From ABCCLIO's World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras website https://ancienthistory.abcclio.com/ PERSIAN EMPIRE
The Persian Empire was actually a series of imperial systems that ruled modernday Iran for more than 1,000 Relief of Persian guards on walls of Persepolis years. Its cities, legendary for their immense wealth, beauty, and style, made the empire a highly soughtafter prize for conquerors throughout the region.
Settlement of Region
Aryan tribes from the Caspian Sea region were the people who eventually became known as the Persians, and they settled the Persian plateau approximately 4,000 years ago. Surrounded by vast mountain ranges and stifling deserts, the valleys of the plateau were immensely fertile, allowing the Persians to establish themselves in the region known as Fars (from which the name Pars, or Persia, derives). By creating large agricultural surpluses, the people of Fars were able to build urban centers, as well as live in smaller rural communities, and a sophisticated culture began to develop.
The tribes of Fars were ruled by the Achaemenid dynasty, but the Persians as a whole were forced to swear allegiance to the Medes, a neighboring people whose authority was despised by the Persians. After many decades of threatened revolt against the rulers of Media, the establishment of the first Persian Empire came in 550 BCE, when Cyrus the Great, a halfPersian and halfMedian Achaemenid king, took power. With collaboration from defecting Median generals, Cyrus invaded Media, conquered its leaders, and established freedom for the Achaemenids. He also took control of the Medes' colonies in the Mediterranean and conquered Mesopotamia, establishing the first Persian Empire. Cyrus became the shah, or king, of Persia.
Achaemenid Rule
Darius I After Cyrus united all of the Persians—and even the Medes—under his rule, the Achaemenids continued to build their empire. Cyrus's son, Cambyses II, conquered Egypt, while the next king, Darius I, became another legendary ruler of Persia due to his successes. A strong leader with acclaimed vision for his land, he built an amazing capital at Persepolis, conquered western India, established a reliable postal service, and standardized all weights and measures. These accomplishments were important, for it allowed merchants throughout the empire to guarantee their shipments, as well as allowing the government to standardize taxation and therefore increase revenues.
Darius also expanded the Persian Empire west into Europe with his invasion of Greece in 513 BCE during the Persian Wars of Expansion. Although he met with fierce resistance by some of the citystates, Darius and his troops were able to successfully conquer Thrace. Moreover, his son, Xerxes I, sent troops to take even more of the Hellenic world and brutally conquered the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae during the Persian Wars. However, the rest of Greece remained forever out of reach for the Persians. Nonetheless, during the Achaemenid era, the Persians could claim imperial holdings in Asia, Africa, and Europe, making their empire vast and extremely wealthy.
The riches of the Persians became legendary, as people from throughout their territories paid huge amounts of tribute to the Achaemenid kings. Persian cities were renowned for their stunning architecture, wellwatered gardens, and abundant merchant districts. However, the wealth of the Persians carried a burden, for it tempted foreign invaders who wished to take the riches for themselves. Although others may have dreamed of taking Persia, it was up to a dramatic historical figure from Macedonia to actually do it: Alexander the Great.
Rule by Greeks and Parthian Era
As part of his famous sweep east, Alexander successfully conquered the Persians at their capital, Persepolis, Alexander the Great defeats Darius III at Issus in 330 BCE, bringing an end to Achaemenid rule over Persia. Now the Persians were ruled by the Greeks, their old enemies, until 171 BCE. It was in that year that a new Persian force, the Parthians, began to defeat the Greeks and rebuild Persian rule over their land. Famous for their excellent horsemanship and archery skills, the Parthians became the new leaders of Persia, but their rule was not an easy one.
It took the Parthians several decades to fully extricate the Greeks from their land, and by the time they did so, the Romans were beginning their great imperial expansions. Thus, for the next centuries, the Parthians were forced to battle their western neighbors for control of their country, particularly as the two empires shared a border at the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia.
This was the region where most of the fighting between the two powers occurred. Most famous of all of their encounters was the Battle of Carrhae in 53 CE. It was here that the Parthians introduced their new, incredible horses into battle, brutally defeating the Romans in their attempt to take Persia. Indeed, more than 10,000 Romans were taken prisoner by the Parthians at the end of the battle, a loss that made the government back in Rome wary about attempting to conquer the Parthians.
Sassanid Control and Muslim Conquest
Sassanid Palace, Ctesiphon Battling the Romans wore down the Parthians, however, and by 226 CE, a new family, the Sassanids, were able to take control of the Persian royal throne. Claiming descent from the ancient Achaemenids, the Sassanids maintained their authority over Persia for more than 400 years. They also implemented a rigid social hierarchy in their lands, often described as an actual caste system. The royal family was at the top of the system, followed by Zoroastrian priests, military officers and their soldiers, scribes, and then commoners.
Under the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism was declared the official religion of Persia, and other faiths were persecuted, sometimes intensely. Moreover, the Sassanids reinstituted battle with the Romans, even capturing the Roman emperor Valerian in 260. However, initial victories against Rome would eventually be disastrous for the Sassanids, as invaders from the north (known as the "White Huns") and continued fighting with the Byzantines in the west led to a breakdown of Sassanid authority. Civil war broke out by the seventh century. Finally, in 642, the Muslims conquered the Sassanians, the shah was executed, and the Persian Empire was no more.
Despite its eventual conquest by the Muslims, the Persian Empire continued to live on in the rich cultural traditions of its population. Indeed, the magnificent buildings, gardens, handicrafts, and artistic traditions of the Persians continued to inspire their Muslim conquerors for many centuries.
Nancy L. Stockdale Further Reading
Cook, J. M. The Persian Empire. London: Dent, 1983; Curtis, John, ed. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005; Green, Peter. Xerxes at Salamis. New York: Praeger, 1970; Sykes, Percy Molesworth. History of Persia. New York: Routledge, 2003.
COPYRIGHT 2016 ABCCLIO, LLC
This content may be used for noncommercial, classroom purposes only.
Image Credits
Sassanid Palace, Ctesiphon: Art Directors.co.uk/Ark Religion.com/StockphotoPro
Alexander the Great defeats Darius III at Issus: Jupiterimages
Darius I: Corbis
Relief of Persian guards on walls of Persepolis: Corel
MLA Citation
Stockdale, Nancy L. "Persian Empire." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras, ABCCLIO, 2016, ancienthistory.abcclio.com/Search/Display/574753. Accessed 22 Sept. 2016. http://ancienthistory.abcclio.com/Search/Display/574753?sid=574753&cid=0&oid=0&view=search&lang=&citeId=2&useConcept=False Entry ID: 574753 From ABCCLIO's World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras website https://ancienthistory.abcclio.com/ PERSIAN EMPIRE
The Persian Empire was actually a series of imperial systems that ruled modernday Iran for more than 1,000 Relief of Persian guards on walls of Persepolis years. Its cities, legendary for their immense wealth, beauty, and style, made the empire a highly soughtafter prize for conquerors throughout the region.
Settlement of Region
Aryan tribes from the Caspian Sea region were the people who eventually became known as the Persians, and they settled the Persian plateau approximately 4,000 years ago. Surrounded by vast mountain ranges and stifling deserts, the valleys of the plateau were immensely fertile, allowing the Persians to establish themselves in the region known as Fars (from which the name Pars, or Persia, derives). By creating large agricultural surpluses, the people of Fars were able to build urban centers, as well as live in smaller rural communities, and a sophisticated culture began to develop.
The tribes of Fars were ruled by the Achaemenid dynasty, but the Persians as a whole were forced to swear allegiance to the Medes, a neighboring people whose authority was despised by the Persians. After many decades of threatened revolt against the rulers of Media, the establishment of the first Persian Empire came in 550 BCE, when Cyrus the Great, a halfPersian and halfMedian Achaemenid king, took power. With collaboration from defecting Median generals, Cyrus invaded Media, conquered its leaders, and established freedom for the Achaemenids. He also took control of the Medes' colonies in the Mediterranean and conquered Mesopotamia, establishing the first Persian Empire. Cyrus became the shah, or king, of Persia.
Achaemenid Rule
Darius I After Cyrus united all of the Persians—and even the Medes—under his rule, the Achaemenids continued to build their empire. Cyrus's son, Cambyses II, conquered Egypt, while the next king, Darius I, became another legendary ruler of Persia due to his successes. A strong leader with acclaimed vision for his land, he built an amazing capital at Persepolis, conquered western India, established a reliable postal service, and standardized all weights and measures. These accomplishments were important, for it allowed merchants throughout the empire to guarantee their shipments, as well as allowing the government to standardize taxation and therefore increase revenues.
Darius also expanded the Persian Empire west into Europe with his invasion of Greece in 513 BCE during the Persian Wars of Expansion. Although he met with fierce resistance by some of the citystates, Darius and his troops were able to successfully conquer Thrace. Moreover, his son, Xerxes I, sent troops to take even more of the Hellenic world and brutally conquered the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae during the Persian Wars. However, the rest of Greece remained forever out of reach for the Persians. Nonetheless, during the Achaemenid era, the Persians could claim imperial holdings in Asia, Africa, and Europe, making their empire vast and extremely wealthy.
The riches of the Persians became legendary, as people from throughout their territories paid huge amounts of tribute to the Achaemenid kings. Persian cities were renowned for their stunning architecture, wellwatered gardens, and abundant merchant districts. However, the wealth of the Persians carried a burden, for it tempted foreign invaders who wished to take the riches for themselves. Although others may have dreamed of taking Persia, it was up to a dramatic historical figure from Macedonia to actually do it: Alexander the Great.
Rule by Greeks and Parthian Era
As part of his famous sweep east, Alexander successfully conquered the Persians at their capital, Persepolis, Alexander the Great defeats Darius III at Issus in 330 BCE, bringing an end to Achaemenid rule over Persia. Now the Persians were ruled by the Greeks, their old enemies, until 171 BCE. It was in that year that a new Persian force, the Parthians, began to defeat the Greeks and rebuild Persian rule over their land. Famous for their excellent horsemanship and archery skills, the Parthians became the new leaders of Persia, but their rule was not an easy one.
It took the Parthians several decades to fully extricate the Greeks from their land, and by the time they did so, the Romans were beginning their great imperial expansions. Thus, for the next centuries, the Parthians were forced to battle their western neighbors for control of their country, particularly as the two empires shared a border at the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia.
This was the region where most of the fighting between the two powers occurred. Most famous of all of their encounters was the Battle of Carrhae in 53 CE. It was here that the Parthians introduced their new, incredible horses into battle, brutally defeating the Romans in their attempt to take Persia. Indeed, more than 10,000 Romans were taken prisoner by the Parthians at the end of the battle, a loss that made the government back in Rome wary about attempting to conquer the Parthians.
Sassanid Control and Muslim Conquest
Sassanid Palace, Ctesiphon Battling the Romans wore down the Parthians, however, and by 226 CE, a new family, the Sassanids, were able to take control of the Persian royal throne. Claiming descent from the ancient Achaemenids, the Sassanids maintained their authority over Persia for more than 400 years. They also implemented a rigid social hierarchy in their lands, often described as an actual caste system. The royal family was at the top of the system, followed by Zoroastrian priests, military officers and their soldiers, scribes, and then commoners.
Under the Sassanid Empire, Zoroastrianism was declared the official religion of Persia, and other faiths were persecuted, sometimes intensely. Moreover, the Sassanids reinstituted battle with the Romans, even capturing the Roman emperor Valerian in 260. However, initial victories against Rome would eventually be disastrous for the Sassanids, as invaders from the north (known as the "White Huns") and continued fighting with the Byzantines in the west led to a breakdown of Sassanid authority. Civil war broke out by the seventh century. Finally, in 642, the Muslims conquered the Sassanians, the shah was executed, and the Persian Empire was no more.
Despite its eventual conquest by the Muslims, the Persian Empire continued to live on in the rich cultural traditions of its population. Indeed, the magnificent buildings, gardens, handicrafts, and artistic traditions of the Persians continued to inspire their Muslim conquerors for many centuries.
Nancy L. Stockdale Further Reading
Cook, J. M. The Persian Empire. London: Dent, 1983; Curtis, John, ed. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005; Green, Peter. Xerxes at Salamis. New York: Praeger, 1970; Sykes, Percy Molesworth. History of Persia. New York: Routledge, 2003.
COPYRIGHT 2016 ABCCLIO, LLC
This content may be used for noncommercial, classroom purposes only.
Image Credits
Sassanid Palace, Ctesiphon: Art Directors.co.uk/Ark Religion.com/StockphotoPro
Alexander the Great defeats Darius III at Issus: Jupiterimages
Darius I: Corbis
Relief of Persian guards on walls of Persepolis: Corel
MLA Citation
Stockdale, Nancy L. "Persian Empire." World History: Ancient and Medieval Eras, ABCCLIO, 2016, ancienthistory.abcclio.com/Search/Display/574753. Accessed 22 Sept. 2016. http://ancienthistory.abcclio.com/Search/Display/574753?sid=574753&cid=0&oid=0&view=search&lang=&citeId=2&useConcept=False Entry ID: 574753