Women's Lives Around the World : a Global Encyclopedia / Susan M

WOMEN’S LIVES AROUND THE WORLD A Global Encyclopedia

VOLUME 3 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Susan M. Shaw, General Editor Nancy Staton Barbour, Patti Duncan, Kryn Freehling-Burton, and Jane Nichols, Editors

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Shaw, Susan M. (Susan Maxine), 1960- editor. Title: Women's lives around the world : a global encyclopedia / Susan M.

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Nepal governmental system. Then, in 1960, during the Panchayat period, the cabinet was dismissed until 1990, when a democratic system as part of a constitutional monarchy was Overview of Country established (CIA 2017). Nepal is a landlocked nation in South Asia bordered by The last decade of the 20th century and the beginning India to the south and China to the north. Nepal is a geo- of the new millennium were marked by political instability graphically and ethnically diverse country, with arche- and conflict in Nepal. Political tensions and volatility cul- ological evidence showing humans have lived in the minated in a decade-long civil war known as the Maoist Kathmandu Valley for more than 10,000 years. It has a People’s War (1996–2006). During this period, the Nepali total surface area of about 56,000 square miles (147,181 government had several different prime ministers, and in sq. km) and is home to 8 of the world’s 10 tallest moun- June 2001, 10 members of the royal family, including King tain peaks, including the tallest peak—Mount Everest at Birendra and Queen Aishwarya, were killed by Crown 29,035 feet (8,850 m). Nepal is broadly divided in three Prince Dipendra before he shot himself. Over the next few geographic areas with multiple climate zones extended in years, there was an increase in violence until a temporary bands across the country as altitudes increase. In the south, cease-fire in 2003 which was followed by another uptick the Tarai region consists of low flat river plains and sub- in violence. In 2005, King Gyanendra reinstated a total tropical and tropical climates. The hill region has multiple monarchy and then reinstated the Parliament in 2006. In mountain ranges and a temperate climate. The mountain November 2006, the Maoists and the government signed region is composed of the Himalayas in northern Nepal the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, formally ending and experiences subalpine and alpine climates. the war (BBC 2016). An interim constitution was adopted The modern era of Nepali history is marked by the in 2007, and in 2008, the Constituent Assembly formally beginning of a unified state under the Shah monarchy in declared Nepal to be a democratic republic, abolished 1768 by Gorkha ruler Prithvi Narayan Shah. Following the the monarchy, and elected the first president, Ram Baran Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816), Nepal maintained inde- Yadav. Eventually, in 2015, the Parliament passed a new pendence, and treaties with Great Britain established the constitution that Nepal currently operates under. Nepal’s country’s boundaries. The Nepali government was ruled by state structure consists of 7 provinces and 75 districts. heredity prime ministers, called Ranas, until 1951, when a Nepal is among the poorest countries in the world. cabinet system with political parties was brought into the Approximately one-fourth of the population lives below

205

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the poverty level, but the number of people living below Indo-Arayns. While discrimination based on caste is illegal the poverty line has decreased from 42 percent of the pop- in Nepal, it is still in practice, and women and children’s ulation in 1996 (UN Women 2017). Agriculture is the core caste status, particularly being a member of the Dalit, or of Nepal’s economy, comprising nearly 30 percent of the untouchable caste, can impede access to education, health country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and providing a care, and economic opportunities (UNICEF 2006). living for 70 percent of the population. Services make up Women in urban areas have greater access to basic 50 percent of Nepal’s GDP, and industry comprises 13 per- resources than those in rural communities, with women cent. The most common industries in Nepal are tourism, from the mid and far western regions facing the most carpet textile production, rice, jute, sugar, oilseed mills, barriers. Since the 1970s and the rise of a global focus and cigarette, cement, and brick production. Remittances on development programs to support women, Nepal has are another significant component of Nepal’s economy, seen an influx of funding and organizations, such as the accounting for as much as 29 percent of the GDP (CIA UN Women program and UNICEF, as well as the growth 2017). In 2014, Nepal and India entered trade agreements of national nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and to work to increase Nepal’s hydropower potential, a poten- local organizations working on issues ranging from edu- tial economic area to grow. In the spring of 2015, Nepal cation, to health care, to property rights. was struck by a massive 7.8 magnitude earthquake that Over the past several decades there have been positive resulted in more than 8,000 deaths and an estimated eco- indicators for women’s status in Nepal, such as a reduc- nomic impact of USD$7 billion (Kumar 2017). tion in infant and maternal mortality rates; however, much As of 2016, the population of Nepal is 29,033,914 (CIA work remains. Women and children were greatly impacted 2017). In the 2011 national census, there were 125 different by the Maoist insurgency. The war resulted in more than ethnic groups and 123 languages reported. The largest eth- 15,000 deaths, of which 8 percent were women and 3 nic group in Nepal is the Chhettri people at almost 17 per- percent were children (Malla 2011, 58). In 2014, the UN cent of the population. This is followed by the Brahman-Hill Development Programme (UNDP) ranked Nepal 145th people (12%), Magar (7%), Tharu (6.6%), Tamang (5.8%), out of 188 nations based on the Gender Inequality Index Newar (5%), Kami (4.8%), Muslim (4.4%), Tadav (4%), Rai (GII; 0.548) (UNDP 2017). (2.3%), Gurung (2%), Damai/Dholii (1.8%), Thaku (1.6%), Limbu (1.5%), Sarki and Teli (1.4%), Chamar/Harijan/ Ram (1.3%), Koiri/Kushwaha (1.2%), and other ethnici- Girls and Teens ties totaling 19 percent of the population (CIA 2017). The Girls’ everyday life in Nepal is shaped by ethnicity, class, official language of Nepal is Nepali, which is spoken by and location. Girls across Nepal have higher mortality rates almost 45 percent of the country. Other significant spo- than boys for children aged 1–4, have less access to educa- ken languages include Maithali, Bhojpuri, Tharu, Tamang, tion, and have household responsibilities, such as cleaning, Newar, Magar, Bajjika, Urdu, Avadhi, Limbu, and Gurung. cooking, and helping to care for siblings (UNICEF 2006). Hinduism is the prominent religion of Nepal, being prac- In rural areas, girls are additionally expected to gather ticed by 81 percent of the population. Buddhism (9%) is water and firewood or fodder and to participate in agri- the next most commonly practiced religion, followed by culture. The literacy rate of women in Nepal is 53 percent, Islam (4.4%), Kirant (3%), Christianity (1.4%), and other while for men it is 76 percent, and the school life expec- (0.5%) (CIA 2017). tancy for girls is 13 years. Child labor is common in Nepal; Broadly speaking, Nepali culture is influenced by a in 2008, 34 percent of children ages 5–14 were engaged in strong patriarchal culture, with women having unequal child labor. A 2006 estimate stated that more than 127,000 status in many areas, including literacy and education, children perform labor as domestic workers, factory work- employment, health, and law, as well as in the prevalence of ers, bonded laborers, and rag pickers (UNICEF 2006). It sexual and domestic violence. The lives of women and girls is the societal expectation that girls will marry and have in Nepal are shaped by a variety of factors, including eth- children. Child marriage is still practiced in Nepal, despite nicity, class, religion, and location, which result in different the law stating the minimum age for marriage is 18 with cultures and customs as well as different levels of vul- the permission of a guardian and 20 without. Thirty-seven nerability. Anthropologists have distinguished two main percent of girls marry before the age of 18, and 10 percent areas that ethnic groups fall under, Tibeto-Burmans and marry before the age of 15 (HRW 2016).

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Health (World Education News and Reviews 2017). In 2009, Nepal implemented a School Sector Reform Program with two The 2016 estimated infant mortality rate in Nepal was 28 levels, basic education consisting of grades 1–8 and sec- deaths for every 1,000 live births, and 30 percent of chil- ondary education consisting of grades 9–12. In Nepal, dren under the age of 5 years are underweight (CIA 2017). there are both public and private schools. Community and Common health threats to Nepali children are malnutri- government-run schools are typically used for primary tion, diarrhea, and acute respiratory infection. As girls school, whereas private schools are offered at the second- age, an additional health barrier they face is around men- ary level. Access to private schools is influenced by class struation. Across Nepal the practice of chhaupadi contin- and location, with middle-class families in urban areas ues to varying degrees, despite it being outlawed in 2005. being more likely to afford and be located near a higher- Chhaupadi are centuries-old customs linked to the Hindu quality private school. religion that dictate the mobility and interactions women Enrollment at all levels of education is increasing, with and girls can have while on their periods. In the most more than 90 percent of primary school–aged children extreme instances, girls and women are sent to live in cow- enrolled in school. At the secondary level, enrollment grew sheds during the times they are menstruating, with lim- for grades 9–10, from 40 percent in 2004 to 52 percent in ited access to food and water. Other forms of this practice include restrictions on what women can eat, where they can go, and whom they can interact with or touch while Women’s Voices menstruating (Hodal 2016). This practice is most preva- lent in the mid and far west, but in subtle forms, it exists Kumari: The Living Goddess of Nepal throughout the country. Some studies show changing attitudes toward menstruation among younger generations of My name is Sanju Gharti. When people hear me say Nepali youth and a belief that these restrictions should no that I am a woman from Nepal who is pursuing a longer practiced (Acharya 2003, 72). degree in women, gender, and sexuality studies here in the United States, the first thing that crosses their minds is that women in Nepal must be oppressed Sex Education and marginalized, because they assume that Nepal At the secondary education level, students in Nepal are is far removed from civilization. They are quick to supposed to learn sex education through a health course. A assume that we are culturally backward in terms 2006 study found that sex education was unevenly imple- of assigning equal status and opportunities to both mented in the eight schools sampled. Issues contributing men and women. to the poor implementation included inadequate teacher But what they might not know is that we have preparation, lack of teaching materials, and lack of school traditions that uphold women to the status of god- and community support (Pokharel, Kulczycki, and Shakya desses. Not only does Nepal have female deities, 2006, 159). However, other groups are working to provide avatars that are worshipped and revered as statues, sex education outside of school. The Youth Activists Lead- images, and symbols, but we also have a real living ership Council, composed of 10 youth activists ages 16–24, goddess known as Kumari. Kumari is the tradition advocates at the national and international level for com- of worshipping young, prepubescent girls believed prehensive sex education and health policies that support to be manifestations of the divine female energy, reproductive health and family planning services (Youth or devi, in Hindu-Buddhist religious tradition. The Activists Leadership Council 2012). word Kumari derives from the Sanskrit word kau- marya, meaning virgin; hence, Kumari is believed to be the living virgin goddess. As unlikely as it Education might seem, this strong persona of a female god The Ministry of Education and Sports, established in 1951, in an essentially male-dominated orthodox soci- oversees education in Nepal. Prior to 1951, education ety validates the existence of matriarchal societies was reserved for the royal family and members of upper in the ancient times within Nepal, and it empowers castes. Nepal has more than 34,000 primary and second- women today. ary schools, 9 universities, and more than 1,000 colleges

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2011, and from 6.8 percent to 9.4 percent for grades 11–12 boys. Among adults, 13 percent of women smoke tobacco (World Education News and Reviews 2017). A large num- and 38 percent of men (WHO 2015). ber of Nepali students who move on to attend college or university travel abroad for their studies; in 2010, there Reproductive and Maternal Health were over 24,000 Nepali students studying abroad (World Women’s access to health care, particularly reproductive Education News and Reviews 2017). While enrollment in and maternal health care, is influenced by ethnicity and school is increasing, there are many challenges for girls location. Studies have shown Brahmin, Chhetri, and Newar seeking education, particularly girls from minority ethnici- women are more likely to have access to health care, while ties and in poor and rural communities who are more likely women in the lower class and rural locations have less to not attend or to leave school early (Maslak 2003, 11). If access to care (UNFPA 2007). Addressing maternal health a family has to choose which children they send to school, care and decreasing maternal mortality rates have been an they will typically prioritize the boys’ education. The need area of focus for health organizations working in Nepal. for girls’ labor at home and early marriages are also reasons In 1999, Nepal’s maternal mortality rate was 901 deaths why girls do not attend school or leave school early. per 100,000 live births, and that decreased to 258 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2015 (Liu et al. 2016, 58). Factors Health that affect maternal health include malnutrition and ane- mia, along with age. Younger women not yet being fully In Nepal, health care access is varied across location and developed can increase complications during delivery. ethnic, class, and gender markers, with wealthier citizens Older women who have multiple or closely spaced births being able to afford private care or travel to neighboring are more likely to have low birth weight babies (UNICEF countries for specialized treatments and poorer citizens 2006). In 2007, 50 percent of women in Nepal received not having access to basic or quality care. Since 1991, antenatal care—health care visits during their pregnancy. with the adoption of the National Health Policy, there Only 36 percent of births were attended by a skilled health have been multiple plans to address the lack of access to professional (WHO 2015). Organizations and health care quality health care in Nepal in the public and private sec- workers are working to increase the number of rural tors. Health care services are provided at the district level women who visit health care centers for delivery. through health posts, subhealth posts, primary health care The government of Nepal only allows women employ- centers, and district hospitals. There are also regional hos- ees to take maternity leave twice in their lifetime (ILO pitals and facilities that provide specialized care (WHO 1998). The government has a policy that allows women to Country Office for Nepal 2007, 20). Challenges facing the take 52 days of maternity leave; however, many employ- health care system in Nepal include finances, rural health ers do not follow the policy. Women working in informal care facilities lacking resources, clean facilities, and staff sectors, such as agriculture and domestic service, are paid and strengthening the health care workforce with better daily, so women return to work as quickly as possible training, resources, and greater numbers as well as improv- following childbirth, which can result in problems with ing the availability of health information. prolapsed uteruses, a health issue that is not uncommon In 2016, the life expectancy for women in Nepal was for Nepali women in rural communities. As of 2016, the 71, while the male life expectancy was the age of 70. Infant fertility rate for women in Nepal was 2.1, and the use of mortality rates in Nepal have been decreasing since the contraceptives has been steadily increasing. Contracep- 1970s, when 250 infants died for every 1,000 live births. tive prevalence among women in Nepal was 29 percent in In 2016, the infant mortality rate was 30 deaths per every 1996, and in 2007, it was up to 50 percent (WHO 2015). In 1,000 live births. Nepal has also worked to decrease the 2002, Nepal legalized abortion for women in the first 12 number of children who die before the age of 5. In 2010, weeks of pregnancy and up to 18 weeks of pregnancy in 34,000 children out of 730,000 died before the age of 5; the case of rape or incest. this is a decrease from prior years. The common causes of death before the age of 5 are premature birth, acute res- Diseases and Disorders piratory infections, birth asphyxia, neonatal sepsis, injuries, and diarrhea (WHO 2015). In Nepal, tobaccos use In Nepal, the leading cause of death is chronic obstructive among youth is at 16 percent for girls and 24 percent for pulmonary disease, accounting for 9.2 percent of deaths in

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2012. This is followed by ischemic heart disease at 9.2 per- animals, farming, and food preservation activities, and they cent, stroke at 8.2 percent, and lower respiratory infections may participate in forestry collections and other coopera- at 7 percent (WHO 2015). Both outdoor and indoor pollu- tives, in addition to caring for children (Shrestha 2008, 3). tion contribute to the respiratory and heart health–related Women in urban areas are more often solely serving their illnesses and deaths in Nepal. In rural areas, 91 percent of households and raising their children or are employed in the population uses solid fuels, such as biomass or coal, for formal labor industries, but they also maintain households cooking, and in urban areas, 29 percent of the population and perform domestic labor at home. cooks with solid fuels. Due to their roles in the family and In waged employment, in industries such as carpet community, women and children are at greater risk for dis- and garment production, women are concentrated in low- eases caused by air pollution (WHO and UN on Climate paying, less productive, and capital-intensive jobs (Acharya Change 2015). Other causes of death in Nepal are diarrheal 2003, 45). Women in the agricultural and nonagricul- diseases, accounting for 3.3 percent of deaths in 2012, fol- tural sectors are paid three-quarters of what men are paid lowed by self-harm and tuberculosis (TB), each causing 3 (UNFPA 2007, 19). In a 2008 study of women employed percent of deaths. Diabetes mellitus caused 2.8 percent of in the organized sector of Kathmandu Valley, researchers deaths, followed by road injuries at 2.7 percent. The next found the main motivational drive behind their employ- most common cause of death in 2012 was from preterm ment for low-level employees was independence. For the birth complications, at 2.5 percent. mid- and high-level women employees, who typically had In 2015, it was estimated that 39,000 adults over the age more education or skill training, their motivation was of 15 in Nepal live with HIV (UNAIDS 2017). Of those, an based on career advancement. In both the public and pri- estimated 14,000 cases are women and an additional 1,600 vate sectors, women accounted for less than 12 percent of cases are children, up to the age of 14. Among women and the workforce (Shrestha 2008, 30). men ages 15–49, 28 percent say they have experienced Migrant labor is another source of employment for the discriminatory attitudes toward their HIV-positive status. Nepalese people. Historically, this has been an option pre- Health workers are working to prevent mother-to-child dominantly available for men, but women are increasingly transmission of HIV, and per the World Health Organi- leaving Nepal for work in India and other countries, with zation (WHO), the number of pregnant women receiving some studies suggesting that women are as much as 10 antiretroviral therapy (ART) was at 35 percent in 2015 percent of the migrant Nepali workers in India (UN Coun- (UNAIDS 2017). try Team in Nepal 2011, 70). Many of the migrant workers from Nepal are from lower-caste communities and are often illiterate, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation. Employment This is particularly true for girls and women who are vul- Women and girls in Nepal participate in both formal and nerable to being trafficked and who are often employed in informal labor. While many differences emerge because of domestic services while abroad, which leaves them vulner- location, ethnicity, education, and skills, women’s labor can able to abusive and exploitative practices. Migrant labor be divided into five broad categories: woman who partly also affects the families who remain at home in Nepal work and hire labor for household work; women who fully when workers leave, including the disruption of family work in their households; women who work in their house- relationships and additional burdens for caregiving for the holds, agriculture and microenterprises; women who do women, children, and elderly who remain. Some women wage-earning work and household work; and women who who migrate for work return home to find their husbands work fully outside the home as wage earners (Shrestha living with another woman (UN Country Team in Nepal 2008, 2). Household work involves caring for children, the 2011, 71). production of goods and services for the consumption of the household, as well as agricultural production for the consumption of the household and to sell to others. Most Family Life of the Nepali population lives in rural areas, and women Due to Nepal’s multiethnic, regionally diverse popula- are actively involved in farming, household production, tion and the former caste system, women from different and microenterprises. Rural women are involved in the backgrounds and locations have different gender role daily collection of water and fuel for kitchen fires, raising expectations. Bahun-Chhetris people experience some of

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the more severe forms of gender discrimination. Compar- grounds for divorce include a husband taking another atively, Tiebto-Burman women have a higher status, and wife, if a husband abandons her more than three years, or evidence suggests that some ethnic groups from the hill if the family does not provide the wife with food or clothes. region have more equitable inheritance traditions (Malla Additionally, divorced women are not granted custody of 2011, 97). However, the strong influence of patriarchy and their children (UN Development Fund for Women 2002, a legacy of Hinduism influence laws and cultural practices 6). However, now women can file for divorce with common that generally have resulted in the societal expectation for consent with their husbands. Widows face both physical girls and women to marry, have children, and take care and psychological violence, being viewed in many cultures of the household. Women and girls collect water, prepare as a symbol of bad luck or cursed, and the level of discrim- food, care for children, and clean, with additional or vari- ination faced by widows is greater than married women ant tasks influenced by class and location. Sexuality expec- (Mānava Adhikārako lāgi Mahilā 2010, 27). While remar- tations vary by class, ethnicity, religion, and location. In riage is allowed, is not a common practice in many Nepali the 2015 constitution, Nepal recognized the rights of les- communities. A report in 2000 found that 48 percent of bian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people to be free from the widow population in Nepal was over the age of 60. In discrimination and to have state identification that aligns a 2005 study, research found that young widows benefited with a person’s gender identity, but it does not address from moving away from traditional norms by separating same-sex marriage (Panthi 2016). themselves from extended family who could be abusive once the husband died, whereas elderly widows benefited from more traditional structures and living with extended Marriage family. The study also found that widows are increasingly Marriage is an expected component of life in Nepal. In using different tactics for survival, depending on economic 2001, 94 percent of women and 81 percent of men were trends, education, and age (Galvin 2005, 148). married before the age of 30 (UNFPA 2007, 22). Marriage traditions vary among regions, ethnicities, and religions, but it is common practice in Nepal for families to pro- Politics vide daijo—a form of dowry that often includes clothing Throughout Nepal’s history, women have been involved in and cooking utensils, and more items depending on the different political movements, from the Anglo-Nepalese economic status of the family (Galvin 2005, 7). While War (1814–1816) to the Nepal civil war (1996–2006). it is not legal for girls to marry before the age of 18, the Women in Nepal were granted suffrage in 1947. The first median age of women for their first marriage is 16.6 years formal women’s organization, the Women’s Committee, (UNICEF 2006). Child marriage at early ages is most was formed in 1917 in the Siraha District. Then, in 1947, common in the rural and Tarai regions of the country women actively involved in the movement against the and among Dalit girls. In Nepal 37 percent of girls marry Ranas formed the Nepal Women’s Association, and in sub- before the age of 18, and 10 percent marry before the age sequent years, different women’s political organizations of 15 (HRW 2016). emerged (Malla 2011, 47). Women were active partici- For women, along with social pressures for marriage, pants during the Panchayat period (1960–1990) of Nepali there is also the understanding that marriage is a means history, and they worked at the local and national levels. of livelihood. Once married, women typically move to The National Assembly used a quota system for women’s the husband’s household, and marriage is the most com- participation, reserving three seats for women (Malla mon reason for women to migrate within the county. 2011, 50). Women were also involved in the efforts to end While polygamy is illegal in Nepal, there are still polyg- the Panchayat system and institute a democracy in Nepal amous marriages practiced among some hill people and in the early 1990s. among members of the Dalit caste. Additionally, in some Women were greatly impacted by, and active partici- Tibetan communities in the high mountain region, small pants in, the Maoist insurgency, also known as the Mao- numbers of women participate in polyandry (UNFPA ist People’s War. Women who participated in the People’s 2007, 23). War were predominantly from poor rural communities In Nepal, women face barriers in the case of divorce and marginalized ethnicities. Throughout the war, women or becoming a widow. Historically for women, the legal were active in all levels of the insurgency, from being

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Women’s Voices

Shyam Kumari Sah Shyam Kumari Sah is an activist from Nepal who focuses on women’s rights. Sah helped found Mukti Nepal, an organization that “was established with the aim of ending all kinds of inequalities and violence against women” (Pokhrel 2013). Mukti means liberation, a fitting word for her organization. Sah works on issues of domestic violence, accusa- tions of witchcraft, rape and sexual assault, and dowry. In 2011, the French embassy of Nepal recognized her with a human rights award for her work with Mukti Nepal. Sah travels to remote villages to educate women on their rights, often putting her safety on the line. In one village, nearly 50 villagers encircled her, ready to kill her, until a human rights defender arrived on the scene and stopped the potential violence. She is committed to women’s access to justice, an end to violence against women, and peace. —Melissa Jacobs Embassy of France in Kathmandu. 2012. “Shyam Kumari Shah’s Biography.” January 30. Retrieved from http://www.amba france-np.org/Mrs-Shyam-Kumari-Sah. Martin, Jeanne. 2012. “Shyam Kumari Sah: The Right Fight.” Spotlight Nepal, January 27. Retrieved from http://www.spotlightne pal.com/News/Article/SHYAM-KUMARI-SAH-The-Right-Fight. Pokhrel, Ambika. 2013.“Shyam Kumari Sah: An Emerging Female Peacebuilder.” Insight on Conflict, July 9. Retrieved from http://www .insightonconflict.org/2013/07/emerging-womenpeacebuilder/#?1#?1#WebrootPlugIn#?1#?1#PhreshPhish#?1#?1#agtpwd.

members of village defender groups to guerilla combat- Since the 1990s, laws have attempted to address some of ants (Manchanda 2001, 236). Maoists actively recruited the discriminatory statutes in Nepal; however, challenges women and spoke to issues important to them, such as still exist. While daughters and sons are equally entitled domestic violence. In the 2008 election that followed the to inherit property from their parents, girls can only claim peace agreement, women representatives made up almost their share of the property if they remain unmarried until 33 percent of representatives in the Constituent Assembly the age of 35, and if they marry, women must return the (Malla 2011, 72). In 2015, President Bidhya Devi Bhandari property to their natal household. Work is being done to became the first female head of state of Nepal. While increase women’s and girls’ access to resources, but legal women in Nepal have been politically engaged through- policies still largely revolve around marriage in determin- out time, barriers remain to having an equitable number ing women’s access to and control of property (UNFPA of women in government. These barriers include illiteracy, 2007, 60). In the 2001 census, 11 percent of households poverty, social barriers, and lack of support from family in Nepal had female landownership, 5.5 percent of house- members. holds were in a woman’s name, and only 7.2 percent of In 2015, the Parliament passed a new constitution that women owned livestock (Acharya 2003, 47). Women and Nepal currently operates under. The constitution includes feminist organizers in Nepal have worked to increase broad language about equal rights for women, but legal women’s and girls’ status in society and to address issues barriers for women still exist in Nepal, particularly sur- such unequal laws and social practices as well as such rounding citizenship, property, and inheritance rights. issues as sexual and domestic violence. The constitution states that men can pass their citizenship to their children, but this same right does not extend to women. Women married to foreign nationals cannot pass Religious and Cultural Roles on their citizenship, and children born to single Nep- Hinduism is the predominant religion in Nepal, followed alese women will only be able to apply for citizenship if by Buddhism; the country has deep connections for both the whereabouts of their fathers are known. There is no faiths. The Himalayas are considered sacred in the Hindu citizenship provision for children born to single mothers faith, and Nepal is the birthplace of the Buddha. Women outside of the country (Dulal 2017). keep devoted religious practice in Nepal. The two largest

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festivals in Nepal are Dashain, a 15-day national celebra- workplace, with some populations of girls and women tion, and Tihar, a 5-day celebration known as the “festival being particularly vulnerable to trafficking. of lights.” Each day of the festivals carries specific meaning and worshipping rituals (UN Development Fund for Sexual Harassment Women 2002, 51). The ethnic and religious diversity in Sexual harassment is prominent in Nepali workplaces. A Nepal results in varied cultural practices for women. Some study of workplaces, including the carpet and garment cultural practices, such as chhaupadi, the belief based in industry, hotels, airlines, hospitals, restaurants, and gov- Hinduism that women are unclean during menstruation ernment offices, found that 48 percent of women employ- and after the delivery of a child, still have negative impacts ees experience sexual harassment (Shrestha et al. 2010, on women in Nepal today. 6). Women working as low- and mid-level employees are among the most prone to harassment. Barriers to addressing sexual harassment include a lack of awareness that Issues sexual harassment is an issue worth addressing and few Community Forestry repercussions for harassers because women who face Nepal has a vast amount of forest resources and a broad sexual harassment are often from lower classes. However, range of biodiversity. Since 1978, community forestry has women from all classes experience harassment, including been an important development project in Nepal. Com- women politicians. munity forests are part of the national forests given to community user groups for development and use based Domestic Violence on a work plan. User groups set the price of forest prod- Domestic violence in Nepal happens in all communities. ucts for sale and distribution among the members for the Domestic violence includes physical abuse, sexual abuse, group’s collective benefit. The objectives of community for- psychological and emotional abuse, and economic abuse. estry are to support sustainability, improve forest condi- The patriarchal structure and cultural, religious, and social tions, and supplement local needs (Agarwal 2010, 88). The norms in Nepal contribute to household violence against benefits of community forestry include the protection and women and girls. Perpetrators of domestic violence are maintenance of forests by community members, a partic- usually the women’s husband or male partner, her in-laws, ipatory democratic form of management, and increasing or other family members. The type of violence experienced self-reliance for communities through income-generating can include beatings and verbal abuse, including while activities. In Nepal, the community forests are managed women and girls are pregnant. Reported causes of violence by an executive committee consisting of 9–15 members vary from arguments over money, perceived failure to elected by the general body. Women play a significant role properly perform household tasks, or disrespect (UNFPA in community forestry in many ways. They contribute 2007, 32). Women remain in violent household for various their indigenous knowledge of forest resources in com- reasons, including an inability to support themselves and munity forestry group meetings and are active workers in their children, fear of losing respect in family and commu- promoting wood-saving stoves. Women participate in the nity, threats from the perpetrators, hope of change, and for daily management of forests and soil conservation efforts their children. and skills trainings. As of 2008, there were 560 all-women forest user groups in Nepal (Shrestha 2008, 39). Sexual Violence A 2014 study of the national prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in Nepal found that almost 15 Violence against Women percent of women ages 15–49 experienced sexual violence. Violence against women in Nepal manifests at the family, During the People’s War, sexual violence was used by both community, and state levels and takes many forms, includ- the Maoists as well by the state security forces through ing domestic violence, sexual assault, sexual harassment, coerced sex work around army barracks (Rajbhandari and trafficking. At the state level, violence manifests in the 2006, 17). Young girls experience sexual violence through policies or lack of policies toward women. At the family child marriage as well as trafficking. Children and young and community levels, women and girls experience vio- women are the most vulnerable to sexual exploitation and lence and harassment from family members and in the abuse in Nepal. In 2006, the Ministry of Women, Children,

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and Social Welfare estimated that 40,000 women aged among Women in Nepal.” International Journal of Gynecology 12–30 were working in cabin and dance restaurants and and Obstetrics 134.1: 58. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.11.020. massage parlors in the Kathmandu Valley and are forced to Malla, Meena Vaidya. 2011. Political Socialization of Women in Nepal. New Delhi: Adroit Publishers. engage in sexual activities. A 2001 study found that every Mānava Adhikārako lāgi Mahilā. 2010. A Journey toward year 12,000 children are trafficked outside of the country, Empowerment & the Status of Single Women in Nepal, June and of those children, more than 50 percent were under the 2010. Kathmandu: Women for Human Rights, Single Women age of 16; 25 percent were under the age of 14 (UN Coun- Group. try Team in Nepal 2011, 35). A 2005 study found that there Manchanda, Rita. 2001. Women, War, and Peace in South Asia: were 25,000 Nepali sex workers in India (UNFPA 2007, 31). Beyond Victimhood to Agency. New Delhi and Thousand Kali Furman Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Maslak, Mary Ann. 2003. Daughters of the Tharu: Gender, Eth- nicity, Religion, and the Education of Nepali Girls. Reference Further Resources Books in International Education. New York: Routledge Acharya, Bhawani Shanker, Sunity Shrestha Hada, and Gyan Falmer. Bahadur Tamang. 2012. Women in Management: Balanc- National Network against Girl Trafficking. 2001.Women’s Voice: ing Work and Family, a Study on Nepalese Women at Deci- Situation Analysis on the Problems Faced by Nepalese Women: sion-Making Level at Various Sectors. Kathmandu: Lambert A Compilation of Article on Overall Status of Women in Nepal. Academic Publishing. Kathmandu: National Network against Girl Trafficking. Acharya, Meena. 2003. Efforts at Promotion of Women in Panthi, Kishor. 2016. “LGBTI Rights in Nepal: Few Steps Forward, Nepal. Kathmandu: Tanka Prasad Memorial Foundation One Step Backward.” Huffington Post, May 9. Retrieved from /Friedrich-Ebert-Stifftung. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kishor-panthi/lgbti-rights Agarwal, Bina. 2010. Gender and Green Governance: The Political -in-nepal-few_1_b_9854660.html. Economy of Women’s Presence within and beyond Community Pokharel, Shreejana, Andrzej Kulczycki, and Sujeeta Shakya. Forest. New York: Oxford University Press. 2006. “School-Based Sex Education in Western Nepal: BBC. 2016. “Nepal Profile-Timeline.” South Asia sec- Uncomfortable for Both Teachers and Students.” Reproduc- tion. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world tive Health Matters 14.28: 156–61. -south-asia-12499391. Rajbhandari, Retika. 2006. Violence against Women in Nepal: A CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). 2017. “Nepal.” CIA World Complex and Invisible Reality. Kathmandu: WOREC. Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library /publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html. Shrestha, Mangala. 2008. Women and Development in Nepal. Dulal, Pratichya. 2017. “CA Snubs Proposal for Gender Friendly Kathmandu: Sigma-Carts, Printing and Logistics. Citizenship Provisions.” Retrieved from http://kathmandu Shrestha, Prakash, Rohitakumāra Nepāli, South Asia Partner- post.ekantipur.com/news/2015–09–15/ca-snubs-proposal ship International, and Social Inclusion Research Fund. 2010. -for-gender-friendly-citizenship-provisions.html. Spectrum of Violence against Women in Nepal. Lalitpur: South Galvin, Kathey-Lee. 2005. Forbidden Red: Widowhood in Urban Asia Partnership International in association with Social Nepal. Pullman: Washington State University Press. Inclusion Research Fund. Hodal, Kate. 2016. “Nepal’s Bleeding Shame: Menstruating UNAIDS. 2017. “AIDSinfo.” Retrieved from http://aidsinfo Women Banished to Cattle Sheds.” The Guardian, April 1. .unaids.org. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/global-deve UN Country Team in Nepal. 2011. “A Country Analysis with a lopment/2016/apr/01/nepal-bleeding-shame-menstruat Human Face.” ing-women-banished-cattle-sheds. UN Development Fund for Women. 2002. Mother, Sister, Daugh- HRW (Human Rights Watch). 2016. “Nepal: Child Marriage ter: Nepal’s Press on Women. Kathmandu: Sancharika Samuha. Threatens Girls’ Future.” September 8. Retrieved from https:// UNDP (UN Development Programme). 2017. “Nepal.” Retrieved www.hrw.org/news/2016/09/08/nepal-child-marriage from http://www.np.undp.org/content/nepal/en/home/oper -threatens-girls-futures. ations/projects/overview.html. ILO (International Labor Organization). 1998. “More than UNFPA (UN Population Fund). 2007. Gender Equality and 120 Nations Provide Paid Maternity Leave.” February 16. Empowerment of Women in Nepal. Kathmandu: UNFPA, Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo Nepal Country Office. /newsroom/news/WCMS_008009/lang--en/index.htm. UNICEF. 2006. “Situation of Children and Women in Nepal Kumar, Nikhil. 2017. “Why Nepal Is Still in Rubble a Year after 2006.” Kathmandu, Nepal. Devastating Quake.” Time. Retrieved from http://time UN Women. 2017. Retrieved from http://www.unwomen.org/en. .com/4305225/nepal-earthquake-anniversary-disaster. WHO (World Health Organization). 2015. “WHO Report on Liu, Marisa, Neeraja Nagarajan, Anju Ranjit, Shailvi Gupta, Sunil Tobacco Epidemic, Country Profile Nepal.” Retrieved from Shrestha, Adam Kusher, Benedict Nwomeh, and Reinou http://www.who.int/tobacco/surveillance/policy/country Groen. 2016. “Reproductive Health Care and Family Planning _profile/npl.pdf.

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WHO (World Health Organization) and UN on Climate Change. Māori are the indigenous population of New Zealand. 2015. “Climate and Health Country Profile Nepal.” Retrieved Their ancestors discovered the islands around 1,300 CE, from http://www.searo.who.int/entity/water_sanitation/nep naming the new land Aotearoa (the “land of the long white _c_h_profile.pdf?ua=1. WHO (World Health Organization) Country Office for Nepal. cloud”). Dutch explorer Abel Tasman came to New Zea- 2007. “Health System in Nepal: Challenges and Strategic land in 1642, but it was not until English explorer James Options.” Kathmandu, Nepal. Retrieved from http://apps Cook arrived in 1769 that the country became a priority for .searo.who.int/PDS_DOCS/B0677.pdf. British colonization. Representatives of the Crown negoti- World Education News and Reviews. 2017. “Education in ated with Māori chiefs and signed Te Tiriti o Waitangi on Nepal.” Retrieved from http://wenr.wes.org/2013/03/wenr Febrary 6, 1840, making New Zealand a colony of Great -march-2013-academic-mobility-and-the-education-sys tem-of-nepal. Britain. Youth Activist Leadership Council. 2012. “Issue Brief on Sexual- ity Education in Nepal.” Kathmandu, Nepal. Retrieved from http://yuwa.org.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/EPH-brief Girls and Teens -on-youth-SRHR.pdf. Girls in New Zealand attend school, engage with their friends, and play important roles in their families. Many begin babysitting at the legal age of 14. They may play sports, and they enjoy being creative and excel in academ- ics. Girls in New Zealand are a diverse group, coming from New Zealand different ethnic, religious, and class backgrounds. In 2013, the most popular girl names in New Zealand were Char- lotte, Emily, and Ruby (Department of Internal Affairs Overview of Country 2015). Well-known young women from New Zealand Aotearoa New Zealand is located in the southwestern include professional golfer Lydia Ko, Man Brooker Prize– Pacific Ocean. It consists of three main islands: the North winning author Eleanor Catton, and the musician Lorde. Island, the South Island, and Stewart Island. New Zealand is approximately 600 miles south of the Pacific islands Recreation of Fiji and Tonga and 900 miles east of Australia. The Many young girls and teens of all ethnic backgrounds par- country is roughly 103,483 square miles. On December ticipate in kapa haka. Kapa haka is a Māori performance 1, 2014, the population of New Zealand was estimated at containing chanting, singing, and movement. Performers about 4.5 million (Statistics New Zealand 2014). About wear traditional clothing and adopt specific facial expres- one-third of the population is aged 15–39 years old. The sions (such as wide eyes and jutted chins) throughout the official languages are Māori, English, and New Zealand Sign Language. Europeans are the largest group in New Zealand, with approximately 74 percent of the population identifying as such. Māori comprise 15 percent, and Pasi- fika comprise 12 percent of the population. A majority of Lorde the people live on the North Island, with Auckland hous- Lorde is best known for her 2013 hit song “Royals.” ing 1.4 million people. New Zealand is a popular place Born in Takapuna in 1996, Lorde grew up singing in for travel; 2.64 million individuals visited the country in Auckland. She writes much of her music, and many 2013. Those tourists mostly came from Australia, the Peo- of her songs criticize popular and consumer culture. ple’s Republic of China, the United States, and the United Lorde identifies herself as a sex-positive feminist Kingdom. and has participated in political activism by filming The issues women and girls in New Zealand face are a video that encouraged young people to vote in a similar to other Western countries: pay inequity, domestic New Zealand election. She has been recognized by violence, rape culture, and reproductive justice. In 2014, both Time and Forbes as one of the world’s most in- the UN Development Programme (UNDP) ranked New fluential youth. Zealand 7th out of 187 nations based on the Gender ine- —C. Pausé quality index (0.185).

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