran has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded and occupied by "Arabs", "Turks", "Mongols", and others, and in modem times by "Russians", and "Britain". Some invaders settled in Iran and were absorbed in Iranian people and culture and some like Russians separated a part of the country. In the rule of the last Sassanid Emperor Iran was conquest by Islamic Arab (650-1037).The Islamic conquest changed life in Iran. Iran was annexed into the Arab Caliphate, became the new lingua franca, Islam eventually replaced Zoroastrianism, and a new language, religion, and culture were added to the Iranian cultural milieu. In addition of those one another new ethnicity was added to the previous ethnicities in Iran.'^ After Arab entrance to Iran, then, came shift to "Turkic tribes" entrances. The Turks slanted from the north and central Asia to the Iranian plateau and settled in Iran by the establishment of their Turkic Dynasties, the "" (962-1186), "Seljuks" (1029-1194), and "Khwarezmids" (1096- 1230). With Mongols rule (1256-1380) and after them, Timrids (1380-1507), 53

Other waves of Mongols and Turks came to Iran .The Mongols -or known as Ikhanate- disastrous invasion was on 1220 and their rule in Iran was 1256-1380 that during this period they, settled in Iran and from Iran spread to other courtiers, although, the moguls latter assimilated to Iranian culture and civilization.''^Weakness of the last Mongols Ikhanates in Iran and division between different rulers faced Iran with new invaders, who were Timurids, led by the legendary conqueror Timur -Tamerlane- in the 14th century. With the arrival of 'Timurlane', who is variously described as of Mongol or Turkic origin, the Timurids, -or Gurkanian- mle in Iran from 1380 tol507, and the Turkish population of Iran increased.'^ After the Timurids, two other, although relatively small Turkic dynasties, ruled a part of Iran ''Black Sheep Turkmen" that were conquered by the second , "White Sheep Turkmen" ,who were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids. These two small Turkic dynasties also had their role to increase and protect the Turk ethnicity, in Iran. The Safavids (1501-1722), who restore modern Iran, and the "Qajarids" (1794 to 1925) dynasties, also were Turk tribes. From the first dynasties like Elimids and Acheamenian dynasties to Safavids, and Qajarids, changes in the Iranian territories vas so much and vast that , can't exactly name all the Iranian ethnicities, but at all, we can say, at the end of the Qajarids dynasty important ethnicities in Iranian plateau were as follows: A-Aryans with three branches, Persians, Medes and Parthian, every are with sub-branches, that comprises some of ethnicities in contemporary Iran , like present Kurds, Baluchis, , Bakhtirates, and others B-Turks with its branches like Azeris, Turkmen and others C-Arabs D-Others, comprises non-Muslims, like, , Jews, Christians and etc In fact, it was after specifying the territories of Iran in the mid-Qajarid rule, and then Pahlavi, that ethnicities in Iran, more easily, were specified. 54

However the following section, will introduce the contemporary ethnicities in Iran.

II. Multi-ethnic or Ethnic Diversity in Contemporary Iran

The sheer diversity of the Iranian population, combined with centuries of mixing and migration, has made it difficult to draw even the vaguest of boundaries for the various ethnic groups inhabiting present-day Iran.Actually all scholars of ethnicity and have this problem. Actually all scholars of ethnicity and Iranian studies have this problem. For example Ervand Abrahamian after mentioning this point, that there are no accurate statistics on the linguistic breakdown of the Iranian population, he gives his estimation of the population of ethnicities in Iran'^. His estimated percentage of Linguistic ethnicities to the total population of Iran as following'^: Farsis 45 %, Turkic Azaris 19 % Qadqayis, Turkmans, Shahsavans, andAfshars7%,Kurds 7%,Arabs 3 % ,Baluchis 2% Bakhtiyaris and Lurs 6% Mazandaranis and Gilakis 8% Armenians and Assyrians l%,and Others 2%. Most of scholars after dividing Iranian population in two categories as Persians and Non-Persians, mentioned that half of the Iranian population are Persians and half of that is Non-Persian. For example one scholar says: At present, although there are no reliable census data, it is widely believed that the Persian community, that is politically and socio-economically dominant in Iran, represents about half of the total population and mostly inhabits the central plateau. As mentioned, because of the lack of reliable statistics as to the exact proportion of each ethnicity or language community, estimate the population of every ethnic group, exactly, is impossible. What is mentioned here in proportion of each ethnicity is according to comparable different accounts. According to the last census -In year 2006-, Iran's population, is estimated 70,472,846 people that are living in 30 provinces of the country. 55

Although all Iranian ethnicities spread all over the country, but the majority of most ethnicities are located in special areas and cities. With comparing different sources that give different estimates of ethnic groups in Iran, it seems the following table, that estimates the population of every ethnicities by this research, be reasonable.'^ The table number! shows ethnic Composition of Iran 20 Table 1: Ethnic Composition of Iran*

Kthiiic I.Hn»iiii»e Keli^idii population lociitiun Kslimalcd percentage

Persians Persian Muslim- Shi'ite 50 Lurs Luri Muslim- Shi'ite 4 Bakhtiaris Bakhtiari Muslim- Shi'ite 4

Kurds Kurdish Muslim-Majority 6 Sunni, some Shi'ite

Laks Laki Muslim- Shi'ite 1

Baloch Baluchi Muslim-Sunni 2.5 Mazandarani Mazandarani Muslim- Shi'ite 4

Guilak Guilaki Muslim- Shi'ite 4

Talesh Taleshi Muslim- Shi'ite . /5

Azeris Azeri Muslim- Shi'ite. 15 A minority Sunni

Turkmen Turkmen Muslim-Sunni 2

Qashqai Turkish Muslim- Shi'ite 2

Arabs Arabic Muslim- Shi'ite 3.5 and A minority Sunni

Others* different different 1.5

* Source: Estimation of population every ethnicity is according to compare different sources, include the latest census of 2006-10-28 census, and other sources*

Others include (Armenian Christians, Assyrian Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, Mandaeans and Ba'ha'is and some ther small Muslim ethnicities). 56

As is seen in table 1, the largest ethnic group is Persian, which makes up nearly 50 percent of the population. This is followed by Azeris at 15 percent, Giulaks and Mazandaranis at 8 percent, Kurds at 6 percent, Bakhtiari and Lures each at 4 percent ,Arabs at 3.5 percent, Baluchis at 2.5 percent, Turkmen and Qashqai each at 2 percent, Laks at 1 percent and other ethnicities ,all together ,at near 2 percent of the population. Ethnic Composition of Iran is also shown in Graph number 1. (See Diagram number 1 in the Appendix). The Graph Number 1: Ethnic comparison of Iran by Graph.

• Persians • Azeris • K urds • L u rs • B a kh tia ris OZIM azanderanis • G u ila ks • B a loc h is • Turkm en • Arabs • Laks • T a lish • 0 thers

In next part, the above mentioned ethnicities, shortly, will be more introduced. The ethnic groups in Iran can be divided as Muslim ethnic groups and non-Muslim ethnic groups, which every divides in other sub-divisions. 57 II.I. Muslim Ethnic groups in Iran

Beginning with Muslim Aryan's origin ethnic groups, each of the Iran's ethnicities and their culture, aiming to clear similarities and differentiations, briefly, will be explained, and first of all, Persians.

1. Persians : The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group who speak the and share a common culture and history. We call Persian those segments of the Iranian population who speak Persian as their mother tongue and mostly inhabit the central plateau. Persians with nearly 50 percent of the Iranian population, today, are the main ethnic group, the majority and dominant ethnic group of Iran. They also inhabit in neighboring countries particularly in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan and some other countries. The Persians are descendents of the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran, in the second millennium BC.^' The Persian language and other Iranian tongues emerged as these Aryan tribes split up into three major groups, the Persians the Medes, and Parthians and intermarried with peoples indigenous to the Iranian plateau such as the Elamites.^^ The ancient Persians from the province of Pars (or Pars) became the rulers of a large empire under the Achaemenid dynasty in the sixth century BC, reuniting with the tribes and other provinces of the ancient Iranian plateau and forming the Persian Empire. In The Pars province there is two other small ethnicities named "khamsa", an Iranian people and tribal confederation, and "Larestani" or "Lari", that ,the first mixes with Persians and now haven't separate ethnic Identity, and the later have some small differences with Persians in dialect language and religion.

2. Lurs: Lurs, like most Iranians, are a mixture of indigenous inhabitants of the "Zagros mountaians chain" and Iranian speaking tribes, migrating from 58

Central Asia. Lurs primarily inhabit the province of 'Lorestan', 'Hamadan', 'Ham', 'Markazi' and west of 'Khozestan' provinces and the most important Lurs's cities are '' and ''. Lurs are, also, called 'Lurestani' and speak 'Luri' language. Luri, is closely related to Persian, and there are two distinct dialects of this language: 'Lur-e-Bozourg' -Greater Lur-, which is spoken by the 'Bakhtiaris', and 'Lur-e-Kuchik' -Lesser Lur-, spoken by the Lurs themselves. The overwhelming majority of Lurs are Shi'a Muslims and their population is 4 percent of the whole Iran's population.

3. Bakhtiaris (or Bakhtiarates): The Bakhtiaris are a group of southwestern Iranian people. Bakhtiaris being divided into ''Chahar Lang" and "Haft Lang" groups. Bakhtiaris primarily inhabit the provinces of Khuzestan (more in the eastern part of the province), 'Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari', 'Isfahan' and Lorestan provinces. Numerical estimates of their total population widely vary, and it is estimated between three to four million, anyway, they are not less than 4 percent of the Iran's population. Bakhtiaris and Lurs, actually, are a subgroup of the Persian people and Aiyans, because their origin trace to Aryans. Bakhtiaris speak of Persian, and they are Shi'a Muslims, nobody of them has another religion. The Bakhtiari overlords have been influential in political developments since the era of the 'Safavids' and the 'Afsharids'. Some of their leaders helped 'constitutional revolutionaries' and conquered Tehran during the Period of 'Minor Despotism' that was when the Qajar king, 'Mohammad Ali Shah', suspended the pariiament and the constitution in 1907.^"^ There is a third group of Lurs who are a mixtures people of Lorestan lurs and Bakhtiaris which include the 'Boir Ahmadi', the Kuhgiluyeh, and the Mamasanni who are residents of 'Kuhgiluyeh and Boir Ahmad' province and adjacent area in Pars and Isfhan provinces and like Lurs and Bakhtiaris are Shi'a Moslems. 59

4. Kurds: An ethnic and linguistic group living in the 'Taurus Mountains' of eastern , the of western Iran, northern Iraq, and adjacent areas. Most of the Kurds live in contiguous areas of Iran, Iraq, and Turkey, a region generally referred to as 'Kurdistan' -Land of the Kurds. A sizable, noncontiguous Kurdish population also exists in the Khorasan region of northeastern Iran.^^ The has also created controversy among scholars. Kurd ethnically related to other Iranian people. Many scholars, including the Kurds themselves, trace their origin to the 'Medes', one important branch of Aryans.^^ According to , there is no doubt that the term Medians refers to Kurds.^^ Modern-day Kurds, also, trace their origin to Medes.^* The Kurds speak "Kurdish", a West Iranian language, related to Persian , and like other Iranian languages, has an Indo-European origin. The majority of are Sunni Muslims, but the overwhelming majority of the Kurds residing in the 'Kermanshah' region of Iran are Shiites of Islam. There are other religious groups among the Kurds of Iran, like, '', and also, many who practice 'Sufism' and other mystical and heretical sects like, "'Nagshbandi" and some "Ali-Allahi". is close to that of other .^^

5. Laks: The Laks are an Iranian ethnic group in southwestern Iran, which is primarily concentrated in the provinces of Lorestan, Ham and Khuzestan. Their population is estimated one million. They speak 'Laki', which according to the Ethnologies is a branch of Kurdish. "The Laks are Shi'a Muslims and a small group of them are 'Ahl-e-Haqq'. ^°

6. Balochis(or Baluchis): The Balochis, whose name literally means "The wanderers", are one of the few peoples who largely retain a semi- nomadic way of life, perhaps because the extremely arid region where they roam, is hardly suited to sparsely populated desert region covering the far 60 south-east of Iran and the far west of Pakistan. They are divided between Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. "One of the ancient inhabitants of central Caspian region, the Baloch traces their national identity as a tribal union for the first time in connection with their military support to forces of Iranian , Cyrus (546-529 BC) against the Medes".^' Research has been done by several authors, indicates, that the Baluch are Aiyans^^ and their ancestry goes back to the Median Empire times,that ,the Baluchis moved to 'Makran from Kerman', to flee an expedition of the 'Seljuk' in the 11th century^'' L. M. Dames says that Balochis are ancestral , who migrated from the southern coastline of the 'Caspian Sea' ,in about 680 A.D, towards Karman in Iran.^"* National epic Persian poet 'Firdausi' (935-1020) also nan-ates their same culture, and same Commander in 'Shahnama'^^: baluch and Kooch(Kurds).^^ Baloch intellectuals believe that they have Iranian origin.^^

7. Mazandaranis and Guilaks: The Mazandarani and Guilak : Mazandarani are one of the most ancient native people of Iran and a northwestern Iranian ethnic group found primarily in the provinces of '' and 'Golestan', as well as 'Gilan', Tehran and 'Semnan' provinces. Their indigenous language is a branch of Iranian language called 'Mazandarani'. '' was from Mazandaran. The Guilak are an Iranian ethnic group whose homeland is the Province of Gilan . They are also found in the neighboring provinces. The Guilak form one of the Caspian Sea peoples. They speak the Guileki language, closely related to Mazandarani. Mazandaranis and Guilaks are Sh'ia Muslims. There is another ethnic group neighboring Mazanderan and Gilak which are known as "Talesh" or "Talysh", which can relate it to Mazanderani and Guilaki. Talesh are some Iranian people who speak "Taleshi", one of the Northwestern Iranian languages. Taleshi is spoken in the northern regions of the Iranian provinces of Gilan and Ardabil and the southern parts of the 61

Republic of Azerbaijan. Talesh in Iran are Sh'ia Muslims.There is no statistical data on the numbers of Talesh-speakers in Iran, but estimates show their number to be between 5 hundred thousand peoples.

8. Azeris (or Azaris or Asaris): The Azeris (also known as ) are an ethnic group mainly found in northwestern Iran and the 'Republic of Azerbaijan'. In Iran, Azeris are mainly found in the northwest provinces: 'East Azarbaijan', 'West Azarbaijan', 'Ardabil', 'Zanjan', and 'Qazvin'. Many others live in Tehran, '' and other cities. The Azeris have a multi-ethnic identity with three preeminent designations entailing: a Turkic background from Central Asia, Iranian origins, or an indigenous ancestry derived from the who adopted the , Persian culture, and Islam.^^ The Encyclopedia Britannica states that Azeris: are of mixed ethnic origin, the oldest element deriving from the indigenous population of eastern '' and possibly from the 'Medians' of northern Persia^^. Scholars see cultural similarities between modem Persians and Azeris as evidence of an ancient Iranian influence."*" Ancient historians, including '', 'Polybius' and 'Strabo', mention this matter."*' However their Iranian origins are more acceptable.'^^The Azerbaijanis in Iran speak Azerbaijani, a Turkic as language mother tongue. In addition to their mother tongue, many Azerbaijanis are equally at home Persian. The majority of Azerbaijanis in Iran are Shi'a Muslims and Religious minorities include Sunni Muslims, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians are living between them.'*^Azeris population is estimated between 14-15 percent of the Iran's population.

9.Turkmen: The Turkmen are a Turk people found primarily in the Central Asian states of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan and in northeastern Iran. The modem Turkmen people descend, at least in part, from the 'Oghuz Turks' 62 of '', the western portion of '', a region that largely corresponds too much of Central Asia as far east. Oghuz tribes had moved westward from the 'Altay mountains' in 7th century CE through the 'Siberian steppes' and settled in this region, and also penetrated as far west as southern Russia and the 'Volga basin'. These early Turkmen are believed to have mixed with native Iranian peoples and lived as pastoral nomads until the Russian conquest."*"* The origin of the word "Turkmen" remains unclear. According to popular view it means "resembling a Turk or "believing Turks". Modern scholars have translated the word as "pure Turk"."*^ Turkmen are Sunni Muslims and speak the 'Turkmen language', which is classified as part of the Western "Oghuz" branch of Turkic languages."*^ Turkmen is closely related to the Crimean Tatar and Salar languages, and less closely related to Turkish and Azerbaijani.''^ The population of Iran's Turkmen estimated near 2 million that, primarily concentrated in the provinces of Golestan and 'North Khorasan'. Many Turkmen in Iran tend towards bilingualism, usually conversant in the local dialects of Persian. Turkmen in Iran, like other Turkmen, are Sunni Muslims, and follow many traditional Islamic practices. Many Turkmen in Iran have remained at least semi-nomadic and traditionally work in agriculture, and the production of carpets.

10. Qashqais: Qashqais are a Turkic-speaking tribal confederation of clans and the second largest Turkic group in Iran. They mainly live in the provinces of Pars, Khuzestan and southern Isfahan, but especially around the city of in Pars. The Qashqais were originally nomadic pastoralists , who move with their herds of sheep and goats between summer pastures in the higher elevations of the Zagros south of Shiraz and winter pastures at low elevations north of Shiraz, some remain so today. The majority, however, has now settled, or is partially settled .Historically, the Qashqai are believed to have come from Central Asia, and may have been among the Turkic groups 63

that arrived in Iran in the Uth or 12th centuries. According to the Encyclopedia Iranica, they are "a conglomeration of clans of different ethnic origins, including Lurs, Kurds, and Arabs. But most of the Qashqai are of Turkic origin."'*^ Qashqais are Shia Muslims and their language is a Turkic dialect. The Qashqai also speaks Persian, and uses it as their literary language like all Iranians. Estimates of the number of Qashqai speakers vary, but Ethnologue gives a figure around 2 million peoples."*^ Somme other non- Qashqai Turkic groups, such as the 'Baharlu', the Tnalu', and other tribes, that were in a period of history a part of the "Khamseh confederacy" ,in Pars province, now recognize a common ethnic identity in relation to non- Turks, in the province of Pars. All of these Turks speak mutually intelligible dialects that are closely related to Azarbaijani.The Qashqai were a significant political force in Iran during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.The Qashqai confederation emerged in the eighteenth century when Shiraz was the capital of the ''. During the nineteenth century, the Qashqai confederation became one of the best organized and most powerful tribal confederations in Iran, including among its clients hundreds of villages and some non-Turkic- speaking tribes.

11. Arabs: The Arabs are one of the ethnic groups of Iran inhabiting the province of Khuzestan. According to the Encyclopedia Iranica, some Arab tribes began settling in Khuzestan sometime during the Sassanid era. And then during the Umayyad period, large groups of Arab nomads tribes crossed the Persian Gulf and settled in the richest territories around '' and in Pars, then In 10th century CE, an Arab tribe named 'Asad' moved into Khuzestan^°. In the latter part of the 16th century, the 'Bani Kaab', and during the succeeding centuries many more Arab tribes moved from southern. The Arabs are primarily concentrated in the western region of the province. Most Arabs in Iran still speak a dialect of Arabic. And the majority of them are 64 bilingual, speaking Arabic as their mother tongue, and Persian as a second language. Khuzestani Arabic has significant Persian influence and is not understood by most other Arabic-speakers Modem Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic. The vast majority of Arabs of Iran are Shi'a Muslims. There are also small Sunnis and Christians among them. Many tribes share a common heritage and a number have retained their original customs. About 40 percent of Arabs live in urban areas, the majority of whom are workers. The CIA World Factbook estimates that 3 percent of Iran's citizens are Arabs^^, the majority of whom live in Khuzestan with the rest population of this province that are Bakhtyaris and other Lurs. Some Arabs claim that the actual number is much bigger than this, but their population, now, can be estimated between 3-4 percent of the whole country population. ^^ Those ethnicities are the major ethnicities in Iran. Map number 1 shows the location of those ethnicities.

Map Number 1: Ethnic groups map of Iran (Major ethnicities location). 65

12. Others: There are some other small ethnic or religious groups in Iran that either they, originally, are branches of above mentioned ethnicities or very small to be discussed separately, so can be discussed them here as "others". The population of these groups in the countiy is also unstable, unclear and difficult to estimate. In spite of this their whole population can be estimated 300-400 thousands people. Mentionable from these groups are The "', "Ismailis", "Yarsans" or Ahl-i Haqq, Yazidis "Brahui', "Qorbati", and "Qawliya". The Hazaras are an ethnic group who reside mainly in the central region of Afghanistan, called 'Hazaristan'. They are predominantly Shi'a Muslims and speak the 'Hazaragi' dialect of the Persian language. Significant populations of Hazaras also live in Iran. The Ismailis is a Shiite group that is separated from twelver Shiites^"*. Ismailis in Iran live in East of the Iran especially Khorasan region. The Yarsans or Ahl-i Haqq is a religious sect with a 'Sufi' and mystical order, primarily found in western Iran. Most Ahl-i Haqq adherents are of Kurdish and people ethnicity, though there are also smaller groups of, Azeri, Persian and Arab adherents.^^ Yarsan adherents are commonly labeled as Muslims. Adherents to the Ahl-e Haqq mainly live in central-western Iran. According to a report, in Iran, they stretch across three administrative provinces of Kurdistan, Kermanshah and Western Azarbaijan but the largest concentration of them is being found in the province of Kermanshah.^^ The Yazidi or Yezidi, are primarily, a religious minority of the Kurds, and most live near Mosul, in Iraq. They speak Kurdish .Some of them live in Iran but due to the Yazidi tradition of secrecy, their number is unknown. The Yazidi religion is a syncretic combination of Zoroastrian, Manichaean, Jewish, Nestorian Christian, and Islamic elements. The Brahui people in Iran are a 'Dravidian' ethnic group and migrants from northern India. They are closely linked to the Baloch with whom they have substantially intermingled and 66 whose cultural traits they have absorbed. Linguistically, they speak the 'Brahui' language and they are almost entirely Muslim, usually of the Sunni sect. The Qorbatis are different small tribes spread in whole country, mostly in border of big cities or lower part of small cities. Their name Ghorbati is Arabic for "stranger" or "outsider," though they prefer to call themselves "Haddad". They wander the nomadic trails of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, selling horseshoes, sieves, pots and pans to nomadic herders. The Qawliya -or gypsy in Arabic-, Trace their roots to Spain and India and made Iraq their home almost 150 years ago. The Qawliya are known for their dancers and music. Gypsy tribes like Ghorbatis thrive on tradition. Some refer to them as Ghorbatis, but, although they have many similarities with Ghorbatis, they are different, and separate ethnic group. Both Ghorbatis and Qawliya in Iran are Muslims and speak different dialects of Persian language.

II.II.Non- Muslim Ethnic Groups in Iran

In addition to the Islamic ethnic groups in Iran, there exist multiple other ethnic groups and religious minorities in the country. In spite of vast variety and diversity of Non-Muslims in Iran, their population is less than 2 percent of the whole population of the country. The most important of this ethnic groups and minorities are Zoroastrians, Christians -Armenians and Assyrians-, Jews, Mandaeans, and Bahais.

1. Zoroastrians: Zoroastrians constitute the most ancient religious minority in post-Islamic Iran. They are Aryans and speak Persians. have had a long history, being the oldest religious en community of that nation to survive to the present-day. Prior to the Muslim Arab's invasion, and, conquest on Persia, Zoroastrianism had been the primary religion of the Persian people.^^ Prophet and his first followers are 67 believed to have been the proto-Indo-Iranians that Hved between the Stone Age and Bronze Age. (est.l400-1200BC).^^ by the time of the Median empire (est. 612 EC), Zoroastrianism is known to have been well established in Persia. The Sassanid dynasty which ruled over Iran for approximately four centuries was the first Persian Empire which declared Zoroastrianism as the state religion and promoted the religion more than ever.^*' Since the introduction of (seventh century CE), the number of Zoroastrians has decreased continually. After Iran's incoiporation into the Islamic empire, the majority of its population was gradually converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam, a process that was probably completed by the tenth centuiy. After Islam only during the Pahlavi dynasty who were emphasizing on Iran's pre-Islamic heritage, Zoroastrians achieved a more respected position in Iranian society, and even Zoroastrians gradually became a symbol of Iranian nationalism. Many of them migrated from Kerman and Yazd to Tehran, where they accumulated significant wealth as merchants and in real estate. By the 1970s, younger Zoroastrians were entering the professions. Like the Christians and Jews, the Zoroastrians are recognized as an official religious minority under the Constitution of 1979. They are permitted to elect one representative to the Majlis and, like the other legally accepted minorities, may seek employment in the government. They generally enjoy the same civil liberties as Muslims. Fakohi says the present population of this community is 50,000 to 60,000 people, who concentrated primarily in three cities: Tehran (more than 50%), Yazd and Kerman.^' Although latter their population decreased. In 1986 there were an estimated 32,000 Zoroastrians in Iran, but today, their community in Iran is estimated by some to number some 22,000 people.

2. Armenians: The Armenians are Iran's largest Christian religious minority in Iran. Christianity arrived in Iran during the 'Parthian'-Ashkanian- period. Parthian Kings were tolerant of other and Christianity kept 68 slowly but steadily advancing in various parts of the empire. At the time of the persecution of Christians in 'Rome', many sought refuge in Iran and were given protection by the Iranian rulers.^^ After that Christianity has always been a minority religion, in Iran, and today is second religion the country. Christians of Iran have played a significant part in the history of Christian mission. The Armenians are the majority among Iranian Christians and mostly live in Tehran and 'Jolfa district' of Isfahan, Tabrize, and some other cities. Ever since Antiquity there has been much interaction between and Iran. On the 'Behistun inscription' of 515 BC, 'Darius I' of Persia ,indirectly, confinned that '' and 'Araienia' are synonymous when describing his conquests. Armenians have a long histoiy of interaction with Iran and much influenced by Iranian culture. As 'Richard Cottam' mentioned, Iran's Armenians are three separate communities includes : First, The 'Azerbaijan Armenian', which has been in existence for centuries in this region, second, 'Isfahan Armenian', that are descendants of people imported by 'Shah Abbas' from 'Nakhichevan' in sixteen century to an area of Isfahan called New Julfa,and, and third. The 'Tehran Armenian', which is composed primarily of refugees, mainly, from Turkey and former .^^ The Armenian minority in Iran, now, is estimated nearly 150.000 people. Armenians in Iran speaks Persian and Armenian.

3. Assyrians: Assyrians are an ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and . In Iran Assyrians are living in Tehran, 'Oromye', 'Tabriz', Isfahan, Ahwaz, Shiraz and some other cities. The Assyrians are believed to have descended from the ancient 'Akkadians', who, starting with 'Sargon of Akkad', emerged as the ruling class of .^"* After the fall of their empire in 612 BC, Assyria became a province of different empires. Persian king Cyrus the great in 547 BC, changed Assyria's capital 69 from 'Nineveh' to 'Arbela', then Assyrians became frontline soldiers for the Persian empire under 'King Xerxes'.^^ The Assyrian population in Iran now is about 20,000 people. They speak Persian and Assyrian languages.^^

4. Iranian Jews -or -: Today the term "Iranian Jews" is mostly used to refer to Jews from the country of Iran, but in various scholarly and historical texts, the term is used to refer to Jews who speak various Iranian languages. Jews in Iran (and Jewish people in general) are referred to by four common terms: "Kalimi", which is considered the most proper term, "Yahudi", which is less formal but correct, and "Jood" or "Johood", an informal slang that may be offensive when used by non-Jews. Iranian Jews historically affiliated with the Persian Empire. The Jews trace their heritage in Iran to the Babylonian Exile of the 6th century BC and, like the Armenians, have retained their ethnic, linguistic, and religious identity.^'' Persian Jews have lived in the territories of today's Iran for over 2,700 years, since the first Jewish "diaspora" when "Shalmaneser V" conquered Palestine (722 BCE) and sent the Jews into captivity at "Khorasan". In 586 BCE, the Babylonians expelled large populations of Jews from 'Judea' to the Babylonian captivity.^^ By various estimates, between 30,000 and 40,000 Jews are living in Iran.

5. Mandaeans (or Sabians ): Mandaeans are a religious ethnic group, practiced primarily in southern Iraq . In Iran Mandaeans is a very small group, concentrated merely in 'Karoon' River's side in Ahvaze, the center of . Their worldwide population estimated between 50,000 to 70, 000, most of them in Iraq. Their population in Iran is unclear. Their religion, "Mandaeism", is a monotheistic religion with a strongly dualistic worldview. In the Islamic word refer to them as the "Sabians" and to their religion as "Sabianism", in reference to the Sabians mentioned in the holy Qur'an. 70

6. Baha'i's: 'Bahaism' is a special religious faith that is founded in Iran.^^ The majority of Bahais were Persians, but there was a significant minority of Azarbaijani Bahais, and even Kurds. Statistical estimates Bah'a'i population of Iran like the worldwide Baha'i population are difficult to judge. Although after revolution and during this nearly 30 years a significant number of Baha'is migrated to another countries. After the migrations, their population reduced to the extent that, sometimes it is heard that there are no Baha'is in Iran. In spite of this, there is, still, some very small communities of Baha'is people in Iran, in Tehran, Shiraz and other cities. The Baha'i' faith never was recognized as a religious minority in Iran. Meanwhile, Bahais, like other religious minorities in Iran, enjoy the rights of citizenship.

III. Religious Diversity in Iran

As mentioned, Iran is multi-ethnic country with diversity also in religion. Important worldwide religions like Islam, Christianity, Jewish and their subdivisions, Zoroastrianism and some other religions have their adherents in this country. Muslims in Iran are divided in two major branches with their subdivisions, Shiite and Sunni .Although near 91 percent of the population in the Iran are Shiite Muslims, but the rest population demonstrated a beautiful diversity in the country. Graph number 2 and, also. Table number 2 in the next page, shows this diversity. 71

Graph Number 2: Religious Diversity in Iran

^^^^^m ^1 • Shiites' • Sunnis nOthers

>i;^^^^^

Table 2: Religious Composition of Iran Religion Percent to the Iran' popniation Shiite Muslims 91.5 Sunni Muslims 8 Others(Non- ./5 Muslims)* Total 100 *Non-Muslims include Zoroastrians, Christians -Armenians and Assyrians-, Jews, Mandaeans, and Baha'i's.

The main differentiation at first is between Muslims in Iran, then between them and Non-Muslims, and after that between Non-Muslim themselves. Differentiation and sometimes conflict between Sunni, that is majority in Muslims world but minority in Iran, and Shiite that is minority in but majority in Iran, has a long history. "Shi'a Islam", is the second 72 largest denomination of the Islamic faith after and like Sunni Islam, has at times been divided into many branches; The best known and the one with most adherents is "the Twelvers", who have a large percentage in Iran, nearly %90.5 of the population. The Twelvers Shi'a believes that after Ali eleven of his sons and descendents were divine successors for him and "Prophet Mohammad".The term "Shi'a" Islam -also Shi'ite or Shi'ism- means , 'followers', 'group' or 'faction' and It is applied to those who believe that, after the death of the Prophet, the Imamate -the political and religious leadership of the Muslim community- should have gone to "Ali" - the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet - and his descendants as a divine right. The prophet 's(s) bloodline continues only through his beloved daughter '"Fatima Zahra" and Cousin "Ali" -Ahl al-Bayt- and consider Muhammad's(s) descendents as the true source of guidance. They, opposed to that of the caliphate recognized by Sunni Muslims, consider the first three ruling Sunni caliphs a historic occurrence and not something attached to faith. The Imam is regarded by Shiites not merely as a political leader but as a metaphysical being, one who is without sin, whose doctrinal pronouncements are infallible and who bestows true knowledge on humanity. These sacred men are Imam -leader- before all Muslims, and the last of them, the 'Tmam Mahdi", is believed to be in hiding and will appear at the end of time in order to bring about the victory ofthe Shi'a faith. Differences between Shiites or All's followers and Sunnis ,after Prophet Mohammad's death, about prophet's successor has shaped Shi'a and non-Shi'a views on some of the "Holy Qur'an", the "Hadith"-narrations from the prophet- and other Islamic subjects. Shi'a Islam believes that the "Imamate" is one of the fundamentals of Islam -a part of the Usul-Ad-din- and that one should follow the Imams of 'Ahlul Bayt', in order to correctly follow the Prophet Muhammad and his 'Sunnah'. The Shi'a believes that the Imams of Ahlul Bayt are infallible based on one of the verses of 'Quran'. According to 73

Sunni view, Ali was the third successor to 'Abu Bakr' and forth Caliphate, but, for the Shi'a, Ali is the first divinely sanctioned Imam, and first real successor of the Prophet Muhammad(s). Shi'a believes "Justice" of Allah as another fundamental of religion that means Allah is Just beyond all injustice. He does not treat his creatures without justice, nor does he rule them unfairly or cmelly, he rewards his obedient servants and punishes those who fall into sin but he does punish them for more than the sins they have committed. A controversial aspect of Shi'a theology is called 'taqiya' which means dissimulation of one's real beliefs. This doctrine allows believers to hide their tme beliefs for the sake of their own self-protection in the face of persecution. Also, One of the practices which distinguish the Shi'a from all other Islamic sects is the attention paid to pilgrimage to the Holy Shrines, such as those of the Prophet (S.A.) and the Imams (A.S.), and the building of magnificent and buildings over their tombs by good will and faith. The Shi'a has, also, a rich collection of prayers believed to be traced back to the Shi'a Imams. These prayers are held in a high esteem among the Shi'a. All of these things are done through the recommendations of the Imams, for they were continually persuading and encouraging their followers to make pilgrimages, so as to derive great reward from Allah. Shi'a has a great annual religious commemoration for 'Tmam Husayn", the grandson of Prophet Mohammad who was martyred in 'Karbla' by Umayyad Caliph Yazied's troops in Iraq (in 684CE). The Remembrance of Muharram and "Ashurah" in Iran is one of the most important religious commemorations among all Iranian Shi'a, from divers' ethnic groups, during the Islamic month of Muharram. From political views because Sunnis are a minority group in Iran and are living in separated borders of the country, but Shiites have vast majority and living more in the central areas of the country, in many previous centuries until now the political power was established by Shiites and the political leaders and governments have been Shiite. In this regard, some Sunnis may have their 74 claims for their portions in political power, especially in the case of the fact that some great powers and Sunni groups in neighboring and Arab countries are provoking them against Shiites. On other hands, the diversity and differences, between Iranian Sunnis themselves, also, remain. The Iranian Sunnis are divided in for branches, "Hanafi", "Hanbali", "Maleki" and "Shafi". Differences on religion in one side and differences in ethnic origin and living in different areas of the country make Iranian Sunnis separate from each other and having no unity. Shiite and Sunni, both, in other words, Muslims, have some important religious differences with Non-Muslims, although have some similarities that will be discussed in later chapters. Non-Muslims, themselves have vast differentiations -because their prophets, their books, their shrines and sacred persons and their religious rites are different. Which bonds, relates these diversities to each other and unite the adherents of these ethnicities and religions in Iran? The latter chapters will explain.

IV. Summary

As discussed, Iran has relatively vast diversity .At least eleven important Muslims ethnicities and seven small Muslims or related to Muslims ethnic groups and six Non-Muslim ethnic groups were discussed. Muslims important ethnicities divided to Aryan origins and mixes of Aryans and non-Aryans. The first comprises with near 75 percent of the whole Iran's population, and the later comprises with 22.5 percent of the population. Small Muslim or related to Muslim ethnic groups, also, with some Aryan origins and some Non-Aryan origins, include, more than one-third of one percent of the Iran's population. Iran from the viewpoint of religion also has its diversity. Muslims in Iran are divide to Shiite with more than 91 percent of the Iran's population and Sunni, with near 8 percent .Non-Muslims with less than 1 percent of the whole country population are Zoroastrians, Christians -Armenians and Assyrians- , 75

Jews, Bahais and Mandaeans, that most of them have also Iranian origins. Iranian ethnicities, also was shown in diagram 1, in the Appendix. In spite of vast diversity and many differentiations, Iranian states in Iran history tried to limit the diversities and make a unified society. In Chapter three the subject will be discussed. 76

I.V. Maps of Chapter two

1. Map Number 2: Contemporary Map of Iran (The Islamic Republic of Iran), with its 30 provinces.

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2. Map Numbers: Ethnic groups map of Iran

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I I PersiafJ I 1 Turltmen ••fieri Wtk <^i*^ I 1 Kurt I" I Mawndarani pQf&m Gulf •• Arab I I Talysii *DOHA r~lLuf g Other t^^-l Baio^ r— Qatar Sparsely populated ABUOHABI^ I lOashoai Untied Aral) ^^ MUSCAT Province boufKiary Emirates Oman 78

*References and endnotes

See details, in: W. B. Fisher, The Cambridge History of Iran, volume. 1, the land of Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968). ^ Dehkhoda, , "Turan",( Tehran, Tehran University Press) ^ See Achaemenian and Sasanian empires maps and other maps of greater Iran in the Appendix. (Maps No.5,6 and 7). " Richard N. Frye .Greater Iran A 20th Century Odyssey, , ISBN 1-56859-177-2 (Mazda Publishers, 2005 ),p: xi ^ The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. Ill: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, Review author[s]: Richard N. Frye, International Journal of Studies, Vol. 21, No. 3. ,(Aug 1989) pp.415. * The Treaty of Gulistan was a peace treaty concluded between Imperial Russia and Iran on October 24, 1813 in the village of Gulistan in Karabakh as a result of the first Russo-Persian War. The peace negotiations were precipitated by Lankaran's fall to Gen. Pyotr Kotlyarevsky on January 1, 1813.The treaty confirmed inclusion of modem day Azerbaijan, Daghestan and Eastern Georgia into the . ^ The Treaty of Turkmenchay was a treaty negotiated in Turkmenchay by which Iran recognized Russian over the Erivan khanate, khanate and the remainder of the Talysh khanate, establishing the River as the common boundary between both empires, after its defeat in 1828 at the end of the Russo-Persian War, 1826- 1828. * Nasser Takmil Homayoun, Kharazm: What do I know about Iran? 2004. ISBN 964-379- 023-1, p.78 'See Gershevitch, the Cambridge History of Iran Volume 2, the Median and Achaemenian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p: 1-25. "'lbid.p:2I-25. "http://www.iranchamber.com/people/articles/aryan_people_ori gins.php,M.SadeQ,The Origins of Aryan People '^See: See Gershevitch, the Cambridge History of Iran Volume 2, the Median and Achaemenian Periods, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p: 1-25. '^ See details in: Richard Nelson Frye, The Cambridge History of Iran: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, Vol. 4 ( Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, )especially 79

'* See: Ibid, p: 303-422.and also, Judith Kolbas, The Mongols in Iran Chingiz to Uljaytu 1220-1309 (Routledge December 2005). '^ See: Peter Jackson , Lawrence Lockhart The Cambridge History of Iran(Hardcover),ther timurid and safavid periods, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986),42-98 '^ Abrahmian himself says: These estimates have been obtained from the following sources: American University, The U.S. Army Area Handbook for Iran (Washington, D.C., GPO, 1963); S. Aliyev, The Problem of Nationalities in Contemporary Iran', the English summary of the Russian text is in The Central Asian Review, vol. XVI (1966),pp. 6270; S. I. Bruk, The Ethnic Composition of Iran', the English summary of the Russian text is in The Central Asian Review, vol. ~ 111(1960), pp. 417-20. ''' Ervand Abrahamian, Communism and Communalism in Iran: The Tudah and the Firqah-I Dimukrat International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 1, No. 4. (Oct., 1970), pp. 291- 316 '^ See Farzanfar, Ramesh, Ethnic Groups and the State: Azeris, Kurds and Baluch of Iran, Submitted to the Department of Political Science in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Ph.D., in Political Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology June, 1992.p.7. '.'This statistics derived ,according to compared different sources that was given by native scholars of the Iranian ethnicities ,other Iranian scholars, government statistics of the provinces and cities(especially 1384(2005)and 1385(2006) and Non-Iranian scholars. "° See more completed of this table in Appendixes. ^.' Peter N. Steams , The Encyclopedia of World History (Sixth Edition),The Medes and the Persians, c. 1500-559 (general editor, 2001 The Houghton Mifflin Company,2001). ^^ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Iran. (2001-05) "^ Ali Akbar Sarfaraz, Bahman Firuzmandi; "Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani", (Marlik, 1996.)P: 20 .See also E. Yarshater ,The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3: The Seleucid, Parthian and SasanidPeriods, Parti of 2 (Hardcover). ^.^Cottam, p: 51-61. ^^Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia,. Iran, (by Eric Hooglund), section 3.A.(accessed 24 July 2006). ^"^ Nader Entessar, The Kurds in Post-Revolutionary Iran and Iraq,Third World Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4. (Oct., 1984),p.912 80

" Minorisky, Studies in Caucasian History. (London: Taylor's Foreign Press, 1953) See also Wladimir Minorsky, encyclopedia of Islam, Kurds and Kurdistan, (Leiden, Brill, 1960), P: 1135. ^Vader Entessar , Kurdish Ethnonationalism, (Boulder .Lynne Rienner,1992)P:3. ^^ Ibid ,p:9-13 , and Entessar,p:4-5 '°. The Ahl-i Haqq or Yarsans is a religious sect with a Sufi and mystical order, primarily found in western Iran. ^' Imran Umar Baloch, Ethno nationalism: Understanding the dynamic of unrest in Balochestan ,(Ittehad Chemicals Limited ,Karachi)p:4 ^^ Inayatullah Baloch,The problem of Greater Baluchestan: A study of Baluch Nationalism (Stuttgart: Steiner erlage Wiesbaden, 1987),36-41. '^Aijaz Ahmad, The National Questions in Baluchestan in s. Akbar Zaidi.ed., Regional Imbalances and the National Question in Pakistan,(Lahore:Vanguard,1992),p.200. ^•^ Wikipedia Encyclopedia,Baloch Ancestry. " The Book of Kings" , is an enormous poetic opus written by the Persian poet around 1000 CE and is the national epic of the Persian-speaking world. '^ Ferdavsi,Shanamme "janahmad,The Baloch Cultural Herritage,(Karachi,Royl bookCompany,l982)pp:l-14 See also Mohamad Sardar Khan Baloch, History of Baluch Race and Baluchistan (Karachi:process pakistan; 1958). '.^Britannica Encyclopedia, retrieved June 2006, Azerbaijan People. See Also Encyclopedia Americana, volume 27, "", (Grolier Inc., New York 1998 retrieved 2006), page 276. ^'ibid. Azerbaijan people. *^" Sabokdel Mohammad Taghi, Iranian Peoples: Azaris, Language of Azeri People and Pan- Turkism", The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (retrieved 8 June 2006). *' Britannica Encyclopedia, Volume VI8, Page 22. "Ancient Persia", Page 22. '*.^ See, V. Minorsky, "Adharbayjan", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006. '1^ Britannica Encyclopedia, V0I.VI8, Ancient Persia, P: 22, Americana Encyclopedia (retrieved 8 June 2006). ^ Bacon, Elizabeth E. Central Asians under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change, Cornell University Press (1980). ''^https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tx.html#People,CIA World Factbook Turkmenistan 81

''.''Britanica Encyclopedia. For more study see, Brenda Shaffer, Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity. (Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, July 2002). •*7 Wikipedia Encyclopedia, ''.^Iranica Encyclopedia, Qshqai History. "*' See:Lois Beck:The Qashqa'i of Iran, New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1986. '^Encyclopaedia Iranica, p.215-16 ,Arab Tribes of Iran. '' See J.R. Perry, "The Banu Kal?: An Amphibious Brigand State in Khuzestan 1971, pi 33). '^ The CIA World Factbook. " Yossef Azizi Bani-Turoof , Speech delivered at the Industrial University of Isfahan, Translation by Abdolreza Ameri, in www.ahwaz.org.uk. ^^ Ismaili followed the Ismail, son of the sixth Imam as their seventh Imam and opposed to the twelver Shiite's candidate for Imam, i.e. Imam Mossa-Alkazem, so, they are called the "Ismailis" or "Seveners". '^For more study of Ahl-i Haqq see: Ziba Mir-Hosseini,Redefining the Truth: Ahl-i Haqq and the Islamic Republic of Iran British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 21, No. 2. (1994), pp. 211-228. And also Z. Mir-Hosseini, 'Faith, Ritual and Culture Among the Ahl-e Haqq of Southern Kurdistan', in P. Kreyenbroek (ed.), Kurdish Cultural Identity, London: Zed Press, 1995. '''Ziba Mir-Hosseini, Redefining the Truth: Ahl-i Haqq and the Islamic Republic of Iran British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 21, No. 2. (1994), p 216 " For more study about Zoroastrians, See Yarsharter , Ehsan The Cambridge history of Iran, vol.3, , (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983), esp.p:866-909.And see also: P. Mistree ,Khojeste, Zoratrianism, an Ethnic perspective,(Good Ipressions,Mombai,1988. '^See Mary Boyce "Zoroastrians, Their Religious Beliefs and Practices", (USA, Routledge, 2001). '"Ibid. '"Ibid, p: 49. *'. Nasser Fakouhi ,An Anthropological Evaluation on the Risk of Disappearance of Zoroastrian Community Culture in Contemporary Iran( University of Tehran, Iran ,Summer and autumn2005) .See:www.iranheritage.org/sixthbiennial/programme.htm, " www.iranchamber.com/religions/articles/history_of_christianity_iranl.php - 35k - Massoume Price, Iran Chamber society, Iran reUgions, Brief History of , 82

December 2002, p: I. See Also: Samuel Hugh Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia: Beginnings to 1500, San Francisco, 1992. "Cottam, .p:76. "Smith B. Sidney Smith Early History of Assyria, ( University o Michigan, 1928). *^ Olmatead, History of the Persian Empire, Chicago University Press, 1959, p.39 see also George Percy Badger, The Christians of Assyria Commonly Called Nestorians (London: W.H. Bartlett, 1869). " See: Eden Naby, "The Assyrians of Iran: Reunification of a 'Millat,' 1906-1914" International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 8. (1977) Pp. 237-249. *' Britanica Encyclopedia. ^* Wikipedia Encyclopedia,Persian Jew ^'': Bahaism is a religion that founded by Mirza Husayn 'All of Niir who later took the title of Baha'u'llah, in Iran during the 1840s. See: Esslemont, J.E., BahaHillah and the New Era, 5th ed., Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahais Publishing Trust. (1980).